data.title: climate_bot_test
data.question: The 9 percent reduction of rice in Bangladesh is attributed to what two variables?
data.text: flooding damage and climate variability
data.question: What kind of model of Bangladesh was had been used to estimate economic damages from historical climate variability and future anthropogenic climate change?
data.text: a dynamic economywide model
data.question: What approach did Ahmed use to estimate how changes in climate variability might affect crop yields and poverty rates in Tanzania to the early 2030s
data.text: a modelling approach
data.context: some more detailed work has been done at national level. for example, a dynamic economywide model of bangladesh has been used to estimate economic damages from historical climate variability and future anthropogenic climate change. using a combination of historical yield variability and ten climate projections, future anthropogenic climate change damages are estimated to reduce national rice production in bangladesh by about 9 percent to mid-century, and most of these losses are attributed in the analysis to flooding damage and climate variability (thurlow et al., 2011). another example is the work of ahmed et al. (2011), who used a modelling approach to estimate how changes in climate variability might affect crop yields and thence poverty rates in tanzania to the early 2030s. they found that
data.question: Where  height fluctuations are large?
data.text: extreme sea level height fluctuations are also larger to the north, as a result of increasing storm intensities at the more northerly coastal locations
data.question: How  non-tide sea levels are obtained?
data.text: the non-tide sea levels are obtained by spectrally removing the tidal energy from the hourly tide gauge records (bromirski et al. 2003 
data.question: Where the co-occurrences of extreme waves and extreme sea level heights are illustrated?
data.text: the probabilities of the potentially important co-occurrences of extreme waves and extreme sea level heights are illustrated for peak hs ' s at noaa buoys near san francisco in fig. 9 the probability distribution in fig. 9 shows the historical (1981 - present
data.context: extreme sea level height fluctuations are also larger to the north, as a result of increasing storm intensities at the more northerly coastal locations (fig. 8 left). the non-tide sea levels are obtained by spectrally removing the tidal energy from the hourly tide gauge records (bromirski et al. 2003 ). note that, for example, a 30 cm event is much less likely near san diego (sio) than near either san francisco (sfo) or crescent city (cre). the probabilities of the potentially important co-occurrences of extreme waves and extreme sea level heights are illustrated for peak hs ' s at noaa buoys near san francisco in fig. 9 the probability distribution in fig. 9 shows the historical (1981 - present)
data.question: Plant fossils from several sites in Wyoming, North America, indicate what?
data.text: 10,000-year interval at the paleocene-eocene boundary a northern extension of floral ranges of ~ 450-2,200 km occurred
data.question: Persistence therefore appears to have been the predominant response in
data.text: plant fossil record for this warm interval in earth's history
data.question: what are the three adaptive features can be suggested
data.text: first, many species had a much wider ecological tolerance than is apparent from their presentday distributions, and thus they contain gene variations that enable tolerance of much higher temperatures and water stress. this is probably the case for many tropical species jaramillo et al. 2010) whose ancestors evolved during the late cretaceous in much higher temperatures and co2 levels. second and closely related, higher levels of co2 induced an adaptive physiological response in the plants that enabled their persistence. a combination of modeling and experiments
data.context: migration rates in response to warming at the petm appear to have been rapid and comparable with those seen in early postglacial environments in the current interglacial (wing et al. 2005). plant fossils from several sites in wyoming, north america, indicate that during the 10,000-year interval at the paleocene-eocene boundary a northern extension of floral ranges of ~ 450-2,200 km occurred. in addition, immigrants from both within the continent and other continents (particularly from europe), combined with the persistence of the existing flora, resulted in novel assemblages and an increase in overall species diversity. persistence therefore appears to have been the predominant response in the plant fossil record for this warm interval in earth's history. it is not possible to determine from the fossil record alone the factors that enabled this persistence, but at least three adaptive features can be suggested. first, many species had a much wider ecological tolerance than is apparent from their presentday distributions, and thus they contain gene variations that enable tolerance of much higher temperatures and water stress. this is probably the case for many tropical species jaramillo et al. 2010) whose ancestors evolved during the late cretaceous in much higher temperatures and co2 levels. second and closely related, higher levels of co2 induced an adaptive physiological response in the plants that enabled their persistence. a combination of modeling and experiments
data.question: What is constructing fuel breaks around a vulnerable population of a valued plant species to prevent extinction from climate-aggravated wildfire? Exapmple?
data.text: rescuing a highly valued and climate-vulnerable animal species by captive propagation (e.g., california condor gymnogyps californianus shaw]); prescribing methods otherwise socially undesired (e.g., insecticides) to aggressively combat insect mortality that threatens high-value resources (e.g., insectand pathogeninfected young bristlecone pine pinus longaeva d.k. bailey] forests in the white mountains); requesting more than otherwise allotted water rights to maintain a unique and ecologically critical aquatic ecosystem (e.g., mono lake, california, relative to water delivery to los angeles for human use); and aggressively remov ing invasive species (box 19
data.question: Explain about the attempt to resist climate change?
data.text: actions that attempt to resist climate change are usually successful only in the short term, and become less effective over time as effects of climate change accumulate or management priorities change. as climate pressure increases, not only will it become more difficult to resist change, but when change occurs, it may exceed physical and biological thresholds and result in undesirable outcomes (e.g., severe wildfire, forest mortality, species extinction
data.question: What is resilience to climate change and Promoting resilience?
data.text: develop resilience to climate change --promoting resilience is the strategy most often recommended for adaptation (folke et al. 2004, hansen et al. 2003). resilience, which has both ecological and socioeconomic implications, can range from short-term response to disturbance to long-term tolerance of prolonged droughts. as mentioned above, agreement on definition is less important than how the range of meanings informs development of effective adaptation plans
data.context: adaptation examples include constructing fuel breaks around a vulnerable population of a valued plant species to prevent extinction from climate-aggravated wildfire; rescuing a highly valued and climate-vulnerable animal species by captive propagation (e.g., california condor gymnogyps californianus shaw]); prescribing methods otherwise socially undesired (e.g., insecticides) to aggressively combat insect mortality that threatens high-value resources (e.g., insectand pathogeninfected young bristlecone pine pinus longaeva d.k. bailey] forests in the white mountains); requesting more than otherwise allotted water rights to maintain a unique and ecologically critical aquatic ecosystem (e.g., mono lake, california, relative to water delivery to los angeles for human use); and aggressively remov ing invasive species (box 19). actions that attempt to resist climate change are usually successful only in the short term, and become less effective over time as effects of climate change accumulate or management priorities change. as climate pressure increases, not only will it become more difficult to resist change, but when change occurs, it may exceed physical and biological thresholds and result in undesirable outcomes (e.g., severe wildfire, forest mortality, species extinction). some resistance approaches, such as managing high-value species in designated refugial networks, involve relatively low risk or investment. an example is refugial networks proposed for american pika ochotona princeps richardson 1828), a small mammal that lives primarily in high-elevation habitats and is considered at risk from a warmer climate (box 20) (millar and westfall 2010). another interpretation of the resistance strategy is to defer proposed (or approved) projects that are unlikely to succeed because of increasing climate pressure and future conditions. examples include removing lodgepole pine pinus contorta subsp. murrayana [balfour] engelmann) seedlings that invade alpine meadows such as tuolumne meadows, yosemite national park; reintroducing salmon in streams where future water temperatures will be too high to support them; and chaining (removing) junipers juniperus spp.) that are becoming estab lished in great basin sagebrush artemisia spp.) steppe communities. develop resilience to climate change --promoting resilience is the strategy most often recommended for adaptation (folke et al. 2004, hansen et al. 2003). resilience, which has both ecological and socioeconomic implications, can range from short-term response to disturbance to long-term tolerance of prolonged droughts. as mentioned above, agreement on definition is less important than how the range of meanings informs development of effective adaptation plans. in an en gineering context, resilience refers to the capacity of a system or condition to return
data.question: What is Ana Carnaval for Biosketches?
data.text: biosketches ana carnaval is an nsf post-doctora
data.question: What school does Craig teach at?
data.text: craig moritz is the director of the museum of vertebrate zoology and teaches in the department of integrative biology at the university of california, berkeley
data.question: What is Craig Mortz research about?
data.text: most of his current research is devoted to exploring ways of combining information from surveys of molecular variation with data on demography or historical distributions
data.context: biosketches ana carnaval is an nsf post-doctoral fellow in the moritz lab. she studies phylogeographical patterns and their underlying historical processes in tropical forests, with emphasis on the brazilian atlantic forest. her current research combines the use of climatic models and data on genetic and species diversity to promote insight about historical events, community response to future climate change and their implications for conservation. craig moritz is the director of the museum of vertebrate zoology and teaches in the department of integrative biology at the university of california, berkeley. he is interested in the use of multiple molecular approaches to study questions in ecology and evolution. most of his current research is devoted to exploring ways of combining information from surveys of molecular variation with data on demography or historical distributions in order to infer population processes in space and time. editor: mark bush historical climate modelling in brazil
data.question: What happened to Bewag and GASAG and why?
data.text: the electricity, gas and district heating networks were split at the end of the 1940s and the city's electricity and gas utilities bewag and gasag were each spatially divided into independent utilities
data.question: How was the electricity and gas supply controlled in Berlin?
data.text: in east berlin electricity and gas supply and district heating were controlled by a single integrated state utility
data.context: until the beginning of the 1990s, energy supply in berlin was shaped by the particular geographical and political situation of the divided city. the electricity, gas and district heating networks were split at the end of the 1940s and the city's electricity and gas utilities bewag and gasag were each spatially divided into independent utilities. the electricity and gas networks in the western part of the city were separated from the national grids and energy demand was met in a semi-autonomous system on the basis of inner-city power plants and city gas (produced from coal). in east berlin electricity and gas supply and district heating were controlled by a single integrated state utility, the
data.question: What don't we calculate?
data.text: we do not calculate the total effect analytically (as in section 3) but approximate the integral by averaging over the latin hypercube (d) and over the lpc parameter set (table 3
data.question: What do the Latin Hypercube calculation describes?
data.text: the latin hypercube calculation describes the apportionment of variance given the initial uniform independent prior ranges summarised in table 1
data.question: What do the The LPC calculation illustrates?
data.text: the lpc calculation illustrates the constraining effect of modern plausibility
data.context: t2x as a function of the input parameters. as in section 3, we achieve this through a global sensitivity analysis, calculating the total effect of each parameter, which provides a measure of the contribution of that parameter to the variance in emulated climate sensitivity (equation 4). we do not calculate the total effect analytically (as in section 3) but approximate the integral by averaging over the latin hypercube (d) and over the lpc parameter set (table 3). the latin hypercube calculation describes the apportionment of variance given the initial uniform independent prior ranges summarised in table 1. the lpc calculation illustrates the constraining effect of modern plausibility. table 3 summarises the latin hypercube calculation under various assumptions. the main result is the 1st data column (in bold) which tabulates 14 the square root of the total effect (as a measure of the 1
data.question: Why it's necessarie these case studies?
data.text: these case studies would need to consider the infrastructure deficit, and the institutional/governance underpinning necessary for addressing the deficit and climate-proofing all new and existing infrastructure
data.question: What it would take?
data.text: it would take only a few such studies of major cities particularly at risk from climate change and with large infrastructure deficits to show that the unfccc estimates for africa and for 'developing asia' are far too low
data.question: What is it the differences?
data.text: there are very large differences in contexts (risks and vulnerability), including the scale of infrastructure deficits and the extent of local governance failures. in most of the locations with the largest infrastructure deficits and governance failures, much of the data needed to assess such costs are not there
data.context: there is a need for careful case studies of what adaptation would involve in particular locations, and what component of this is from infrastructure. these case studies would need to consider the infrastructure deficit, and the institutional/governance underpinning necessary for addressing the deficit and climate-proofing all new and existing infrastructure. this could lead to a better idea of the kind of funding needed for adapting infrastructure to climate-change risks, and then to some thoughtful discussion of what this implies for adaptation costs and adaptation funding in general. it would take only a few such studies of major cities particularly at risk from climate change and with large infrastructure deficits to show that the unfccc estimates for africa and for 'developing asia' are far too low. it is also likely that studies of major cities in latin america and the middle east at high risk from climate change would show the unfccc estimates for these regions to be far too low. even with a growing number of careful location-based estimates for costs, however, it will be difficult to extrapolate these to figures for whole regions. this is because: * there are very large differences in contexts (risks and vulnerability), including the scale of infrastructure deficits and the extent of local governance failures. in most of the locations with the largest infrastructure deficits and governance failures, much of the data needed to assess such costs are not there.
data.question: What are the natural drivers of river runoff and snowmelt?
data.text: as me temperature and precipitation are the natural drivers of river runoff and snowmelt, we begin with an investigation of these variables
data.question: How was the ME winter precipitation anomaly index calculated?
data.text: for the me winter precipitation anomaly index, djfm total precipitation was averaged over the region (26.25*e to 48.75*e) and (37.50*n to 42.50*n) using the precipitation dataset of hulme (1994). this region captures the headwaters of the five rivers used in this study: the tigris, the euphrates, the yarmouk as well as the ceyhan and karun
data.question: How was the temperature anomaly index calculated?
data.text: for the temperature anomaly index, djfm temperature anomalies were averaged over the region (25.0*e to 50.0*e) and (35.0*n to 45.0*n) using the temperature dataset of jones (1994). in order to interpret the influence of the nao on streamflow we first determine the influence of the nao on me precipitation and air temperature using the sl diagrams introduced in figure 4. results, presented in figure 5, suggest that the
data.context: as me temperature and precipitation are the natural drivers of river runoff and snowmelt, we begin with an investigation of these variables. first, we develop composite indices of me winter precipitation and temperature anomalies to summarize the interannual to decadal climate variability spanning the interval 1938-1984. for the me winter precipitation anomaly index, djfm total precipitation was averaged over the region (26.25*e to 48.75*e) and (37.50*n to 42.50*n) using the precipitation dataset of hulme (1994). this region captures the headwaters of the five rivers used in this study: the tigris, the euphrates, the yarmouk as well as the ceyhan and karun. for the temperature anomaly index, djfm temperature anomalies were averaged over the region (25.0*e to 50.0*e) and (35.0*n to 45.0*n) using the temperature dataset of jones (1994). in order to interpret the influence of the nao on streamflow we first determine the influence of the nao on me precipitation and air temperature using the sl diagrams introduced in figure 4. results, presented in figure 5, suggest that the
data.question: What is does SAT stand for in this article?
data.text: by fitting an ar(1) process to the model surface air temperature (sat) and the observed surface temperature
data.question: Why examine a coupled ocean atmosphere global circulation model?
data.text: we have examined a coupled ocean atmosphere global circulation model (hadcm3) to look for aspects of the variability of climate which might be predictable using the initial value technique
data.question: How does an AR(1) process help with the study?
data.text: by fitting an ar(1) process to the model surface air temperature (sat) and the observed surface temperature we firstly showed that the model has similar variability to that observed and hence the potential predictability derived from the model is likely to be similar to that of the real climate system. the ar(1) process, together with the idea of simple persistence, are suitable bench-marks to measure potential 26 predictability
data.context: we have examined a coupled ocean atmosphere global circulation model (hadcm3) to look for aspects of the variability of climate which might be predictable using the initial value technique. the simplest null hypothesis for climate variability is the damped persistence with white noise forcing of hasselmann (1976) and frankignoul and hasselmann (1977) which can be discretised as an ar(1) process. by fitting an ar(1) process to the model surface air temperature (sat) and the observed surface temperature we firstly showed that the model has similar variability to that observed and hence the potential predictability derived from the model is likely to be similar to that of the real climate system. the ar(1) process, together with the idea of simple persistence, are suitable bench-marks to measure potential 26 predictability
data.question: why were workshop conducted?
data.text: workshops were carried out to identify possible adaptation strategies
data.question: who were the participants?
data.text: participants were families of farmers, technicians, and presidents of different cooperatives
data.question: What question was asked to groups, Given that the conditions for coffee production will change by 2050?
data.text: what can be done to maintain the level of production
data.context: workshops were carried out to identify possible adaptation strategies. participants were families of farmers, technicians, and presidents of different cooperatives. workshops began by presenting the results of the vulnerability analysis by state, department, or municipality. after a general discussion, the following question was asked to groups: given that the conditions for coffee production will change by 2050, what can be done to maintain the level of production? this was first discussed in the plenary and then in subgroups of 3 to 5 people, followed by the presentation of results. each participant then noted the three most important ideas from the discussion on separate cards and assigned them to one of the five types of resources (natural, human, social, physical and financial) where he felt they most closely linked. then subgroups were formed for each resource type to organize the ideas and build an outline of a climate change adaptation strategy. in this strategy, key actors, roles, resource availability, and time needed to implement the strategy were identified. the subgroups presented their results to the entire group and received feedback, until a general consensus was reached for each adaptation strategy.
data.question: What happens when water is exposed to a gas?
data.text: when water is exposed to a gas, a continuos exchange of molecules occurs between the liquid and gas phases
data.question: What is the dynamic equilibrium?
data.text: this dynamic equilibrium defines the saturation concentration (cs) of the gas in the liquid phase
data.question: How else can the kinetics of reaeration be characterised?
data.text: the kinetics of reaeration can also be characterised by a first-order reaction (similarly to the deoxygenation), according to the following equation: dd dt - k2. d (3.9) 100 to wastewater characteristics, treatment and disposal
data.context: the theory of gas transfer is covered in detail in chapter 11. in the present chapter only the essential concepts necessary for the understanding of the atmospheric reaeration phenomenon are presented. when water is exposed to a gas, a continuos exchange of molecules occurs between the liquid and gas phases. as soon as the solubility concentration of the gas in the liquid phase is reached, both flows start to be equal in magnitude, such that there is no overall change of the gas concentration in both phases. this dynamic equilibrium defines the saturation concentration (cs) of the gas in the liquid phase. however, in case that there is the consumption of dissolved gas in the liquid phase, the main transfer flux is in the gas-liquid direction, in order to re-establish the equilibrium. the atmospheric reaeration process takes place according to this concept. the oxygen consumption in the stabilisation of the organic matter makes the do concentration to be below the saturation level. as a result, there is a greater flux of atmospheric oxygen to the liquid mass (figure 3.9). the kinetics of reaeration can also be characterised by a first-order reaction (similarly to the deoxygenation), according to the following equation: dd dt - k2. d (3.9) 100 to wastewater characteristics, treatment and disposal
data.question: To which organisations is Crispin Tickell a member?
data.text: sir crispin tickell is chancellor of the university of kent at canterbury, chairman of the climate institute in washington, dc and director of the green college centre for environmental policy and understanding
data.question: What books has Sir Crispin Tickell written?
data.text: he is the author of climatic change and world affairs, which two decades ago pointed to the possibility that climate change could affect international stability
data.question: What did he forsee could possibly happen?
data.text: which two decades ago pointed to the possibility that climate change could affect international stability
data.context: sir crispin tickell is chancellor of the university of kent at canterbury, chairman of the climate institute in washington, dc and director of the green college centre for environmental policy and understanding. he is the former united kingdom permanent representative to the united nations, british ambassador to mexico and permanent secretary of the overseas development administration. he serves as convener of the british government panel on sustainable development and is a member of the china council for international cooperation on environment and development. he is the author of climatic change and world affairs, which two decades ago pointed to the possibility that climate change could affect international stability.
data.question: What are the results of the analyzes and evaluations on environmental impacts?
data.text: ongoing research is motivated by the fact that a meaningful assessment of climate change costs, both market and nonmarket, will strongly influence both mitigation and adaptation decisions. indeed, the concepts and methods of economics have been recognized as a principal means of translating scientific research on climate change into policies
data.context: the canadian economy is highly dependent on the health and sustainability of our natural resource industries, such as forestry, fisheries and agriculture, and the reliability of our critical infrastructure, including transportation and health care systems. the availability and quality of our water resources and the sustainability of the coastal zone are also important to canada's economic well-being. as illustrated throughout this report, climate change will present new opportunities and challenges for each of these sectors. this will lead to a range of economic impacts, both negative and positive, and new investments in adaptation will be required. at present, it is difficult to derive quantitative estimates of the potential costs of climate change impacts.(18, 46, 47)limitations are imposed by the lack of agreement on preferred approaches and assumptions, limited data availability, and a variety of uncertainties relating to such things as future changes in climate, social and economic conditions, and the responses that will be made to address those changes. ongoing research is motivated by the fact that a meaningful assessment of climate change costs, both market and nonmarket, will strongly influence both mitigation and adaptation decisions. indeed, the concepts and methods of economics have been recognized as a principal means of translating scientific research on climate change into policies.(48)
data.question: What is one adaption to climate change?
data.text: one adaptation to climate change is to make better use of existing water resources by building more flexibility into operating plans
data.question: What does â€œconjuctive useâ€ refer to?
data.text: conjunctive use refers to the coordinated use of ground water and surface water to optimize the use of both sources (galloway and others, 2003
data.question: What further research needs to be conducted?
data.text: further research needs to be conducted on both developing better forecasts and incorporating the forecasts into reservoir operations
data.context: one adaptation to climate change is to make better use of existing water resources by building more flexibility into operating plans. existing operating plans are based on the historical climate. for example, flood-control rules are based on evaluations of historical flood risk, which have a climate context as described in section 3.2. there may be benefits from revising reservoir storage rules and authorized purposes as climate changes. changes in climate or other aspects of basin hydrology, as well as changes in social values, may result in new uses for reservoir storage that have a greater economic or social value than the current uses. flood storage space could be evaluated based on updated hydrologic records and future projections. some projects may be operated more efficiently as part of an integrated system rather than as independent projects. updates may be rapid or time consuming and expensive, depending on the river system and the nature and extent of the proposed changes. locations for which observed climate change to date have resulted in a call for operational changes (for example, snowpack-dominated watersheds) may benefit from a systematic revision of reservoir operating plans and drought contingency plans. other locations for which climate change is not a major driver may not require an extensive review or revision. when contemplating the value of incorporating climate projections into reservoir and river operations, managers must weigh potential benefits, given uncertainties in climate information, against the known and immediate costs of revision to operations. on the short term, water managers could increase the adaptive capacity to climate change through increased operational flexibility. one way could be through the use of intraseasonal to interannual climate forecasts. much of the seasonal 5 responding to climate change: adaptation options 2\\x18 forecast skill is due to predictions of el nino or la nina and correlated impacts in north america (climate change science program, 2008d). reservoir operators could reduce flood storage during years that are forecast to be dry. in some areas of the country, such as california, there is also some limited skill at forecasting major rain events up to 2 weeks in advance. a forecast of such an event could allow for evacuation of reservoirs in anticipation of a flood. further research needs to be conducted on both developing better forecasts and incorporating the forecasts into reservoir operations. reservoir operations that employ an adaptive management process can have the flexibility to adapt to observed climate conditions on an annual basis. an annual operating plan (aop) is developed based on current hydrologic conditions, the forecast, and likely runoff scenarios (u.s. army corps of engineers, 2004). the draft aop forecasts the regulation of the system for various runoff scenarios and includes public involvement in developing the plan. adaptations to climate change include making better use of existing water resources through integrated surface-water and ground-water management. conjunctive use refers to the coordinated use of ground water and surface water to optimize the use of both sources (galloway and others, 2003). the 200\\x04 update of the california water plan estimates that annual water deliveries could be increased by 0.\\x04-2 million acre-feet statewide if conjunctive management were more fully utilized (california department of water resources, 200\\x04).
data.question: is outbreeding depression more important than maladapation
data.text: lations and the literature suggest that outbreeding depression is unlikely to outweigh maladaptation due to climate change
data.question: when is the probability of outbreeding depression high
data.text: the probability of outbreeding depression is high if the combined populations: a are from different species, b have fixed chromosomal differences, c have had no gene flow for 500 years, or d occupy different environments
data.question: for how long can gene flow occur or not occur
data.text: have had no gene flow for 500 years
data.context: severe outbreeding depression remains a substantial genetic risk for agf if mating individuals come from long-isolated populations figure 1 ). however, for many species, our simulations and the literature suggest that outbreeding depression is unlikely to outweigh maladaptation due to climate change, especially after a few generations. we agree with frankham and colleagues (2011), who suggested that the risks of outbreeding depression have been overemphasized in the conservation biology literature. they developed a decision tree for genetic rescue and suggested that the probability of outbreeding depression is high if the combined populations: a are from different species, b have fixed chromosomal differences, c have had no gene flow for 500 years, or d occupy different environments. we agree with three of these criteria regarding agf. agf should be used with great caution when a recently derived sister species is present in the
data.question: What research is urgently needed?
data.text: improving information on the likelihood of passing a given tipping point, but ignorance regarding the corresponding impacts is arguably greater, and research on this is urgently needed
data.question: What is the objective of an any warning system?
data.text: the overall objective of any early warning system is to reduce risk20, so the first step is to identify risks and assess their (relative) magnitude
data.question: Who should be involved to create a more scientifically and socially credible assessment of risk?
data.text: to get a more scientifically credible and socially legitimate assessment of the risks, a wider team of experts and relevant stakeholders should be engaged72, including those likely to be most impacted, as well as those responsible for formulating and implementing policy
data.context: the overall objective of any early warning system is to reduce risk20, so the first step is to identify risks and assess their (relative) magnitude. technically, risk is the product of the likelihood (or probability) of something happening and its negative impact (the magnitude of the potential loss). the focus above has been on improving information on the likelihood of passing a given tipping point, but ignorance regarding the corresponding impacts is arguably greater, and research on this is urgently needed65. passing a climate tipping point is generally expected to have large negative impacts, but these have only begun to be quantified for some elements and scenarios66, notably a collapse of the atlantic thc67-69. the translation into societal impacts typically involves several intervening steps and variables, and underestimation problems arise because studies tend to only consider a subset of consequences or impacted sectors (for example, insurance66). for a collapse of the atlantic thc67,68, the magnitude and even sign of impacts has been contested69, as have questionable extrapolations70 to national security concerns71. such disagreement68-71 is to be expected, as impacts depend on human responses and are thus more epistemologically contested than assigning likelihoods to events72. with these caveats in mind, a 'straw man' tipping-point risk matrix is presented (fig. 5). this illustrates some familiar dilemmas for the would-be risk manager: relatively high-impact low-probability events, such as west african monsoon shift, come out with a similar risk to relatively lower-impact high-probability events, such as arctic summer sea-ice loss. however, what stands out are the high-impact high-probability scenarios as a priority for risk management effort -- in this example, greenland ice-sheet meltdown and west antarctic ice-sheet collapse. to get a more scientifically credible and socially legitimate assessment of the risks, a wider team of experts and relevant stakeholders should be engaged72, including those likely to be most impacted, as well as those responsible for formulating and implementing policy. such an assessment could then be used as a guide in prioritizing where to develop and deploy early warning systems.
data.question: What did Sciences, the Royal Society, and IPCC conclude was heating the planet?
data.text: sciences, the royal society, and the ipcc, all of which concluded that human activity is heating the planet
data.question: Why was the NCC experiment not valid?
data.text: the ncc experiment was not externally valid --i.e., it did not realistically model the real-world dynamics of opinion-formation relevant to the climate change dispute
data.question: What sport was referenced?
data.text: the boston red sox won their first world series title in over eight decades
data.context: sciences, the royal society, and the ipcc, all of which concluded that human activity is heating the planet. high-profile and massively funded campaigns to dispute and discredit these sources were conducted too. people endured devastating heat waves, wild fires, and hurricanes, punctuated by long periods of weather normality. the boston red sox won their first world series title in over eight decades. it would surely be impossible to disentangle all of these and myriad other potential influences on u.s. public opinion on global warming. but one doesn't need to do that to see that whatever the earlier scientific-consensus "messaging" campaigns added to the mix did not "clos[e] the consensus gap" (university of queensland, 2013). why, then, might a reflective, realistic person conclude otherwise--and indeed counsel communicators to spend millions of dollars to repeat exactly that sort of "messaging" campaign? the answer could be laboratory studies. one (lewendowsky et al., 2012), published in nature climate change reported that the mean level of agreement with the proposition "co2 emissions cause climate change" was higher among subjects exposed to a "97% scientific consensus" message than among subjects in a control condition (4.4 vs. 4.0 on a 5-point likert scale). immediately after being advised by the experimenter that "97% of scientists" accept co2 emissions increase global temperatures, those subjects also formed a higher estimate of the proportion of scientists who believe that (88% vs. 67%). is it possible to reconcile this result with the real-world data on the failure of previous "scientific consensus" messaging campaigns to influence u.s. public opinion? the most straightforward explanation would be that the ncc experiment was not externally valid --i.e., it did not realistically model the real-world dynamics of opinion-formation relevant to the climate change dispute. the problem is not the sample (90 individuals interviewed face-to-face in perth, australia). if researchers were to replicate this result using a u.s. general population sample, the inference of external invalidity would be exactly the same. for "97% consensus" messaging experiments to justify a social marketing campaign featuring studies like the erl one, it has to be reasonable to believe that what investigators are observing in laboratory conditions--ones created specifically for the purpose of measuring opinion--tell us what is likely to happen when communicators emphasize the "97% consensus" message in the real world.
data.question: Name 4 dimensions that contribute to unique variance in school satisfaction
data.text: one study relying upon a multidimensional perspective of school climate found that four dimensions (academic support, student-teacher relationships, school connectedness, and order and discipline
data.question: Of the 4 dimensions that contribute to unique variance in school satisfaction, name the strongest predictor
data.text: with academic support the strongest predictor (zullig et al. 2011 
data.question: Why is stronger focus on academic learning and student autonomy in schools important?
data.text: for example, one study found that schools with a stronger focus on academic learning and student autonomy predicted decreased symptoms for specific clusters of personality disorders (kasen et al. 2009 
data.context: there has been limited work on how academic climate promotes psychological well-being. one study relying upon a multidimensional perspective of school climate found that four dimensions (academic support, student-teacher relationships, school connectedness, and order and discipline), each contributed unique variance in school satisfaction, with academic support the strongest predictor (zullig et al. 2011 ). similarly, there has been little work linking academic climate to psychopathology, although recent studies provide encouraging findings for the importance of academic climate in reducing psychological distress. for example, one study found that schools with a stronger focus on academic learning and student autonomy predicted decreased symptoms for specific clusters of personality disorders (kasen et al. 2009 ). school endorsement of a mastery goal structure was found to be related to lower levels of depression and behavioral deviancy, while school endorsement of
data.question: describe the food waste data used in this study?
data.text: the food waste data used in this study, including a detailed summary of annual food production, consumption and waste in the us. we will then present detailed results for the climate change and economic impacts of us food waste, including a sensitivity analysis to test a critical subset of the assumptions used in this study
data.question: What will be the  further work ?
data.text: we will then close with concluding remarks and recommendations for further work on quantifying the full impacts of food waste
data.context: the rest of the paper is organized as follows. we will first describe the methods used in our analysis including: the life-cycle food waste model; lca standards, software and database used in the calculation of ghg emissions; the system boundary; important assumptions; and the how the economic impact is calculated. following this, we will describe the food waste data used in this study, including a detailed summary of annual food production, consumption and waste in the us. we will then present detailed results for the climate change and economic impacts of us food waste, including a sensitivity analysis to test a critical subset of the assumptions used in this study. we will then close with concluding remarks and recommendations for further work on quantifying the full impacts of food waste.
data.question: How is the probability density function (PDF) of future climate change measured?
data.text: measured by the change in a certain climate statistics of interest
data.question: How can climate change prediction be approached ultimately?
data.text: ultimately a climate change prediction has to be approached in probabilistic terms. in other words the climate change information that can be provided to users is not "how climate will actually change" but is "the probability that the change in climate statistics will be within certain ranges or above certain thresholds
data.question: How does climate change prediction differ from weather?
data.text: another factor that substantially differentiates climate change prediction from weather as well as seasonal to interannual prediction is that, for all practical purposes, the former is not verifiable
data.context: rather, it is more appropriate to say that a range of future climate conditions is possible, each characterized by a certain likelyhood to occur. this can be depicted (figure 4) as a probability density function (pdf) of future climate change as measured by the change in a certain climate statistics of interest (e.g. precipitation over a region). the pdf of figure 4 is only hypotethical and shows the possibility of a multi-modal behavior (e.g. in response to a threshold effect), with the two modes characterized by different likelihoods to occur. as shown in figure 4, only one of all possible futures will eventually happen but, as discussed above, this is virtually impossible to predict. a measure of the width of the distribution in figure 4 (e.g. the standard deviation) represents the uncertainty in future climates. this is an "intrinsic" uncertainty in the sense that it is not tied to deficiences in the tools used for the climate prediction or the lack of process understanding, but it is an inherent property of the climate system. as a consequence, the objective of climate change prediction is not to attempt to predict the exact future evolution of climate but to reproduce as closely as possible the pdf of possible future climates. this conclusion implies that ultimately a climate change prediction has to be approached in probabilistic terms. in other words the climate change information that can be provided to users is not "how climate will actually change" but is "the probability that the change in climate statistics will be within certain ranges or above certain thresholds." another factor that substantially differentiates climate change prediction from weather as well as seasonal to interannual prediction is that, for all practical purposes, the former is not verifiable. the climate change information for the 21st century is needed now, so that suitable adaptation and mitigation measures can be evaluated. in addition, case studies similar to that foreseen for the 21st century, in which the ghg concentration might increase by factors of 2-3 within a century, are essentially unprecedented within the known history of the earth. as a result, we have no way of verifying the model performance in the production of the climate change information of interest. being this the case it is especially 248 filippo giorgi
data.question: When do option values arise?
data.text: if delaying additions to the atmospheric ghg concentration increases the potential welfare gains in the future from responding to new information on the seriousness of global warming
data.question: When would a risk premium be appropriate?
data.text: if the marginal utility of consumption, net of climate damages, were larger in high-damage cases, in which case a mean-preserving increase in the spread of possible damage outcomes increases expected disutility
data.question: What happens if gross consumption is greater in high-damage scenarios?
