Kappaphycus alvarezii as semirefined carrageenan. "K. alvarezii" is affected by ice-ice, a disease that severely reduces its yield. This alga is an introduced species and a noxious aquatic weed in Hawaii. Kappaphycus alvarezii Kappaphycus alvarezii, the elkhorn sea moss, is a species of red algae. It is one of the most important commercial sources of carrageenans, a family of gel-forming, viscosifying polysaccharides. Farming methods affect the character of the carrageenan that can be extracted from the seaweed. This alga grows to two meters long and is green or yellow in color. It is very fast-growing, known to double its biomass in 15
Ethnolichenology from lichens were historically very important throughout Europe from the 15th to 17th centuries. They were generally extracted from "Roccella" spp. lichens imported from the Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, Madagascar, or India. These lichens, and the dye extracted from them, are called orchil (variants archil, orchilla). The same dye was also produced from "Ochrolechia" spp. lichens in Britain and was called cudbear. Both "Roccella" spp. and "Ochrolechia" spp. contain the lichen substance orcin, which converts into the purple dye orcein in the ammonia fermentation process. Litmus, a water-soluble pH indicator dye mixture, is extracted from "Roccella" species. Many lichens