Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis the bundle sheath cells. Different forms of CCM in phytoplankton include the active uptake of bicarbonate and CO through the cell membrane, the active transport of inorganic carbon from the cellular membrane to the chloroplasts, and active, unidirectional conversion of CO to bicarbonate. The parameters affecting C fractionation in phytoplankton contribute to "δ"C values between -18 to -25‰. Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide to carbohydrates via several metabolic pathways that provide energy to an organism and preferentially react with certain stable isotopes of carbon. The selective enrichment of one stable isotope over another creates
Artificial photosynthesis is usually a consequence in many of the tested systems after a period of exposure to light, bio-inspired photoprotectants have been tested, such as carotenoids (which are used in photosynthesis as natural protectants). Photoelectrochemical cells are a heterogeneous system that use light to produce either electricity or hydrogen. The vast majority of photoelectrochemical cells use semiconductors as catalysts. There have been attempts to use synthetic manganese complex-impregnated Nafion as a working electrode, but it has been since shown that the catalytically active species is actually the broken-down complex. A promising, emerging type of solar cell is the dye-sensitized solar cell.