data.text: then the marginal utility of consumption net of damages is lower, and possibly even lower than marginal utility in lowdamage states
data.context: leaving aside extreme risks, should pigouvian tax estimates include a premium reflecting risk aversion to uncertainty over future global warming damages (i.e., concavity in the utility function)? a risk premium would be appropriate if the marginal utility of consumption, net of climate damages, were larger in high-damage cases, in which case a mean-preserving increase in the spread of possible damage outcomes increases expected disutility. however, if gross consumption is greater in high-damage scenarios (e.g., because rapid technological advance leads to both high consumption and high emissions rates), then the marginal utility of consumption net of damages is lower, and possibly even lower than marginal utility in lowdamage states. simulations by nordhaus (2008, ch. 7) suggest this might in fact be the case, implying the risk premium is actually negative, though empirically small. finally, we return to the issue of irreversibility and future learning, in particular whether there is an option value (which should be reflected in the current emissions price) gained from delaying atmospheric ghg accumulations until more is known about how much damage they will cause. option values arise if delaying additions to the atmospheric ghg concentration increases the potential welfare gains in the future from responding to new information on the seriousness of global warming. if damages are linear in atmospheric ghg concentrations, which may be a reasonable approximation in the absence of threshold effects, changes in the inherited concentration level do not affect the marginal damage schedule from additional, future accumulations. in this case, the welfare effects of policy interventions at different time periods are decoupled (at least from the damage side), and there is no option value. moreover, to the extent that current abatement involves (nonrecoverable) sunk investments in emissions-saving technologies, there is an option value from delaying long-lived emissions-saving investments until more is known about the benefits of emissions reductions (kolstad 1996a). for these reasons, theoretical analyses suggest that the prospect of future learning justifies less near-term abatement (kolstad 1996b; fisher and narain 2003). however, as already noted, the critical exception to this is when there is a possibility of crossing a catastrophic threshold in atmospheric concentrations prior to future learning, which is essentially nonreversible given the nonnegativity constraint on future emissions (pindyck 2007). 2.2.4. summary most estimates of near-term pigouvian taxes (or marginal damages) are in the order of about $5-25 per ton of co2. this range is in the same ballpark as near-term emissions prices consistent with least-cost stabilization of atmospheric co2 concentrations at 550 ppm. these prices represent a lower bound on appropriate policy stringency. much higher pigouvian tax
data.question: where were the places where the study was done?
data.text: the sites in this study are mainly lowland sites or sites with nearby meteorological stations
data.question: in which year were the lake water temperature data made available?
data.text: water temperature data for the lake were available since 1972
data.question: is there a relationship between water temperature and air temperature?
data.text: although in many cases and many seasons it can be assumed that there is a close relationship between surface water temperature and air temperature the relationship can be complex especially during periods of thermal stratification
data.context: the sites in this study are mainly lowland sites or sites with nearby meteorological stations, where data can be assumed to need little or no correction to make them directly applicable to the specific lakes. there is some uncertainty, however, with the relationship between air temperature and water temperature. although in many cases and many seasons it can be assumed that there is a close relationship between surface water temperature and air temperature the relationship can be complex especially during periods of thermal stratification. for mjosa (hobaek et al ., 2012), water temperature data for the lake were available since 1972, but before then the temperature record had to be patched together from a range of documentary sources and local weather stations. combining the data enabled hobaek et al to generate a temperature record for mjosa from 1785 to the present day.
data.question: When did Lost Creek wildfire occur?
data.text: in 2003
data.question: Where did the Lost Creek wildfire occur?
data.text: in the eastern slopes of the rocky mountains of southern alberta, canada
data.question: What is the analysis of water quality impairment following the wildfires used for?
data.text: analysis of water quality impairment resulting from wildfire is used as a case study to demonstrate 1) the impacts of wildfire and post-fire salvage-logging on drinking water "treatability", 2) a general approach for assessing potential drinking water "treatability" implications of land disturbance, and 3) the need for developing strategies for effectively and sustainably managing water resources in anticipation of local climate change and other natural or anthropogenic land disturbances
data.context: here, impairment of water quality by wildfires in forested source water regions was examined as a critical vulnerability of downstream water treatment processes. in 2003, one of the most severe recorded fires (lost creek wildfire) occurred in the eastern slopes of the rocky mountains of southern alberta, canada and impacted several aspects of water quality and streamflow in the upper oldman river basin (orb). data from source watersheds with varying degrees of wildfire associated land disturbance (reference [unburned], burned, and post-fire salvage-logged) were collected and evaluated during the four years post-fire. some of the water quality impacts during these recovery years have been reported elsewhere, while others are reported herein. rather than attempt to predict or demonstrate the impacts of wildfire and salvage-logging on a specific downstream drinking water treatment plant, all of the studied water quality impacts of wildfire in the orb are synthesized and analyzed to provide a holistic discussion of downstream threats to drinking water "treatability" that can be associated with upstream wildfire and post-fire intervention (salvage-logging). accordingly, this analysis of water quality impairment resulting from wildfire is used as a case study to demonstrate 1) the impacts of wildfire and post-fire salvage-logging on drinking water "treatability", 2) a general approach for assessing potential drinking water "treatability" implications of land disturbance, and 3) the need for developing strategies for effectively and sustainably managing water resources in anticipation of local climate change and other natural or anthropogenic land disturbances.
data.question: Where it is located The Wood River system?
data.text: in southwestern alaska
data.question: How many summers the Juvenile sockeye generally spend in the lake before migrating to the ocean?
data.text: one full summer
data.question: What is the composition of the crustacean zooplankton community of Lake Aleknagik?
data.text: is composed of the calanoid copepods
data.context: the wood river system is a major tributary of the nushagak river that flows into bristol bay in southwestern alaska. lake aleknagik is the southernmost lake in a chain of five large lakes that serve as major nursery systems for sockeye salmon. the annual sockeye run to the wood river system has averaged 4.7  106 2.8  106fish (mean  1 sd) since 1960, of which about 50% are caught by fisheries before they enter freshwater. on average, about 30% of those fish that escape the fishery spawn in lake aleknagik or rivers and streams that flow directly into it. after adult spawning in july to september, eggs incubate through the winter, the fry emerge early the following spring, and then migrate to lake aleknagik. juvenile sockeye generally spend one full summer in the lake before migrating to the ocean the following spring. in this paper we present data collected from lake aleknagik between 1962 and 2002 to characterize the patterns of growth in juvenile sockeye, and how this relates to the density of their parents, summer zooplankton densities, and the timing of spring ice breakup during their freshwater growth year. lake aleknagik is 83 km2in surface area, has a maximum depth of 110 m, and is situated at an elevation of 10 m above mean sea level. the crustacean zooplankton community of lake aleknagik is composed of the calanoid copepods
data.question: What does the commons consist of?
data.text: the commons consists of a shared interest or value that is produced through communal relations
data.question: Do activists accept that commoning will be contradictory?
data.text: activists accept that commoning will be contradictory and will weave together practices and values that will sometimes feel embedded or trapped in capitalist ways of doing things, and at other times will be more creative or antagonistic
data.question: What is commoning?
data.text: commoning, as peter linebaugh insists by using the term common as a verb as well as a noun, is a dynamic, generative process. interrogating the spatial constitution of the common and commoning can be a useful project in understanding how alternative political strategies are formed (see also vasudevan, jeffrey and mcfarlane 2008
data.context: the commons consists of a shared interest or value that is produced through communal relations. it potentially forms the ethical coordinates of an alternative politics when common "wealth" (eg land, water, seeds, air, food, biodiversity, cultural practices) that provides direct input into social and physical wellbeing, is faced with "enclosure" in the form of the destruction of physical environments and the privatisation of resources and genetic stocks (gibson-graham 2006:95- 97, 237). protecting this "commonwealth" is central to generating new forms of antagonism and solidarity (hardt and negri 2009). mobilising around the common are productive moments that build commonalities, group identity, shared understandings, and repertoires of tactics (de angelis 2003; linebaugh 2008). commoning, as peter linebaugh insists by using the term common as a verb as well as a noun, is a dynamic, generative process. interrogating the spatial constitution of the common and commoning can be a useful project in understanding how alternative political strategies are formed (see also vasudevan, jeffrey and mcfarlane 2008). hardt and negri see the common as a form of "bio-political production" and envision the commons as generative of new relations between people and things (hardt and negri 2009). the common, then, creates new vocabularies, social and spatial practices and repertoires of resistance which activists are creatively using to challenge a problem as complex as climate change. commoning evokes a political imaginary which can be anti (against), despite (in) and post (beyond) capitalist (eg gibson-graham 2006; holloway 2010). activists accept that commoning will be contradictory and will weave together practices and values that will sometimes feel embedded or trapped in capitalist ways of doing things, and at other times will be more creative or antagonistic. this is not to say that building commons are likely, easy or free of diverse cross cutting relations of power. what is crucial is that they are prefigurative (ie they practice the future that they wish to see), open, experimental and have the potential to generate solidarities (franks 2003). the planet is riven by struggles over resources and territory that evoke the dynamic generative process of commoning. struggles such as the land occupations of the movimento dos trabalhadores rurais sem terra [movement of landless rural workers or mst] in brazil, the zapatista autonomous municipalities of chiapas, mexico, the south african shack dwellers movement, and the bangladesh krishok (peasant) federation (bkf) are indicative of attempts to obtain social wealth and collectively organise social (re)production through antagonistic politics that directly challenge resource dispossessions of the poor (routledge 2011; wolford 2010). moreover, the wealth of temporary encampments and caravans that have characterised the anti-globalisation movement in places such as gleneagles, nice, cancun, durban, adelaide and edinburgh are moments of experiments in commoning.
data.question: What  was the result for the Study showed?
data.text: our results show that the global trade network plays a pivotal role in driving variations in levels of terrestrial plant invasion
data.question: Since when The global trade network has increased enormously?
data.text: since world war ii in terms of the total value of exchanged goods
data.question: How much has the  overall level of propagule pressure associated with trade has decreased?
data.text: the overall level of propagule pressure associated with trade does not seem to have decreased
data.context: for the first time, this study analyzes the role of the trade network, environmental factors, and their interactions with climate change on global terrestrial invasion patterns of a major taxonomic group. our results show that the global trade network plays a pivotal role in driving variations in levels of terrestrial plant invasion. however, the biogeographic and climatic position of the recipient country modulates the average number of naturalized plants per import value, with many subtropical and tropical countries receiving by more than an order of magnitude more naturalized plants per unit of import value than boreal and temperate eurasian countries. accounting for temporal changes in trade intensity showed that lag times between increases in trade value and alien species accumulation ('invasion debt') are substantial, although they are shorter than those found in previous studies (essl et al. 2011). the current distribution of naturalized plants reflects past socioeconomic activities, and consequently, recent strong increases in trading activity will cause substantial increases in invasion levels within a few decades, particularly in emerging economies, which show most pronounced growth of naturalized plant numbers compared to countries with similar trade value increases (fig. 6). alarmingly, most of these economies coincide with megadiverse regions (brooks et al. 2006), rich in endemic and rare species. climate change will modify future levels of invasions as the intensity and direction of this interaction strongly depend on the latitudinal position of the focal country. the global trade network has increased enormously since world war ii in terms of the total value of exchanged goods. the technological development of means of transportations (e.g., large-scale transport of goods by airplanes, transcontinental containerships) has decreased the time necessary for intercontinental transport from weeks to days and greatly expanded the type and value of goods (and associated potential alien species) transported. as a consequence, trade has remained the unrivaled cause of the intentional and unintentional of alien species (hulme, 2009). although an increasing number of national and international regulations and import inspections aimed at reducing the unwanted of invasive species have been put in place during the last decades (hulme, 2006), the overall level of propagule pressure associated with trade does not seem to have decreased. due to time lags, the consequences of recently adopted alien species policies aiming to halt the of new alien species may only become discernible after decades. by contributing to the understanding of interactions of global drivers of invasions, such as trade and climate change, and identifying regions that are likely to suffer the greatest risk from plant invasions in the near future, this study provides a foundation for a much improved knowledge of the causes and trajectories of global plant invasions. this is a pivotal prerequisite for the effective management of biological invasions (hulme et al. 2008). the results clearly demonstrate the necessity of incorporating the issue of biological invasions in trade legislation and to foster international collaborations with regard to detecting new invasive species. regions facing high risks of receiving new invaders should especially become the target of international policymaking.
data.question: Are developing nations to blame for global climate change?
data.text: thus, the affluent core nations of the global economy are primarily responsible for global climate change, whether it is in regards to emissions, the quantity of co2 in the atmosphere that floods the sinks, or the hegemonic economic forces that foster the destruction of sinks, such as forests
data.question: How much must carbon emissions be cut in order to diminish the risk of further substantial change in climate?
data.text: the ipcc has estimated that at least a 60 percent reduction in carbon emissions from 1990 levels is necessary to reduce the risk substantially of further climate change substantially
data.question: Do the per capita emissions of carbon for the United States currently exceed the emissions for the G-7 nations?
data.text: the severity of the situation and the extreme global inequalities are clearly seen when we consider that the per capita emissions of carbon for the united states are currently over 5.6 metric tons per year.123the per capita emissions for the g-7 nations are 3.8 metric tons per year; and the rest of the world has per capita emissions of 0.7 metric tons per year
data.context: thus, the affluent core nations of the global economy are primarily responsible for global climate change, whether it is in regards to emissions, the quantity of co2 in the atmosphere that floods the sinks, or the hegemonic economic forces that foster the destruction of sinks, such as forests. the ipcc has estimated that at least a 60 percent reduction in carbon emissions from 1990 levels is necessary to reduce the risk substantially of further climate change substantially. the core nations' carbon output alone exceeds the world's total allowable amount. agarwal and narain suggest that any just and reasonable approach to determining how much carbon a nation can emit into the global commons must be based on emissions per head of population.121simms, meyer, and robins calculated that "based on the 1990 target for climate stabilization, everyone in the world would have a per capita allowance of carbon of around 0.4 tonnes, per year."122but as time passes and the release and accumulation of gases continues, that allowance decreases, particularly as the human population continues to grow. before too long the per capita allowance of carbon may be 0.2 tons per year. the severity of the situation and the extreme global inequalities are clearly seen when we consider that the per capita emissions of carbon for the united states are currently over 5.6 metric tons per year.123the per capita emissions for the g-7 nations are 3.8 metric tons per year; and the rest of the world has per capita emissions of 0.7 metric tons per year.124furthermore,
data.question: What's the average utilization of generating capacity?
data.text: it has been estimated that the average utilization of generating capacity is around 50
data.question: What was the trading system designed for in Great Britain?
data.text: the trading system for great britain was designed to enable competitive markets to develop, but critics claim that it is extremely complex to implement, creating problems for users
data.question: In which way the lack of back up energy in UK will be exacerbated?
data.text: the lack of back-up energy storage facilities in the uk systems will be exacerbated by the increased use of generators powered by fluctuating (stochastic) renewable energy sources, such as wind and tide
data.context: the generating capacity available must be able to meet the peak demand and, as demand is below peak for most of the time, a significant amount of generating capacity is under-utilized. it has been estimated that the average utilization of generating capacity is around 50%. one way of improving generator utilization is to use ' off-peak ' electricity in energy storage schemes. 27 there are some very large schemes, for example, the dinorwic pumped hydro scheme, in wales, where electricity generated at off-peak times can be pumped back up to the reservoir and used to generate again at peak periods. despite there being suitable technology available, for example regenerative fuel cells, as yet there is little storage in the current supply chain. it is often considered that renewable generation is of two types, despatchable and stochastic. despatchable generation such as conventional hydro or that powered by biofuels, can be made to provide electricity in a manner that is related to demand. stochastic generation such as that powered by wind or wave, fluctuates in a manner that is unrelated to demand. however, stochastic generators can provide electricity that contributes coherently to the demand cycle if they are associated with appropriate energy storage systems. the trading system for great britain was designed to enable competitive markets to develop, but critics claim that it is extremely complex to implement, creating problems for users. 28 the main technical problem to be overcome in moving to embedded generation from the traditional grid system is that of providing constant, high-quality, electricity from unpredictable sources. the lack of back-up energy storage facilities in the uk systems will be exacerbated by the increased use of generators powered by fluctuating (stochastic) renewable energy sources, such as wind and tide. many of the proposed technical solutions will also mean significantly more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: What is the basis for determining what constitutes "dangerous anthropogenic interference?"
data.text: the basis for determining what constitutes "dangerous anthropogenic interference" will vary among regions--depending both on the local nature and consequences of climate change impacts, and also on the adaptive capacity available to cope with climate change--and depends upon mitigative capacity, since the magnitude and the rate of change are both important
data.question: Generally speaking, what does the The Third Assessment Report (TAR), provide an assessment of?
data.text: the third assessment report (tar) provides an assessment of new scientific information and evidence as an input for policymakers in their determination of what constitutes "dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system
data.question: In relation to The Third Assessment Report (TAR), what is one of the specific assessments the TAR report provides?
data.text: it provides, first, new projections of future concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, global and regional patterns of changes and rates of change in temperature, precipitation, and sea level, and changes in extreme climate events
data.context: the basis for determining what constitutes "dangerous anthropogenic interference" will vary among regions--depending both on the local nature and consequences of climate change impacts, and also on the adaptive capacity available to cope with climate change--and depends upon mitigative capacity, since the magnitude and the rate of change are both important. there is no universally applicable best set of policies; rather, it is important to consider both the robustness of different policy measures against a range of possible future worlds, and the degree to which such climate-specific policies can be integrated with broader sustainable development policies. the third assessment report (tar) provides an assessment of new scientific information and evidence as an input for policymakers in their determination of what constitutes "dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." it provides, first, new projections of future concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, global and regional patterns of changes and rates of change in temperature, precipitation, and sea level, and changes in extreme climate events. it also examines possibilities for abrupt and irreversible changes in ocean circulation and the major ice sheets. second, it provides an assessment of the biophysical and socio-economic impacts of climate change, with regard to risks to unique and threatened systems, risks associated with extreme weather events, the distribution of impacts, aggregate impacts, and risks of large-scale, high-impact events. third, it provides an assessment of the potential for achieving a broad range of levels of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere through mitigation, and information about how adaptation can reduce vulnerability. * * *
data.question: What does point (a) indicate?
data.text: reference state and the target endpoint following restoration
data.question: What does point (b) indicate?
data.text: point of intervention to reduce nutrient loading
data.question: What does point (c) indicate?
data.text: a more probable potential endpoint in cases where recovery to the past reference (a) is prevented by the enriching effects of climate change
data.context: fig. 4 conceptual diagram using a combination of palaeolimnological data (dashed line), contemporary long-term monitoring data (solid lines) and future conjecture (dotted lines) to show idealised changes in the past, present and future relationship between nutrient loading and productivity for european lakes recovering from eutrophication. point (a) indicates the reference state and the target endpoint following restoration; point (b) indicates the point of intervention to reduce nutrient loading; and (c) indicates a more probable potential endpoint in cases where recovery to the past reference (a) is prevented by the enriching effects of climate change. arrows (d,f,e and g) are explained in the text.
data.question: In what year did the Ministry for Construction and Regional Development in Slovakia commission a group of experts to update the set of national standards for land use planning?
data.text: in 2009
data.question: The set of national standards builds on examples from what European cities?
data.text: berlin, graz, and malmo
data.context: in slovakia, the ministry for construction and regional development commissioned a group of experts in 2009 to update the set of national standards for land use planning, which were first developed in 2002. the standards include guidance for planning of open spaces and green areas. the standards describe not only the aspects relating to the quantity of open space in towns or in a given development, but also include aspects relating to the quality and character of open spaces, such as percentage of sealed surfaces, percentage of tree cover and accessibility. this exhaustive set of standards builds on examples from other european cities, including berlin, graz, and malmo. the standards will be adopted by the slovakian ministry for construction and regional development in december 2010 and will provide a non-statutory guidance for spatial planners and other departments in local authorities when taking decisions relating to land use planning and development control.
data.question: Will those who have the least access to the world's resources be less affected by climate change?
data.text: climate change will have its greatest eff ect on those who have the least access to the world's resources and who have contributed least to its cause
data.question: Is the global health crisis over?
data.text: despite improvements in health with development, we are still faced with a global health crisis. 10 million children die each year; over 200 million children under 5 years of age are not fulfi lling their developmental potential; 800 million people go to bed each night hungry; and 1500 million people do not have access to clean drinking water
data.context: climate change will have its greatest eff ect on those who have the least access to the world's resources and who have contributed least to its cause. without mitigation and adaptation, it will increase health inequity especially through negative eff ects on the social determinants of health in the poorest communities. despite improvements in health with development, we are still faced with a global health crisis. 10 million children die each year; over 200 million children under 5 years of age are not fulfi lling their developmental potential; 800 million people go to bed each night hungry; and 1500 million people do not have access to clean drinking water. most developing countries will not reach the millennium development goal health targets by 2015. in september, 2008, the who commission on social determinants of health reported that social inequalities are killing people on a grand scale, and noted that a girl born today can expect to live up to 80 years if she is born in some countries but less than 45 years if she is born in others. the commission concluded that health equity is achievable in a generation, it is the right thing to do, and now is the right time to do it. the eff ects of climate change on health are inextricably linked to global development policy and concerns for health equity. climate change should catalyse the drive to achieve the millennium development goals and to expedite development in the poorest countries. climate change also raises the issue of intergenerational justice. the inequity of climate change--with the rich causing most of the problem and the poor initially suff ering most of the consequences--will prove to be a source of historical shame to our generation if nothing is done to address it. raising health status and reducing health inequity will only be reached by lifting billions out of poverty. population growth associated with social and economic transition will initially increase carbon emissions in the poorest countries, in turn exacerbating climate change unless rich countries, the major contributors to global carbon production, massively reduce their output. luxury emissions are diff erent from survival emissions, which emphasises the need for a strategy of contraction and convergence, whereby rich countries rapidly reduce emissions and poor countries can increase emissions to achieve health and development gain, both having the same sustainable emissions per person.
data.question: What was the AP reporter's comment?
data.text: according to the wmo] warmer weather could not be attributed to any one cause but was part of a trend that global warming was likely to prolong
data.question: what did Myron Ebell say about Karl-Trenberth's analysis?
data.text: myron ebell,44a global-warming expert with the industry-funded [cei], said the karl-trenberth analysis is nothing new--it's just kind of a summary of what the establishment thinks is true
data.question: what does Myron Ebell say about the warming of the past few decades?
data.text: according to ebell] the warming of recent decades is not surprising since the planet had been in a 'little ice age' until the early 19th century y it isn't much to worry about
data.context: an ap reporter (17 december 2003) commented: '[according to the wmo] warmer weather could not be attributed to any one cause but was part of a trend that global warming was likely to prolong'. cox (16 december 2003) and scripps howard (16 december 2003) covered this news as well. between mid-december 2003 and mid-january 2004 there were 42 newspaper articles covering these climate reports--the largest number in this study. within the ap story, no space was allotted to climate sceptics; however, the same cannot be said for the cox and scripps howard articles. cox stated that spencer and christy 'continue to question whether global warming is a serious problem', with christy adding: 'human life and the environment are threatened more by air and water pollution, and by habitat destruction than they are by a climate that is changing this slowly'. after a synopsis of the topic at hand, scripps howard mentioned an article published in science by thomas karl and kevin trenberth,43whom scripps howard referred to as 'two of the government's top atmospheric scientists'. scripps howard reported that karl and trenberth had stated: [t]here is no doubt that human activity is already having a measurable impact on global climate. [and that in their science article, they] predicted that if current trends continue, the world would face the fastest rate of climate change in at least the past 10,000 years [which] could radically change existing weather patterns, including more frequent heat waves, droughts, floods and extreme storms. incredibly, scripps howard concluded the article by giving equal space to the cei: myron ebell,44a global-warming expert with the industry-funded [cei], said the karl-trenberth analysis is nothing new--it's just kind of a summary of what the establishment thinks is true. [according to ebell] the warming of recent decades is not surprising since the planet had been in a 'little ice age' until the early 19th century y it isn't much to worry about. the press coverage of ebell's views has not been limited to the us. a recent article relating to climate sceptics in the
data.question: What does mitigation refer to?
data.text: generally refers to actions in advance to limit the impact of hazards
data.question: Figure 2.2 depicts what type of management cycle?
data.text: simplified hazard/disaster
data.question: What may the recovery stage include?
data.text: efforts in rehabilitation and reconstruction of services and infrastructure
data.context: wisner et al. (2004) describe how hazard coping strategies may comprise preventive, impact-minimizing or post-event recovery strategies. these strategy options map on to the concept of a cycle of hazard events a descriptive device that is influential in disaster management approaches (wisner and adams, 2002). figure 2.2 depicts a simplified hazard/disaster management cycle, with stages before and after flood events relating to mitigation, preparedness, emergency response and recovery. the terms 'mitigation' and 'preparedness' are to some extent overlapping, but the former generally refers to actions in advance to limit the impact of hazards, while the latter denotes actions in advance to ensure effective response when impacts occur (isdr, 2002). emergency response includes coping actions by affected populations as well as relief interventions from external agencies. the recovery stage may include efforts in rehabilitation and reconstruction of services and infrastructure. (note that the term 'mitigation' in relation to hazard has a distinct meaning from its use in relation to climate change policy, where 'mitigation' refers to the reduction of net greenhouse gas emissions).
data.question: Is there a possibility of rapid methane hydrate or permafrost emissions in response to warming?
data.text: there is a possibility of rapid methane hydrate or permafrost emissions in response to warming, but that risk is largely unquantified [215
data.question: What is the time needed to destabilize large methane hydrate deposits in deep sediments
data.text: the time needed to destabilize large methane hydrate deposits in deep sediments is likely millennia [215
data.question: Is human-made warming more rapid than natural long-term warmings in the past?
data.text: because human-made warming is more rapid than natural long-term warmings in the past, there is concern that methane hydrate or peat feedbacks could be more rapid than the feedbacks that exist in the paleoclimate record
data.context: there is a possibility of rapid methane hydrate or permafrost emissions in response to warming, but that risk is largely unquantified [215]. the time needed to destabilize large methane hydrate deposits in deep sediments is likely millennia [215]. smaller but still large methane hydrate amounts below shallow waters as in the arctic ocean are more vulnerable; the methane may oxidize to co2 in the water, but it will still add to the longterm burden of co2 in the carbon cycle. terrestrial permafrost emissions of ch4 and co2 likely can occur on a time scale of a few decades to several centuries if global warming continues [215]. these time scales are within the lifetime of anthropogenic co2, and thus these feedbacks must be considered in estimating the dangerous level of global warming. because human-made warming is more rapid than natural long-term warmings in the past, there is concern that methane hydrate or peat feedbacks could be more rapid than the feedbacks that exist in the paleoclimate record. climate model studies and empirical analyses of paleoclimate data can provide estimates of the amplification of climate sensitivity caused by slow feedbacks, excluding the singular mechanisms that caused the hyperthermal events. model studies for climate change between the holocene and the pliocene, when earth was about 3 u c warmer, find that slow feedbacks due to changes of ice sheets and vegetation cover amplified the fast feedback climate response by 30-50% [216]. these same slow feedbacks are estimated to amplify climate sensitivity by almost a factor of two for the climate change between the holocene and the nearly ice-free climate state that existed 35 million years ago
data.question: What is the stage after the bacterial stays in the treatment systems for more than one or two days?
data.text: however, since the bacteria stay in the treatment systems for more than one or two days, there is also the endogenous metabolism stage
data.question: How is the decay rate expressed in a formaula as a first-order reaction?
data.text: the decay rate can be expressed as a first-order reaction: dx dt - kd. x (9.17) where: kd endogenous respiration coefficient, or bacterial decay coefficient (d- 1) for typical domestic sewage, kd varies in the following ranges
data.context: the relations presented in the previous section correspond to the gross biomass growth. however, since the bacteria stay in the treatment systems for more than one or two days, there is also the endogenous metabolism stage. this implies that part of the cellular matter is destroyed by means of some of the mechanisms active in the endogenous respiration stage. to obtain the net growth rate, this loss should be discounted, which is also a function of the concentration or bacterial mass. for accuracy, only the biodegradable fraction of the biomass should be considered, since there is also an inert, non-biodegradable organic fraction, not subject to bacterial decay. for simplicity, the total vss are considered in most of this chapter, and not the biodegradable vss. in the chapters related to the activated sludge system (part 5), this concept is deepened, and the concept of the biodegradable fraction is used. the decay rate can be expressed as a first-order reaction: dx dt - kd. x (9.17) where: kd endogenous respiration coefficient, or bacterial decay coefficient (d- 1) for typical domestic sewage, kd varies in the following ranges:
data.question: Since the late 1980s, what has been the most popular approach used to frame the study of motivational process in sports achievmnet.
data.text: since the late 1980s, one of the most popular approaches used to frame the study of motivational processes in sport is achievement goal theory (for recent
data.question: What does goal orientations represent
data.text: goal orientations represent tendencies to employ certain conceptions of ability in achievement situation
data.question: What is task orientation?
data.text: task orientation is the propensity to define success and construe one's competence in a manner that is self-focused and targets improvement and mastery
data.context: sport is a prominent context in the lives of young people and therefore has received considerable attention from sport scientists (see smoll smith, 2002). understanding what leads young people to choose, expend effort in and persist with sport pursuits has been of particular interest to researchers and practitioners because such insight can be linked to the provision of developmentally meaningful sport experiences. since the late 1980s, one of the most popular approaches used to frame the study of motivational processes in sport is achievement goal theory (for recent reviews, see duda hall, 2001; roberts, 2001). achievement goal theory emanates from work in the educational domain, with theorists proposing that individuals' achievement goals are key determinants of motivation-related cognition, affect and behaviour (ames, 1992; dweck, 1999; maehr nicholls, 1980; nicholls, 1984, 1989). these theorists suggest that: (a) the demonstration of ability is a key concern, (b) achievement motivation is multidimensional in nature, and (c) goals are critical to motivational outcomes because they serve as a basis for judging competence and defining success and failure (weiss ferrer-caja, 2002). the contributions of nicholls (1984, 1989) have strongly impacted achievement motivation research in sport. his perspective holds that dispositional goal orientations are central to success and failure assessment in achievement contexts and therefore are key motivational constructs. goal orientations represent tendencies to employ certain conceptions of ability in achievement situations (i.e. goal involvement) and take two forms - namely, task and ego orientation. task orientation is the propensity to define success and construe one's competence in a manner that is self-focused and targets improvement and mastery. ego orientation reflects the tendency to judge one's ability with respect to the performance of
data.question: What is the main cause for failure?
data.text: climate-related risks played a large role in this failure
data.question: What the audit mentioned?
data.text: the consultant underestimated the extreme force of flash floods and the damage caused by landslides and huge boulders
data.question: Explain about landslide impact?
data.text: in one case, landslides redirected waters towards a plant's powerhouse, resulting in flood and the death of two employees. according to the audit "it is unclear to which the subproject's design with respect to the powerhouse may have contributed to the problem
data.context: this is another example of a completed project where current climate-related risks had not been properly taken into account in project design. overall, the project was deemed unsuccessful, based on a poor economic return and serious issues with respect to the future sustainability. climate-related risks played a large role in this failure. first of all, the audit mentions that " the consultant underestimated the extreme force of flash floods and the damage caused by landslides and huge boulders. the potential damage to weirs and intakes caused by floods was not fully appreciated. many of the foundation and land stability problems would have been recognized and solutions engineered before construction, had a geologist and geotechnical engineer been included in the undp-financed consulting team " the projects were indeed plagued by natural hazards. in one case, landslides redirected waters towards a plant's powerhouse, resulting in flood and the death of two employees. according to the audit "it is unclear to which the subproject's design with respect to the powerhouse may have contributed to the problem". in general, recurring post-flood repairs to weirs and intakes negatively affected electricity production output, as the repairs often required water diversions and curtailment of power supply. in one case, inadequate water flow forced operational shutdowns for more than two months each year and reduced generation for large parts of each day. these factors all contributed to the fact that four out of the six subprojects are not sustainable in their current operating mode without continued subsidy from the government. in addition, the audit notes: " all projects remain highly vulnerable to seasonal floods, landslides, and other natural occurrences owing in part to a lack of robustness in design ." in the end, the audit draws rather negative conclusions about small-scale hydropower plants, and suggests that large-scale hydropower might be more cost-effective. d.2.16 namche bazaar small hydropower project (austrian development cooperation)39
data.question: Who proposed the goal setting theory?
data.text: locke and latham
data.question: What does a goal setting theory focus on?
data.text: goal setting theory focuses on the development of conscious goals and how these influence task performance
data.context: however, these theoretical predictions appear to contradict ideas presented within goal setting theory, proposed by locke and latham in the 1990s, which highlight the importance of specific detailed goals (psychological closeness) in increasing the likelihood of action.(26)goal setting theory focuses on the development of conscious goals and how these influence task performance. a key finding here is that when people are asked to do their best, they tend not to perform as well as when they are given specific goals.(27)this is because goals have no external referent and thus can be defined idiosyncratically by the recipient of the message. in contrast, more specific goals are found to lead to higher task performance by reducing the ambiguity about what is to be attained.(28)a huge amount of research supports these ideas and in fact, goals are thought to affect performance through four mechanisms: by directing attention and effort towards goal relevant activities;(29)by energizing the individual and increasing effort;(30 31)by increasing persistence;(30)and by activating task-relevant knowledge and strategies.(32)
data.question: What is postulated for the possibility of abrupt climate changed?
data.text: yet the possibility of abrupt climate change triggered by human perturbation of the climate system is used to support the position of both those who urge stronger and earlier mitigative action than is currently being contemplated and those who argue that the unknowns in the earth system are too large to justify such early action
data.question: What question does this paper explore?
data.text: this paper explores the question of abrupt climate change in terms of its potential implications for society, focusing on the uk and northwest europe in particular
data.question: What does THC stand for?
