Hypertension is the most important modifiable risk factor for coronary heart disease (the leading cause of death in North America), stroke (the third leading cause), congestive heart failure, end-stage renal disease, and peripheral vascular disease.
The results of a survey or a cross-sectional study can also be used to estimate the relative risk. Kuzma uses the data from a community health survey of retirees to study the relationship between smoking and heart disease. The data are given in the table. Does the retiree have heart disease? (Is the disease present?) YES NO Total
âdownsideâ risk-adjusted return measures, but appear distinct mathematically. We show that. each of these measures is a special case of Kappa, a generalized risk-adjusted performance. measure. A single parameter of Kappa determines whether the Sortino Ratio, Omega, or another. risk-adjusted return measure is generated. Using shape estimation functions for investment return distributions, we show that values for the. first four moments of a return distribution are sufficient in many cases to enable a robust.