Radio atmospheric the Earth's surface and the ionospheric D- and E- layers. Whistlers generated by lightning strokes can propagate into the magnetosphere along the geomagnetic lines of force. Finally, upper-atmospheric lightning or sprites, that occur at mesospheric altitudes, are short-lived electric breakdown phenomena, probably generated by giant lightning events on the ground. In a typical cloud-to-ground stroke (R stroke), negative electric charge (electrons) of the order of Q = 1 C stored within the lightning channel is lowered to the ground within a typical impulse time interval of τ = 100 μs. This corresponds to an average current flowing within the channel
Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth The Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth, ACRE, is an international science project, began in 2008, that recovers historical weather observations to reconstruct past global and local weather patterns and so support meteorological reanalysis. The project aims to collect weather data from the past 250 years by linking international meteorological organisations to support data recovery projects and the imaging and digitisation of historical meteorological observations made at, for example, inland stations, lighthouses, or by ships at sea or in ports. The project aims to create historical datasets that are spatially and temporally complete, so