data.text: using the example of the collapse of the thermohaline circulation (thc
data.context: consideration of abrupt climate change has generally been incorporated neither in analyses of climate-change impacts nor in the design of climate adaptation strategies. yet the possibility of abrupt climate change triggered by human perturbation of the climate system is used to support the position of both those who urge stronger and earlier mitigative action than is currently being contemplated and those who argue that the unknowns in the earth system are too large to justify such early action. this paper explores the question of abrupt climate change in terms of its potential implications for society, focusing on the uk and northwest europe in particular. the nature of abrupt climate change and the different ways in which it has been defined and perceived are examined. using the example of the collapse of the thermohaline circulation (thc), the suggested implications for society of abrupt climate change are reviewed; previous work has been largely speculative and has generally considered the implications only from economic and ecological perspectives. some observations about the implications from a more social and behavioural science perspective are made. if abrupt climate change simply implies changes in the occurrence or intensity of extreme weather events, or an accelerated unidirectional change in climate, the design of adaptation to climate change can proceed within the existing paradigm, with appropriate adjustments. limits to adaptation in some sectors or regions may be reached, and the costs of appropriate adaptive behaviour may be large, but strategy can develop on the basis of a predicted long-term unidirectional change in climate. it would be more challenging, however, if abrupt climate change implied a directional change in climate, as, for example, may well occur in northwest europe following a collapse of the thc. there are two fundamental problems for society associated with such an outcome: first, the future changes in climate currently being anticipated and prepared for may reverse and, second, the probability of such a scenario occurring remains fundamentally unknown. the implications of both problems for climate policy and for decision making have not been researched. it is premature to argue therefore that abrupt climate change--in the sense referred to here--imposes unacceptable costs on society or the world economy, represents a catastrophic impact of climate change or constitutes a dangerous change in climate that should be avoided at all reasonable cost. we conclude by examining the implications of this contention for future research and policy formation.
data.question: How are climate changes constituted?
data.text: climate change is constituted by a rise in global temperatures as a result of the increased production of co2 and other greenhouse gases, which accumulate in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels
data.question: Which organ of defense of the environment is mentioned in the article?
data.text: greenpeace
data.context: in this paper, i examine the problems associated with communicating a temporal environmental issue such as climate change, by analysing the history of climate change communication produced by greenpeace since the early 1990s. through historical analysis, my intention is to consider how greenpeace has sought to make 'real' the potential and often invisible risks of climate change. given greenpeace's commitment to photographic documentation, what limitations has this mode of representation posed for the communication of climate change? climate change is constituted by a rise in global temperatures as a result of the increased production of co2 and other greenhouse gases, which accumulate in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels. the effects of climate change, however, such as melting glaciers or changing weather patterns, only become visible over time. barbara adam, ulrich beck and joost van loon characterise the very nature of technologically induced risks such as climate change as inaccessible to the senses: they operate outside the capacity of (unaided) human perception. this im materiality gives risks an air of unreality until the moment they materialise as symptoms. in other words, without visual presences, the hazards associated with these technologies are difficult to represent as risks. (allan et al. 2000, p. 3) seeing sight is arguably the most dominant of the senses in western culture. however, as barbara adam observes, it is difficult to communicate and validate current environmental risks because 'emphasis is placed on visible materiality at the expense of that which is latent, immanent and hidden from view' (adam, 1998, p. 12). this emphasis on visibility also underpins traditional laws of science by way of linear perspective, the central characteristics of which are 'ion from context, objective observation, quantification of sense data and the single fixed focus all of which associate
data.question: what is considered symmetrical?
data.text: the assumption in a2 that l11 is skew-symmetric
data.question: what else is also considered symmetrical?
data.text: operator l11 is skew-symmetric
data.question: what kind of behavior is shown?
data.text: the asymptotic behavior of the climate variables
data.context: we now turn to the stochastic climate equations in (4.1) and consider first the situation with fast-wave effects but no forcing. the key assumption which we utilize here is that the operator l11 is skew-symmetric so that there is nontrivial averaging on the climate time scales. in this case, the asymptotic behavior of the climate variables for small e is specified by the following: theorem 5.3 denote by xe j( t the solution of the first equation in (4.1) with no fast forcing, f1 j= f 2 j= 0 under the assumption in a2 that l11 is skew-symmetric. in the limit as e - 0 (5.7) 
data.question: Name some factors affecting migrant bird population.
data.text: often observed trends of migrant bird population numbers cannot easily be distinguished from local, site-related factors in and outside the arctic, such as drainage, land-use change, hunting and persecution by humans, as well as predation
data.question: Are migratory birds outside ot the Arctic breeding grounds being affected?
data.text: in addition, migratory birds are also heavily impacted by climate change outside the arctic breeding grounds
data.question: Name an affect of the rising sea level?
data.text: sea level rise impacts on the extent of coastal staging and wintering grounds will be particularly harmful, and the hunting pressure on wintering waders in certain areas will also reduce bird populations
data.context: (fig. 7a). (mean july and mean annual temperatures are to some extent equivalent to latitude as they decrease towards the north in the above examples.) the natural climatic warming from the beginning of the little ice age to the present is the equivalent of only a minor shift in latitude for c. tetragona on the other hand, scenarios of future warming would produce an equivalent greater displacement of latitude which, at the northern current ranges of the two species, could result in a northern range extension (fig. 7a). in contrast, at the southern edge of the ranges, future warming could not increase growth beyond the genetic capabilities of the species and the dynamics of the species at this part of their ranges would be potentially determined by the responses of competitors to warming. a similar analysis for the moss h. splendens shows how a current alpine population would resemble a population from a lowland forested area under climatic warming (fig. 7b). at the landscape scale, plants are distributed in mosaics associated with microhabitats and the larger-scale latitudinal range changes will be associated with initial changes in landscape mosaics. cushion plants and other species characteristic of wind-exposed patches might become restricted in distribution by increased snow cover. in contrast, plants of snow beds might become more restricted if snow duration decreases. wetland species will become restricted by drying and so on. plants currently restricted to south-facing slopes and warm springs (to some extent analogs of future warmer habitats and hot spots of biodiversity) north of their main distribution areas, can provide "an inoculum" for rapid colonization of surrounding habitats when climate becomes warmer, although they themselves are likely to be displaced from their current niches by less diverse shrub-thicket communities. examples include orchids, ferns and herbs in warm springs on west greenland (although orchids and ferns are unlikely to become widely distributed), ericaceous dwarf shrubs in some inner fjords of svalbard and the large shrub/small trees of the north slope of alaska. geographical ranges of animals often observed trends of migrant bird population numbers cannot easily be distinguished from local, site-related factors in and outside the arctic, such as drainage, land-use change, hunting and persecution by humans, as well as predation. even among global factors, climate change is one in an array of impacts, such as eutrophication, often working in synergy with climate change and reinforcing the effect. in addition, migratory birds are also heavily impacted by climate change outside the arctic breeding grounds. desertification, droughts and the loss of wetlands, the eutrophication of staging and wintering wetlands, changes in land use and application of chemicals and nutrients on wintering grounds, lead to changes in vegetation and biomass on coastal staging and wintering grounds. sea level rise impacts on the extent of coastal staging and wintering grounds will be particularly harmful, and the hunting pressure on wintering waders in certain areas will also reduce bird populations. the impact of climate change on migratory species has not
data.question: Define  global warming?
data.text: risk perceptions of global warming this study found that americans as a whole perceived global climate change as a moderate risk (figure 1
data.question: What is the level of global warming in america?
data.text: on average, americans were somewhat concerned about global warming, believed that impacts on worldwide standards of living, water shortages and rates of serious disease are somewhat likely and that the impacts will be more pronounced on non-human nature. importantly, however, they were less concerned about local impacts, rating these as somewhat unlikely
data.question: What is Climate change?
data.text: the moderate level of public concern about climate change thus appears to be driven primarily by the perception of danger to geographically and temporally distant people, places and non-human nature
data.context: risk perceptions of global warming this study found that americans as a whole perceived global climate change as a moderate risk (figure 1). on average, americans were somewhat concerned about global warming, believed that impacts on worldwide standards of living, water shortages and rates of serious disease are somewhat likely and that the impacts will be more pronounced on non-human nature. importantly, however, they were less concerned about local impacts, rating these as somewhat unlikely. the moderate level of public concern about climate change thus appears to be driven primarily by the perception of danger to geographically and temporally distant people, places and non-human nature.
data.question: What are the two prominent normative agendas?
data.text: sociotechnical (st) transitions and social - ecological (se) resilience
data.question: What do the two prominent normative agendas share?
data.text: a complex-systems epistemology with inherent limitations, often producing managerial governance recommendations and foregrounding material over social drivers of change
data.question: Why is further interdisciplinary dialogue with social theory essential?
data.text: if these frameworks are to become more theoretically robust and capable of informing effective, let alone transformational, climate change governance
data.context: edited by myanna lahsen, domain editor, and mike hulme, editor-in-chief there is a growing imperative for responses to climate change to go beyond incremental adjustments, aiming instead for society-wide transformation. in this context, sociotechnical (st) transitions and social - ecological (se) resilience are two prominent normative agendas. reviewing these literatures reveals how both share a complex-systems epistemology with inherent limitations, often producing managerial governance recommendations and foregrounding material over social drivers of change. further interdisciplinary dialogue with social theory is essential if these frameworks are to become more theoretically robust and capable of informing effective, let alone transformational, climate change governance. to illustrate this potential, ideas from deleuze and guattari ' s political writing as well as other approaches that utilize the notion social fi elds (as opposed to sociosystems) are combined to more fully theorize the origins and enactment of social change. first, the logic of systems is replaced with the contingency of assemblages to reveal how pluralism, not elitism, can produce more ambitious and politicized visions of the future. in particular, this view encourages us to see social and ecological tensions as opportunities for thinking and acting differently rather than as mere technical problems to be solved. secondly, the setting of social fi elds is introduced to situate and explain the power of ideas and the role of agency in times of uncertainty. the potential of such insights is already visible in some strands of climate change mitigation and adaptation research, but more needs to be done to advance this fi eld and to bring it into dialogue with the mainstream systems based literature. (c) 2016 the authors. wires climate change published by wiley periodicals, inc.
data.question: HOW NORTHWARD PLANT MIGRATIONS HAPPENS?
data.text: in many cases, northward plant migrations during the holocene also had important genetic consequences, such as reduced genetic variability in northern populations due to serial bottlenecks, or increased genetic variability in regions where populations from isolated refugia subsequently became mixed (petit et al 2003). likewise, many exotic species populations differ in genetic composition from populations in the native range depending on the number and location of source populations (vellend et al 2007
data.question: HOW GENETIC DIVERSITY IMPACTS CLIMATE?
data.text: this raises important questions concerning the genetic diversity and composition of native plants sold north of their natural ranges, for which we have few answers at present. small outlying populations can reduce the impact of serial genetic bottlenecks that may otherwise occur during migration (mclachlan et al 2005
data.question: HOW CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS SPECIES?
data.text: in addition, if species show local adaptation to climatic conditions within their natural ranges (davis and shaw 2001), the potential for establishment and spread during climate change may depend, in part, on whether the plants sold in nurseries originate from similar or very different climatic conditions than those north of the natural range. this is an important area of future research
data.context: in many cases, northward plant migrations during the holocene also had important genetic consequences, such as reduced genetic variability in northern populations due to serial bottlenecks, or increased genetic variability in regions where populations from isolated refugia subsequently became mixed (petit et al 2003). likewise, many exotic species populations differ in genetic composition from populations in the native range depending on the number and location of source populations (vellend et al 2007). this raises important questions concerning the genetic diversity and composition of native plants sold north of their natural ranges, for which we have few answers at present. small outlying populations can reduce the impact of serial genetic bottlenecks that may otherwise occur during migration (mclachlan et al 2005). in addition, if species show local adaptation to climatic conditions within their natural ranges (davis and shaw 2001), the potential for establishment and spread during climate change may depend, in part, on whether the plants sold in nurseries originate from similar or very different climatic conditions than those north of the natural range. this is an important area of future research.
data.question: Describe  IPCC assessment reports?
data.text: the ipcc assessment reports to date offer little if any guidance on this issue and occasionally pay excessive attention to questionable sources
data.question: Why systematic climate data are used?
data.text: systematic climate data are used in most of the articles and climate projections in some. several studies are going beyond statebased conflict to look at possible implications for other kinds of violence, such as intercommunal conflict
data.question: What did President Obama said?
data.text: president obama (2009) warned that '[t]here is little scientific dispute that if we do nothing, we will face more drought, more famine, more mass displacement - all of which will fuel more conflict for decades
data.context: until recently, most writings on the relationship between climate change and security were highly speculative. the ipcc assessment reports to date offer little if any guidance on this issue and occasionally pay excessive attention to questionable sources. the articles published in this special issue form the largest collection of peer-reviewed writings on the topic to date. the number of such studies remains small compared to those that make up the natural science base of the climate issue, and there is some confusion whether it is the effect of 'climate' or 'weather' that is being tested. the results of the studies vary, and firm conclusions cannot always be drawn. nevertheless, research in this area has made considerable progress. more attention is being paid to the specific causal mechanisms linking climate change to conflict, such as changes in rainfall and temperature, natural disasters, and economic growth. systematic climate data are used in most of the articles and climate projections in some. several studies are going beyond statebased conflict to look at possible implications for other kinds of violence, such as intercommunal conflict. overall, the research reported here offers only limited support for viewing climate change as an important influence on armed conflict. however, framing the climate issue as a security problem could possibly influence the perceptions of the actors and contribute to a self-fulfilling prophecy. keywords armed conflict, climate change, security, war violence is on the wane in human affairs, even if slowly and irregularly (goldstein, 2011; pinker, 2011). in recent years, however, pundits and politicians, along with a few scholars, have raised the specter that this encouraging trend towards peace might be reversed by environmental change generally and by climate change specifically. in his acceptance speech for the nobel peace prize, for instance, president obama (2009) warned that '[t]here is little scientific dispute that if we do nothing, we will face more drought, more famine, more mass displacement - all of which will fuel more conflict for decades'. he would have been more accurate had he said that there is little if any scientific agreement about these points. despite the increasing certainty about global warming and the man-made contribution to it, the two central premises of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc), uncertainty continues about many of the physical consequences of climate change and even more so about the social consequences. this uncertainty is compounded by confusion about the definition of 'climate', an issue to which i return below. the ipcc is not charged with the task of doing research; rather it 'reviews and assesses the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide'.1
data.question: What is clearly more realistic than to assume a linear or exponential increase since the preindustrial?
data.text: it is clearly more realistic to simulate the temporal and spatial distribution of tropospheric ozone changes than to assume a linear or exponential increase since the preindustrial
data.question: By what the spatial and temporal response of Earth's surface temperatures during the 20th century was dominated?
data.text: the spatial and temporal response of earth's surface temperatures during the 20th century was dominated by the larger forcings from greenhouse gases and tropospheric aerosols
data.question: What make attribution of any observed climate change to a particular forcing such as tropospheric ozone challenging?
data.text: uncertainties in the latter, including the indirect effect of aerosols, make attribution of any observed climate change to a particular forcing such as tropospheric ozone challenging
data.context: it is clearly more realistic to simulate the temporal and spatial distribution of tropospheric ozone changes than to assume a linear or exponential increase since the preindustrial. the use of tropospheric ozone with realistic temporal and spatial time dependence as a forcing should lead to more realistic climate simulations as well. however, the spatial and temporal response of earth's surface temperatures during the 20th century was dominated by the larger forcings from greenhouse gases and tropospheric aerosols. uncertainties in the latter, including the indirect effect of aerosols, make attribution of any observed climate change to a particular forcing such as tropospheric ozone challenging. nevertheless, we've shown that several features of the response to tropospheric ozone increases are indeed in accord with observations. specifically, our results suggest that tropospheric ozone trends may have contributed to the overall spatial pattern of 20th-century warming, especially at high latitudes during winter and spring and over polluted areas during summer. they also indicate that recent
data.question: what is the objective of the intensive training and qualification program?
data.text: capacity-building would involve sensitizing municipal officials to the issues and impacts related to climate change and the importance of adaptation interventions for their local area. the officials would be given instruction on the technical aspects of the adaptation plan and details of how they could be involved and could contribute
data.question: by whom should adaptation plans be monitored?
data.text: monitoring of the adaptation plans should be undertaken by an independent agency to ensure the long-term sustainability of the exercise
data.question: what do municipal governments need to do after realizing that interventions fall within the functional domain of the municipal agency?
data.text: those that do fall under the municipal domain would be integrated into the area's development plans
data.context: preparation of a detailed adaptation plan and its incorporation into the development plan for the area. planning for adaptation intervention, building implementation strategies and time lines, setting up the institutional arrangements needed to facilitate this and assessing the training needs for the municipal officials. the additional budget requirements should be finalized and the funding agency be identified to support the initial adaptation exercise. there should be a feasibility analysis and consultation with all relevant stakeholders for plan approval; these efforts should be communicated to, and cooperation sought from, the national government so that they are not only recognized and acknowledged at the national level but are also a step towards institutionalizing adaptation efforts at the local level. cooperation at national level would facilitate funding, research and data inputs, which are more attainable at central government level rather than local level. intensive training and capacity-building programme capacity-building would involve sensitizing municipal officials to the issues and impacts related to climate change and the importance of adaptation interventions for their local area. the officials would be given instruction on the technical aspects of the adaptation plan and details of how they could be involved and could contribute. this might involve hands-on technical training in the use of any computer-based software to be used during the process. identifying adaptation issues at the local level. municipal governments need to identify adaptation issues at the local level and need to distinguish between the interventions that fall under the functional domain of the municipal body and those that do not. those that do fall under the municipal domain would be integrated into the area's development plans; those that do not, but that are, nonetheless, interventions that need to be implemented at the local level, must collaborate with partner agencies that might help implement these measures at the municipal level. for example, building embankments in coastal cities could be delegated to a private construction company or could be put out to tender. a possible constraint to this working might be the lack of influence that development plans generally have on city development, particularly in the case of land use management. but the benefit of doing so lies in the fact that this will provide adaptation that legitimates space in development planning, which is essential for mainstreaming adaptive actions. supplementing adaptation with policy and institutional level changes would then make adaptation possible at the municipal level. this is all the more important when considering the fact that most municipalities are already grappling with issues of poor service delivery, insufficient revenue collection and poor financial and human resource capacity. adding more functions, or even reinforcing the functions that municipalities already undertake, with a focus on adaptation would then become a burden. once implemented, there should be proper documenting of the efforts and the impediments and opportunities in order to disseminate the information, which will allow other municipalities to follow. monitoring of the adaptation plans should be undertaken by an independent agency to ensure the long-term sustainability of the exercise.
data.question: Where did the support mostly come from regarding global warming in the beginning?
data.text: whereas once, the issue had been bolstered by majority support among average americans
data.question: What is the response to global warming now characterized by?
data.text: it is now characterized by a growing partisan divide
data.question: Concerns for global warming, as well as other environmental issues, have what?
data.text: concern for global warming has declined sharply, but so, too, has concern for all other environmental problems
data.context: the history of global warming as a political issue is at least as interesting as its evolution as a scientific one. in the past 30 years, what began as an ill-defined condition has gradually emerged as a public problem worthy of attention on the national policy agenda. yet it is increasingly apparent that those gains have come at a cost. whereas once, the issue had been bolstered by majority support among average americans-- although never prominently or enthusiastically, to be sure--it is now characterized by a growing partisan divide. in a variety of ways, this article has explored the shifting terrain beneath the public's views on climate change. its most important conclusions can be summarized as follows. first, concern for global warming has declined sharply, but so, too, has concern for all other environmental problems. the comparison is an important one because it hints at a complex cause. some of the ingredients likely relate to poor economic conditions;
data.question: how would different users show differences for weather forcasts?
data.text: different users will have varying levels of desire and ability to take risks and it is important to consider these user characteristics when addressing dissemination strategie
data.question: what factors could cause differing responses in users?
data.text: other farmers, that are more risk seeking, might respond differently
data.question: Would farmers be more likely to respond than normal citizens?
data.text:  this research indicates that farmers may be hesitant to respond to extreme warnings
data.context: in ha tlhaku, the forecast for above normal rainfall was preferred to the forecast for below normal rainfall and people said that they would listen to one and not the other. this can be attributed to the user profile. different users will have varying levels of desire and ability to take risks and it is important to consider these user characteristics when addressing dissemination strategies. for example, a forecast for below normal rainfall could be more suitably targeted if the disseminators realize that it will not be considered in an equal light to the above normal forecast. this fits with the prospective theory that says that equal risk of loss is more cautiously followed than equal risk of gain. farmers were hesitant to use the forecast that they thought would lead to a poor harvest and were more willing to use the forecast they thought would lead to gain. this is not obvious, as disseminators might have expected people to try and decrease negative impacts and so use the forecast to avoid loss. if farmers did this, it would require an acknowledgement of a potentially poor season, which these farmers did not want to do. other farmers, that are more risk seeking, might respond differently. forecast response options are presented in table 1. these responses have been reassessed in table 2 to classify what the impact of a false forecast would be if the responses had been undertaken. the classification is loose but is determined by asking if the impact would be big or small if the forecasted climate was different to the actual climate. in the case of there being a small impact, this means that farmers might have invested inputs, such as setting up irrigation, but this would not necessarily have a dramatic negative effect. the impact of a false forecast was worse when farmers responded to the forecast for below normal rainfall than when they responded to an above normal forecast. this provides another possible reason for why farmers might have preferred the above normal forecast over the below normal forecast. these findings are important for work on early warning systems, where extremes such as drought are flagged. this research indicates that farmers may be hesitant to respond to extreme warnings. this is where the seasonal forecast could have an advantage over previous warning systems. the forecast is available every year and not just in extreme circumstances. this means that systems will be in place if an emergency situation arises. it also means that people can use the forecast to make the most of normal or good years rather than just decrease the impact of hazards. this allows for an understanding of the response options to build
data.question: How did the discussion of climate change affect a public place during the period of the writer's observation?
data.text: what was notable was that whole clusters of venues and public places became, if only temporarily, a focus for the playing out of antagonistic interpretations of the effects of climate change
data.question: What factors came into play when climate change was discussed between differing people?
data.text: the various spaces we have described were forced open (sen 2010), providing opportunities for a more disruptive playing out of identities, national affiliations, and conflictual interchanges on the meanings, causes and solutions to climate change
data.question: Where did this experiment take place?
data.text: if only for a short time, copenhagen became a theatre for antagonistic interpretations (free association 2010) which exposed the unequal social and environmental relations that underpin the "post-political" carbon consensus
data.context: this emphasises the work that is done to push antagonism out of dominant constructions of the political, especially within the public realm. what was notable was that whole clusters of venues and public places became, if only temporarily, a focus for the playing out of antagonistic interpretations of the effects of climate change. the various spaces we have described were forced open (sen 2010), providing opportunities for a more disruptive playing out of identities, national affiliations, and conflictual interchanges on the meanings, causes and solutions to climate change. if only for a short time, copenhagen became a theatre for antagonistic interpretations (free association 2010) which exposed the unequal social and environmental relations that underpin the "post-political" carbon consensus. the key issue we return to in the conclusion is how such antagonistic social-spatial relations can be maintained.
data.question: What is the Bern2.5D climate model?
data.text: we present a comprehensive bayesian uncertainty analysis of climate system properties that includes 12 parameters of the bern2.5d climate model
data.question: What the study produce?
data.text: our study produces a multivariate posterior distribution of all the considered parameters
data.question: What are the parameters?
data.text: the set of considered parameters consists of the climate sensitivity s the vertical ocean diffusivity k, the transfer coefficient for sensible heat d [see eq. (2)], and nine forcing scale parameters
data.context: we present a comprehensive bayesian uncertainty analysis of climate system properties that includes 12 parameters of the bern2.5d climate model. although in the following we will focus on the marginal posterior distributions of climate sensitivity under different statistical assumptions, our study produces a multivariate posterior distribution of all the considered parameters. the set of considered parameters consists of the climate sensitivity s the vertical ocean diffusivity k, the transfer coefficient for sensible heat d [see eq. (2)], and nine forcing scale parameters. although latent heat dominates the heat exchange between ocean and atmosphere, in the final analysis we included only the transfer coefficient d of sensible heat and not the bulk coefficient of evaporation ce, since in our climate model the influence of ce on the ocean heat uptake is limited. because in the model the atmosphere has no capacity to store water, the moisture evaporated in one ocean cell of the climate model falls as precipitation in the same time step in another ocean cell, and therefore the exchange of energy between ocean and atmosphere globally is independent of the value of ce. the forcing parameters consist of multiplicative dimensionless factors by which the historical forcing reconstructions for the various atmospheric components were individually scaled (see table 1). this includes a scale parameter sindir for the indirect aerosol forcing (knutti et al. 2002). greenhouse gases co2, ch4, n2o, sf6, and halocarbons are combined in one group. the
data.question: How was this data set built? It was built from winds observed on ships and wind wave heights at ICOADS
data.text: this dataset has been constructed from ship-observed winds and wind-wave heights in icoads
data.question: What happens to spurious upward trends? Due to the increased height of the anemometer make it difficult to identify long-term changes in the surface sea wind
data.text: the spurious upward trends due to anemometer height increase make it difficult to identify long-term changes in marine surface wind
data.question: What happens to the WASWind product? The WASWind product substantially reduces these spurious trends
data.text: the waswind product substantially reduces such spurious trends by a stability-dependent height correction for measured winds and using wind-wave height to estimate surface wind speed
data.context: (tokinaga and xie 2011a). this dataset has been constructed from ship-observed winds and wind-wave heights in icoads. the spurious upward trends due to anemometer height increase make it difficult to identify long-term changes in marine surface wind. the waswind product substantially reduces such spurious trends by a stability-dependent height correction for measured winds and using wind-wave height to estimate surface wind speed. not only does this surface wind product successfully reproduce major modes of seasonalto-decadal variability, but its trend patterns are also in good agreement with slp and satellite-based wind measurements for the recent decades. circles in fig. 2 compare june-october zonal wind changes over the maritime continent obtained from weather stations and linearly interpolated waswind on coastal grid points near these weather stations. the former data are available at the global surface hourly database of the noaa national data centers for 1973-2008. although waswind tends to underestimate surface easterly trends at coastal stations of the indian subcontinent, the two datasets are in broad agreement, capturing easterly trends over sumatra island, malaysia and islands off east australia, and westerly trends over the western equatorial pacific for the recent 36 years. interestingly, the vector winds in waswind display a divergence trend over the maritime continent with easterly trends over the eastern equatorial indian ocean and westerly trends over the western equatorial pacific, consistent with the weakened walker circulation associated with the 1976/77 climate regime shift (deser and phillips 2006, and references therein). these features illustrate the utility of waswind for climate change analysis over this region. to use the waswind wind stress as an atmospheric forcing for ocean models, all missing values are filled by the following procedure. we first apply the same linear interpolation for the waswind monthly anomaly fields as in icoads, and then compute the empirical orthogonal functions (eofs) of the interpolated anomaly field each for zonal and meridional components over the global domain, using only grid boxes that contain monthly anomaly for more than 30% of the total months for january 1950-december 2009. top eof modes accounting for 95% of the total variance are used to reconstruct a new anomaly field with reduced observational noise. because this anomaly field still has missing values in the high-latitude southern ocean, the wind stress data of the national centers for environmental prediction (ncep)-national center for atmospheric research (ncar) reanalysis (kalnay et al. 1996) are merged south of 30 8 s by averaging with the reconstructed waswind field. finally, the climatological wind stresses are added to the reconstructed wind stress anomalies. this reconstructed wind stress field effectively excludes unrealistic spatiotemporal outliners. the same reconstruction method with eofs is applied for the waswind zonal and meridional wind fields used in the present study. trend patterns of the interpolated surface wind and wind stress do not change largely from those in the noninterpolated versions.
data.question: How does the interaction between various mechanisms in sewage treatment occur?
data.text: in sewage treatment, there is an interaction between various mechanisms, some occurring simultaneously, and others sequentially
data.question: Where does the microbial action start?
data.text: the microbial action starts in the sewerage system and reaches its maximum in the sewage treatment works
data.question: Under what conditions there is the oxidation of the organic matter carbonaceous matter ), that is, the organic carbon is converted into its most oxidised form (CO2: carbon in the oxidation state of 4 ).
data.text: under aerobic conditions there is the oxidation of the organic matter carbonaceous matter ), that is, the organic carbon is converted into its most oxidised form (co2: carbon in the oxidation state of 4 
data.context: in sewage treatment, there is an interaction between various mechanisms, some occurring simultaneously, and others sequentially. the microbial action starts in the sewerage system and reaches its maximum in the sewage treatment works. in treatment plants, the conversion of organic matter to more oxidised or reduced forms takes place. under aerobic conditions there is the oxidation of the organic matter carbonaceous matter ), that is, the organic carbon is converted into its most oxidised form (co2: carbon in the oxidation state of 4 ). under anaerobic conditions, the conversion reaction of the organic matter leads to the most oxidised form of carbon (co2), but also to its most reduced form (ch4: carbon with an oxidation state of 4 - ). in sewage treatment under aerobic conditions, the conversion of ammonia nitrogenous matter into more oxidised forms of nitrogen (no3 -) can take place, and, under anoxic conditions, the subsequent conversion of these to reduced forms (n2) can also happen. biological wastewater treatment therefore includes oxidation (increase of the oxidation state) and reduction (decrease in the oxidation state) reactions.
data.question: What was the value of improved forecasts under current ENSO conditions?
data.text: under current enso conditions the value of improved forecasts was estimated at $453 million average annually
data.question: How much did the loss increase when frequency and strength shifts were considered?
data.text: when both frequency and strength shifts were considered the loss increased to 1 ,008 million annual average, about 5 percent of typical u.s. agricultural producer net income
data.question: Did the value of the improved forecasts increase more or less than the losses?
data.text: the value of improved forecasts did not increase as much as did the losses, indicating that much of the increase could not be avoided through better forecasts of enso frequency and intensity
data.context: we found that, where farmers operate without information on enso event probability, an increased frequency of enso caused an average annual loss of $323 million (30). when both frequency and strength shifts were considered the loss increased to 1 ,008 million annual average, about 5 percent of typical u.s. agricultural producer net income. we also considered whether, with better information on the change in frequency, farmers could avoid these losses through changes in practices. under current enso conditions the value of improved forecasts was estimated at $453 million average annually. this rose to $544 million under changed frequency of enso and to $556 million with changes frequency and intensity. the value of improved forecasts did not increase as much as did the losses, indicating that much of the increase could not be avoided through better forecasts of enso frequency and intensity. we caution that projections of the relationship between ghg-induced warming and enso are highly uncertain, with differing results as to whether intensity and frequency would increase or decrease.
data.question: What shows this plot?
data.text: this plot shows estimates of the effect of randomly assigned agreement features on the probability of supporting an agreement
data.question: Estimates are based on what?
data.text: estimates are based on the regression of agreement support on dummy variables for values of the agreement dimensions with standard errors clustered by respondent
data.question: What the bars indicate?
data.text: the bars indicate 95% confidence intervals and the points without bars indicate the reference category for a given agreement dimension
data.context: fig. s3 effect of agreement dimensions on public support for global climate change cooperation in france, germany, the united kingdom, and the united states by level of political knowledge (secretary of state). this plot shows estimates of the effect of randomly assigned agreement features on the probability of supporting an agreement. estimates are based on the regression of agreement support on dummy variables for values of the agreement dimensions with standard errors clustered by respondent. the bars indicate 95% confidence intervals and the points without bars indicate the reference category for a given agreement dimension. we measured political knowledge by asking individuals to select their current secretary of state/minister of defense from a list of four politicians currently holding a ministry. correct answers were coded as one and incorrect answers as zero.
data.question: Which sea is one of the most biologically productive ecosystems in the world?
data.text: the north sea is one of the most biologically productive ecosystems in the world and supports important fisheries
data.question: How the analysis were done?
data.text: we demonstrate this by analyses of a long-term time series of north sea plankton and sea surface temperature data. we discover that pronounced changes in the north sea meroplankton, mainly related to an increased abundance and spatial distribution of the larvae of a benthic echinoderm, echinocardium cordatum result primarily from a stepwise increase in sea temperature after 1987 that has caused warmer conditions to occur earlier in the year than previously
data.context: the north sea is one of the most biologically productive ecosystems in the world and supports important fisheries. climate-induced changes occurred in the pelagic ecosystems of the north sea during the 1980s. these changes, which have been observed from phytoplankton to fish and among permanent (holoplankton) and temporary (meroplankton) plankton species, have resulted in alterations in plankton community composition and seasonality. until now, the effects of climate-driven changes on biological linkages between pelagic and benthic ecosystems have not been examined. the present study indicates that changes in benthic organisms could have a profound effect on the trophodynamics of the pelagos. we demonstrate this by analyses of a long-term time series of north sea plankton and sea surface temperature data. we discover that pronounced changes in the north sea meroplankton, mainly related to an increased abundance and spatial distribution of the larvae of a benthic echinoderm, echinocardium cordatum result primarily from a stepwise increase in sea temperature after 1987 that has caused warmer conditions to occur earlier in the year than previously. key stages of reproduction in e. cordatum gametogenesis and spawning, appear to be influenced by winter and spring sea temperature and their larval development is affected by the quantity and quality of their phytoplankton food. our analyses suggest that a new thermal regime in the north sea in winter and spring may have benefited reproduction and survival in this benthic species. as a result, e. cordatum may be altering the trophodynamics of the summer pelagic ecosystem through competition between its larvae and holozooplankton taxa. key words: benthic-pelagic coupling * global warming * echinocardium * north sea * plankton * temperature
data.question: What is deepening boreal fish?
data.text: eepening of four coldwater boreal fishes
data.question: What does average depth reveal?
data.text: only the mean depth anomaly exhibits a significant trend over time
data.question: What is a solid line?
data.text: the solid line is the 5-year running mean of the first principal component axis representing climate change 
data.context: fig. 3. deepening of four coldwater boreal fishes and shallowing of two warmwater southern fishes over time. the trend line is a loess smoother (span 0*75). fig. 4. annual variation in geographic response of the north sea demersal fish assemblage. anomalies of (a) mean depth, (b) mean latitude, (c) minimum latitude and (d) maximum latitude. positive anomalies indicate shallower (panel a) or northerly distribution (panels b-d), and negative anomalies representing deepening or a more southerly distribution. only the mean depth anomaly exhibits a significant trend over time p 0*001). the solid line is the 5-year running mean of the first principal component axis representing climate change (see fig. 1f).
data.question: What is the purpose of research on adaptation costs?
data.text: to refine our understanding of climate change impacts
data.question: What are three examples of economic costs that are actually adaptation costs?
data.text: coastal protection, space heating and cooling
data.question: In what type of literature is adaptation featured prominently?
