Carrageenan each plant weighs approximately 1 kg. The "E. cottonii" variety has been reclassified as "Kappaphycus cottonii" by Maxwell Doty (1988), thereby introducing the genus "Kappaphycus", on the basis of the phycocolloids produced (namely kappa carrageenan). After harvest, the seaweed is dried, baled, and sent to the carrageenan manufacturer. There the seaweed is ground, sifted to remove impurities such as sand, and washed thoroughly. After treatment with hot alkali solution (e.g., 5–8% potassium hydroxide), the cellulose is removed from the carrageenan by centrifugation and filtration. The resulting carrageenan solution is then concentrated by evaporation. It is dried and ground to specification.
Ethnolichenology from lichens were historically very important throughout Europe from the 15th to 17th centuries. They were generally extracted from "Roccella" spp. lichens imported from the Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, Madagascar, or India. These lichens, and the dye extracted from them, are called orchil (variants archil, orchilla). The same dye was also produced from "Ochrolechia" spp. lichens in Britain and was called cudbear. Both "Roccella" spp. and "Ochrolechia" spp. contain the lichen substance orcin, which converts into the purple dye orcein in the ammonia fermentation process. Litmus, a water-soluble pH indicator dye mixture, is extracted from "Roccella" species. Many lichens