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1 Covariation: Changes in the assumed cause (X) are related to changes in the assumed effect (Y). Changing X results in a predictable change in Y.  Temporal Precedence: The assumed cause must occur before the asssumed effect.
when the group under observation is small and the activities of the participant observer are prominent. A researcher interested in change blindness substitutes a different instructor midway through the first class of a research methods course. A confederate in the back row counts how many students notice the switch. This is an example of: structured observation. In order to conduct a structured observation or a field experiment, researchers make use of ___________ to create the observation situation. failure to follow similar procedures each time an observation is made may make it difficult for other observers to obtain similar results.