English Revolution ten-year period of bourgeois republican government, the "Commonwealth", before monarchy was restored in the shape of Charles' son, Charles II, in 1660. In The Glorious Revolution of 1688, James II was replaced by William III and Mary II as monarch and a constitutional monarchy was established and was described by Whig historians as the English Revolution. This interpretation suggests that the "English Revolution" was the final act in the long process of reform and consolidation by Parliament to achieve a balanced constitutional monarchy in Britain, and laws were made that pointed towards freedom. The Marxist view of the English Revolution
Treaty of Copenhagen (1660) had already agreed with England that preventing the western and eastern shore of Øresund from being controlled by the same country would in turn prevent future raises of the Øresund toll, which would cause disruption in the Dutch and English Baltic trade. In addition, Cardinal Mazarin threatened a French invasion of the Netherlands if it were to assist Denmark against Sweden. When learning of Charles' death in February 1660, Frederick immediately proclaimed the Treaty of Roskilde null and void. This caused great alarm to the Swedish mediators, but their French and English counterparts assured them that if Sweden were to