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Glucose on the sugar side chains of proteins keeps unfolded proteins in the ER. Mannoses on sugar side chains act as a timer for protein folding. Unfolded proteins in the ER are threaded through a retrotranslocon into the cytosol where they are ubiquitylated and digested. IRE1, ATF6 and PERK sense the amount of unfolded protein and generates several responses to reduce the effects and amount of unfolded protein.
Protein Structure. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. The amino acids of a protein are linked by peptide bonds. Alpha helices and beta pleated sheets are characteristic of a protein's secondary structure. Electronegative oxygen and nitrogen atoms leave hydrogen atoms with partial positive charges. Peptide bonds link together the amino acids of a protein's primary structure.