Western philosophy is part of modern philosophy is disputed. The term "modern philosophy" has multiple usages. For example, Thomas Hobbes is sometimes considered the first modern philosopher because he applied a systematic method to political philosophy. By contrast, René Descartes is often considered the first modern philosopher because he grounded his philosophy in problems of "knowledge", rather than problems of metaphysics. Modern philosophy and especially Enlightenment philosophy is distinguished by its increasing independence from traditional authorities such as the Church, academia, and Aristotelianism; a new focus on the foundations of knowledge and metaphysical system-building; and the emergence of modern physics out of
Peter Osborne (philosopher) 1988. Entitled "The carnival of philosophy: philosophy, politics and science in Hegel and Marx", it no doubt formed some of the material for the more recently published "How to Read Marx" (Granta magazine, 2005), the fifth chapter of which recalls its title. A central influence on Osborne's thought has been the work of German philosopher Theodor W. Adorno, who figures in his early essays concerning the problem of modernity and the crisis in the visual arts Osborne's first book, "The Politics of Time: Modernity and Avant-Gard"e (Verso Books, 1995, reprinted 2011) was reflective of his general understanding of the modern