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1 Covariation: Changes in the assumed cause (X) are related to changes in the assumed effect (Y). Changing X results in a predictable change in Y.  Temporal Precedence: The assumed cause must occur before the asssumed effect.
Suggested solutions to questions and exercises. What is research design? Research design is often confused with choice of research method â the decision to use qualitative or quantitative methods, for example, or to use face-to-face interviews rather than telephone, or an omnibus survey rather than a tailor-made one.