data.text: agriculture literature
data.context: research on adaptation costs has a surprisingly long history, starting with early attempts to estimate the economic costs of climate change.3 the objective at that time was not to measure adaptation costs per se, but to refine our understanding of climate change impacts. modellers recognised that their impact estimates would be wrong if they did not include an adaptive response and overcame the 'dumb farmer hypothesis' (the assumption that farmers and other actors would not react to a change in climate). in a survey of adaptation in impact models, tol et al. (1998) concluded that many impact categories covered in the economic cost literature were actually adaptation costs, in particular coastal protection, space heating and cooling (an adaptive response to changing temperatures), defensive expenditures against air pollution and in some cases migration (an adaptive response if premeditated but arguably a residual damage in the case of climate refugees). adaptation also featured prominently in the agriculture literature and to a lesser extent in health, but the adaptive measures considered there were rarely costed out. overall, tol et al. found that adaptation costs amounted to 7-25% of total impacts, with residual damages accounting for the balance.
data.question: What Many studies report?
data.text: many studies report that subsistence or smallholder farmers in developing countries will be most affected by climate change (jones and thornton, 2003; ipcc, 2007; benhin, 2008
data.question: Which resilience factors of the smallholder farmers should not be underestimated?
data.text: although smallholder farmers' resilience factors -- such as family labour, existing patterns of diversification, including non-farm activities, and possession of a store of indigenous knowledge -- should not be underestimated
data.question: What characteristics put smallholder farmers at vulnerability?
data.text: their socioeconomic characteristics -- such as small farm sizes, low capitalisation, limited technologies, and diverse other non-climate stressors -- will tend to increase vulnerability (morton, 2007
data.context: share small-scale2: many studies report that subsistence or smallholder farmers in developing countries will be most affected by climate change (jones and thornton, 2003; ipcc, 2007; benhin, 2008).although smallholder farmers' resilience factors -- such as family labour, existing patterns of diversification, including non-farm activities, and possession of a store of indigenous knowledge -- should not be underestimated, their socioeconomic characteristics -- such as small farm sizes, low capitalisation, limited technologies, and diverse other non-climate stressors -- will tend to increase vulnerability (morton, 2007). the specific sociopolitical situation in south africa, where past agricultural policies have persistently marginalised small-scale black farmers by curtailing their access to resources such as land, water, credit and technical knowhow (coetzee and van zyl, 1992; kirsten and van zyl, 1998), is a further indication of increased sensitivity of south africa's smallholders to climate change.
data.question: Why was a two - step modeling approach applied?
data.text: a two - step modeling approach was applied to consider more realistic effects of aerosol growth and sedimentation in esm simulations of volcanic super - eruptions
data.question: What was calculated in the first step?
data.text: in a first step the formation of sulfate aerosol from an initial stratospheric injection of 850 mt s (=100x pinatubo) was calculated with the middle atmosphere version niemeier et al. 2009] of the aerosol climate model echam/ham stier et al. 2005], which includes a module of aerosol microphysics and a parameterized stratospheric chemistry module
data.question: What does the acronym AOD stand for?
data.text: aerosol optical depth at 0.55 m m (aod
data.context: a two - step modeling approach was applied to consider more realistic effects of aerosol growth and sedimentation in esm simulations of volcanic super - eruptions. in a first step the formation of sulfate aerosol from an initial stratospheric injection of 850 mt s (=100x pinatubo) was calculated with the middle atmosphere version niemeier et al. 2009] of the aerosol climate model echam/ham stier et al. 2005], which includes a module of aerosol microphysics and a parameterized stratospheric chemistry module. for extremely large volcanic eruptions the availability of oh radicals for so2 oxidation is limited bekki 1995]. this process is additionally parameterized in the model. this maecham5/ham model is applied in t42 horizontal resolution with 39 vertical layers reaching up to 0.01 hpa and calculates the temporal evolution of aerosol optical depth at 0.55 m m (aod) and effective radius (reff).
data.question: What is the main mechanism of gas transfer in the treatment of sewage with artificial aeration?
data.text: in sewage treatment with artificial aeration, the main gas transfer mechanism occurs through the creation and renewal of the interfaces
data.question: How is the flow generated by artificial aeration?
data.text: the turbulent flux generated by artificial aeration consists of a complex secondary movement that surpasses the primary movement of the liquid mass
data.question: How is turbulence characterized?
data.text: the turbulence is characterised by oscillations and eddies that transport fluid particles from one layer to another, with variable velocities
data.context: in sewage treatment with artificial aeration, the main gas transfer mechanism occurs through the creation and renewal of the interfaces. 464 basic principles of wastewater treatment the turbulent flux generated by artificial aeration consists of a complex secondary movement that surpasses the primary movement of the liquid mass. the turbulence is characterised by oscillations and eddies that transport fluid particles from one layer to another, with variable velocities. the turbulent movement, which is erratic in direction, magnitude and time, can be defined only probabilistically (o'connor and dobbins, 1958). as mentioned, gas transfer by turbulent diffusion is much higher than by moleculardiffusion.thebasicstructureofthegastransferformulationcanbemaintained, with adaptations only in the sense of simplifying its presentation. the transfer coefficient incorporates other constants, as shown in sections 11.3 and 11.4.
data.question: What shows the influence of EAIS evolution on Southern Ocean surface temperatures, the katabatic wind field, and sea ice extent?
data.text: a suite of gcm sensitivity tests with different antarctic ice sheet configurations, co2 concentrations, and a paleogene (34 ma) paleogeography shows the influence of eais evolution on southern ocean surface temperatures, the katabatic wind field, and sea ice extent
data.question: What do the global boundary conditions, used in these simulations, represent?
data.text: while the global boundary conditions used in our simulations represent the world at the time of the oi-1 glaciation, the results are applicable to other times of large-scale antarctic glacial advance, like those proposed to have occurred multiple times through the paleogene and neogene zachos et al. 2001a
data.context: a suite of gcm sensitivity tests with different antarctic ice sheet configurations, co2 concentrations, and a paleogene (34 ma) paleogeography shows the influence of eais evolution on southern ocean surface temperatures, the katabatic wind field, and sea ice extent. while the global boundary conditions used in our simulations represent the world at the time of the oi-1 glaciation, the results are applicable to other times of large-scale antarctic glacial advance, like those proposed to have occurred multiple times through the paleogene and neogene zachos et al. 2001a]. at 2  co2, our model produces little or no sea ice unless a continental-scale ice sheet is already in place. because 2  co2 is below the simulated level required for rapid glaciation of east antarctica, we conclude that any positive (cooling) feedbacks associated with expanding sea ice are not necessary for ice sheet initiation and glacial advance on east antarctica. while the growth of sea ice is shown to have a dramatic climatic effect over the sea ice zone and some parts of the antarctic coastline, the mass balance effects on a partially glaciated continental interior are small. thus once an ice sheet is established and is large enough to alter southern ocean climate to the extent that significant sea ice begins to form, the ice sheet itself is relatively insensitive to the climate effects imposed by the expanding sea ice.
data.question: what does The spatial distribution of the interviewees provide?
data.text: the spatial distribution of the interviewees provides insight on the use of space as well as activities taking place at the different times of year
data.question: what is the main reason that the benches by the sea and the kiosk are very popular locations?
data.text: in the summer, its use is limited in the evening, along with the small basket-ball court, where children from the neighbourhood gather to play. at the seashore, a very important feature of the site is, of course, the sea
data.question: where are the most popular locations for all seasons?
data.text: the longest number of people is located in the coffee-shop, particularly close to the playground so that parents can watch their children playing. another popular sitting place is inside the playground directly involved with the children playing
data.context: the spatial distribution of the interviewees provides insight on the use of space as well as activities taking place at the different times of year. a brief analysis of that is presented below, where different colours represent the frequency of use of the various areas (figs. 4 and 5). in summary, at karaiskaki (fig. 4), the longest number of people is located in the coffee-shop, particularly close to the playground so that parents can watch their children playing. another popular sitting place is inside the playground directly involved with the children playing. these are the most popular locations for all seasons, whereas the rest of the users are spread evenly at the rest of the areas, wherever benches are available. examining use seasonally, it becomes apparent that during the summer visitors prefer to sit in shaded areas, whereas in autumn and winter sunlit areas become more popular (fig. 4). similarly, areas such as the small theatre are not used much in the summer due to the resulting uncomfortable thermal environment, a combination of the absence of any shading and large heat capacity materials. in the summer, its use is limited in the evening, along with the small basket-ball court, where children from the neighbourhood gather to play. at the seashore, a very important feature of the site is, of course, the sea. this is the main reason that the benches by the sea and the kiosk are very popular locations. activities taking place in the area, also strongly affect the use of the space, and as such the playground provides a very popular location for children and the adults accompanying them (fig. 5). from the seasonal analysis, it is apparent that the seaside is always very popular, but particularly during cooler seasons, the benches which are not shaded get busy. in the warmer seasons, however, the shaded kiosk gets very busy along with the playground, where there is ample shade from the trees (fig. 5).
data.question: Why is human intervention necessary to ecosystems?
data.text: uman intervention, therefore, will be necessary to enhance this adaptation and to maximise the security of ecosystems and the services which they provide
data.question: What does the chapter analyses?
data.text: this chapter analyses the various issues, assumptions and methods surrounding existing studies of global costings of adaptation, and, in particular, critically evaluates the unfccc study on natural ecosystems
data.question: Does climate change impact species and ecosystems?
data.text: climate change is projected to have far-reaching impacts on ecosystems and their species
data.context: climate change is projected to have far-reaching impacts on ecosystems and their species (fischlin et al., 2007), but although species have a certain capacity to adapt autonomously, this is often limited and can be adversely affected by actions undertaken in other sectors. human intervention, therefore, will be necessary to enhance this adaptation and to maximise the security of ecosystems and the services which they provide. this chapter analyses the various issues, assumptions and methods surrounding existing studies of global costings of adaptation, and, in particular, critically evaluates the unfccc study on natural ecosystems. these were not included in the overall global costs, owing to the nature and level of the assumptions and the uncertainties involved in the calculations, as detailed below.
data.question: How the methodology for estimating detection times for future changes in seasonal precipitation extremes is illustrated?
data.text: his paper described a methodology for estimating detection times for future changes in seasonal precipitation extremes. the approach was illustrated using the precipitation projections of the european union prudence ensemble for homogeneous rainfall regions in the united kingdom
data.question: What are uses of  national detection indices?
data.text: therefore, one practical recommendation from this research is that a suite of national detection indices is established and then used to monitor and report changes in pluvial flood risk
data.context: this paper described a methodology for estimating detection times for future changes in seasonal precipitation extremes. the approach was illustrated using the precipitation projections of the european union prudence ensemble for homogeneous rainfall regions in the united kingdom. by optimizing the choice of detection index, season and region it was shown that the earliest detections could occur within a decade. the same ensemble warns that the climate change allowances currently used in flood defense design may not be sufficiently precautionary within their intended time horizons (for ne england and east scotland). therefore, one practical recommendation from this research is that a suite of national detection indices is established and then used to monitor and report changes in pluvial flood risk. this would provide evidence for testing the provenance of climate model projections, and a means for targeting future investment in adaptation responses.
data.question: What should be placed at the center of adaptation planning?
data.text: local stakeholders and communities must be placed at the centre of adaptation planning
data.question: What is needed for successful collective adaptation?
data.text: for achieving successful collective adaptation, decision makers of public and private institutions, local stakeholders, natural resource managers, scientists, policy analysts and economists should specify adaptation priorities based on the wider political, social and economic context, define and evaluate adaptation options, and decide how to implement these options (see example approach in box 15
data.question: What needs to be addressed before climate change issues?
data.text: the current threats, related to climate variability and other drivers (e.g., policy, markets), are to be addressed before climate change issues can be considered
data.context: local stakeholders and communities must be placed at the centre of adaptation planning. as communities choose and implement adaptive strategies on the basis of their resources, their formal organisations, and their informal social relations and values (pelling and high 2005), valuing local knowledge and building on social capital should be a priority of planned adaptation (allen 2006). for instance, such planning includes understanding the strategies that local communities have developed for adapting to climate variability in the past and their local perceptions and knowledge on climate and vulnerability (agrawal 2008). in addition to understanding community structure and values, planned adaptation should also aim to empower local stakeholders (including women and other marginalised groups) and build social capital at various levels (allen 2006). for achieving successful collective adaptation, decision makers of public and private institutions, local stakeholders, natural resource managers, scientists, policy analysts and economists should specify adaptation priorities based on the wider political, social and economic context, define and evaluate adaptation options, and decide how to implement these options (see example approach in box 15). some approaches to vulnerability assessment and adaptation planning (e.g., the adaptation policy framework, see box 15) start from the current vulnerability. in many developing countries, adaptation to current threats is the most immediate task to be implemented. the current threats, related to climate variability and other drivers (e.g., policy, markets), are to be addressed before climate change issues can be considered. reducing current vulnerability is essential in the process of adaptation to climate change, because a society less vulnerable to current threats will more likely be adaptive to future changes. the evaluation of adaptation options must not be limited to their effectiveness, i.e., their capacity to achieve the expressed objectives of vulnerability reduction (adger et al. 2005a), but other criteria must also be considered, especially equity, economic efficiency, legitimacy, flexibility, feasibility and environmental sustainability (smit et al. 1999). as short-term or local successes may cause failures in the longer term or in other places, the outcomes of an evaluation of adaptation options depends on the temporal and spatial scale of analysis (adger et al. 2005a). what we need is an analysis that goes beyond scales to
data.question: What is the process of biological wastewater treatment?
data.text: the essence of biological wastewater treatment processes resides in the capacity of the microorganisms involved to use the biodegradable organic compounds and transform them into by-products that can be removed from the treatment system
data.question: What are the by-products formed by the treatment system?
data.text: the by-products formed can be in solid (biological sludge), liquid (water) or gaseous (carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) form
data.question: Why the anaerobic process was considered uneconomical and problematic?
data.text: the reduced growth rate of the anaerobic biomass, especially the methanogenic archaea, makes the control of the process delicate, since the recovery of the system is very slow when the anaerobic biomass is exposed to adverse environmental conditions
data.context: the essence of biological wastewater treatment processes resides in the capacity of the microorganisms involved to use the biodegradable organic compounds and transform them into by-products that can be removed from the treatment system. the by-products formed can be in solid (biological sludge), liquid (water) or gaseous (carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) form. in any process used, aerobic or anaerobic, the capacity for using the organic compounds will depend on the microbial activity of the biomass present in the system. until recently, the use of anaerobic processes for the treatment of liquid effluents was considered uneconomical and problematic. the reduced growth rate of the anaerobic biomass, especially the methanogenic archaea, makes the control of the process delicate, since the recovery of the system is very slow when the anaerobic biomass is exposed to adverse environmental conditions. withtheexpansionofresearchintheareaofanaerobictreatment,"highratesystems" have been developed. essentially, these are characterised by their ability to retain large amounts of high-activity biomass, even with the application of low hydraulic detention times. thus, a high solids retention time is maintained, even with the application of high hydraulic loads to the system. the result is compact reactors withvolumesinferiortoconventionalanaerobicdigesters,howevermaintainingthe high degree of sludge stabilisation. the concepts of hydraulic detention time and solidsretentiontimearecoveredinsection9.5.3.inthischapter,themainanaerobic
data.question: Define Quaternary paleoecologists ?
data.text: quaternary paleoecologists have regarded evolution as a slow process relative to climate change, predicting that the primary biotic response to changing climate is not adaptation, but instead (1) persistence in situ if changing climate remains within the species' tolerance limits, (2) range shifts (migration) to regions where climate is currently within the species' tolerance limits, or (3) extinction
data.question: Mention about  Genetic differentiation  ?
data.text: genetic differentiation within species is ubiquitous, commonly via adaptation of populations to differing environmental conditions
data.question: What did the Models and empirical studies reveal?
data.text: models and empirical studies suggest that the speed with which a population adapts to a changing environment affects invasion rate of new habitat and thus migration rate, population growth rate and thus probability of extinction, and growth and mortality of individual plants and thus productivity of regional vegetation
data.context: until now, quaternary paleoecologists have regarded evolution as a slow process relative to climate change, predicting that the primary biotic response to changing climate is not adaptation, but instead (1) persistence in situ if changing climate remains within the species' tolerance limits, (2) range shifts (migration) to regions where climate is currently within the species' tolerance limits, or (3) extinction. we argue here that all three of these outcomes involve evolutionary processes. genetic differentiation within species is ubiquitous, commonly via adaptation of populations to differing environmental conditions. detectable adaptive divergence evolves on a time scale comparable to change in climate, within decades for herbaceous plant species, and within centuries or millennia for longer-lived trees, implying that biologically significant evolutionary response can accompany temporal change in climate. models and empirical studies suggest that the speed with which a population adapts to a changing environment affects invasion rate of new habitat and thus migration rate, population growth rate and thus probability of extinction, and growth and mortality of individual plants and thus productivity of regional vegetation. recent models and experiments investigate the stability of species tolerance limits, the influence of environmental gradients on marginal populations, and the interplay of demography, gene flow, mutation rate, and other genetic processes on the rate of adaptation to changed environments. new techniques enable ecologists to document adaptation to changing conditions directly by resurrecting ancient populations from propagules buried in decades-old sediment. improved taxonomic resolution from morphological studies of macrofossils and dna recovered from pollen grains and macroremains provides additional information on range shifts, changes in population sizes, and extinctions. collaboration between paleoecologists and evolutionary biologists can refine interpretations of paleorecords, and improve predictions of biotic response to anticipated climate change.
data.question: Are you going to have a follow up study with other regions?
data.text: as this study covers a large spatial scale, we anticipate that results are also valid for other regions
data.question: What can farmers do, at a high level, to deal with the negative effects of climate change on their yields?
data.text: planned adaptation at higher aggregation levels is needed in order to cope with climate change and associated climate variability
data.question: What types of chamges will be encouraged to increase diversity of farming?
data.text: measures that will give farmers a choice (e.g., between irrigation or no irrigation, to use synthetic or organic fertilizers, between crop types and cultivars) will increase the diversity of farming systems and improve the adaptive capacity of a region
data.context: fig. 5. spatial distribution of the correlation between inter-annual variability in wheat yield anomalies and tempmonth (the monthly temperature variable with the largest negative effect) [r(yield,tempmonth)], and relationships to average temperature (temp, degc) from 1990-2003. countries reduce farm diversity, which requires attention. planned adaptation at higher aggregation levels is needed in order to cope with climate change and associated climate variability. this has implications for subsidy, support, and incentive programs. clearly, in the face of climate change, these measures should support the (increasing) diversity of farming systems rather than stimulating large, intensive, and specialized systems. past measures of the common agricultural policy (cap) have mainly supported production and indirectly increased productivity. recent reforms of the cap toward a more sustainable agriculture may positively affect the diversity of farming objectives and management strategies in regions. measures that will give farmers a choice (e.g., between irrigation or no irrigation, to use synthetic or organic fertilizers, between crop types and cultivars) will increase the diversity of farming systems and improve the adaptive capacity of a region. importantly, the evaluation of such measures should consider an analysis of the temporal variability (stability) of the performance indicators. how results of this study transfer to other regions needs to be assessed. although the impact of regional farm diversity has not been assessed elsewhere, studies for africa (challinor et al. 2007) and australia (nelson et al. 2005) also showed that farms in less favorable regions are not necessarily more vulnerable to climate change. farmers and agricultural regions have proved to be highly adaptable. as this study covers a large spatial scale, we anticipate that results are also valid for other regions.
data.question: What changes need to happen if climate change is to be linked to a much broader set of policies? Need to evolve
data.text: however, over time, this situation needs to evolve so that climate change is linked with a much broader set of policies
data.question: What will climate change require? Let it become more dynamic
data.text: climate change will require these policies to become more dynamic
data.context: at the current relatively early stage of the debate, it is understandable that climate change adaptation is largely being dealt with in isolation from other issues (although see ref. 13). however, over time, this situation needs to evolve so that climate change is linked with a much broader set of policies. in particular, there is a need for linkage with existing policies on climate risk such as those on drought or structural adjustment, which otherwise may become poorly targeted. climate change will require these policies to become more dynamic, to cope with the high level of uncertainty in the timing and magnitude of potential climate changes and the rapidly evolving knowledge base. furthermore, climate change adaptation policies will interact with, depend on, or perhaps even be just a subset of policies on sustainable development and natural resource management, such as those necessary to regulate genetically modified organisms, protect human and animal health, and foster governance and political rights, among many others. this process is often referred to as the ''mainstreaming'' of climate change adaptation into policies intended to enhance broad resilience to risk or to promote sustainable development (4, 14). the critical issues of how climate change and adaptation may affect food security and trade and the risk of malnourishment are dealt with in a companion paper (13).
data.question: What helps determined the biological and physical conditions of the marine environment and the estuaries of the Northwest?
data.text: coastal sea surface temperature (sst) helps determine the biological and physical conditions of the marine environment and the estuaries of the northwest
data.question: What is included in each of the 20 models examined which simulate SST?
data.text: each of the 20 models examined here has a detailed ocean model with higher spatial resolution than the atmosphere model, and simulates sst
data.question: The summertime equatorward winds pull water offshore, resulting in what?
data.text: along the west coast of each continent, summertime equatorward winds pull water offshore and water must upwell from depth to replace it. this nutrientrich water serves as the basis for very high biological productivity
data.context: coastal sea surface temperature (sst) helps determine the biological and physical conditions of the marine environment and the estuaries of the northwest. each of the 20 models examined here has a detailed ocean model with higher spatial resolution than the atmosphere model, and simulates sst. figure 11 shows the mean annual cycle for the 1970-99 and 203059 periods for coastal grid points, along with the observed. the modeled sst is much higher than observed during the months of may-december. modeled change is about 1.5degc, somewhat less than for the pnw land areas (2.0degc) but a significant change relative to the small interannual variability of the ocean. along the west coast of each continent, summertime equatorward winds pull water offshore and water must upwell from depth to replace it. this nutrientrich water serves as the basis for very high biological productivity. our earlier analysis of two climate models (mote and mantua 2002) indicated little change in coastal upwelling in any of the major regions of upwelling. for the 20 models used in this study, the mean change is also quite small (figure 12).
data.question: Would a large city like London be in danger economically due to severe weather damage?
data.text: for instance, in the case of london, a 2004 estimate suggested that if a tidal surge comes over the top of the thames barrier, the cost would be in the region of ps 30 billion, or 2% of uk gdp. 22 could one not now put another 0 at the end of that figure
data.question: What is a climate danger that could be controlled that isn't often talked about?
data.text: owing to the increasing unpredictability of global storm tracks, no new, or existing, development or neighbourhood should now be without a strategy for dealing with the eventuality of encountering an extreme windstorm, no matter where in the world they are built
data.question: All walks of life are responsible for demonstrating proper action to climate change, but what can we do?
data.text: such planning is essential, not only for employees who want to survive, but for councils and businesses who need to demonstrate they have behaved responsibly in the face of risk, for insurance companies who need to know they are containing the risk they cover, and for the government which needs to contain the growing risks of climate change, and terrorism
data.context: where will they go? <s121>* do they know where to go and how to get there? such planning is essential, not only for employees who want to survive, but for councils and businesses who need to demonstrate they have behaved responsibly in the face of risk, for insurance companies who need to know they are containing the risk they cover, and for the government which needs to contain the growing risks of climate change, and terrorism. the stakes are high. for instance, in the case of london, a 2004 estimate suggested that if a tidal surge comes over the top of the thames barrier, the cost would be in the region of ps 30 billion, or 2% of uk gdp. 22 could one not now put another 0 at the end of that figure? what would be the cost of paying for loss of life resulting from what could have been predicted by proper planning? where does the legal buck stop in such an event? owing to the increasing unpredictability of global storm tracks, no new, or existing, development or neighbourhood should now be without a strategy for dealing with the eventuality of encountering an extreme windstorm, no matter where in the world they are built.
data.question: What are the objectives and obligations of the Inno National Forest
data.text: objectives and duties the inyo national forest science advisory board (sab) is an interdisciplinary, independent board of academic, agency, and nongovernmental scientists dedicated to providing expert input on scientific and land management issues to employees of inyo national forest. membership on the sab and opinions put forth by the sab are the sole responsibility of the sab. board members will be chosen for the knowledge in the geographic area, in addi tion to their ability to consider the context in which single issues relate to other issues of concern for the inyo national forest
data.question: What is Inno National Forest Science Advisory Committee Planning?
data.text: scientific review, advice, and consultation can be achieved through diverse formats that depend on national forest needs and regional contexts. a sample charter for a federal advisory board to provide input on national forest issues is shown below, as well as a variety of other directions to take when soliciting review. example of charter for a national forest science advisory board: inyo national forest science advisory board charter may 2009 purpose as the national forest system land management planning final rule (36 cfr part 219) states, "the responsible official must take into account the best available science" and to do this "may use a science advisory board...to evaluate the consideration of science in the planning process," a science advisory board is established for issues concerning inyo national forest, including project design and implementation, the development and subsequent updates of the comprehensive evaluation report, and the update of the inyo national forest land management plan
data.question: S.A.P. Describe the concept?
data.text: objectives and duties the inyo national forest science advisory board (sab) is an interdisciplinary, independent board of academic, agency, and nongovernmental scientists dedicated to providing expert input on scientific and land management issues to employees of inyo national forest. membership on the sab and opinions put forth by the sab are the sole responsibility of the sab. board members will be chosen for the knowledge in the geographic area, in addi tion to their ability to consider the context in which single issues relate to other issues of concern for the inyo national forest
data.context: scientific review, advice, and consultation can be achieved through diverse formats that depend on national forest needs and regional contexts. a sample charter for a federal advisory board to provide input on national forest issues is shown below, as well as a variety of other directions to take when soliciting review. example of charter for a national forest science advisory board: inyo national forest science advisory board charter may 2009 purpose as the national forest system land management planning final rule (36 cfr part 219) states, "the responsible official must take into account the best available science" and to do this "may use a science advisory board...to evaluate the consideration of science in the planning process," a science advisory board is established for issues concerning inyo national forest, including project design and implementation, the development and subsequent updates of the comprehensive evaluation report, and the update of the inyo national forest land management plan. objectives and duties the inyo national forest science advisory board (sab) is an interdisciplinary, independent board of academic, agency, and nongovernmental scientists dedicated to providing expert input on scientific and land management issues to employees of inyo national forest. membership on the sab and opinions put forth by the sab are the sole responsibility of the sab. board members will be chosen for the knowledge in the geographic area, in addi tion to their ability to consider the context in which single issues relate to other issues of concern for the inyo national forest. moreover, in their role as advisors, board members will be expected to consider the mission of the forest service: to achieve quality land management under the "sustainable multiple-use management concept." board members will be appointed to a 2-year term initially, renewable for three consecutive terms. each member will be expected to provide expert scientific assis tance intermittently throughout their tenure through technical assistance on projects, expert opinion, peer review, and collaboration. the sab will meet at least once per year, although this meeting need not take place in person. members of the sab will not be compensated for their services.
data.question: There is a model that can include all the life history traits?
data.text: no model, statistical or otherwise, can yet include all the life history traits, that is, the biological characteristics of the species or their responses to various disturbances that may influence a species' response to changes in climate
data.question: What is trais?
data.text: no model, statistical or otherwise, can yet include all the life history traits, that is, the biological characteristics of the species or their responses to various disturbances that may influence a species' response to changes in climate
data.question: What are the impact of the climate change in the disturbances?
data.text: many of the disturbances we evaluated are expected to increase with climate change or other human-influenced stresses
data.context: no model, statistical or otherwise, can yet include all the life history traits, that is, the biological characteristics of the species or their responses to various disturbances that may influence a species' response to changes in climate. we focus here on some of these types of uncertainty as related to nine biological and twelve disturbance modification factors (modfacs) that influence species' distribution, as determined from literature surveys (figure 4 matthews and others, in press). the biological factors attempt to assess the species capacity to adapt to changing conditions, especially those expected in the future following current trends. for example, higher capacities to regenerate after fire, regenerate vegetatively, or disperse are all positively associated with adaptability to expected climate changes. similarly, the disturbance factors assess the resilience of the species to twelve l. r. iverson and others disturbance types, or the species' capacity to withstand these disturbances, as best as we can determine from the literature (for example, burns and honkala 1990a b ). many of the disturbances we evaluated are expected to increase with climate change or other human-influenced stresses and
data.question: In the list of equipment, what devices concentrate solar power?
data.text: concentrating solar power (solar heat collectors having lenses or reflectors as concentrating elements
data.question: In the list of equipment, what do Solar photovoltaic devices do?
data.text: solar photovoltaic (conversion of light radiation into electrical energy
data.question: In the list of equipment, what lighting technology is used by the electroluminescent light sources?
data.text: electroluminescent light sources (led
data.context: hydro hydro power stations; hydraulic turbines; submerged units incorporating electric generators; devices for controlling hydraulic turbines. lighting compact fluorescent lamps; electroluminescent light sources (led) methane equipment for anaerobic treatment of sludge; biological treatment of waste water or sewage; anaerobic digestion processes; apparatus aiming at collecting fermentation gases. ocean tide or wave power plants; mechanisms using ocean thermal energy conversion; water wheels. solar solar photovoltaic (conversion of light radiation into electrical energy), incl. solar panels; concentrating solar power (solar heat collectors having lenses or reflectors as concentrating elements); solar heat (use of solar heat for heating cooling). waste solid fuels based on waste; recovery of heat from waste incineration; production of energy from waste or waste gasses; recovery of waste heat from exhaust gases. wind wind motors; devices aimed at controlling such motors.
data.question: What is shown in figure 2?
data.text: as in fig. 2, the negative of the vertical wind shear error is plotted
data.question: How is relative error defined?
data.text: the relative error is defined as the difference of the model climatology and the reanalysis climatology at each grid point normalized by the magnitude of the reanalysis climatology at that grid point
data.question: Is the vorticity error shown near the equator?
data.text: the vorticity error is not shown near the equator; the vorticity has very small values in that region
data.context: fig. 3. relative error of (a) relative humidity, (b) potential intensity, (c) absolute vorticity, (d) vertical wind shear for the echam4 model in aso. as in fig. 2, the negative of the vertical wind shear error is plotted. the relative error is defined as the difference of the model climatology and the reanalysis climatology at each grid point normalized by the magnitude of the reanalysis climatology at that grid point. the vorticity error is not shown near the equator; the vorticity has very small values in that region, leading to relative errors so large as to dominate the image, while at the same time the region is relatively unimportant for tc genesis.
data.question: Where can one find the annual average precipitation?
data.text: annual average precipitation, actual evapotranspiration and water yield as simulated by the model over the subbasins of the krishna basin for control and ghg scenarios are given in figure 5
data.question: How much is the decrease in water yield over the sub-basins predicted to vary?
data.text: the corresponding decrease in water yield over the sub-basins is predicted to vary from 30% to 50
data.question: What is predicted to reduce by about 5% over most of the sub-basins?
data.text: the actual evapotranspiration is also predicted to reduce by about 5% over most of the sub-basins
data.context: annual average precipitation, actual evapotranspiration and water yield as simulated by the model over the subbasins of the krishna basin for control and ghg scenarios are given in figure 5. the variation in mean annual water balance components from control to ghg scenario, both in terms of change in individual values of these components as well as percentage of change over control, show that reduction in precipitation by about 20% of the current value has been predicted in the sub-basins of krishna. the corresponding decrease in water yield over the sub-basins is predicted to vary from 30% to 50%. the actual evapotranspiration is also predicted to reduce by about 5% over most of the sub-basins.
data.question: According to the passage what was developed and tested
data.text: a cross-level model of the antecedents and outcomes of proactive customer service performance
data.question: How many front-line service employees and their supervisors in 74 establishments were involed in the study
data.text: 900
data.question: The study involved a  multinational hotel chain located in which regions
data.text: europe, the middle east, africa, and asia
data.context: doing the right thing without being told: joint effects of initiative climate and general self-efficacy on employee proactive customer service performance we developed and tested a cross-level model of the antecedents and outcomes of proactive customer service performance. results from a field study of 900 front-line service employees and their supervisors in 74 establishments of a multinational hotel chain located in europe, the middle east, africa, and asia demonstrated measurement equivalence and suggested that, after controlling for service climate, initiative climate at the establishment level and general self-efficacy at the individual level predicted employee proactive customer service performance and interacted in a synergistic way. results also showed that at the establishment level, controlling for service climate and collective general service performance, initiative climate was positively and indirectly associated with customer service satisfaction through the mediation of aggregated proactive customer service performance. we discuss important theoretical and practical implications of these findings.
data.question: How are we trying to develop and apply a method to identify and characterize how climate change adaption is taking place in developed nations ?
data.text: we develop and apply a systematic mixed-methods literature review methodology to identify and characterize how climate change adaptation is taking place in developed nations
data.question: What does the methodoly offers ?
data.text: the methodology offers important insights for meta-analyses in climate change scholarship and can be used for monitoring progress in adaptation over time
data.question: What are the critiques about the IPCC ?
data.text: critiques have highlighted the opacity of selection criteria for literature included
data.context: we develop and apply a systematic mixed-methods literature review methodology to identify and characterize how climate change adaptation is taking place in developed nations. we find limited evidence of adaptation action. where interventions are being implemented and reported on, they are typically in sectors that are sensitive to climate impacts, are most common at the municipal level, facilitated by higher-level government interventions, with responses typically institutional in nature. there is negligible description of adaptation taking place with respect to vulnerable groups, with reporting unequal by region and sector. the methodology offers important insights for meta-analyses in climate change scholarship and can be used for monitoring progress in adaptation over time. 1 adaptation is necessary if we are to manage the risks posed by climate change (new et al. 2011 smith et al. 2011 ). what we know about adaptation, however, is limited. while there is an emerging scholarship proposing assessment approaches and adaptation options, few studies have systematically examined actual adaptation actions at a national or regional level. is adaptation taking place? what types of interventions are being implemented? what factors are motivating adaptation? the assessment reports of the ipcc contain information on these questions, but using the ipcc to examine, compare, and monitor if and how adaptation is taking place presents a number of challenges. while ipcc assessments are rigorous and comprehensive, critiques have highlighted the opacity of selection criteria for literature included
data.question: According to the author, what changes our climate?
