The âtransformationâ of straight pipe to bent pipe takes place in the heated narrow annular zone which moves continuously along the length of the bend as the bending process advances (Figure 1). The heating of this zone is effected by means of an induction ring (Figure 2).
Budget at completion (BAC): The total planned value (PV or BCWS) at the end of the project. If a project has a Management Reserve (MR), it is typically not included in the BAC, and respectively, in the Performance Measurement Baseline.
Costs of production. Fixed costs are those that do not vary with output and typically include rents, insurance, depreciation, set-up costs, and normal profit.verage total cost (ATC) can be found by adding average fixed costs (AFC) and average variable costs (AVC). The ATC curve is also âUâ shaped because it takes its shape from the AVC curve, with the upturn reflecting the onset of diminishing returns to the variable factor.