The speech standard of the Ming and Qing empires was called Mandarin language by European missionaries, translating the Chinese name Guanhua (the language of the officials) for this speech standard, which was current already in the Ming Dynasty.
Producer gas is made by blowing air through an incandescent fuel bed (commonly coke or coal) in a gas producer. The reaction of fuel with insufficient air for total combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO); this reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining.
Nature & Chemistry of Fire. Fire occurs due to the exothermic reaction of combustion (burning), producing heat and light. In order for a fire to occur, three vital components must be present: a fuel source, an oxidant (O2) and a sufficient amount of energy in the form of heat.