Anti-Duvalier protest movement the "Milice de Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale" (Militia of National Security Volunteers). When Duvalier died in 1971, his son, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier took over (confirmed by the 1971 constitutional referendum) and the force continued throughout his regime and maintained the same violent presence. Widespread problems of starvation and unemployment soon grew rampant. On 23 May 1984, citizens in the city of Gonaïves began protests against Duvalier’s government calling it "Operation Déchoukaj," () which consequently led to police officers publicly beating a pregnant woman, who soon died. Activists’ listed grievances under Duvalier’s regime, including general brutality against civilians and
Jean-Claude Izzo was a Spanish immigrant. He excelled in school and spent much of his time at his desk writing stories and poems. But because of his "immigrant" status, he was forced into a technical school where he was taught how to operate a lathe. In 1963, he began work in a bookstore. He also actively campaigned on behalf of Pax Christi, a Catholic peace movement. Then, in 1964, he was called up for military duty in Toulon and Djibouti. He worked for the military newspaper as a photographer and journalist. Jean-Claude Izzo Jean-Claude Izzo (Marseille 20 June 1945 – Marseille 26