Chemical ionization source, the reagent gas is present in large excess compared to the analyte. Electrons entering the source with energy around 200-500 eV will preferentially ionize the reagent gas. Then, the ion/molecule reactions produces more stable reagent ions and the resultant collisions with other reagent gas molecules will create an ionization plasma. Positive and negative ions of the analyte are formed by reactions with this plasma. The following reactions are possible with methane as the reagent gas. If ammonia is the reagent gas, For isobutane as the reagent gas, Self chemical ionization is possible if the reagent ion is an ionized
Negative utilitarianism to negative well-being. Philosophers Gustaf Arrhenius and Krister Bykvist develop a taxonomy of negative utilitarian views based on how the views weigh disutility against positive utility. In total, they distinguish among 16 kinds of negative utilitarianism. They first distinguish between "strong negativism" and "weak negativism". Strong negativism "give all weight to disutility" and weak negativism "give some weight to positive utility, but more weight to disutility." The most commonly discussed subtypes are probably two versions of weak negative utilitarianism called 'lexical' and 'lexical threshold' negative utilitarianism. According to 'lexical' negative utilitarianism, positive utility gets weight only when outcomes are equal