Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis the bundle sheath cells. Different forms of CCM in phytoplankton include the active uptake of bicarbonate and CO through the cell membrane, the active transport of inorganic carbon from the cellular membrane to the chloroplasts, and active, unidirectional conversion of CO to bicarbonate. The parameters affecting C fractionation in phytoplankton contribute to "δ"C values between -18 to -25‰. Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide to carbohydrates via several metabolic pathways that provide energy to an organism and preferentially react with certain stable isotopes of carbon. The selective enrichment of one stable isotope over another creates
Artificial photosynthesis developing its own artificial photosynthesis research by using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to "create the carbon building blocks from which resins, plastics and fibers can be synthesized." This was confirmed with the establishment of the KAITEKI Institute later that year, with carbon dioxide reduction through artificial photosynthesis as one of the main goals. During 2010, the United States Department of Energy established, as one of its Energy Innovation Hubs, the Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis. The mission of JCAP is to find a cost-effective method to produce fuels using only sunlight, water, and carbon-dioxide as inputs. JCAP is managed