Human papillomavirus (HPV), primarily HPV 16 & 18, are strongly implicated in the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the penis. Three carcinoma in situ are associated with squamous cell carcinoma of the penis: 1) Bowen's disease which presents as leukoplakia on the shaft. Around 1/3 progress to squamous cell carcinoma
The innate immune system is the bodyâs first line of defense against infection by microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites.
The immune system is designed to defend the body against invaders that include microorganisms, parasites, cancer cells, and transplanted organs and tissues. 1  The immune system defends against disease and infection via physical barriers, white blood cells, antibodies, complement proteins, and certain organs.