Stigma and Mental Illness. Stigma has been defined as an attribute that is deeply discrediting.1 This stigmatized trait sets the bearer apart from the rest of society, bringing with it feelings of shame and isolation.
The performance of metal halide perovskite solar cells has made rapid increases in energy conversion efficiency, improving from under 4% efficiency in 2010 to a record efficiency of 22% in 2016. Because of the high absorption coefficient, a thickness of only about 500 nm is needed to absorb solar energy.
Perovskite solar cells hold an advantage over traditional silicon solar cells in the simplicity of their processing. Traditional silicon cells require expensive, multistep processes, conducted at high temperatures (>1000 Â°C) in a high vacuum in special clean room facilities.