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1 Covariation: Changes in the assumed cause (X) are related to changes in the assumed effect (Y). Changing X results in a predictable change in Y.  Temporal Precedence: The assumed cause must occur before the asssumed effect.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4. Correlational research represents a general approach to research that focuses on assessing the covariation among naturally occurring variables. The goal of correlational research is to identify predictive relationships by using correlations or more sophisticated statistical techniques. The results of correlational research also have implications for decision making, as reflected in the appropriate use of actuarial prediction.