Malus sylvestris to most European countries. It occurs in a scattered distribution pattern as single individuals or in small groups. In the past "M. sylvestris" was thought to be the most important ancestor of the cultivated apple ("M. pumila"), which has since been shown to have been originally derived from the central Asian species "M. sieversii". However another recent DNA analysis confirms that "M. sylvestris" has contributed significantly to the genome. The study found that secondary introgression from other species of the genus "Malus" has greatly shaped the genome of "M. pumila", with "M. sylvestris" being the largest secondary contributor. It also
Bonus-malus in early years) but with long-term losses (which, under a traditional bonus system, would not be penalized). Such a system was proposed by Raghuram Rajan in January 2008. Author Jim Collins proposed that executives be expected to buy stock with their own money (as was done at IBM in the 1990s) taking on both up-side rewards and down-side risk. In November 2008, UBS AG announced a change to its executive compensation scheme implementing such a system, which it dubbed a "bonus-malus" system. In France, the prices of insurance are calculated as function of the car type, subscribed insurance options, and