data.text: human emissions of greenhouse gases are already changing our climate
data.question: What does the present paper discuss?
data.text: this paper provides an overview of the relation between climate change and weather extremes, and examines three specific cases where recent acute events have stimulated debate on the potential role of climate change: the european heatwave of 2003 the risk of inland flooding, such as recently in central europe and great britain; and the harsh atlantic hurricane seasons of 2004 and 2005 furthermore, it briefly assesses the relation between climate change and el nino, and the potential of abrupt climate change
data.question: In the opinion of the author, the additional risks due to climate change should not be analysed or treated in isolation. why?
data.text: several trends in weather extremes are sufficiently clear to inform risk reduction efforts. in many instances, however, the potential increases in extreme events due to climate change come on top of alarming rises in vulnerability. hence, the additional risks due to climate change should not be analysed or treated in isolation, but instead integrated into broader efforts to reduce the risk of natural disasters
data.context: human emissions of greenhouse gases are already changing our climate. this paper provides an overview of the relation between climate change and weather extremes, and examines three specific cases where recent acute events have stimulated debate on the potential role of climate change: the european heatwave of 2003 the risk of inland flooding, such as recently in central europe and great britain; and the harsh atlantic hurricane seasons of 2004 and 2005 furthermore, it briefly assesses the relation between climate change and el nino, and the potential of abrupt climate change. several trends in weather extremes are sufficiently clear to inform risk reduction efforts. in many instances, however, the potential increases in extreme events due to climate change come on top of alarming rises in vulnerability. hence, the additional risks due to climate change should not be analysed or treated in isolation, but instead integrated into broader efforts to reduce the risk of natural disasters.
data.question: What methodology does this paper describe?
data.text: this paper describes a methodology for developing sequences of monthly local weather data that reflect regional climate trends as projected by global climate models
data.question: What do sequences provide a quantitative representation of?
data.text: these sequences provide a quantitative representation of plausible climate change impacts and can be used by water management models to stress test water management plans
data.question: Why are bookend climate projections useful?
data.text: bookend climate projections can be useful to illustrate the range of possible outcomes
data.context: this paper describes a methodology for developing sequences of monthly local weather data that reflect regional climate trends as projected by global climate models. these sequences provide a quantitative representation of plausible climate change impacts and can be used by water management models to stress test water management plans. the methodology first develops pdfs of temperature and precipitation trends for a region from individual aogcm results using the criteria of bias and convergence tebaldi et al. 2005]. it then creates sequences of local weather using the k-nn bootstrapping technique yates et al. 2003] that resamples daily historical weather data such that the future sequences have the same statistical characteristics of local weather but are consistent with the range of aogcm-derived temperature and precipitation trends. this method overcomes the limitations accompanying an analysis that uses individual, nuanced aogcm runs. utilizing numerous sequences with similar underlying climate trends can be useful, as the timing and duration of droughts can make the difference between successful and unsuccessful long-term water management strategies. a key limitation of the k-nn approach as implemented here is the challenge to estimate the weighting parameter, dw i that correctly biases the new weather sequences to properly reflect the aogcm ensembles both seasonally and inter-annually. this is currently done manually, through trial-and-error. the applied method also does not guarantee that all climate impacts are accounted for nor that all possible uncertainties are addressed. the method described here provides data to support a climate impact assessment. a common approach is to evaluate management strategies against a few projections of altered climatic conditions (often including ''bookend'' projections). bookend climate projections can be useful to illustrate the range of possible outcomes, but they do not
data.question: What did A. Gonzalez and K. Gotanda check?
data.text: we thank a. gonzalez and k. gotanda for checking the english
data.question: What must be better understoon before the resilience of ecological interactions can be evaluated?
data.text: our challenge is to better understand the adaptive and evolutionary basis of these size changes before we can evaluate the resilience of ecological interactions that are affected by these size changes
data.context: thus, the response of species interactions within communities may even be more complex. hence, our challenge is to better understand the adaptive and evolutionary basis of these size changes before we can evaluate the resilience of ecological interactions that are affected by these size changes. acknowledgements we thank juha meril eur a and andrew hendry for inviting us to contribute to this special issue. ct was funded by the agence nationale de la recherche (grant anr12adap0006-02-peps) and vm by an nserc discovery grant. we thank a. gonzalez and k. gotanda for checking the english. we are also grateful to three anonymous reviewers and the editor for comments that contributed to clarify and improve this article. literature cited
data.question: What is required to a more rigid path that places great reliance on producing an accurate forecast of the future?
data.text: decisions made with support of climate modeling can follow multiple pathways, from a focus on resilience and supporting adaptive management within the full range of what the models have to say, to a more rigid path that places great reliance on producing an accurate forecast of the future
data.question: What provided sufficient raw material to meet the needs of these initial forays into robust decision frameworks?
data.text: existing archives of basic model outputs such as monthly temperature and precipitation, potentially enhanced with some spatial and temporal downscaling and other kinds of postprocessing, have provided sufficient raw material to meet the needs of these initial forays into robust decision frameworks
data.question: What are the two distinct roles for climate modeling?
data.text: the view from the perspective of both exploratory modeling and robust decision frameworks implies at least two distinct roles for climate modeling: to help structure the problem by exploring the limits of possible system behaviors; and in the 'scenario generator' role, to help explore the performance of decision options over as wide a range of futures as possible
data.context: decisions made with support of climate modeling can follow multiple pathways, from a focus on resilience and supporting adaptive management within the full range of what the models have to say, to a more rigid path that places great reliance on producing an accurate forecast of the future. we have argued that a prediction-based paradigm is poorly suited for overcoming the twin physical and social sciences challenges of (1) long-term, regional-scale climate prediction and (2) providing decision-relevant information about potential future climate change within the kinds of stakeholder-focused, participatory processes that lead to better decision making. in contrast, the class of robust decision frameworks offers an opportunity to address these challenges in a way that more fully harnesses knowledge and insights produced by climate science and modeling. in our case studies, we have seen how the use of robust decision frameworks can confer greater credibility, salience, and legitimacy on the types of information typically provided from climate models today. by beginning with bottom-up articulations of management contexts and system vulnerabilities, such processes guide the search for tailored climate information and provide specific questions that can then be asked of models. this promotes greater stakeholder acceptance of model-derived information. in addition, such frameworks allow flexibility in defining relevant climate futures based on the different risk tolerances that different decision-making entities may have. these examples have also illustrated how the use of such frameworks can suggest avenues for new research to improve the quality of climate information--and specifically to quantify the value of this new knowledge for a particular decision. what our examples have also indirectly highlighted, however, is that current applications of robust decision frameworks have not been particularly demanding of climate models. existing archives of basic model outputs such as monthly temperature and precipitation, potentially enhanced with some spatial and temporal downscaling and other kinds of postprocessing, have provided sufficient raw material to meet the needs of these initial forays into robust decision frameworks. extrapolating from these examples, however, suggests new emphases in climate modeling that could increase both the richness of our understanding of climate system behavior and the decision support value of this richer understanding. we suggest that these new emphases fall into the following categories: (1) model applications (2) model structures and complexity (3) technical and technological considerations the view from the perspective of both exploratory modeling and robust decision frameworks implies at least two distinct roles for climate modeling: to help structure the problem by exploring the limits of possible system behaviors; and in the 'scenario generator' role, to help explore the performance of decision options over as wide a range of futures as possible. the first suggests an increased focus on climate model applications like the development of bounding and extreme cases, identification of potential warning signs, and the assessment of relative likelihoods and probable contingencies for future events, including the potential for rapid or accelerating change and threshold crossing in natural and human systems. the second suggests complementary, redoubled efforts to expand the space of climate model formulations and structures, as well as to sample this space more comprehensively. in addition, for most applications we are concerned with coupled systems, such as linked climate and hydrologic systems. we will often not be able to explore the full richness of interactions and behaviors in such systems, nor generate appropriately diverse model formulations (and hence scenarios), without paying attention to issues of model structure and model complexity. for example, the development of the climate response functions for our lake superior case imply some degree of interoperability between climate models and hydrologic models to properly capture important interactions between the two systems. in general, improving climate and impacts model interoperability and integration will help alleviate the problem of developing transfer functions that may fail to represent key system behaviors. extending to better integration with management models (such as weap) will make it easier to address questions of the full, coupled human-natural system, such as those related to unintended consequences of policies and other possible feedbacks from decisions taken, as well as explore non-climatic pressures. as we make our modeling systems more complex, however, we run the risk of succumbing to the
data.question: What can increase the number of landslides?
data.text: increased ground temperatures and permafrost degradation
data.question: What can cause changes in relative sea level?
data.text: global warming
data.question: What coastal area could be affected by increased wave activity?
data.text: the beaufort sea coast
data.context: rates of shoreline change in the arctic would be altered both by changes in sea ice and by changes in relative sea level resulting from global warming. areas now protected from wave action by persistent sea ice would be more severely impacted than areas that are seasonally reworked by waves at present. the impacts of increased wave activity would be amplified in areas such as the beaufort sea coast, including the outer mackenzie delta and tuktoyaktuk peninsula, which consist of poorly consolidated sediments, often with significant volumes of massive ground ice, and are undergoing submergence at present see box 3). along terrestrial slopes in the coastal zone, increased ground temperatures and permafrost degradation could reduce slope stability and increase the frequency of landslides,(28)thereby presenting risks for community and industrial infrastructure. case studies in the communities of tuktoyaktuk(30, 31, 32)
data.question: what are the benefit and aid of  basic education on understanding climatology of a region, and in interpreting probabilistic information expressed in graphics?
data.text: to distinguish observations from model outputs, and to decide for themselves the potential impact of a forecasted event on their activity of interes
data.context: third, beyond simply increasing access to information, some constraints that exacerbate inequity in the use of climate information could be partially minimized through targeted training of various end users of information. for instance, basic education on understanding climatology of a region, and in interpreting probabilistic information expressed in graphics would aid a range of decision makers in the fisheries, banking, and media sectors by allowing them to better judge for themselves the trustworthiness of information sources, to distinguish observations from model outputs, and to decide for themselves the potential impact of a forecasted event on their activity of interest. such a broader understanding of climate would also increase the ability to develop anticipatory mechanisms that enhance societal resilience to all sorts of climate variability, reducing reliance on short lead time forecasts. additional choices loom here as well. for example, another option is to train those at scientific institutions to better communicate with the media to lessen the chance of misinterpretation in the flow of information to the public. alternatively, advanced training on useful modeling of the relationship between environmental and biological variables could help agencies charged with providing advice for fisheries management. 432 kenneth broad et al.
data.question: Which chapter of this book can I find the details of the chemistry schemes?
data.text: details of the chemistry schemes included in the ccms are given in chapter 2
data.context: details of the chemistry schemes included in the ccms are given in chapter 2. although there are differences in detail, all of the models essentially contain a description of the main chemical species of relevance for stratospheric ozone, contained in the o<s187>x, ho<s187>y, cl<s187>y, no<s187>y, br<s187>y chemical families (where x or y denotes the total components for the given family) and the relevant source gases (except e39ca does not include bromine chemistry). the models also contain a treatment of heterogeneous chemistry on sulfate aerosols and polar stratospheric clouds (pscs). however, these aerosol/psc schemes are based on an equilibrium approach where the models condense gasphase species e.g. h<s314>2o, hno<s314>3) onto a speci fi ed distribution of particle number density or size. therefore, the models evaluated here do not contain explicit microphysics. the surface area density of sulfate aerosols in the ccmval runs is speci fi ed from a provided climatology. as stratospheric ccms have evolved by a number of different pathways, a full chemistry evaluation needs to consider the explicit reactions schemes contained in the model. clearly all ccms aim to have a chemistry scheme suf fi cient to model stratospheric ozone accurately, but comparisons presented in this chapter, and elsewhere, can show very different model behaviour. tables 6s.1, 6s.2 and 6s.3 in the supplementary material list the chemical species, gas-phase reactions and photolytic reactions, respectively, for each ccm and the photostationary state (pss) model used in section 6.3.2. the species and reactions listed are those important enough to be considered for inclusion in a global stratospheric ccm. where individual models have ignored species and/or reactions the implications of this should be investigated further. speci fi c cases where the simpli fi cations in the chemistry scheme have clearly affected model performance are mentioned below. note that the description of the heterogeneous chemistry in the ccms is provided in chapter 2.
data.question: When are the coefficients expected to approach zero?
data.text: at the end of the growing season
data.context: a dendro-climatic response function analysis was used to identify climatic factors that may limit growth (fig. 2). to summarize significant coefficients for the monthly climate variables with individual chronologies, we indicate with an asterisk if more than 25% of samples within a group have significant coefficients. particularly for interior douglas-fir, instances of significant monthly precipitation variables are more common than in temperature variables. standard errors of the average regression coefficients, including nonsignificant coefficients, are indicated by thin lines. the coefficients are expected to approach zero at the end of the growing season, and this is the case for july or august for both temperature and precipitation for all regions. the standard error for the estimate of regression coefficients suggests that the four sample sites available from california were not sufficient to obtain interpretable results. however, the region 'pacific northwest' reveals some interesting patterns. as has been previously shown (brubaker, 1980; meko et al ., 1993; little et al ., 1995; holman peterson, 2006; nakawatase
data.question: What does the IRI Climate Information Digest do?
data.text: iri climate information digest create awareness of ongoing climate events around the world and the impacts they have on society, to provide some basic education about the change of seasons and climatology, and to provide context for seasonal forecasts
data.question: What does NOAA/Office of Global Programs Data Library Mirror Site Pilot Project (Completed) provide?
data.text: noaa/office of global programs data library mirror site pilot project (completed) provide local data library access and functionality
data.question: What does the study by  Central Weather Bureau, Taiwan Project analyze?
data.text: central weather bureau, taiwan project title objective partners improving locusts outbreak forecast in africa and asia using climate forecast products (pilot project) understand the relationship between meteorological/climatic factors and the outbreak of desert locust by analyzing the historical data available (1930 to present) on desert locust outbreak and climatic factors; and, to improve and tailor forecasting products
data.context: project title objective partners environmental information systems database development provide frequently updated, near 'real-time', information on those various environmental processes that are considered useful to the iri's regional programs. center for international earth science information network (ciesin) usgs nasa wcrp/gewex food and agriculture organization (fao) of the u.n. map rooms capability enhancements enhance society's ability to understand climate variability and its synergistic relationships with other environmental factors for applications in various sectors and decision systems. iri climate information digest create awareness of ongoing climate events around the world and the impacts they have on society, to provide some basic education about the change of seasons and climatology, and to provide context for seasonal forecasts. noaa/office of global programs data library mirror site pilot project (completed) provide local data library access and functionality. central weather bureau, taiwan project title objective partners improving locusts outbreak forecast in africa and asia using climate forecast products (pilot project) understand the relationship between meteorological/climatic factors and the outbreak of desert locust by analyzing the historical data available (1930 to present) on desert locust outbreak and climatic factors; and, to improve and tailor forecasting products. fao malaria early warning system: building on botswana work and scaling up to other epidemic-prone countries in africa provide the evidence of the role of climate in disease dynamics in african countries and to assess the value of such evidence to improving epidemic prevention and control; and, provide tools and training in order to develop the capacity of disease control staff to use the information created in improving malaria control decision-making in africa.
data.question: What do Greater gliders eat?
data.text: eucalyptus leaves
data.question: Where do greater gliders live?
data.text: tree hollows during the day
data.question: What did scientists do if the physiological thermoregulatory responses of the possums were unable to maintain the core below 39.1*C?
data.text: shade on the shelter was increased
data.context: greater gliders are nocturnal specialist feeders on eucalyptus leaves, sheltering in tree hollows during the day. for the mechanistic sdm, we solved energyand massbalance equations for greater gliders and their diurnal retreats to calculate their energy and water requirements as a function of thermoregulatory and activity costs, using the niche mapper system (for a detailed description of this model, see porter mitchell 2006) with parameters defined in table 1. the solution for metabolic rate was not allowed to fall below the empirically observed basal rate plus the heat increment of feeding (table 1). in such cases, animals were simulated to invoke the following thermoregulatory responses, in order, based on empirical observations (rubsamen et al. 1984): (1) alter posture (uncurl), (2) increase thermal conductivity of the flesh, (3) allow tcore to rise, and (4) lose heat by evaporative cooling (panting and licking fur), up to an equivalent maximum of 30% of the surface area being wetted (equivalent to their response to 35*c in a metabolic chamber) (rubsamen et al. 1984). during daylight hours, gliders were initially simulated to shelter in a tightly fitting, thin-walled tree hollow (table 1), for which a steady-state solution was solved. shade on the shelter was increased if the physiological thermoregulatory responses of the possums (see above) were unable to maintain the core below 39.1*c under the maximum allowable evaporative cooling. in the frequent situation where conditions inside the abovedescribed shelters were too hot, possums were assumed to use shaded hollows in trees with sufficient thermal inertia that daily temperature fluctuations were completely dampened and the ambient temperature was at the monthly mean temperature for that location. tests of model predictions against empirical data (for metabolic rate, water loss rate and shelter temperatures) are presented in the supplementary online materials, figures s1-2). food eucalyptus spp. leaves) was assumed to always be available to active gliders and feeding rate was assumed to be constant throughout the night. to model the potential distribution of the greater glider based on these calculations, for each site we subtracted the thermally imposed energy and water costs from the income through the food, integrated across the year. this "discretionary" energy and water was then converted to milk based on the most limiting factor (energy, water, or protein), and
data.question: What is the reason of the new diases?
data.text: widespread mortality in the apis mellifera honey bee worldwide aptly demonstrates the fragility of this species, whose survival relies on an increasingly hostile environment. the reasons given to explain this phenomenon include pesticide use, new diseases, stress and a combination of these factors
data.question: What are the consequences of the climate changes?
data.text: as a result, climate change will shift the balance between the honey bee, its plant environment and its diseases
data.question: The honey bee helps to colonise environments?
data.text: the honey bee has shown a great capacity to colonise widely diverse environments and its genetic variability should enable it to adapt to such climate change
data.context: widespread mortality in the apis mellifera honey bee worldwide aptly demonstrates the fragility of this species, whose survival relies on an increasingly hostile environment. the reasons given to explain this phenomenon include pesticide use, new diseases, stress and a combination of these factors. as a result, climate change will shift the balance between the honey bee, its plant environment and its diseases. the honey bee has shown a great capacity to colonise widely diverse environments and its genetic variability should enable it to adapt to such climate change. however, the fear is that climate-induced stress will in future compound the various factors already endangering the species in certain regions of the world. if humans modify the honey bee's environment, they also have a duty to take conservation measures to prevent the loss of this rich genetic diversity of bees. to understand the factors favouring the extinction of honey bees, it will be
data.question: What climate model was used to demonstrate that stochastic resonance could be an important mechanism for millennial-scale climate variability during glacial times?
data.text: using an ocean-atmosphere climate model we demonstrate that stochastic resonance could be an important mechanism for millennial-scale climate variability during glacial times
data.question: What type of system was proposed for the glacial ocean circulation?
data.text: we propose that the glacial ocean circulation, unlike today's, was an excitable system with a stable and a weakly unstable mode of operation
data.question: What events were proposed to be due to fluctuations of the freshwater flux into the northern North Atlantic?
data.text: plausible-amplitude stochastic fluctuations of the freshwater flux into the northern north atlantic can produce glacial warm events
data.context: andrey ganopolski and stefan rahmstorf* potsdam institute for climate impact research, box 601203, 14412 potsdam, germany (received 5 july 2001; published 4 january 2002) using an ocean-atmosphere climate model we demonstrate that stochastic resonance could be an important mechanism for millennial-scale climate variability during glacial times. we propose that the glacial ocean circulation, unlike today's, was an excitable system with a stable and a weakly unstable mode of operation, and that a combination of weak periodic forcing and plausible-amplitude stochastic fluctuations of the freshwater flux into the northern north atlantic can produce glacial warm events similar in time evolution, amplitude, spatial pattern, and interspike intervals to those found in the observed climate records.
data.question: What are the 2 approaches normally considered when adaptating analyses at the global scale?
data.text: adaptation analyses at the global scale normally consider one of two distinct approaches: 1 protection of all developed areas (based on some arbitrary definition), such as ipcc czms (1990), the global vulnerability assessment (hoozemans et al., 1993) and the fast track analyses (nicholls, 2004) 2 an optimisation approach where 'economically worthwhile areas' are defended, such as fankhauser (1995), tol (2007) and sugiyama et al. (2008) - this is normally based on comparing avoided damage and protection costs (diva adds beach nourishment to preserve beaches for their touristic value, and nourishment of coastal wetlands to preserve them in situ), and the unfccc study used this approach
data.question: What is the emphasis in most analyses?
data.text: following existing practice, the emphasis in most analyses, including the unfccc study, is on preserving the human uses
data.question: Does protection preserve the status quo or not?
data.text: hence, protection does not preserve the status quo, but does preserve the valuable dryland
data.context: adaptation analyses at the global scale normally consider one of two distinct approaches: 1 protection of all developed areas (based on some arbitrary definition), such as ipcc czms (1990), the global vulnerability assessment (hoozemans et al., 1993) and the fast track analyses (nicholls, 2004) 2 an optimisation approach where 'economically worthwhile areas' are defended, such as fankhauser (1995), tol (2007) and sugiyama et al. (2008) - this is normally based on comparing avoided damage and protection costs (diva adds beach nourishment to preserve beaches for their touristic value, and nourishment of coastal wetlands to preserve them in situ), and the unfccc study used this approach. following existing practice, the emphasis in most analyses, including the unfccc study, is on preserving the human uses. protection will tend to degrade coastal ecosystems via coastal squeeze, so this adaptation approach produces secondary impacts which are evaluated in some cases. hence, protection does not preserve the status quo, but does preserve the valuable dryland.
data.question: What does Climate-related economic development challenges and opportunities mean?
data.text: development strategies need to align to the challenges posed by a changing climate. in economic terms, climate change, and its response measures, are changing the relative prices of both inputs and outputs, and the physical relationships between the two. so production possibilities and prices are changing for businesses and countries, and this determines the optimal balance of resource use and the optimal mix of outputs. it is creating new winners and losers, within and between countries. climate-related economic development challenges and opportunities mean that
data.question: Will the economy depends on the export orientated strategies?
data.text: all exporters are affected by the rising cost of transport or the changing relative prices of transport types. so export-oriented growth strategies may not be as attractive or may require changing. island economies that are dependent on tourism, for example, may be affected negatively by rising air transport prices. the same is true for export-led agricultural strategies, like flowers or horticulture, which also face uncertainty over temperature changes and the volume and distribution of rainfall
data.question: What type technology innovations create new opportunities?
data.text: mitigation and adaptation technologies are developing rapidly, creating opportunities for innovators to make profits, disadvantages for late adopters, and the potential for technological leap-frogging. technological innovation can also create new resource opportunities. demand for a new generation of batteries, for example, is good news for bolivia's lithium industry. these direct and indirect economic impacts of climate change on development mean that policy makers need to consider the appropriateness of different economic growth strategies and, in many cases, consider how to incentivise and regulate low emissions transitions, technological innovation and skills development. development strategies, irrespective of whether they overlap with mitigation or adaptation strategies or not, need to recognise the threats and opportunities presented by the new climate-related development landscape
data.context: development strategies need to align to the challenges posed by a changing climate. in economic terms, climate change, and its response measures, are changing the relative prices of both inputs and outputs, and the physical relationships between the two. so production possibilities and prices are changing for businesses and countries, and this determines the optimal balance of resource use and the optimal mix of outputs. it is creating new winners and losers, within and between countries. climate-related economic development challenges and opportunities mean that: * * all exporters are affected by the rising cost of transport or the changing relative prices of transport types. so export-oriented growth strategies may not be as attractive or may require changing. island economies that are dependent on tourism, for example, may be affected negatively by rising air transport prices. the same is true for export-led agricultural strategies, like flowers or horticulture, which also face uncertainty over temperature changes and the volume and distribution of rainfall. * * some developing country producers may benefit from exploiting demand for biofuels or the opportunities presented by carbon market incentives to conserve forests. conversely, countries with a traditional economic reliance on exporting high carbon fuel sources, such as oil and coal, may be disrupted by a shift in demand to cleaner fuels. * * mitigation and adaptation technologies are developing rapidly, creating opportunities for innovators to make profits, disadvantages for late adopters, and the potential for technological leap-frogging. technological innovation can also create new resource opportunities. demand for a new generation of batteries, for example, is good news for bolivia's lithium industry. these direct and indirect economic impacts of climate change on development mean that policy makers need to consider the appropriateness of different economic growth strategies and, in many cases, consider how to incentivise and regulate low emissions transitions, technological innovation and skills development. development strategies, irrespective of whether they overlap with mitigation or adaptation strategies or not, need to recognise the threats and opportunities presented by the new climate-related development landscape.
data.question: What was increased by the exceptionally high air temperatures and by the high sunshine duration during summer 2003?
data.text: the drought experienced by the vegetation was long and strong. it was increased by the exceptionally high air temperatures during summer 2003, and by the high sunshine duration, which reinforced evaporative stress
data.question: What should analyses of the consequences on forest ecosystems take into account?
data.text: analyses of the consequences on forest ecosystems should take into account the exceptional length and strength of the drought. they should also consider the fact that the exceptionally high air temperatures during summer 2003 reinforced the drought stress for the vegetation
data.question: In some regions, including the relatively hottest places during summer 2003, when was drought most severe?
data.text: at least in some regions, including the relatively hottest places during summer 2003 (eastern france, switzerland and southern germany) drought was most severe in june and august and extended to june 2004
data.context: the drought experienced by the vegetation was long and strong. it was increased by the exceptionally high air temperatures during summer 2003, and by the high sunshine duration, which reinforced evaporative stress. we suggest that analyses of the consequences of the 2003 drought on ecosystems should take high air temperatures, strong sunshine duration and low relative humidity into consideration as well as the low precipitation. 4. conclusion weather data from 2003 2004 showed an acute drought in summer 2003, but also that drought conditions have occurred over a much longer time. at least in some regions, including the relatively hottest places during summer 2003 (eastern france, switzerland and southern germany) drought was most severe in june and august and extended to june 2004. this series of 17 months with scarce precipitation was only briefly interrupted, in october and january. sunshine duration was also extremely high and relative humidity extremely low during the whole year of 2003. every month brought more sunshine than normal. february and march were particularly sunny compared to long-term mean values. departure from normal sunshine duration values was strongest in regions which may usually have partly rainy and cloudy summers. air temperatures were most abnormal in june and august over an extremely wide geographical area with monthly anomalies of up to 6*c in a large part of europe. maximum temperature anomalies were higher than minimum temperatures. analyses of the consequences on forest ecosystems should take into account the exceptional length and strength of the drought. they should also consider the fact that the exceptionally high air temperatures during summer 2003 reinforced the drought stress for the vegetation.
data.question: To whom is important the Capacity building?
data.text: capacity building can represent a great opportunity for women's requirements who until now have been not attended to sufficiently, the focus being on men's needs. if their specific necessities and capabilities were to be given due consideration a much more equitable and responsive approach to building the capacity of both men and women would be created
data.question: Example of sectors who target woman?
data.text: for instance, the of cleaner technological options in the water and agricultural sectors could target both women and men, requiring in this way adequate gender-sensitive training
data.question: CDM projects?
data.text: here again, small-scale carbon offset projects in agroforestry and urban forestry might harbour a treasure trove of creative cdm projects made suitable not only for men but also for women, their families and their communities
data.context: capacity building can represent a great opportunity for women's requirements who until now have been not attended to sufficiently, the focus being on men's needs. if their specific necessities and capabilities were to be given due consideration a much more equitable and responsive approach to building the capacity of both men and women would be created. this more equitable outlook can be introduced in both mitigation and adaptation frameworks. for instance, the of cleaner technological options in the water and agricultural sectors could target both women and men, requiring in this way adequate gender-sensitive training.96 here again, small-scale carbon offset projects in agroforestry and urban forestry might harbour a treasure trove of creative cdm projects made suitable not only for men but also for women, their families and their communities.
data.question: What other factor, other than rainfall, plays a significant roll in driving production changes?
data.text: temperature also plays a significant role in driving year-to-year production changes, but was slightly less important than rainfall by this measure in the majority of cases
data.question: What plays a critical role in year-to-year variability of crop production?
data.text: rainfall plays a critical role in year-to-year variability of production for these crops
data.question: Which term, in most cases, is the single biggest source of uncertainty?
data.text: the single biggest source of uncertainty in most cases is the second term
data.context: rainfall plays a critical role in year-to-year variability of production for these crops, with a change in growing season precipitation by one standard deviation associated with as much as a 10% change in production (in the case of south asia millets; figure 1 (a)). temperature also plays a significant role in driving year-to-year production changes, but was slightly less important than rainfall by this measure in the majority of cases. this result agrees with the intuition that rainfall is very important to agriculture. in contrast, the contribution of terms in equation 2 to total variance highlights a surprisingly dominant role of temperature (figure 1 (b)). in figure 1 (b), factors related to temperature (the first three terms in equation 2 )) are shown in shades of red while those related to precipitation are shown in blue. only in three cases among the top 20 crop-region combinations (rice and millet in south asia and wheat in west asia) do uncertainties associated with precipitation contribute more than 25% to total variance. the single biggest source of uncertainty in most cases is the second term, relating to uncertainty in the response of crop production to temperature 2
data.question: Define perfect migration?
data.text: the ability to remain in equilibrium with shifts in climate - they are assumed to completely occupy all habitat area that is suitable under the new climate
data.question: What are the changes that species experiences using perfect migration?
data.text: with perfect migration, species experience changes in population size directly proportional to the change in habitat area within their ranges under the different climatic conditions
data.question: What will be the result if the species are incapable of migration?
data.text: if species are incapable of migrating (i.e., 'no migration'), either due to limited dispersal abilities or the influence of limiting factors other than climate (ibanez et al ., 2006), then species will be in disequilibrium with climate and will occupy only the habitat that is suitable under both current and future climate (fig. 1), greatly reducing the amount of land available and increasing extinction risk
data.context: the ability of species to migrate significantly affects the predicted changes in habitat area and extinction risk. if species are capable of 'perfect migration' - the ability to remain in equilibrium with shifts in climate - they are assumed to completely occupy all habitat area that is suitable under the new climate. with perfect migration, species experience changes in population size directly proportional to the change in habitat area within their ranges under the different climatic conditions. in contrast, if species are incapable of migrating (i.e., 'no migration'), either due to limited dispersal abilities or the influence of limiting factors other than climate (ibanez et al ., 2006), then species will be in disequilibrium with climate and will occupy only the habitat that is suitable under both current and future climate (fig. 1), greatly reducing the amount of land available and increasing extinction risk. in some cases, changes in climate may be so severe that there will be no overlap between current and future habitat areas of many species, in which case certain extinction is predicted for nonmigrating species (thomas et al ., 2004). true migration rates will likely be intermediate between 'no' and 'perfect' migration and will be highly variable between species. given the lack of data for most species, few studies have attempted to incorporate known migration rates into their species migration models. the perfectvs. no-migration scenarios are therefore commonly used to represent extreme or bestvs. worst-case scenarios.
data.question: State a good example of a new assertion that would be more effective for refuting climate change myths
data.text: new assertions that make no reference to the false claims are more effective for refuting myths.90for example, rather than counter the statement "climate change is part of a natural weather cycle" in a manner that repeats the assertion, it is preferable to state: "the scientific evidence is clear; human activity is contributing to climate change
data.question: What understanding difficulty does the public have with regards to climate change?
data.text: studies show that the public has difficulty understanding the projections and probabilities scientists use to estimate the potential impact of climate change
data.question: How can the problem of the public having difficult undersanding climate change issues be solved?
data.text: communication, then, should emphasize what we know, rather than what we don't know. moser and dilling advise communicators to "lead with the strongest argument--that is, with the greatest scientific certainty and confidence."71
data.context: over time the refutation is forgotten, but the false belief has been reinforced simply because the audience member has heard it repeated again. new assertions that make no reference to the false claims are more effective for refuting myths.90for example, rather than counter the statement "climate change is part of a natural weather cycle" in a manner that repeats the assertion, it is preferable to state: "the scientific evidence is clear; human activity is contributing to climate change." potential consequences. studies show that the public has difficulty understanding the projections and probabilities scientists use to estimate the potential impact of climate change. moreover, debate around the projected consequences can result in public apathy and stall policy change.91communication, then, should emphasize what we know, rather than what we don't know. moser and dilling advise communicators to "lead with the strongest argument--that is, with the greatest scientific certainty and confidence."71
data.question: what is climate targets considered?
data.text: climate targets' considered here are both stabilizing temperature at a specified value and avoiding a warming beyond a predefined threshold
data.question: what this section discusses?
data.text: this section discusses the relation between emissions and climate targets
data.question: what is the  idea of limiting peak warming?
data.text: is a more general concept than stabilization of temperature or atmospheric co2
data.context: this section discusses the relation between emissions and climate targets, in the context of the uncertainties characterizing both the transient and the equilibrium climate responses to emissions. 'climate targets' considered here are both stabilizing temperature at a specified value and avoiding a warming beyond a predefined threshold. the latter idea of limiting peak warming is a more general concept than stabilization of temperature or atmospheric co2, and one that is more realistic than an exact climate stabilization which would require perpetual non-zero positive emissions to counteract the otherwise unavoidable long-term slow decrease in global temperature (matsuno et al., 2012a) (figure 12.44).
data.question: Can Qr and Qu be considered equal?
data.text: the excess sludge flow (qu - qr) is negligible in the mass balance on the secondary sedimentation tank
data.question: Should the applied flux must be equal to or less than the limiting flux (Ga <= GL)?
data.text: the settling tank does not accumulate solids, which could eventually reach a quantity that would lead to their loss in the supernatant of the settling tank
data.question: Which are the terms of the relation between the gravity flux curve and the profile of the suspended solids concentration in the secondary sedimentation tank?
