Nephrology to train in pediatric nephrology, and internal medicine (adult) trained physicians may enter general (adult) nephrology fellowships. History and physical examination are central to the diagnostic workup in nephrology. The history typically includes the present illness, family history, general medical history, diet, medication use, drug use and occupation. The physical examination typically includes an assessment of volume state, blood pressure, heart, lungs, peripheral arteries, joints, abdomen and flank. Examination of the urine (urinalysis) allows a direct assessment for possible kidney problems, which may be suggested by appearance of blood in the urine (haematuria), protein in the urine (proteinuria), pus cells
Circumventricular organs Circumventricular organs Circumventricular organs (CVOs) are structures in the brain characterized by their extensive and highly permeable microvasculature, unlike those in the rest of the brain where there exists a blood brain barrier (BBB). The term "circumventricular organs" was originally proposed in 1958 by Austrian anatomist Helmut Hofer, in recognition of the distribution of the structures around the ventricular system of the brain. The circumventricular organs are midline structures around the third and fourth ventricles that are in contact with blood and cerebrospinal fluid, and allow for the linkage between the central nervous system and peripheral blood. Additionally, they are