Cinchona Cinchona Cinchona is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae containing at least 23 species of trees and shrubs. They are native to the tropical Andean forests of western South America. A few species are reportedly naturalized in Central America, Jamaica, French Polynesia, Sulawesi, Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, and São Tomé and Príncipe off the coast of tropical Africa. Several species were sought after for their medicinal value and cultivated in India and Java where they also formed hybrids. The barks of several species yield quinine and other alkaloids that were the only effective treatments against
Analgesic nephropathy of paracetamol into "N"-acetyl-"p"-benzoquinoneimine (NAPQI). NAPQI depletes glutathione via non-enzymatic conjugation with glutathione, a naturally occurring antioxidant. With depletion of glutathione, cells of the kidney become particularly sensitive to oxidative damage. Diagnosis is traditionally based on the clinical findings above in combination with excessive analgesic use. It is estimated that between 2 and 3 kg each of phenacetin or aspirin must be consumed before evidence of analgesic nephropathy becomes clinically apparent. Once suspected, analgesic nephropathy can be confirmed with relative accuracy using computed tomography (CT) imaging without contrast. One trial demonstrated that the appearance of papillary calcifications on CT imaging