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1 Covariation: Changes in the assumed cause (X) are related to changes in the assumed effect (Y). Changing X results in a predictable change in Y.  Temporal Precedence: The assumed cause must occur before the asssumed effect.
There are four primary research designs: 1  Descriptive: Describes the current state of variables. 2  Causal Comparative: Examines the effect of one variable that cannot be manipulated on other variables. 3  Correlational: Describes the relationship between variables. 4  Experimental and Quasi-Experimental: Examines the effect of a variable that the ...