data.text: in parallel with the line of the limiting flux (slope equal to qu/a
data.context: qi influent flow to the sewage treatment plant (m3/h) qr return sludge flow (approximately equal to the sludge underflow) (m3/h) co concentration of influent suspended solids to the secondary sedimentation tank. equal to the suspended solids concentration in the reactor, or mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (mlss) (kg/m3). in practical terms, it can be considered that qr is equal to qu, since the excess sludge flow (qu - qr) is negligible in the mass balance on the secondary sedimentation tank. in broad terms, the applied flux must be equal to or less than the limiting flux (ga <= gl), so that the settling tank does not accumulate solids, which could eventually reach a quantity that would lead to their loss in the supernatant of the settling tank, thus deteriorating the final effluent quality. on the curve of the gravity flux (figure 10.16a), the straight line of the applied flux can be drawn. this line starts at the y-axis (at the value ga) and goes downwards, in parallel with the line of the limiting flux (slope equal to qu/a). figure 10.18 presents an interpretation, by the author, of the theory presented by dick (1972), handley (1974), white (1976) and keinath (1981), in terms of the relation between the gravity flux curve and the profile of the suspended solids concentration in the secondary sedimentation tank. in this figure, there are four columns, representing four distinct conditions: (a) sedimentation tank with underload (b) sedimentation tank with critical load (c) sedimentation tank with thickening overload and (d) sedimentation tank with thickening and clarification overload the first line presents the curve of the gravity flux (equal in the four columns), the limiting flux (also equal in the four columns) and the applied flux (different in the four columns). the second line presents the vertical profile of the suspended solids concentration resulting from the interrelation between the applied and the limiting fluxes. the third line shows this profile as a cross-section in the settling tank.
data.question: What is the important part of this balance and explain how this part plays a role in this stimulation.
data.text: we hypothesize that lateral heat transport by ocean mesoscale eddies is an important part of this balance, and that insufficient transport by eddies allows the thermocline in the models to deepen more than observed in nature; this leads to the subsurface warming drift
data.question: What happens if there are insufficient eddy heat transport?
data.text: we hypothesize that in the absence of sufficient eddy heat transport (whether through explicitly resolved eddies or a parameterization of their effects), the thermocline in the subtropical gyres continues to deepen, implying continued movement of heat from the near-surface layers to the interior thermocline; this will result in the cool bias seen in the upper several hundred meters and the warm bias below
data.question: What is the largest increase in subsurface warm biases?
data.text: the largest increase in subsurface warm biases is in the subtropical gyres
data.context: a hypothesis for this drift is as follows: once the simulation starts, wind-driven subduction in the subtropical gyres deepens the thermocline, leading to the subsurface warming; this continues until other processes are strong enough to balance that deepening. we hypothesize that lateral heat transport by ocean mesoscale eddies is an important part of this balance, and that insufficient transport by eddies allows the thermocline in the models to deepen more than observed in nature; this leads to the subsurface warming drift. as the subtropical gyres deepen, the increased horizontal gradients should enhance mesoscale eddy activity, thereby enhancing the lateral transport of heat away from the gyres and inhibiting further deepening of the gyres and the subsurface warming. we hypothesize that in the absence of sufficient eddy heat transport (whether through explicitly resolved eddies or a parameterization of their effects), the thermocline in the subtropical gyres continues to deepen, implying continued movement of heat from the near-surface layers to the interior thermocline; this will result in the cool bias seen in the upper several hundred meters and the warm bias below. the above hypothesis is consistent with the fact that the drift is larger in cm2.5 (which does not parameterize the effects of mesoscale eddies) than in cm2.1 (which includes such a parameterization). we test this hypothesis by conducting a simulation of cm2.1 that is identical to the 1990 control simulation described previously, but does not use a parameterization of mesoscale eddies. this new experiment is called cm2.1_1990_control_ no_gm. the hypothesis predicts that the subsurface drift in this new experiment should be considerably larger than in the standard control run of cm2.1, since there are no eddy effects to inhibit the deepening of the subtropical gyres. results (not shown) from this additional simulation support the hypothesis with the drift in the new run increased by almost a factor of 2. the largest increase in subsurface warm biases is in the subtropical gyres, also consistent with the hypothesis.
data.question: Whats the relationship between fear of climate change and behavioral change?
data.text: witte and allen's metaanalysis75of 93 fear appeal experiments, for example, demonstrated that there is a positive, albeit small, average correlation (0.16) between fear and behavioral outcomes, and that the effects of fear are significantly augmented with stronger fear messages and when fear messages are accompanied by efficacy-enhancing messages
data.question: How do efficacy-enhancing messages affect effectiveness of fear?
data.text: the effects of fear are significantly augmented with stronger fear messages and when fear messages are accompanied by efficacy-enhancing messages
data.question: Are research studies done on fear appeal contradictory to real life experiences?
data.text: most research on fear appeals has been conducted in lab settings with students as subjects, whereas in natural settings, the probability that people will choose not to attend to fearful messages can be quite high.76witte and allen's meta-analysis, however, found that defensive reactions are also prevalent in lab studies, with stronger fear appeals engendering stronger defensive responses, particularly when combined with a weak efficacy message
data.context: the climate change literature contains frequent warnings to avoid fearful messages,70-72yet the more general persuasive communication literature indicates that fear appeals are effective in motivating behavior change, especially if they are accompanied by efficacyenhancing information.73-75witte and allen's metaanalysis75of 93 fear appeal experiments, for example, demonstrated that there is a positive, albeit small, average correlation (0.16) between fear and behavioral outcomes, and that the effects of fear are significantly augmented with stronger fear messages and when fear messages are accompanied by efficacy-enhancing messages. this contradiction--between the warnings to avoid fear in climate change communication and experimental evidence indicating its effectiveness--may be driven, in whole or part, by an artifact of the research methods. most research on fear appeals has been conducted in lab settings with students as subjects, whereas in natural settings, the probability that people will choose not to attend to fearful messages can be quite high.76witte and allen's meta-analysis, however, found that defensive reactions are also prevalent in lab studies, with stronger fear appeals engendering stronger defensive responses, particularly when combined with a weak efficacy message. given the potential importance of fear in climate change communication, additional research--ideally a combination of laboratory and field research--is urgently needed to resolve the contradiction. pending further research, we recommend that when potentially fearful content is presented, it be accompanied by strong efficacy-enhancing messages. relevant
data.question: What is meant by Long-term accurate measurements?
data.text: long-term accurate measurements of atmospheric variations that are independent to data processing procedures are extremely important for climate monitoring. with a more complete spatial and temporal coverage than that from in situ observations, satellite measurements play an increasingly important role in global climate monitoring intergovernmental panel on climate change 2007
data.question: Why Careful calibration are necessary?
data.text: careful calibration procedures are necessary to determine trends in the climate system that are credible for societal objectives
data.question: How to remove artifacts?
data.text: postprocessing of data to remove artifacts caused by inadequate calibration became necessary. however, because the intercalibration procedures used during periods of overlap are usually ill-determined and require subjective user judgment at some level
data.context: long-term accurate measurements of atmospheric variations that are independent to data processing procedures are extremely important for climate monitoring. with a more complete spatial and temporal coverage than that from in situ observations, satellite measurements play an increasingly important role in global climate monitoring intergovernmental panel on climate change 2007]. careful calibration procedures are necessary to determine trends in the climate system that are credible for societal objectives. previous attempts at climate monitoring with in situ and remotely sensed data have suffered from inadequate calibration karl et al. 2006]. thus, postprocessing of data to remove artifacts caused by inadequate calibration became necessary. however, because the intercalibration procedures used during periods of overlap are usually ill-determined and require subjective user judgment at some level,
data.question: Does climate change affect economic outcomes?
data.text: as discussed above, climate affects economic outcomes through belief effects and direct effects, and it is generally thought that most belief effects are adjustments that individuals make to cope with their expected distribution of direct effects
data.question: What is an example of a method of adjusting to climate change?
data.text: for this reason, belief effects are often described as adaptations to a climate, although this need not always be true (e.g., beliefs about the climate could serve simply as a coordinating mechanism
data.question: What is the interaction between climate change, economics, and individual adjustments?
data.text: in this framework, adaptations can be defined as belief effects that interact with direct effects; for example, some agents believe it will be cold sometimes at a location, causing them to purchase coats (a belief effect), which reduces the chance
data.context: as discussed above, climate affects economic outcomes through belief effects and direct effects, and it is generally thought that most belief effects are adjustments that individuals make to cope with their expected distribution of direct effects. for this reason, belief effects are often described as adaptations to a climate, although this need not always be true (e.g., beliefs about the climate could serve simply as a coordinating mechanism). in this framework, adaptations can be defined as belief effects that interact with direct effects; for example, some agents believe it will be cold sometimes at a location, causing them to purchase coats (a belief effect), which reduces the chance
data.question: What are the broad findings of the study regarding the Network members' educational background?
data.text: most new generation entrepreneurs were relatively young (late 20s to 40s) when the networks were established. network members are highly educated. in the sample, 92% attended college and half earned advanced degrees (mas, mbas, jds, and phds). the majority (85%) were educated abroad and some had held professional positions at firms in the usa, uk or europe
data.question: What seems to be the ultimate aim or purpose of the Network members interviewed?
data.text: although they profess a global outlook, network members' personal and professional orientation is focused on 'making it' in africa. some observed the struggles of parents or other african emigrants living as 'foreigners' overseas, and thought that in spite of the economic conditions in africa, they would have an advantage in their own countries. a kenyan network member who studied in india and the uk was anxious to return to nairobi to start a business after receiving his mba. a ugandan network member received a permanent residency 'green card' through the us state department's diversity lottery but resides in kampala and uses her visa to facilitate business travel to the usa
data.context: networks.4profiles are based on demographic characteristics, business activities, behaviour, and network relationships. to understand the business climate in the countries involved, other business persons and financial and donor personnel were interviewed.5secondary data were collected from publications and the internet. 4. findings: profiles of network members 4.1 demographic characteristics of network members this section considers age, education, international experience, ethnicity, gender, and family background. most new generation entrepreneurs were relatively young (late 20s to 40s) when the networks were established. network members are highly educated. in the sample, 92% attended college and half earned advanced degrees (mas, mbas, jds, and phds). the majority (85%) were educated abroad and some had held professional positions at firms in the usa, uk or europe. they returned to africa during the past 10 years in what has been referred to as a 'reverse diaspora' to start their own firms (orsini 2001: 22). although they profess a global outlook, network members' personal and professional orientation is focused on 'making it' in africa. some observed the struggles of parents or other african emigrants living as 'foreigners' overseas, and thought that in spite of the economic conditions in africa, they would have an advantage in their own countries. a kenyan network member who studied in india and the uk was anxious to return to nairobi to start a business after receiving his mba. a ugandan network member received a permanent residency 'green card' through the us state department's diversity lottery but resides in kampala and uses her visa to facilitate business travel to the usa. another disregarded his father's advice against returning to ghana during difficult economic conditions in the mid-1990s but reported that he had never regretted coming back.
data.question: What organisation was this study supported by?
data.text: this study was supported by daiwa foundation small grants
data.question: Was there a conflict of interest?
data.text: conflict of interest: none declared
data.question: What was ambient temperature associated with?
data.text: ambient temperature was also positively associated with the number of non-cholera diarrhoea cases, particularly in those individuals at a lower socio-economic and sanitation status
data.context: the authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the icddr,b. they also would like to thank paul wilkinson, paul hunter and graham bentham for useful suggestions on interpretation of results. this study was supported by daiwa foundation small grants. m.h. was supported by the foundation for advanced studies on international development and glaxosmithkline. conflict of interest: none declared. key messages  clarifying the potential role of weather on the transmission of diarrhoeal diseases could help by bringing a deeper insight into the mechanisms of the seasonality of the disease.  the number of hospital visits due to non-cholera diarrhoea increases both above and below a threshold level with high and low rainfall in the preceding weeks.  factors associated with river level are suggested on the causal pathway between high rainfall and incidence of cholera.  ambient temperature was also positively associated with the number of non-cholera diarrhoea cases, particularly in those individuals at a lower socio-economic and sanitation status.
data.question: Participation in decision-making?
data.text: identifying and overcoming barriers to participation in decision-making
data.question: Extent have programmes?
data.text: to what extent have programmes aimed at mitigating environmental impacts or at improving resource management included women
data.question: Research is needed?
data.text: research is needed to determine where women's and men's priorities conflict and where there is consensus, and how policies and programmatic
data.context: identifying and overcoming barriers to participation in decision-making to what extent have programmes aimed at mitigating environmental impacts or at improving resource management included women? what are the current levels of female participation in decision-making on climate change at local, national, regional and international levels - both in terms of the numbers of women participating as well as the quality of that participation? what are the barriers to participation or, for those involved in consultations, the barriers to being heard and taken seriously? what can be learnt from existing literature on promoting women's and youth's participation in decision-making? below we highlight key recommendations for future research, drawn from this paper. identifying the gendered impacts, coping strategies and adaptation priorities of women and men in contexts where this has currently been under-researched women and men, girls and boys, should be involved in a participatory capacity to inform climate change responses at a local level. this will enable the specific experiences and voices of people most affected by climate change to inform understandings of climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation. this is critical if policy and practice is to respond appropriately to people's needs in specific contexts, and be informed by their everyday knowledge of coping with these phenomena as this paper has shown, existing research on gender and climate change - such as the excellent actionaid/ids research on adaptation strategies - is focused mainly on south asia. the actionaid/ids research provides a best practice model which can be replicated and applied in other global contexts and situations, since impacts are often socially and culturally specific. identifying the gendered impacts, coping strategies and adaptation priorities of women and men in urban contexts notably, much of the existing research on gender and climate change focuses on rural communities. more participatory research is needed into the impacts of climate change in urban settings, particularly in terms of gender in/equality, and the coping strategies and priorities of women and men in urban contexts. identifying the impacts of climate change on gender roles and relations at the household level little research has currently been done into the impacts of climate change on gender relations at the household and community levels. research is needed to determine where women's and men's priorities conflict and where there is consensus, and how policies and programmatic
data.question: Are women treated equally to men?
data.text: women's and men's differential access to social and physical goods or resources is one of the key dimensions of gender inequality
data.question: What role do women play?
data.text: women's social positioning in many situations means that the roles they are expected to take on are often supportive and reproductive, centred around the home and local community rather than the public sphere
data.question: Do women make less money than men?
data.text: women earning a wage often earn less than men, leaving them more vulnerable to changes in their working environment caused by external phenomena, including climate change
data.context: women's and men's differential access to social and physical goods or resources is one of the key dimensions of gender inequality. women's social positioning in many situations means that the roles they are expected to take on are often supportive and reproductive, centred around the home and local community rather than the public sphere. this does not mean that women do not play crucial roles in agricultural production or other activities crucial to sustainable livelihoods and national economies. but the roles they play are generally less visible and attract less public recognition than the work men engage in. typically women - particularly those in poor, rural locations - are expected to assume primary responsibility for their families' subsistence. yet because they often do not earn a wage, women are frequently excluded from decisions about spending or about their children's education. the expectation that girls will help their mothers with household tasks and with caring for younger siblings means that they are more likely to be excluded from opportunities to gain an education than boys, although these gaps are gradually closing. women earning a wage often earn less than men, leaving them more vulnerable to changes in their working environment caused by external phenomena, including climate change. this section considers some of the ways in which these inequalities are deepened by the impacts of climate change, and how gender inequality limits the effectiveness of mitigation strategies.
data.question: Demonstrate the village and house hold level analyses ?
data.text: the trends and variabilities in precipitation parameters differentiated by the som analysis were clearly recognised by people living in the areas in which they occurred
data.question: Characterisation of these regions ?
data.text: three regions, characterised by changing onset and timing of rains, rainfall frequencies and intensities
data.context: we describe the nature of recent (50 year) rainfall variability in the summer rainfall zone, south africa, and how variability is recognised and responded to on the ground by farmers. using daily rainfall data and self-organising mapping (som) we identify 12 internally homogeneous rainfall regions displaying differing parameters of precipitation change. three regions, characterised by changing onset and timing of rains, rainfall frequencies and intensities, in limpopo, north west and kwazulu natal provinces, were selected to investigate farmer perceptions of, and responses to, rainfall parameter changes. village and household level analyses demonstrate that the trends and variabilities in precipitation parameters differentiated by the som analysis were clearly recognised by people living in the areas in which they occurred. a range of specific coping and adaptation strategies are employed by farmers to respond to climate shifts, some generic across regions and some facilitated by specific local factors. the study has begun to understand the complexity of coping and adaptation, and the factors that influence the decisions that are taken. 1 individuals, communities, and nations have to varying degrees had to cope with and adapt to climate variability and change for centuries (e.g. tyson et al. 2002 o ' connor and kiker
data.question: When was the last great freeze in Britain?
data.text: the last great freeze in britain was 1878/79, when the thames and other rivers froze over twice, much to the delight of many as the freezing of the river heralded the great ice fairs where bonfires were lit on the river and the gentlemen of berwick on tweed would traditionally celebrate by dining in a great tent on the river
data.question: When was the Little Ice Age?
data.text: the ' little ice age ' when the british climate was considerable colder, between 1480 and 1850
data.question: What happened in the sixteenth century?
data.text: in the sixteenth century the thames froze over on four recorded occasions
data.context: a warm post-glacial period reaching a peak in 5000 - 3000 bc; a colder epoch culminating in 900 - 450 bc. <s121>* a warm period around ad 100 - 1200, during the early part of which the romans established extensive vineyards in britain. <s121>* the ' little ice age ' when the british climate was considerable colder, between 1480 and 1850. it was during this period that the ice-houses of britain flourished. in the sixteenth century the thames froze over on four recorded occasions, in the seventeenth century eight times, in the eighteenth century six times and in the nineteenth century four times. the last great freeze in britain was 1878/79, when the thames and other rivers froze over twice, much to the delight of many as the freezing of the river heralded the great ice fairs where bonfires were lit on the river and the gentlemen of berwick on tweed would traditionally celebrate by dining in a great tent on the river. <s121>* the current warm period, in which the global temperature has been increasing since around 1870.
data.question: what does figure 4 show?
data.text: satellite map of asia, with documented drought-induced mortality localities indicated with numbers, tied to table a2 references
data.question: what does the upper photo R show?
data.text: pinus tabulaeformis mortality in shanxi province, china
data.question: while the central photo refers to what?
data.text: dying pinus yunnanensis in yunnan province, china
data.context: fig. 4. satellite map of asia, with documented drought-induced mortality localities indicated with numbers, tied to table a2 references. lower r photo: dead abies koreana mount halla, south korea; 2008, by jong-hwan lim. upper r photo: pinus tabulaeformis mortality in shanxi province, china; 2001, by yugang wang. center photo: dying pinus yunnanensis in yunnan province, china; 2005, by youqing luo. upper l photo; abies cilicicia mortality in the bozkir-konya region, anatolia, turkey; 2002, by orphan celik. lower l photo: dying pinus nigra near kastamonu, anatolia, turkey; 2008, by akkin semerci. c.d. allen et al. forest ecology and management xxx (2009) xxx-xxx 5
data.question: What are two adaptation concepts?
data.text: resilience and vulnerability
data.question: At the community level, what resilience resources can the group can draw upon?
data.text: knowledge, support systems, and social capital
data.question: What influences the differential resilience and vulnerability of individuals?
data.text: groups influence their adaptive capacity
data.context: two other adaptation concepts are resilience and vulnerability.85-87the apa report refers to resilience as the 'inner strengths and coping resources for necessary adaptation to situational demands'6(p. 117). at the community level, resilience refers to the resources the group can draw upon, including knowledge, support systems, and social capital.88-93vulnerability is the extent to which individuals and communities are at risk and are unable to cope with the adverse impacts of climate change. the differential resilience and vulnerability of individuals and groups influence their adaptive capacity. various models and frameworks in the existing literature that can help to explain individual and group responses to current and future climate change impacts. although mitigation is an important way to reduce climate change, many individuals and communities will be forced to adapt to changes in climate. psychologists and allied professionals must continue to investigate, understand, and reduce the impact of these adaptations that will inevitably occur.
data.question: When where the vast majority of these flood deaths in China ?
data.text: the vast majority of these flood deaths occurred in two catastrophic events in china in 1931 and 1959
data.question: Where is the greatest impact per capita of inland floods ?
data.text: the greatest impact (per capita) for inland floods is seen in south america
data.question: Where are the most deaths due to coastal flooding
data.text: the greatest incidence of death due to coastal flooding is seen in amr b (caribbean and central america) and sear d (which includes bangladesh and india
data.context: the vast majority of these flood deaths occurred in two catastrophic events in china in 1931 and 1959, which has seen some of the highest flood related death tolls, as well as number of persons affected by these flood events. however, these data need to be treated with caution (see box 3.1). in the global burden of disease (gbd) study, regional estimates of mortality due to flooding (coastal and riverine) were calculated for the period 1980-1999 (see table 3.3). the total numbers of deaths for each class of event were summed for the 14 who gbd 'regions' (in which countries are grouped first by geography and second by similar mortality patterns). the greatest impact (per capita) for inland floods is seen in south america (amr b and amr d). the greatest incidence of death due to coastal flooding is seen in amr b (caribbean and central america) and sear d (which includes bangladesh and india).
data.question: What changes have occurred in this ecosystem?
data.text: which has been altered over the past 150 years by massive landscape modifications, water development, pollutant inputs and s of alien species
data.question: What were the main factors for reducing sediment delivery to the estuary by about half?
data.text: cessation of hydraulic mining, flood management, and damming the large rivers have decreased sediment delivery to the estuary by about half whether
data.question: What is the importance of environmental ecological?
data.text: this trajectory has important ecological implications because further reductions in sediment supply will increase vulnerability of tidal marshes and mudflats to sea level rise reduce habitat quality for some native fishes, and might promote blooms of toxic cyanobacteria that will be increasingly favored as nutrient-enriched delta waters warm assessments of climate-change impacts must therefore be placed in the broad context of all the drivers that will continue to transform coastal ecosystems including population growth and urbanization, nutrient enrichment, catastrophic levee failures from storms or earthquakes, modified reservoir operations and water conveyances, and implementation of ecosystem restoration plans. planning will be most challenging with regard to environmental indicators, such as sediment supply, which contain uncertainties in their responses to both climate change and these other drivers of change
data.context: our projections illustrate how responses to climate change could transform the sfew into a very different system by midcentury (fig. 2). transformative change is not new to this ecosystem, which has been altered over the past 150 years by massive landscape modifications, water development, pollutant inputs and s of alien species we selected ssc as one example of an environmental indicator that is more sensitive to landscape change than to climate change. cessation of hydraulic mining, flood management, and damming the large rivers have decreased sediment delivery to the estuary by about half whether this decline continues or abates will have a much greater effect on the future trajectory of ssc than climate change (fig. 2). this trajectory has important ecological implications because further reductions in sediment supply will increase vulnerability of tidal marshes and mudflats to sea level rise reduce habitat quality for some native fishes, and might promote blooms of toxic cyanobacteria that will be increasingly favored as nutrient-enriched delta waters warm assessments of climate-change impacts must therefore be placed in the broad context of all the drivers that will continue to transform coastal ecosystems including population growth and urbanization, nutrient enrichment, catastrophic levee failures from storms or earthquakes, modified reservoir operations and water conveyances, and implementation of ecosystem restoration plans. planning will be most challenging with regard to environmental indicators, such as sediment supply, which contain uncertainties in their responses to both climate change and these other drivers of change.
data.question: Where was the data submitted?
data.text: phosphorus solubilization data were submitted to anova and fishers least significant difference test (p 0.05
data.question: What is the interslope difference?
data.text: according to this model, the interslope difference is significant (p 0.05
data.question: Is this model liberal or conservative?
data.text: this model is rather conservative but eliminates some collection biases
data.context: phosphorus solubilization data were submitted to anova and fishers least significant difference test (p 0.05) using the minitab statistical package (minitab inc. state college pa). to test the significance of the interslope differences, we also applied the ''interslope difference'' (id) model based on the median test according to this model, the interslope difference is significant (p 0.05) if the estimates of the chosen parameter are higher on at least three independent samples on one slope than the estimates of the same parameter on the same number independent samples of the opposite slope. this model is rather conservative but eliminates some collection biases.
data.question: Pesquisas de citaÃ§Ãµes; avaliaÃ§Ã£o de cada artigo publicado em quais revistas importantes
data.text: global change biology, marine ecology progress series, progress in oceanography, global ecology and biogeography
data.context: we searched the peer-reviewed literature on climate change ecology for articles examining climate change impacts on the basis of observational studies. our literature search was comprehensive and multi-faceted: extensive searches using web of science (c) and google scholar; citation searches; assessing every article published in key journals (global change biology, marine ecology progress series, progress in oceanography, global ecology and biogeography), analysis of reference lists in comprehensive reviews; assessment of studies from existing databases (rosenzweig et al. 2008; tasker, 2008; wassmann et al. 2011) and our knowledge of various marine habitats. studies were retained for analysis if the authors assessed the impacts of climate change on marine taxa, if there were data over multiple years after 1960 (when signals of anthropogenic climate change first became apparent), and if the primary climate variable investigated (e.g. temperature, sea ice) showed a change that the authors considered consistent with the physical impacts of anthropogenic climate change. we thus included studies with biological responses that were consistent or inconsistent with climate change. only studies with observational data were considered for the review; therefore, studies with only experimental or modelling results were excluded. this process resulted in 267 studies published from 1991 to 2010, 186 of which used regularly sampled time series data. time series generally started during or after the onset of anthropogenic warming in the 1960s (82% of time series studies in our
data.question: What direct effects does fishing have on fish communities?
data.text: fishing has direct effects on fish community structure since it leads to changes in the growth, mortality, and recruitment of target fish populations
data.question: What does the observed range of life and diversity show?
data.text: the observed diversity, range of life histories and relative abundances of species in communities reflect their past interactions with the environment and interactions with predators and competitors
data.question: What did Link and Garisson notice?
data.text: link and garrison (2002) noticed a shift in the abundance and size composition of fish predators over the last four decades in the georges bank ecosystem, which was attributed to fishing pressure
data.context: fishing has direct effects on fish community structure since it leads to changes in the growth, mortality, and recruitment of target fish populations. however, the capture of target or by-catch species also has indirect effects, and the direct and indirect effects of fishing act in combination to determine the resulting biomass, size structure and diversity of communities. to understand how these direct and indirect consequences of fishing might affect the sensitivity of fish communities to climate forcing, it is necessary to know how marine communities are structured and to understand the effects of fishing on these structures (jennings and brander, this volume). the observed diversity, range of life histories and relative abundances of species the observed diversity, range of life histories and relative abundances of species in communities reflect their past interactions with the environment and interactions with predators and competitors. when comparing unexploited communities, diversity will 9 9 accepted version 2007 sept. journal of marine systems - globec special issue usually vary widely among ecosystems, but the distributions of sizes and life history strategies among individuals and species are often more consistent. whereas there can be large regional variations in fish diversity (e.g. ormond and roberts, 1997), the relative abundance of fishes in different body size classes is remarkably consistent (bianchi et al., 2000). the slopes of relationships between abundance and body size (size spectra) that include phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish appear to show remarkably little variation among ecosystems despite the highly variable dynamics of component species, suggesting some constancy in the underlying structuring processes (boudreau and dickie, 1992). in exploited fish communities, modelling studies suggest that fishing on higher trophic levels causes the slope of the size spectrum to steepen and the intercept to increase in proportion to fishing effort (gislason and rice, 1998). observational studies suggest that the biomass of species within trophic guilds shows a relative stability that is not apparent in individual species, at least for the heavily exploited georges bank system (duplisea and blanchard, 2005). there is evidence of local reductions in species richness within fish communities due to fishing, and species richness declines with fishing intensity. this has been demonstrated in comparisons between fished and unfished (marine reserve) areas and by comparing species richness across gradients of fishing effort (e.g. gislason, 2003). in low diversity communities, fluctuations in a small number of prey species with limited functional redundancy could have profound effects on energy transfer to higher trophic levels. in other situations where functional redundancy is high, marked shifts in species composition may result in relatively little change in community properties. for example, link and garrison (2002) noticed a shift in the abundance and size composition of fish predators over the last four decades in the georges bank ecosystem, which was attributed to fishing pressure. a remarkable shift from cod to spiny dogfish was observed, but there were no apparent changes in total fish consumption by the six major predators despite changes in predator size, structure and abundance.
data.question: How many stages of vulnerability assessment are illustrated?
data.text: four stages of vulnerability assessment
data.question: How do we illustrate each of the four stages of vulnerability assessment?
data.text: we illustrate the approach towards each of the four stages of vulnerability assessment by a staged series of 'box-and-arrow' diagrams
data.question: What do Vulnerability assessments of climate change combine?
data.text: vulnerability assessments of climate change combine natural and social science perspectives
data.context: we illustrate the approach towards each of the four stages of vulnerability assessment by a staged series of 'box-and-arrow' diagrams. these diagrams are intended to be as generic as possible, although some adjustments may have to be made when applyingthemtoparticularimpactdomains.theframeworkforanadaptationpolicy assessment presented here was recently used as the basis for developing more specific frameworks for four groups of climate-sensitive diseases (f"ussel et al., 2005). vulnerability assessments of climate change combine natural and social science perspectives. these two disciplines follow different approaches in the study of human-naturesysteminteractions.thenaturalsciencestendtoapplyaphysical-flows view, which focusses on the flow of matter and energy between system components. the social sciences tend to apply an actor system view, which emphasizes the flow
data.question: What have we explored in this section?
data.text: we explore how accountants have continued a process of defining and framing climate change, and the work the professional accounting bodies in particular are doing in positioning themselves as pivotal to delivering solutions to the problem
data.question: What is a characteristic of Stage Two?
data.text: it is this process of 'rendering technical' climate change that characterises stage two
data.question: What is the crucial next step considered?
data.text: we then turn to consider the crucial next step in governmentality accounts of change: development of 'technologies', the techniques and practices promoted by accountants as suitable for managing climate change
data.context: in this section we consider in more detail precisely what work is being done by accountants - as experts, through discourse and techniques to position themselves as managers of climate change, and to make carbon understandable to the profession. we explore how accountants have continued a process of defining and framing climate change, and the work the professional accounting bodies in particular are doing in positioning themselves as pivotal to delivering solutions to the problem. we then turn to consider the crucial next step in governmentality accounts of change: development of 'technologies', the techniques and practices promoted by accountants as suitable for managing climate change. it is this process of 'rendering technical' climate change that characterises stage two, and denotes a shift in the depth of seriousness of climate change to the profession.
data.question: What is the mountain ecosystem?
data.text: mountain ecosystems host a series of climatically different life zones over short distances and elevations and have a range of micro-habitats and 'niches', therefore mountains are hot spots of biodiversity and priority regions for conservation (korner 2004
data.question: At higher elevations, what is the rate of vegetation change?
data.text: in the higher elevated areas, the rates of vegetation change are expected to be slow, and colonisation constrained by increased soil erosion
data.question: What is climate warming?
data.text: climate warming will increase suitable habitats for the water hyacinth (eichhornia crassipes), a noxious weed able to survive during winter
data.context: mountain ecosystems host a series of climatically different life zones over short distances and elevations and have a range of micro-habitats and 'niches', therefore mountains are hot spots of biodiversity and priority regions for conservation (korner 2004). mountain biodiversity is also most sensitive to global warming and is now showing signs of fragmentation and degradation caused by exogenous forces such as temperature increases and human activities (xu and wilkes 2003; korner 2004). species in high-elevation ecosystems are projected to shift higher. in the higher elevated areas, the rates of vegetation change are expected to be slow, and colonisation constrained by increased soil erosion. alpine plant species on mountain ranges with restricted habitat availability above the tree line will experience severe fragmentation, habitat loss, or even extinction if they cannot move to higher elevations, particularly after an increase of 2oc (dirnbock et al. 2003). climate warming will increase suitable habitats for the water hyacinth (eichhornia crassipes), a noxious weed able to survive during winter.
data.question: name the funders that were attracted
data.text: usaid, usepa, and cida
data.question: Why is the research so important?
data.text: that there is little source material from the developing country adaptation community upon which the ipcc can draw
data.question: What does the AIACC prove?
data.text: the rule that there is no consistent support in this area
data.context: finally, there is a need to find ways of supporting climate research in developing countries especially in the areas of vulnerability and adaptation, in a more effective manner. capacity building for scientific understanding, climate risk management, and inputs to the policy process in developing countries has been an erratic on-off affair. major projects and programmes have been established and then the capacity generated has been dissipated or even lost entirely at the conclusion of the project. a current example is the excellent work being carried out in the aiacc project, organized and supported through the gef-unep-start-twas collaboration. this project has attracted additional funding from usaid, usepa, and cida. it would be unfortunate if this initiative were allowed to die at the end of one project cycle as have so many others before it. an important reason for such research is that there is little source material from the developing country adaptation community upon which the ipcc can draw. the aiacc project makes a small and useful step in this direction, but it proves the rule that there is no consistent support in this area.
data.question: Why is managing climate variability important in Indonesia and India?
data.text: managing climate variability to improve livelihoods in indonesia and india
data.question: What countried would end-to-end institutional systems be developed in?
data.text: help develop sustainable end-to-end institutional systems in indonesia, philippines and vietnam
data.question: Why are past climate trends being analyzed?
data.text: forecasts in designing climate change adaptation measures and policies
data.context: project title objective partners managing climate variability to improve livelihoods in indonesia and india demonstrate improvements in livelihoods subject to high climate variability in india and indonesia through development of a livelihood framework, decision support tools and increased capacity building. indian institute of tropical meteorology institute for development studies, india udayana university, indonesia department of earth and environmental engineering, cu climate risk management in indonesia, philippines and vietnam help develop sustainable end-to-end institutional systems in indonesia, philippines and vietnam that demonstrate improvements in the performance of climate-sensitive sectors at the community level with the capacity to achieve similar success nationally in other locations. asian disaster preparedness centre (adpc) bureau of meteorology and geophysics, indonesia philippine astronomical, geophysical, atmospheric service administration (pagasa) bogor agriculture university, indonesia ministry of agriculture, indonesia care indonesia national water resources board, philippines manila metropolitan water works and sewerage system, philippines national irrigation administration, philippines national power corporation, philippines bupati office, indramayu, indonesia office of the mayor, iloilo municipio, philippines hydro-meteorological service, vietnam university of the philippines at los banos integrated rural resource management in india develop and demonstrate institutional systems for climate risk management for rural and agricultural livelihoods, built upon improved climate information. indian institute of technology (iit), india ministry of agriculture, india indian meteorology department, india national centre for medium range weather forecasting, india indian council for agricultural research space applications centre, india european centre for medium-range weather forecasting (ecmwf) hadley centre, uk meteorological office adapting to climate change by managing climate variability in southeast asia analyze past climate trends and assess the benefits of using climate variability information and forecasts in designing climate change adaptation measures and policies. adpc
data.question: Where do the juveniles go after spending 1-4 years in the ocean?
