Kidney always so simple; in cartilaginous fish and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult. In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfish and lampreys, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as
Neurogenic bladder dysfunction botulinum toxin type A than with type B. This use of botulinum toxin is discussed at length in the French medical literature. Neurogenic bladder dysfunction Neurogenic bladder dysfunction, sometimes simply referred to as neurogenic bladder, is a dysfunction of the urinary bladder due to disease of the central nervous system or peripheral nerves involved in the control of micturition (urination). Neurogenic bladder usually causes difficulty - or full inability - to pass urine without use of a catheter or other method. Any condition that impairs bladder and bladder outlet afferent and efferent signaling can cause neurogenic bladder. It is often