data.text: after 1- 4 years in the ocean, they return to their natal streams to reproduce
data.question: Where are most of the natal streams located?
data.text: most of the natal streams are in federally protected wilderness areas and are relatively pristine. however, humans have influenced a few sites through grazing practices, water diversions, logging, mining and the of invasive species
data.question: How are fish that are spawn in different streams differentiated?
data.text: fish that spawn in different streams are often differentiated genetically and behaviourally (interior columbia basin technical recovery team 2003), so we refer to them as different populations
data.context: snake river spring-summer chinook salmon spawn and rear as juveniles in high elevation tributaries in idaho and oregon in the northwestern united states (fig. 1a). natal streams studied in this analysis are all within the salmon river basin, idaho (fig. 1b), where juveniles spend a full year before beginning their up to 1500 km migration to the pacific ocean. after 1- 4 years in the ocean, they return to their natal streams to reproduce. fish that spawn in different streams are often differentiated genetically and behaviourally (interior columbia basin technical recovery team 2003), so we refer to them as different populations. most of the natal streams are in federally protected wilderness areas and are relatively pristine. however, humans have influenced a few sites through grazing practices, water diversions, logging, mining and the of invasive species. habitat varies across the basin, ranging from arid grasslands to forest (paulsen fisher 2001).
data.question: How did the government become poor in the first palce?
data.text: rising costs and poor government are already leading to civil unrest
data.question: Why did the resource scarcity occur in the first place?
data.text: resource scarcity
data.question: How did China fail as an economy?
data.text: collapsed under pressure from the failing economy, in china
data.context: soaring fuel poverty, resource scarcity, rising costs and poor government are already leading to civil unrest on a growing scale globally as we begin to approach 2 deg c. on 24th october 2008 the streets of dublin were filled with thousands of the over-70s who had been informed that they would from now on have to pay for medical care. they marched shoulder to shoulder with the students who now have to pay for their university fees. there is anger from both the young and the old against the failing of conventional capitalism in a city where in the early twentieth century many people died as the foreign authorities battled against the ' rise of bolshevism ' in the starving middle and working classes. in december 2008 the streets of athens in greece erupted in weeks of violence, initially by disaffected youths but later strikes and demonstrations by angry citizens. demonstrations broke out, in the wake of events in athens, in cities around europe amongst a generation of youths who felt alienated from the societies around them. throughout 2008 civil unrest flared up around the world, in the usa as industries and communities collapsed under pressure from the failing economy, in china amongst toy factory workers thrown out on the streets without work or pay because the us markets had dried up, and in mumbai by citizens furious at incompetent security services and a government that did not protect them from the carnage inflicted by a handful of terrorists. the list goes on and on, and such events are occurring not only in less developed countries but in the hearts of the capital cities of the heart of the old ' civilized ' world. iceland was the first country to topple its own government in january 2009 as a result of the global economic depression that began in 2008, but others followed. social inequality will always breed dissent. richard wilkinson, in his book on the impact of inequality 24 argued that social inequality has malign effects on public health, and that all societies fall on a continuum of degrees of social inequality. 25 he also argued that one way to cope with a challenge to society is to explicitly reduce the level of social inequality. therefore, during the second world war, the government explicitly created and imposed a greater degree of social equality, which made society better able, and more willing, to cope with the challenges that they faced. more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: What is the characteristic of the simple model?
data.text: the simple climate model, which is the core of our full model, does not account for the natural variability in the climate, but the model error nm t is included to account for this
data.question: What makes this model probable?
data.text: to make probable that our simple model can give a reasonable estimate of the climate sensitivity, the model was validated on simulated data from aogcms, on the basis of a much more complex description of the earth's climate, and the results were satisfactory when data for both temperature and ocean heat content were used
data.context: our model is very simple compared with the complex climate system it attempts to describe. the simple climate model, which is the core of our full model, does not account for the natural variability in the climate, but the model error nm t is included to account for this. the posterior of the model errors (not shown) indicates multidecadal oscillations, which is a general characteristic of the climate system. the autoregressive process of order one for model errors could therefore perhaps be extended to a second-order process, which can exhibit pseudo-periodic behaviour. however, there are not enough data available to justify such an extension, and we do not expect that this would alter the results significantly. to make probable that our simple model can give a reasonable estimate of the climate sensitivity, the model was validated on simulated data from aogcms, on the basis of a much more complex description of the earth's climate, and the results were satisfactory when data for both temperature and ocean heat content were used. the resulting estimate of the climate sensitivity is slightly smaller than the best estimate given in ipcc (2007) and could be compared with other estimates as well. however, we underscore that our results are sensitive to the indirect aerosol effects, which have a large uncertainty. in this study, the cloud-albedo effect is treated as a radiative forcing mechanism in the main part of the study, whereas other indirect aerosol effects will be parts of the climate feedbacks. therefore, the estimate of s presented here is likely to be underestimated because the net forcing of the other indirect effects are likely to be negative (forster et al. 2007). in one of the sensitivity cases, this assumption is further investigated. the results are also influenced by the choice of priors. for instance, using a uniform prior on 1=s moves the posterior of s downwards compared with the posterior based on the uniform prior on s but even if these two priors are very different, they both result in low posterior probabilities for s being less than about 1 or higher than 4 say. the choice of priors will be less important when more data become available. as mentioned in section 1, several authors have estimated the climate sensitivity. these estimates are based either on pure physical modelling through aogcms, on fitting models to reconstructed temperatures from paleoclimate data, or on fitting models to observed temperatures from industrial time as we did. the approach of tomassini et al. (2009) is the one that is most similar to ours. they used a similar climate model mt as ours, included both model errors and observational errors, and fitted their model to both temperature and ocean heat content data, but there are certain differences from our approach. they (i) used only one temperature series; (ii) assumed no autocorrelation in the observational error for temperature; and (iii) did not explicitly model the effect related to the soi. however, the two most important differences are the following:
data.question: what depicts the main map?
data.text: the main map depicts areas of sea level rise at 1 and 2 meters (dark and light blue, respectively) on a population density map with urban extents delineated
data.question: what make shows the map?
data.text: it also shows the regions of the each-for study areas in the lower delta
data.question: why migration may become a necessity for many communities?
data.text: with projected sea level rise, combined with the possibility of more intense flooding and storm surges, migration may become a necessity for many communities, at least for parts of the year
data.context: the main map depicts areas of sea level rise at 1 and 2 meters (dark and light blue, respectively) on a population density map with urban extents delineated. it also shows the regions of the each-for study areas in the lower delta. the ganges delta supported a population of 144 million in 2000, out of which 9.4 million lived in areas that would be inundated by a 2 meter sea level rise. the top left inset map shows those areas most frequently impacted by tropical cyclones. low elevation areas in the southeastern corner of the delta are most affected. the bottom left inset map depicts the area affected by the 2007 flood. the middle inset map shows the distribution of agricultural lands. the delta has 8.5 million ha of agricultural lands, of which 486 thousand ha would be inundated by a 2 meter sea level rise. in the ganges delta, living with varying water levels is a way of life. migration, particularly towards coastal urban centers, has emerged as a coping mechanism when extreme events endanger life and livelihoods. with projected sea level rise, combined with the possibility of more intense flooding and storm surges, migration may become a necessity for many communities, at least for parts of the year.
data.question: Explain Kyoto protocol (1997) on GHG? List the reasons?
data.text: the kyoto protocol, which was negotiated in 1997, requires industrialized countries to limit their emissions of greenhouse gases (ghg). in its original version, the protocol was supposed to cut down the ghg emissions of the industrialized countries during the period 2008-2012 by an average of 5.2 below their 1990 levels
data.question: Limitation of Kyoto protocol (1997) of GHG for industrialized under developing and developed countries.
data.text: the agreement will not enter into force, however, until it has been ratified by at least 55 countries, and these ratifying countries must have contributed at least 55 percent of the industrialized world's co2 emissions (the most important ghg) in 1990
data.question: State the stand of US President Bush(2001), on (1990) protocol towards US economy.
data.text: in march 2001, the u.s., under president bush, declared its withdrawal from the protocol reasoning that the costs to the u.s. economy would be too high and exemption of developing countries from binding emission targets would not be acceptable. 1
data.context: head of department, environmental and resource economics, centre for european economic research (zew), p.o. box 103443, d-68034 mannheim, germany. e-mail: boehringer@zew.de 4 1. the kyoto protocol, which was negotiated in 1997, requires industrialized countries to limit their emissions of greenhouse gases (ghg). in its original version, the protocol was supposed to cut down the ghg emissions of the industrialized countries during the period 2008-2012 by an average of 5.2 below their 1990 levels. the agreement will not enter into force, however, until it has been ratified by at least 55 countries, and these ratifying countries must have contributed at least 55 percent of the industrialized world's co2 emissions (the most important ghg) in 1990. in march 2001, the u.s., under president bush, declared its withdrawal from the protocol reasoning that the costs to the u.s. economy would be too high and exemption of developing countries from binding emission targets would not be acceptable. 1
data.question: What kind of impact does solar cycle variability have on climate?
data.text: if this is the case then it is necessary to reconsider current understanding19 of the mechanisms whereby solar cycle variability influences climate: the impact on the stratosphere is much larger than previously thought
data.question: The spectra used an average of how many days of the Lean model and the SORCE data?
data.text: 10-day averages of the lean model and sorce data
data.question: The same solar spectra is used for the calculation of what two things?
data.text: the same solar spectra are used for the calculation of chemical photodissocation and heating rates
data.context: the sorce observations are, however, consistent with a solar activity-dependent change in the temperature gradient of the solar photosphere4 suggesting that the offsetting irradiance trends with wavelength seen in sim should appear in each solar cycle. if this is the case then it is necessary to reconsider current understanding19 of the mechanisms whereby solar cycle variability influences climate: the impact on the stratosphere is much larger than previously thought and the radiative forcing of surface climate is out of phase with solar activity. currently there is no evidence to ascertain whether this behaviour has occurred before but if this were the case during previous multi-decadal periods of low solar activity it would be necessary to revisit assessments of the solar influence on climate and to revise the methods whereby these are represented in global models. methods summary solar spectra the spectra used were 10-day averages of the lean model and sorce data centred on 21 april 2004 and 7 november 2007, chosen as furthest spaced dates of calibrated sorce data. the data were interpolated onto the 171 wavebands of the 2d model in the range 116-730 nm. 2d model the 2d (latitude-log pressure) zonal mean model incorporates interactions between radiative, chemical and dynamical processes. the same solar spectra are used for the calculation of chemical photodissocation and heating rates. the model was run to (seasonally-varying) equilibrium with each of the 4 spectral datasets. all results are presented for december. multiple regression analysis. the code (myles allen, oxford university, personal communication) estimates the coefficients of regression indices simultaneously with the
data.question: Explain nature conservation?
data.text: some examples are given in table 2 with respect to nature conservation policy the constraining effect of relying on designated sites identified by the top-down method was confirmed
data.question: Explain interviewees?
data.text: similarly, interviewees suggested that schemes under the erdp and uk biodiversity action programme could have enhanced adaptive capacity, though much depended on the mode of implementation selected (and particularly the resources committed to the schemes
data.question: Define recreate a wetland habitat?
data.text: for example, attempts to recreate a wetland habitat at lakenheath near cambridge were greatly complicated by the reservoirs act (which required a protective bund to be placed around the whole
data.context: niang-diop and bosch, 2005 ). however, examples of antagonistic interplays spanning scales remain, e.g. there is no integration between the eu's water framework directive and the uk's water act. 3.2. the view from the bottom-up when viewed from the bottom-up, slightly different antagonisms and synergies revealed themselves. some examples are given in table 2 with respect to nature conservation policy the constraining effect of relying on designated sites identified by the top-down method was confirmed. similarly, interviewees suggested that schemes under the erdp and uk biodiversity action programme could have enhanced adaptive capacity, though much depended on the mode of implementation selected (and particularly the resources committed to the schemes). some new antagonistic policy interplays (i.e. policies that were identified as supporting adaptation in their sector, but which potentially undermine adaptation in cognate sectors) were also picked up by the bottom-up approach, e.g. the constraining effect of the 2003 water act. a bottom-up perspective also identified a number of policy inconsistencies arising from policies adopted outside all three sectors covered in our study (e.g. the sustainable communities initiative and a variety of building regulations). interestingly, a bottom-up approach demonstrated that important constraints on adaptive planning can arise from seemingly unrelated policies. for example, attempts to recreate a wetland habitat at lakenheath near cambridge were greatly complicated by the reservoirs act (which required a protective bund to be placed around the whole
data.question: Why is it important to identify weaknesses and strengths?
data.text: it is important to identify weaknesses and strengths as these must be evaluated when comparing approaches and when applying results to management policies
data.question: What does the methods assume are in equilibrium with the environment?
data.text: the methods assume the species are in equilibrium with the environment
data.question: What sort of better predictors could likely be used?
data.text: there likely are better environmental predictors that could be used
data.context: it is important to identify weaknesses and strengths as these must be evaluated when comparing approaches and when applying results to management policies. important weaknesses to our modeling approach include: 1. the distrib models are correlative and limited in scope to modeling the potential current/future suitable habitats--not their actual future distributions, although shift begins to address the dispersal limitations. 2. the data-driven methods depend on a decent sample size  50 cells), and models for very rare species are likely to have limited inference due to lack of data. 3. the methods assume the species are in equilibrium with the environment, so that they are inappropriate for species known to have rapidly changing distributions (for example, invasives). 4. there likely are better environmental predictors that could be used. 5. not all species have their entire ranges captured with abundance data (that is, we do not have abundance data for canadian species), so that some artificial boundary limits will be imposed in the modeling process. 6. the distrib models do not account for many life history and ecological community-related
data.question: Explain CMAM-DAS?
data.text: cmam-das is a three-dimensional variational data assimilation (3dvar) system, which uses cmam as the underlying forecast model. an earlier version of the system is described in polavarapu et al. (2005a
data.question: Define incremental analysis?
data.text: the digital filter has been replaced by an incremental analysis updating scheme (polavarapu et al. 2004), and observations are now compared to background (i.e., forecast) fields at the closest hour during the 6-h assimilation cycle using a first guess at appropriate
data.question: Define Noaa?
data.text: standard meteorological measurements are assimilated up to 1 hpa. above 10 hpa only the channel 10-13 radiances from the advanced microwave sounding unit-a (amsu-a) from the national oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa) satellites noaa-15 and
data.context: cmam-das is a three-dimensional variational data assimilation (3dvar) system, which uses cmam as the underlying forecast model. an earlier version of the system is described in polavarapu et al. (2005a). two significant improvements to the system have since been made. the digital filter has been replaced by an incremental analysis updating scheme (polavarapu et al. 2004), and observations are now compared to background (i.e., forecast) fields at the closest hour during the 6-h assimilation cycle using a first guess at appropriate time (fgat) scheme (see ren et al. 2011). standard meteorological measurements are assimilated up to 1 hpa. above 10 hpa only the channel 10-13 radiances from the advanced microwave sounding unit-a (amsu-a) from the national oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa) satellites noaa-15 and
data.question: Where is the origin of this paper?
data.text: the origins of this paper are in a session of the 2009 u.s. department of defense strategic environmental research and development program (serdp)/environmental security technology certification program (estcp) partners in environmental technology symposium, titled, 'challenges associated with regional predictions of climate change impacts', of which the authors of this paper were the organizers or speakers
data.question: Where the Symposium was held?
data.text: the symposium was held in washington, dc in december 2009
data.question: Who participated in the symposium?
data.text: j. shukla for participating in the symposium as well and for offering his contrasting perspectives on the paper and the issues that it attempts to address
data.context: the origins of this paper are in a session of the 2009 u.s. department of defense strategic environmental research and development program (serdp)/environmental security technology certification program (estcp) partners in environmental technology symposium, titled, 'challenges associated with regional predictions of climate change impacts', of which the authors of this paper were the organizers or speakers. the symposium was held in washington, dc in december 2009. many thanks to j. shukla for participating in the symposium as well and for offering his contrasting perspectives on the paper and the issues that it attempts to address. c.p.w. would like to thank a. grambsch and k. hychka, who made insightful comments on earlier drafts of this article, as well as epa's global change research staff in the office of research and development's national center for environmental assessment for many useful discussions that helped frame a number of the ideas and perspectives presented in this paper. finally, we would like to thank three anonymous reviewers whose thoughtful comments have helped us improve our paper significantly. the views expressed here do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the epa, the dod, or of any of the other institutions with which the authors are affiliated.
data.question: Where are suitable high-temperature hydrothermal fields restricted?
data.text: in the electricity sector the geographical distribution of suitable high-temperature hydrothermal fields is more restricted and mainly confined to countries or regions on active plate boundaries or with active volcanoes
data.question: How many per cent of the total electricity generation of the countries of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua is provided by geothermal power stations?
data.text: as mentioned earlier, geothermal power stations provide about 12% of the total electricity generation of the four countries costa rica, el salvador, guatemala and nicaragua
data.question: How many per cent of the electricity is provided by hydropower?
data.text: hydropower stations provide 48% of the electricity for the four countries, and wind energy 1
data.context: in the electricity sector the geographical distribution of suitable high-temperature hydrothermal fields is more restricted and mainly confined to countries or regions on active plate boundaries or with active volcanoes. as mentioned earlier, geothermal power stations provide about 12% of the total electricity generation of the four countries costa rica, el salvador, guatemala and nicaragua. hydropower stations provide 48% of the electricity for the four countries, and wind energy 1%. with an interconnected grid, it would be easy to provide all the electricity for the four countries by renewable energy. the geothermal potential for electricity generation in central america has been estimated at some 4,000 mwe (lippmann 2002), and less than 500 mwe have been harnessed so far. with the large untapped geothermal resources and the significant experience in geothermal energy as well as hydropower development in the region, central america may become an international example of how to reduce the overall emissions of greenhouse gases in a large region. similar development can be foreseen in the east african rift valley, as well as in several other countries and regions rich in high-temperature geothermal resources. as mentioned before, it is difficult to estimate the overall world-wide potential. with the present engineering solutions it is possible to increase from the extrapolated value of 11 gw for year 2010 up to a maximum of 70 gw. the gradual of the aforesaid new
data.question: Where the study was implemented?
data.text: the study was implemented in uganda, ghana and bangladesh
data.question: Which is the three target regions?
data.text: east africa, west africa and south asia
data.question: How many village was selected for the program?
data.text: 20 villages
data.context: accessing and using climate information including daily and seasonal forecasts the study was implemented in uganda, ghana and bangladesh, corresponding to three target ccafs regions: east africa, west africa and south asia (forch et al., 2013 ). long-term (10 - 20 years) research sites in each region were purposively established in 2010 so as to allow for exploration of a diversity of socio-economic, ecological and production systems, and solutions to climate change effects on agriculture and food security in these systems. for this study, one village was purposively selected from each site (from 20 villages), based on the following criteria: village leaders were able to provide information related to ccafs work, the village contained more than 50 households and ease of access. although ideally all 20 villages would have been included in the study, resources for this pilot phase were limited and it was important to avoid research fatigue in the sites. a gender-balanced team of researchers with expertise in participatory rural appraisal implemented the study in 2 c. jost et al.
data.question: What does the future of nutritional outcomes look like?
data.text: the impact of climate change on future nutritional outcomes is uncertain
data.question: How will nutritional outcomes be affected in future?
data.text: future nutritional outcomes will be mainly affected by socio-economic conditions as well as productivity trends in the agricultural sector
data.question: Will CO2 fertilization influence nutritional outcomes?
data.text: depending on the strength of the yield impacts of co2 fertilization, climate change may strengthen or weaken the future gains in global food security
data.context: global food security in 2050 15 reduction in the global headcount over the 2006 - 2050 period. this highlights the importance of increasing productivity growth in agriculture to improve food security outcomes in the coming decades. the impact of climate change on future nutritional outcomes is uncertain. depending on the strength of the yield impacts of co2 fertilization, climate change may strengthen or weaken the future gains in global food security. overall, the results from these scenarios illustrate the importance of looking at nutritional outcomes based on distribution of caloric consumption as changes in the average dietary energy consumption under climate change are negligible, while changes in malnutrition prevalence and headcount are substantial. our analysis of the individual drivers of global food security shows that from 1991 to 2001, population and tfp were the dominant drivers of malnutrition count. at the global level, the impact of population on malnutrition headcount exceeds that of per capita income. going forward to 2050, the relative impact of population on malnutrition count will be offset by the relative contribution of per capita income and tfp growth. on average, the contribution of biofuels and climate change are far lower than that of the other drivers. these results suggest that future nutritional outcomes will be mainly affected by socio-economic conditions as well as productivity trends in the agricultural sector. however, climatechangewillstillbearelevantdriverofnutritionaloutcomesespeciallyfor those residing in regions of the world where chronic malnutrition is prevalent. references
data.question: When species become extinct?
data.text: a species would likely become extinct when predicted to lose 100% of its suitable habitat
data.question: For what population viability analysis required?
data.text: the link between habitat loss and extinction formally requires a population viability analysis (pva) in addition to predictions of the spatial distribution of habitat (botkin et al ., 2007
data.question: What are situations are in habitat loss?
data.text: four situations are possible when comparing predicted habitat suitability under current and future climatic conditions at the two scales (i.e. the four cells of a two-way contingency table
data.context: a species would likely become extinct when predicted to lose 100% of its suitable habitat. however, because the link between habitat loss and extinction formally requires a population viability analysis (pva) in addition to predictions of the spatial distribution of habitat (botkin et al ., 2007), we only discuss here our projections in terms of habitat loss. four situations are possible when comparing predicted habitat suitability under current and future climatic conditions at the two scales (i.e. the four cells of a two-way contingency table). first, a 10  100cell might be suitable under the europeanscale model and also contains suitable 25 m  25 m cells predicted by the local model. second, a 10  100cell might be predicted suitable but have no suitable 25 m  25 m cell predicted within it. third, a 10  100
data.question: What is the 9% increase in sulphate burden caused by a global warmer climate attributed to?
data.text: an increase in sulphate burden caused by a global warmer climate (present day compared to 2090) by approximately 9%, which they attribute to reduced precipitation in regions with high sulphate abundance
data.question: What dependencies cause the overall relationship between precipitation change and deposition rate to be highly non-linear?
data.text: overall, the relationship between precipitation change and deposition rate turns out to be highly non-linear, as it depends not only an the total precipitation amount, but also on precipitation frequency
data.context: southern ocean. in accordance with our findings, rae et al. 2007 find an increase in sulphate burden caused by a global warmer climate (present day compared to 2090) by approximately 9%, which they attribute to reduced precipitation in regions with high sulphate abundance. feichter et al. 2004 using a previous version of the model employed in this study, find a lower aerosol load in a warmer climate state (0.57  c warming due to increasing ghg concentrations and aerosol emissions from preindustrial to present-day times) compared to a relatively colder equilibrium climate simulation 0.87  c cooling due to increasing aerosol emissions from pre-industrial to present-day times). they explain these findings by an enhanced hydrological cycle in a warmer climate. also in contrast to our results, liao et al. 2006 find decreasing aerosol burdens caused by a global warmer climate (4.8  c warming due to doubling of atmospheric co2 concentration), mainly confined in the midand high-latitudes, caused by increasing wet-deposition rates. changes are as high as a 13% reduction for e.g. the bc burden on the global annual mean. overall, the relationship between precipitation change and deposition rate turns out to be highly non-linear, as it depends not only an the total precipitation amount, but also on precipitation frequency. moreover, precipitation changes and aerosol concentrations are not independent, since
data.question: What does the evaluation process entail?
data.text: this involves an evaluation process through discussion, and internal or external assessments
data.question: What is the critical aim?
data.text: a critical aim is to reduce the causal ambiguity that frequently exists between adaptation options and their performance implications (lippman and rumelt, 1982
data.question: Why is the process of codification necessary?
data.text: this process of codification is necessary because it enables the transmission of the adapted or new routine, and its justification and replication in new behaviours through the organisation
data.context: adaptation options are typically exposed to an internal selection process that identifies a sub-set deemed appropriate and legitimate for the organisation. this involves an evaluation process through discussion, and internal or external assessments. a critical aim is to reduce the causal ambiguity that frequently exists between adaptation options and their performance implications (lippman and rumelt, 1982). this selection process is succeeded by a higher level cognitive effort in which modified routines and their performance implications are codified in manuals, blueprints, decision-support tools, software, targets and so on. this process of codification is necessary because it enables the transmission of the adapted or new routine, and its justification and replication in new behaviours through the organisation. codification is resource-intensive because it requires ion and working through situations in which new or reconfigured routines should be applied. 2.6. feedback and iteration
data.question: How many sites in the United Kingdom bacterial number counts are reported for?
data.text: total (as opposed to culturable) bacterial number counts are reported for four sites in the united kingdom
data.question: How these are interpreted?
data.text: these are interpreted in relation to simple climatic factors, i.e. temperature, wind speed and wind direction
data.question: What the data for the other rural and urban locations shows?
data.text: data for the other rural and urban locations show a baseline similar to that determined at the coastal rural location, but with some very significant positive excursions
data.context: total (as opposed to culturable) bacterial number counts are reported for four sites in the united kingdom measured during campaigns over four separate seasons. these are interpreted in relation to simple climatic factors, i.e. temperature, wind speed and wind direction. temperature has a marked effect at all four sites with data for a rural coastal site conforming best to a simple exponential model. data for the other rural and urban locations show a baseline similar to that determined at the coastal rural location, but with some very significant positive excursions. the temperature dependence of bacterial number is found to conform to that typical of bacterial growth rates. at the coastal rural location, bacterial numbers normalised for temperature show no dependence on wind speed whilst at the inland sites there is a decrease with increasing wind speed of the form expected for a large area source. only one site appeared to show a systematic relationship of bacterial concentrations to wind direction that being a site in the suburbs of birmingham with highest number concentrations observed on a wind sector approaching from the city centre. pcr techniques have been used to identify predominant types of bacteria and results are presented which show that bacillus was the dominant genus observed at the three inland sites during the winter and summer seasons. pseudomonas appeared with comparable frequency at certain sites and seasons. there was in general a greater diversity of bacteria at the coastal site than at the inland sites. keywords bacteria * climate * temperature * wind speed * pcr
data.question: Is the temperatures of the Mediterranean correlate with the median arrival dates in Jurmo?
data.text: the temperatures of the mediterranean locations did not correlate with the median arrival dates in jurmo at any time, whereas strong peaks of significantly negative correlations between median arrival date and temperatures in central europe emerged almost simultaneously in the 3-week period starting on 20 april
data.question: How strong the Correlations become?
data.text: correlations with temperatures in these locations began to weaken at the latest after the period 5 may-25 may (fig. 2
data.question: Explain coincide of  strongest correlations?
data.text: the beginning of the strongest correlations coincides closely with the earliest spring ring recoveries of finnish pied flycatchers north from the pyrenees (fig. 1
data.context: the temperatures of the mediterranean locations did not correlate with the median arrival dates in jurmo at any time, whereas strong peaks of significantly negative correlations between median arrival date and temperatures in central europe emerged almost simultaneously in the 3-week period starting on 20 april. correlations with temperatures in these locations began to weaken at the latest after the period 5 may-25 may (fig. 2). the beginning of the strongest correlations coincides closely with the earliest spring ring recoveries of finnish pied flycatchers north from the pyrenees (fig. 1). the point of weakening correlations is just before the date when 95% of all pied flycatchers have arrived in sw finland (fig. 3). we therefore used mean temperatures from the period 20 april-25 may as explanatory variables in subsequent analyses of the timing of pied flycatcher arrival.
data.question: What kind of measures were taken to minimize the effects of disturbance prior to gas flux measurements?
data.text: to minimize the effects of disturbance, sedge clipping and sealing was always undertaken throughout the study season 1-2 days prior to gas flux measurements
data.question: What kind of measures were taken to reduce the amount of productivity during the study season and enable some decomposition of roots prior to the study?
data.text: to reduce the amount of productivity during the study season and enable some decomposition of roots prior to the study, the sedges were initially clipped the autumn preceding the study season
data.question: When did the study season took place?
data.text: the study season was from mid-may to september 2003
data.context: two sites at the poor fen fragment were examined: a natural site and a drained site. the water table at the drained site was lowered by approximately 20 cm about 10 years prior to the study. triplicate metal frame 60 * 60 cm collars were inserted into the peat at a depth of 30 cm at lawns (flat topography) of similar moisture conditions (see strack and others 2004) at both the natural and drained sites. an additional set of triplicate collars were installed at each of the natural and drained sites in plots where the sedges were clipped close to the peat surface using garden shears and sealed with petroleum jelly. to minimize the effects of disturbance, sedge clipping and sealing was always undertaken throughout the study season 1-2 days prior to gas flux measurements. to reduce the amount of productivity during the study season and enable some decomposition of roots prior to the study, the sedges were initially clipped the autumn preceding the study season. however, further root decomposition likely occurred during the study season; thus, while sedge transport was removed, substrate supply could not be completely eliminated at the clipped sites. the study season was from mid-may to september 2003.
data.question: Name the methods used by Funders and their partners?
data.text: funders and their partners can use the adaptation dimensions framework to: * describe outcomeor program-level objectives, strategic objectives, or higher-level aggregation of results
data.question: Why Project managers can use the dimensions framework?
data.text: reduce the likelihood of neglecting important areas of analysis of adaptive success, * characterize the types of lessons learned and best practices generated through the m&e system, and * avoid double-counting of dimensions to be assessed in an m&e system
data.question: Characterize the result of all three dimensions adaptations?
data.text: over the long term, results in all three dimensions are needed for successful adaptation. while any one intervention may not address all three, each intervention ultimately supports a learning process through which results from adaptive capacity interventions
data.context: funders and their partners can use the adaptation dimensions framework to: * describe outcomeor program-level objectives, strategic objectives, or higher-level aggregation of results; * assess the relative weight and importance of each dimension toward the adaptation process in a given intervention or context; and * examine the relative strengths and weaknesses or success factors of the individual dimensions or the relationship between them in a given intervention or context. project managers can use the dimensions framework to: * reduce the likelihood of neglecting important areas of analysis of adaptive success, * characterize the types of lessons learned and best practices generated through the m&e system, and * avoid double-counting of dimensions to be assessed in an m&e system. over the long term, results in all three dimensions are needed for successful adaptation. while any one intervention may not address all three, each intervention ultimately supports a learning process through which results from adaptive capacity interventions (1) support the
data.question: What factor most strongly contributed to the differences in fire behaviour between forest and savanna?
data.text: fuel bulk density
data.question: Do low fuel bulk density enhances flammability or lower the chances?
data.text: low bulk density enhances availability of oxygen during combustion and allows thermal radiation from the flame to extend further ahead of the fire front
data.question: Why is the flammability of savanna higher, relative to forest?
data.text: grasses had this effect because they produce a fuel bed with low bulk density (fig. 4a), which, in turn, was the parameter that most strongly contributed to the faster and more intense fires in savanna
data.context: the sensitivity analysis revealed that fuel bulk density was the factor that most strongly contributed to the differences in fire behaviour between forest and savanna (fig. 6). wind speed, fuel load and fuel moisture also made substantial contributions to the difference in fire behaviour, in declining order of importance. the combined effect of fuel bulk density, fuel load and fuel class distribution (three factors determined by the amount and type of fuels present) accounted for an estimated 66% of the increase in flame length in savanna, relative to forest (fig. 6). similarly, these three factors accounted for 57% and 58% of the increased rate of spread and fireline intensity, respectively. discussion our results reveal that the higher flammability of savanna, relative to forest, can be attributed largely to the presence of grasses, rather than to the hotter, drier and windier microclimate. grasses had this effect because they produce a fuel bed with low bulk density (fig. 4a), which, in turn, was the parameter that most strongly contributed to the faster and more intense fires in savanna (fig. 6). although the importance of fuel bulk density at the savanna-forest boundary was inferred from model output in the present study, experimental work has repeatedly shown that low fuel bulk density enhances flammability (scarff westoby 2006; plucinski anderson 2008; ganteaume et al 2009). low bulk density enhances availability of oxygen during combustion and allows thermal radiation from the flame to extend further ahead of the fire front (rothermel 1972). this extends the distance over which the fire pre-heats the fuels, thereby increasing the rate of fire spread by bringing a greater area of unburned fuels close to the temperature of combustion. grasses create fuel beds with low bulk density because of their upright architecture, combined with
data.question: What two opposing effects are likely to drive anthropogenic climate change in the Southern Hemisphere?
data.text: stratospheric ozone recovery and increasing greenhouse gases
data.question: What appears to play a large role in modifying their SAM response?
data.text: climate sensitivity
data.question: What is found to be more relevant than polar stratospheric cooling to the intermodel variation in the SAM trends in CO2- only simulations?
data.text: tropical upper tropospheric warming
data.context: future anthropogenic climate change in the southern hemisphere is likely to be driven by two opposing effects, stratospheric ozone recovery and increasing greenhouse gases. we examine simulations from two coupled climate models in which the details of these two forcings are known. while both models suggest that recent positive summertime trends in the southern annular mode (sam) will reverse sign over the coming decades as the ozone hole recovers, climate sensitivity appears to play a large role in modifying the strength of their sam response. similar relationships are found between climate sensitivity and sam trends when the analysis is extended to transient co2 simulations from other coupled models. tropical upper tropospheric warming is found to be more relevant than polar stratospheric cooling to the intermodel variation in the sam trends in co2- only simulations. citation: arblaster, j. m., g. a. meehl, and d. j. karoly (2011), future climate change in the southern hemisphere: competing effects of ozone and greenhouse gases, geophys. res. lett. 38 l02701, doi:10.1029/2010gl045384.
data.question: What are the effects of climate change, according to the article?
data.text: climate change can have a variety of direct and indirect effects on ocean ecosystems
data.question: And the most serious?
data.text: the exacerbation of dead zones may be one of the most severe
data.context: climate change can have a variety of direct and indirect effects on ocean ecosystems, and the exacerbation of dead zones may be one of the most severe. temperature is an integral component of how ecosystems and organisms generate hypoxic conditions and how they respond to dead zones. there is a multitude of ways in which dead zone dynamics are sensitive to temperature, as well as other aspects of climate change related to meteorological conditions, sea-level rise, and oa. we suggest that climate change will drive expansion of dead zones, and has likely contributed to the observed spread of dead zones over recent decades. it is also possible that eutrophication thresholds that existed decades ago for the establishment of hypoxia may have been lowered as climate change has made coastal areas more susceptible to hypoxia, suggesting that reductions in nutrient loads will have to be more aggressive when a multifactor perspective is taken into consideration. we suggest that integrating across the full set of climate variables that affect dead zones is necessary to better predict the future of dead zones and to motivate action to confront climate change and its interactions with eutrophication and other anthropogenic impacts.
data.question: How much of the world's water supply is utilized by farmers?
data.text: farmers use about three-quarters of the world's water supply
data.question: Describe the differences between American, European, African, and Asian water use.
data.text: american or european diets require around 5000 l of water per person every day, whereas african or asian vegetarian diets use about 2000 l per person every day
data.question: Does deforestation result in positive outcomes?
data.text: deforestation and logging create pools of water that, when exposed to sun, allow mosquitoes and other vectors to fl ourish
data.context: the misuse of water by creating inappropriate climates to improve specialised forms of agriculture (eg, to water beef and dairy cattle and other livestock in arid environments where they are not indigenous and to service waste disposal systems that use excessive amounts of water) might undermine eff orts to tackle climate change through positive social action. farmers use about three-quarters of the world's water supply: to grow 1 kg of wheat requires around 1000 l of water, whereas 1 kg of beef takes as much as 15 000 l. american or european diets require around 5000 l of water per person every day, whereas african or asian vegetarian diets use about 2000 l per person every day.141 the social and political challenge of shifting dietary practices is enormous, especially as populations start to eat more meat as they climb out of poverty. issues of desertifi cation are well documented and potentially catastrophic. tidal surges that salinate and pollute fresh-water reservoirs and wells cause mass migrations as changes in monsoon patterns necessitate the movement of populations out of areas where fresh water was once available. however, because water is essential, its misuse has remarkable knock-on eff ects. deforestation and logging create pools of water that, when exposed to sun, allow mosquitoes and other vectors to fl ourish. vectors might unexpectedly bring new infections to formerly temperate climates (eg, dengue fever in north america). more troubling, however, is the way in which water is increasingly being used as a cultural weapon. diverting water for personal benefi t is ancient. but nowadays water has become a powerful way to oppress vulnerable populations. some evidence indicates that the forceful movement of vulnerable populations against their will into camps that have limited access to water leads to oppression of women and abduction of children into military splinter groups and armies.142 stress and post-traumatic stress are increasingly a result of climate-change-induced confl ict.
data.question: How is this apparent contradiction explained? It is explained by changes in the ocean carbon model
data.text: one might expect the upper limit of the thermosteric sea level rise to be smaller in the present study than in webster et al
data.question: What imposes the supposed dependence between heat rates and carbon absorption by the ocean? imposes a negative correlation between the rate of heat mixing in the deep ocean and the concentration of atmospheric CO2
data.text: the assumed dependency between rates of heat and carbon uptake by the ocean imposes a negative correlation between the rate of heat mixing into the deep ocean and the atmospheric co2 concentration
data.question: What weakens this correlation? Changes in the parameterization of ocean carbon absorption in the current model
data.text: changes in the parameterization of oceanic carbon uptake in the current model (see section 2c and sokolov et al. 2007) weakened this correlation, resulting in a wider range of the thermosteric sea level rise
data.context: from the above-mentioned decrease in the thermal expansion of the ocean for a given forcing (fig. 3b) and the similarity of the upper 90% bounds of forcing (fig. 8a), one might expect the upper limit of the thermosteric sea level rise to be smaller in the present study than in webster et al. (2003). however, this is not the case2(fig. 8c). this apparent contradiction is explained by the changes in the ocean carbon model. as shown by sokolov et al. (1998), the assumed dependency between rates of heat and carbon uptake by the ocean imposes a negative correlation between the rate of heat mixing into the deep ocean and the atmospheric co2 concentration, which leads to a decrease in the uncertainty range for thermal expansion. changes in the parameterization of oceanic carbon uptake in the current model (see section 2c and sokolov et al. 2007) weakened this correlation, resulting in a wider range of the thermosteric sea level rise. the differences between the two studies in projected sea level rise, especially in the component related to the thermal expansion of the deep ocean, are, however, relatively smaller than the differences in projected surface temperature (fig. 8).
data.question: Expand IASB?
data.text: international accounting standards board
data.question: what is the aim of IASB-FASB project?
data.text: this new joint iasb-fasb project has a somewhat broader remit too: it is not just about the eu ets but aims to address the accounting of all tradable emissions rights and obligations arising under any emission trading schemes
data.question: what was relaunched by IASB?
data.text: international accounting standards board (iasb) relaunched its emissions trading schemes project this time in conjunction with the us financial accounting standards board (fasb) (iasb 2008), in an attempt to resolve the longstanding ambiguity since the withdrawal of ifric-3 about how to account 21 21 for carbon credits
data.context: stage two: 2005+ 'strategic engagement' since around 2005 there has been a notable shift in the depth and pace of response of accountants to the problem of climate change. as well as the publication of a number of new climate change reports, newsletters and other initiatives by accountancy professional bodies, in 2008 the main global accountancy standard setter the international accounting standards board (iasb) relaunched its emissions trading schemes project this time in conjunction with the us financial accounting standards board (fasb) (iasb 2008), in an attempt to resolve the longstanding ambiguity since the withdrawal of ifric-3 about how to account 21 21 for carbon credits. this new joint iasb-fasb project has a somewhat broader remit too: it is not just about the eu ets but aims to address the accounting of all tradable emissions rights and obligations arising under any emission trading schemes - including new zealand, australia, and existing and proposed schemes in the united states thus reflecting the international growth of emissions trading since the turn of the century.
data.question: How risk of landslides can be avoided?
data.text: the risk of landslides is mentioned as one of the environmental risks that can be avoided with appropriate project design, and the environmental section of the project information document describes several guidelines for project implementation that would result in reduced vulnerability to climate risks, including watershed management, and promotion of integrated management of local water resources
data.question: What factors are taken into account for road design?
data.text: extreme weather, floods, and landslides, were taken into account in the road design
data.question: How many months nonpassability of roads is reduced?
data.text: nonpassability of roads is reduced to two months per year (presumably during the wet season
data.context: com/env/epoc/dcd/dac(2003)1/final 61 61 d.2.9 second rural water supply project33 (world bank) again, the project information document does not pay explicit attention to climate risks. however, the risk of landslides is mentioned as one of the environmental risks that can be avoided with appropriate project design, and the environmental section of the project information document describes several guidelines for project implementation that would result in reduced vulnerability to climate risks, including watershed management, and promotion of integrated management of local water resources. d.2.10 road maintenance and development project (world bank, 1999) this project contains little discussion on natural hazards and climate risks, but the section on the analysis of alternative candidate roads shows that current climate risks, including risk related to extreme weather, floods, and landslides, were taken into account in the road design.34 in addition, the environmental impact analysis looked at impacts on land stability (slope stability hazards, erosion, drainage), and performed a full hazard rating along each road alignment. for critical areas, mitigative measures are included (such as appropriate drainage and bio-engineering). climate change is not mentioned (studies were based solely on current conditions). d.2.11 rural infrastructure project (world bank) this project, which mainly aims to strengthen the local institutional capacity to improve rural roads, does not discuss climate-related risks. in the section on sustainability and risks, the two main issues are institutional sustainability and the maintenance and rehabilitation of the roads themselves. in the latter context, the role of floods and landslides, which might damage the roads, is not discussed. one of the reasons may be that the project objectives and key performance indicators for the physical investments are focusing mainly on the short term. for instance, one of the indicators is that the roads that are maintained or rehabilitated under the project will remain in operation for three (!) years after project completion. at such timescales, climate change is not a major factor. current climate-related risks however ought to be considered. in fact, they are implicitly taken into account in another indicator, namely that the nonpassability of roads is reduced to two months per year (presumably during the wet season). d.2.12 melamchi water supply project35
data.question: Which equilibrium response to continuous variations in Earth's orbital geometry over the last 165 kyr is derived from which model?
data.text: is derived within an atmospheric general circulation model coupled to a mixed layer ocean and thermodynamic/dynamic model of sea ice
data.question: When does the orbital configuration that has been found to be most favorable to glaciation occur?
data.text: occurs is in late spring through the combined influence a reduced potential-ablation and enhanced snowfall
data.question: what was noticed in the tracking of thermal and dynamic processes that affect potential ablation and snowfall through the influence of orbital forcing on surface air temperature?
data.text: in particular we noted that obliquity and precession affect the seasonal and annual mean climate within the arctic similarly, largely because of feedbacks and properties of sea ice
data.context: the equilibrium response to continuous variations in earth  s orbital geometry over the past 165 kyr is derived within an atmospheric general circulation model coupled to a mixed layer ocean and thermodynamic/dynamic model of sea ice. the computational expense of this calculation has been reduced by two means. firstly, the atmospheric component involves a relatively lowresolution nine-level and approximately 4.5 by 7.5  grid spacing. secondly, the variations in orbital geometry have been accelerated by a factor of 30 which is consistent with the relatively short equilibration time of the atmosphere-slab ocean system which is on the order of 10 years, or more than three orders of magnitude faster than the most rapidly varying component of orbital forcing. these economies allowed the experiment to be completed within a 5500-model-year integration. the response of the model to orbital forcing is overwhelming linear with the exception of sea-ice thickness. the dominantly linear response permitted the mathematical separation of the effects of precession from the effects of obliquity that greatly enhanced the ability to interpret model predictions in terms of changes in the seasonal and annual mean insolation. the orbital configuration that was found to be most glaciation-friendly occurs when obliquity is low and aphelion occurs is in late spring through the combined influence a reduced potential-ablation and enhanced snowfall. the climate model simulates prominent minima in potential-ablation at 26, 73, and 117 ka and secondary minima at 97 and 142 ka that coincide within a few thousand years to the maxima and secondary maxima in snowfall. these time intervals correspond to phases of falling sea level and terrestrial ice growth as indicated by the marine d18o record. we track the thermal and dynamical processes affecting potential ablation and snowfall through the influence of orbital forcing on surface air temperature. in particular we noted that obliquity and precession affect the seasonal and annual mean climate within the arctic similarly, largely because of feedbacks and properties of sea ice. an enhanced meridional temperature gradient during late fall and early winter provided mainly by the response of sea ice but also because of cloud feedbacks at low latitudes and a reduction in the poleward heat transports by stationary waves all contribute to the increase in storm activity that correlates with the time intervals of enhanced snowfall. the exact timing of the maxima in snowfall can be affected by zonal asymmetries in the model climate created in part by the atmosphere stationary wave response to orbital forcing. the fact that orbital forcing leads to increases in snowfall during the same time intervals as when potential ablation is minimized is one of the most significant conclusions of the present modeling exercise. this would imply that the connection between orbital forcing and glacial and interglacial cycles is much more intimately involved in the sometimes complex internal processing of the climate system than might be assumed if the amount of terrestrial ice is primarily a function of local changes in insolation as is often assumed.
data.question: What does the GEOS-5 assimilation system include?
data.text: the geos-5 assimilation system includes an incremental analysis update (iau) procedure (bloom et al. 1996) that slowly adjusts the model states toward the observed state
data.question: What is the benefit of GEOS-5 assimilation system?
data.text: this has the benefit of minimizing any unrealistic spin down (or spin-up) of the water cycle
data.context: gmao and noaa's national centers for environmental prediction. the geos-5 assimilation system includes an incremental analysis update (iau) procedure (bloom et al. 1996) that slowly adjusts the model states toward the observed state. this has the benefit of minimizing any unrealistic spin down (or spin-up) of the water cycle. merra was run at a resolution of  1/2 deg latitude x 2/3deg longitude with 72-levels extending to 0.01hpa. more information about merra can be found at: http://gmao.gsfc.nasa.gov/research/merra/ this study uses standard monthly mean (jja) and hourly output that is provided on 42 pressure levels at a horizontal resolution of 1deg latitude x 1.25deg longitude for the period 1979-2010.
data.question: What study shows about proenvironmental behaviors?
data.text: in a large-scale survey, for example, a marked discrepancy was observed between the percentage of respondents who stated that they engage in proenvironmental action specifically out of concern about climate change (31%) and the percentage of respondents who stated that they perform what are considered to be 'energy conservation behaviors' (96
data.question: What is non environment related motives?
data.text: environment-friendly actions sometimes are undertaken for nonenvironment-related motives (e.g., a person who cycles for health, not for climate reasons
data.question: Which determines intent oriented environmental actions
data.text: intent-oriented environmental actions typically are determined by attitudes
data.context: the distinction between impactand intent-oriented proenvironmental behaviors is important, but, until recently, had not received much attention. it may partly account for the often observed weak association between environmental attitudes and proenvironmental behavior. for example, environment-friendly actions sometimes are undertaken for nonenvironment-related motives (e.g., a person who cycles for health, not for climate reasons).53intent-oriented behavior, which focuses on the actor's intention, and impact-oriented behavior, which focuses on the behavior's environmental impact,28do not always overlap. in a large-scale survey, for example, a marked discrepancy was observed between the percentage of respondents who stated that they engage in proenvironmental action specifically out of concern about climate change (31%) and the percentage of respondents who stated that they perform what are considered to be 'energy conservation behaviors' (96%).53these findings suggest that a great deal of ghg-mitigating behaviors may not necessarily, or consciously, be performed for the sake of the environment per se furthermore, intent-oriented environmental actions typically are determined by attitudes, whereas impact-oriented behaviors tend to be
data.question: What you mean by  ' comfort temperature ' ?
data.text: the ' comfort temperature ' is closely related to the mean temperature measured. this was found to be the case in surveys conducted over a wide range of indoor climates
data.question: What is figure 9.3 describes?
data.text: figure 9.3 shows the actual proportion of subjects comfortable among office workers in pakistan at different indoor temperatures
data.question: How is  comfort temperature keeps change over a period?
data.text: the data were collected over a period of a year so the comfort temperature was continually changing, as was the indoor temperature
data.context: the corollary of the effect shown in figure 9.1 is that in field surveys the temperature that people find comfortable (the ' comfort temperature ' is closely related to the mean temperature measured. this was found to be the case in surveys conducted over a wide range of indoor climates, shown in figure 9.2 8 the strong relationship between the comfort temperature and the mean temperature measured during the survey is clear. as an example of how effectively adaptive actions can be used to achieve comfort, figure 9.3 shows the actual proportion of subjects comfortable among office workers in pakistan at different indoor temperatures. the data were collected over a period of a year so the comfort temperature was continually changing, as was the indoor temperature. 9 the major methods these workers had more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: How many people understands the urgency in the climate change?
data.text: it is obvious from the often cavalier way in which the built environment is being developed that very few people, from the decision makers in government to ordinary families in their own homes, understand the urgent imperative to prepare to survive in a rapidly changing climate change and a post-fossil fuel world
data.question: What does the Figure 16.2 shown demonstrate?
data.text: figure 16.2 simply plots choices we face in our buildings, communities, regions and nations, and emphasizes the short period of opportunity we have to act now to build resilience against climate change. it highlights the potential for catastrophic impacts arising from the widening of the cracks already emerging in dysfunctional communities into chasms into which we all may fall
data.question: Where can you find more free e-books?
data.text: http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.context: we believe that it is the predicted rate and scale of climate change that should now determine the effort and investment we put into redesigning our buildings and cities for a very different future. it is obvious from the often cavalier way in which the built environment is being developed that very few people, from the decision makers in government to ordinary families in their own homes, understand the urgent imperative to prepare to survive in a rapidly changing climate change and a post-fossil fuel world. to clarify this need for urgency we have redrawn the diagram of some of the environmental impacts we might expect from the 2007 stern report (see p. 347). figure 16.2 simply plots choices we face in our buildings, communities, regions and nations, and emphasizes the short period of opportunity we have to act now to build resilience against climate change. it highlights the potential for catastrophic impacts arising from the widening of the cracks already emerging in dysfunctional communities into chasms into which we all may fall. we can also crudely, for the sake of argument, put dates on the rate of warming we face if we use the temperature increase trajectory for the business as usual greenhouse gas emissions models that we are currently following and exceeding, taken from the 4th assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc), modelled using the a2 medium/high emissions scenario (see figure 16.3 and p. 348). what is so shocking in this simple exercise is more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: Where The setup of the control simulation and cases P2S and P2 are described?
data.text: the setup of the control simulation and cases p2s and p2 are described in blossey et al. [2012
data.question: What follow  Blossey et al. [2012]?
data.text: the boundary-layer advective tendencies are equal to the control or p2s case, depending on the sst, and a ramp function between 800 and 900 hpa is used to interpolate between the boundary layer and free tropospheric advective tendencies
data.question: What happened in dRH?
data.text: in case drh the relative humidity of the reference state is decreased uniformly in the free troposphere, and the free tropospheric horizontal moisture advection is adjusted to maintain this new humidity profile
data.context: we consider the climate perturbations given in table 2. the setup of the control simulation and cases p2s and p2 are described in blossey et al. [2012]. in case drh the relative humidity of the reference state is decreased uniformly in the free troposphere, and the free tropospheric horizontal moisture advection is adjusted to maintain this new humidity profile. in case dws the wind speed is uniformly decreased, changing the surface fluxes, but the prescribed horizontal advection of heat and moisture are left unchanged. in all cases the free-tropospheric horizontal advective tendencies are chosen to balance the steady-state heat and moisture budgets for the reference profiles. following blossey et al. [2012] the boundary-layer advective tendencies are equal to the control or p2s case, depending on the sst, and a ramp function between 800 and 900 hpa is used to interpolate between the boundary layer and free tropospheric advective tendencies.
data.question: According to the text, what can lead to increased loading of pathogens, algal toxins, and contaminants in water infrastructure?
data.text: there is consistent qualitative evidence suggesting that projected climate change effects on extreme weather patterns-- particularly extreme precipitation and storm surge--can adversely affect water infrastructure and lead to increased loading of pathogens, algal toxins, and contaminants. however, there are no national-level studies upon which to draw conclusions regarding quantitative projections of increased exposure
data.question: How does contamination to or from water infrastructure for drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater occurs?
data.text: evidence shows contamination to or from these systems occurs with heavy precipitation and other extreme weather events
data.question: Why aren't there no national projections of the human health impact of water infrastructure failure?
data.text: due to the complicated local and regional specificity
data.context: major uncertainties the human health consequences of aging water infrastructure failure depend not only on the local and regional climate factors that contribute to damage or capacity challenges but also the nature of the system and the pressures on it, the population affected, and the timeliness and adequacy of the response--all of which are inherently local or regional factors. due to the complicated local and regional specificity, there are no national projections of the human health impact of water infrastructure failure. uncertainty remains regarding appropriate methods for projecting changes in illness rates, including how to integrate considerations of human behavior into modeling (current methods to assess exposure risk assume similar human behavior across time scales and geography). methodological challenges are related to 1) baseline case reporting issues (underreporting and underdiagnosis), 2) accounting for the effects of potential adaptation strategies/public health interventions (for example, mitigating risk with improvements to current water and sewerage systems), and 3) accounting for changes in public healthcare infrastructure and access that can reduce the risk of exposure or of illness/death if exposed. assessment of confidence based on evidence based on the evidence found in the peer-reviewed literature, there is high confidence that the anticipated climate change related increases in some extreme weather events and in storm surge will increase the risk that water infrastructure for drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater will fail through either damage or exceedance of system capacity, with aging infrastructure being particularly vulnerable. evidence shows contamination to or from these systems occurs with heavy precipitation and other extreme weather events. there is consistent qualitative evidence suggesting that projected climate change effects on extreme weather patterns-- particularly extreme precipitation and storm surge--can adversely affect water infrastructure and lead to increased loading of pathogens, algal toxins, and contaminants. however, there are no national-level studies upon which to draw conclusions regarding quantitative projections of increased exposure. thus, the limited number of studies supports a medium confidence level regarding risk of exposure.
data.question: Was what was found between spring phenology and precipitation significant?
data.text: in contrast to temperature, most of the correlation between spring phenology and precipitation was found to be non-significant
data.context: in contrast to temperature, most of the correlation between spring phenology and precipitation was found to be non-significant. this suggests that variation of spring phenology was mainly driven by changes in temperature or other precipitation characteristics (e.g. timing of precipitation) rather than preseason precipitation. it was expected that spring phenology responses to precipitation would not be significant over a majority of stations in meadows and deciduous broadleaf forests receiving relatively abundant precipitation. however, in both grasslands and desert vegetation, where precipitation was supposed to be a important determinant for plant growth (e.g. abd el-ghani 1997; ghazanfar 1997), we also rarely observed significant influence of cumulative preseason precipitation on spring green-up onset date. such insensitivity to precipitation amount did not negate impacts of other precipitation characteristics (e.g. first timing of precipitation) on spring phenology. for example, in the semi-arid, drought-deciduous ecosystems in the kalahari region of south africa, jolly and running (2004) found that predictions of leaf flushing timing was better using the first significant precipitation event at maun than at tshane site. ghazanfar (1997) also documented that late precipitation delayed the onset of all phenological phases in all
data.question: What causes dramatically increase heat stress risk in the Mediterranean region?
data.text: we find that elevated greenhouse gas concentrations dramatically increase heat stress risk in the mediterranean region
data.question: What could help to reduce the risk of increased heat stress in the coming decades within the Mediterranean region?
data.text: emissions reductions could reduce the risk of increased heat stress in the coming decades
data.question: In which areas have increases in the dangerous Heat Index been magnified?
data.text: with increases in dangerous heat index magnified in coastal areas
data.context: we find that elevated greenhouse gas concentrations dramatically increase heat stress risk in the mediterranean region, with the occurrence of hot extremes increasing by 200 to 500% throughout the region. this heat stress intensification is due to preferential warming of the hot tail of the daily temperature distribution, with 95th percentile maximum and minimum temperature magnitude increasing more than 75th percentile magnitude. this preferential warming of the hot tail is dictated in large part by a surface moisture feedback, with areas of greatest warm-season drying showing the greatest increases in hot temperature extremes. fine-scale topographic and humidity effects help to further dictate the spatial variability of the heat stress response, with increases in dangerous heat index magnified in coastal areas. further, emissions deceleration substantially mitigates heat stress intensification throughout the mediterranean region, implying that emissions reductions could reduce the risk of increased heat stress in the coming decades. citation: diffenbaugh, n. s., j. s. pal, f. giorgi, and x. gao (2007), heat stress intensification in the mediterranean climate change hotspot, geophys. res. lett. 34 l11706, doi:10.1029/2007gl030000.
data.question: what are the factors that make climate change?
data.text: rapid urbanization, land degradation, water pollution, water scarcity and the destruction of ecosystems are added pressures. all these factors affect vulnerability to variations in the current climate, as well as to future climate change
data.question: what is The Commons Report 3?
data.text: the commons report 3 goes on to claim that ' developing countries have limited financial, human, technological, institutional and natural resources, making them less able to respond to the effects of climate change. 
data.question: who can take action for climate change problem?
data.text: what is not mentioned is that the short-sighted actions of politicians can add substantially to this catalogue of risk factors, and the vulnerability of populations, by not taking seriously the challenges of future-proofing buildings, cities and regions against such pressures. mps who represent local populations should be given key positions on committees making decisions on such developments in their constituencies
data.context: rapid urbanization, land degradation, water pollution, water scarcity and the destruction of ecosystems are added pressures. all these factors affect vulnerability to variations in the current climate, as well as to future climate change. these conditions would appear to be applicable to many coastal cities such as london, new york and tokyo. what is not mentioned is that the short-sighted actions of politicians can add substantially to this catalogue of risk factors, and the vulnerability of populations, by not taking seriously the challenges of future-proofing buildings, cities and regions against such pressures. mps who represent local populations should be given key positions on committees making decisions on such developments in their constituencies. the commons report 3 goes on to claim that ' developing countries have limited financial, human, technological, institutional and natural resources, making them less able to respond to the effects of climate change. ' that may be true, but how prepared is the southeast for the knockon impacts of three million new homes - the need to find more local waste dumping sites, to make scarce summer water supplies serve hundreds of thousands more people in the region, to increase sewerage capacity and build new power plants in an already well-populated region?
data.question: How do the debris flow frequencies behave?
data.text: from the reconstructions and based on rcm simulations, there are indications that debris-flow frequencies might continue to decrease in a future climate, as precipitation events are projected to occur less frequently in summer but become more common in spring or fall
data.context: tree-ring based reconstructions of 123 debris-flow events in a case-study area of the swiss alps since ad 1570 show enhanced activity during the wet periods (1864- 1895) following the last lia glacier advance and in the early decades of the 20th century. in contrast, comparably low activity can be observed since 1995, with only one event recorded. from the reconstructions and based on rcm simulations, there are indications that debris-flow frequencies might continue to decrease in a future climate, as precipitation events are projected to occur less frequently in summer but become more common in spring or fall. citation: stoffel, m., and m. beniston (2006), on the incidence of debris flows from the early little ice age to a future greenhouse climate: a case study from the swiss alps, geophys. res. lett. 33 l16404, doi:10.1029/2006gl026805.
data.question: Why mosquitoes are important for public health?
data.text: mosquitoes are vectors of parasitic and viral diseases of immense importance for public health
data.question: What have we achieved now that the genome sequence of Aedes aegypti is available?
data.text: the acquisition of the genome sequence of the yellow fever and dengue vector, aedes aegypti aa ), has enabled a comparative phylogenomic analysis of the insect immune repertoire
data.question: What do the dynamics of the immune signaling pathways indicate?
data.text: these dynamics reflect in part continuous readjustment between accommodation and rejection of pathogens and suggest how innate immunity may have evolved
data.context: alexander s. raikhel,5fotis c. kafatos,1* + george dimopoulos,4* evgeny m. zdobnov,3,19,1* + george k. christophides1* + mosquitoes are vectors of parasitic and viral diseases of immense importance for public health. the acquisition of the genome sequence of the yellow fever and dengue vector, aedes aegypti aa ), has enabled a comparative phylogenomic analysis of the insect immune repertoire: in aa the malaria vector anopheles gambiae ag ), and the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster dm ). analysis of immune signaling pathways and response modules reveals both conservative and rapidly evolving features associated with different functional gene categories and particular aspects of immune reactions. these dynamics reflect in part continuous readjustment between accommodation and rejection of pathogens and suggest how innate immunity may have evolved.
data.question: What method is used to evaluate the consequences of internal mixtures of organic compounds and sea salt?
data.text: the consequences of internal mixtures of organic compounds and sea salt are then evaluated using the chylek and coakley [1974] relation
data.question: What does MR stand for?
data.text: organic-electrolyte thermodynamic equilibrium model ming and russell 2002] (hereafter mr
data.question: What distribution is assumed for analysis purposes?
data.text: assuming a single-mode lognormal size distribution
data.context: we employ a detailed organic-electrolyte thermodynamic equilibrium model ming and russell 2002] (hereafter mr, 2002) to study the hygroscopic growth of nacl-organic mixtures. as an example of a water soluble organic compound (wsoc), we consider glutaric acid, a diacid observed in marine aerosol decesari et al. 2001]. assuming a single-mode lognormal size distribution, optical properties are calculated using mie theory for various mixtures of nacl and the model wsoc as a function of rh. the purpose here is to explore the sensitivity of the optical properties to organic mass fraction that results from changes in hygroscopic growth and changes in refractive index. the consequences of internal mixtures of organic compounds and sea salt are then evaluated using the chylek and coakley [1974] relation.
data.question: What assumption is made about tree migration rate to track summer temperature changes?
data.text: the trees have a migration rate that is fast enough to track changes in summer temperature
data.question: What is the lapse rate used to convert temperature change in elevation?
data.text: we convert changes in temperature to changes in elevation by using a lapse rate of 0.6degc/100 m
data.question: which country is this a typical lapse rate for 0.6degC/100 m ?
data.text: using a lapse rate of 0.6degc/100 m. this lapse rate is typical for the area (swedish
data.context: for this analysis, we assume that the current position of the birch treeline in the swedish mountain region (fig. 1) is determined by, and in balance with, climatic factors, and more specifically the mean summer (june-august) temperature. summer temperature was chosen as it correlates with treeline position over large scales (korner 1999, grace et al. 2002). furthermore, we assume that the trees have a migration rate that is fast enough to track changes in summer temperature, at least within the scale of the analysis. this implies that a change in mean summer temperature will produce a change in the position of the treeline. we convert changes in temperature to changes in elevation by using a lapse rate of 0.6degc/100 m. this lapse rate is typical for the area (swedish national atlas 1995). it is possible that the lapse rate varies over both space and time, but we have no data from our study area that allow us to vary this parameter. this means that, for example, an increase of 1.2degc will give a 200-m rise in the treeline. similar reasoning has been used when inferring past temperatures from pollen and macrofossil finds of trees (e.g., barnekow and sandgren 2001, seppa and birks 2001, 2002), and may be considered the simplest way to describe correlations between climate and treelines without incorporating mechanistic details.
data.question: NCD Development Description?
data.text: he rapid growth in noncommunicable diseases (ncds), including injury and poor mental health, in lowand middle-income countries and the widening social gradients in ncds within most countries worldwide pose major challenges to health and social systems and to development more generally
data.question: Tell me about climate change as the Earth's surface temperature increases?
data.text: as earth's surface temperature rises, a consequence of human-induced climate change, incidences of severe heat waves, droughts, storms, and floods will increase and become more severe. these changes will bring heightened risks to human survival and will likely exacerbate the incidence of some ncds, including cardiovascular disease, some cancers, respiratory health, mental disorders, injuries, and malnutrition
data.question: State the control of NCDs and the effects of climate change?
data.text: these two great and urgent contemporary human challenges--to improve global health, especially the control of ncds, and to protect people from the effects of climate change--would benefit from alignment of their policy agendas, offering synergistic opportunities to improve population and planetary health. well-designed climate change policy can reduce the incidence of major ncds in local populations
data.context: the rapid growth in noncommunicable diseases (ncds), including injury and poor mental health, in lowand middle-income countries and the widening social gradients in ncds within most countries worldwide pose major challenges to health and social systems and to development more generally. as earth's surface temperature rises, a consequence of human-induced climate change, incidences of severe heat waves, droughts, storms, and floods will increase and become more severe. these changes will bring heightened risks to human survival and will likely exacerbate the incidence of some ncds, including cardiovascular disease, some cancers, respiratory health, mental disorders, injuries, and malnutrition. these two great and urgent contemporary human challenges--to improve global health, especially the control of ncds, and to protect people from the effects of climate change--would benefit from alignment of their policy agendas, offering synergistic opportunities to improve population and planetary health. well-designed climate change policy can reduce the incidence of major ncds in local populations.
data.question: Who underpins the urban development?
data.text: civil society underpins urban development and will strive for cost-effective operations in cities with a maximum of cost-saving options (table 2 
data.question: What are the three primarily things?
data.text: it is primarily all about three things: communication, involvement and ownership
data.question: Who will involved as individuals and support developments with their time and money?
data.text: ordinary people will then feel involved as individuals and support developments with their time and money (baum 2013 
data.context: to start at the end: scarce financial resources need not necessarily be an obstacle. on the contrary, limited resources often inspire creativity and foster cooperation between public and private investors, as well as the involvement of civil society. civil society underpins urban development and will strive for cost-effective operations in cities with a maximum of cost-saving options (table 2 ). it is primarily all about three things: communication, involvement and ownership. the decisive factor is that through transparency, inspiring confidence and specifying the tangible benefits, private individuals will get behind a common ideal. this will enable civil society to strongly identify with the city and urban society. ordinary people will then feel involved as individuals and support developments with their time and money (baum 2013 ). groups of people, private institutions, societies, clubs, religious communities, charitable organizations, pressure groups, i.e. nongovernmental organizations (ngos), should not be overlooked (philip et al. 2011 ). financial limitations are therefore not always an obstacle but often provide the impetus for creative solutions because it is then necessary to look for ways to link up with other interests and solutions (table 2 ). further to which, a thorough cost-benefit analysis of various promising solutions is required. often it turns out that these solutions are also more affordable when considered over the longer term. institutional investors--pension funds, insurance companies and mutual funds--are able to invest in high yield, smart and sustainable infrastructures (oecd 2011b ). it is therefore mainly a matter of making transparent long-term plans which will create value.
data.question: on which database, the data were you extracted?
data.text: data were extracted from the office national de l'eau et des milieux aquatiques (onema) database
data.question: what is this organism for?
data.text: this national fisheries organization is in charge of the protection and conservation of freshwater ecosystems in france and monitors fish assemblages in french rivers yearly
data.question: which protocol was used for sampling fish?
data.text: a standardized electrofishing protocol conducted during low-flow periods (may-october) was used for each fish sampling. most sites were sampled by two-pass removal electrofishing
data.context: sites selection. data were extracted from the office national de l'eau et des milieux aquatiques (onema) database. this national fisheries organization is in charge of the protection and conservation of freshwater ecosystems in france and monitors fish assemblages in french rivers yearly. among the surveyed sites, we selected 655 reference (i.e. least impacted by anthropic perturbations) sites to avoid biased results due to nonclimatic disturbances. these sites were widespread throughout nine large river units (fig. 1). species datasets. a standardized electrofishing protocol conducted during low-flow periods (may-october) was used for each fish sampling. most sites were sampled by two-pass removal electrofishing. two different sampling methods were used depending on the river depth and width: smaller rivers were sampled by wading and larger ones by boat. caught fish were identified to the species level, and then released back
data.question: what is the characteristics that affect the anaerobic biodegradability?
data.text: regarding the most important characteristics that affect the anaerobic biodegradability (temperature and ph), these parameters can be easily measured in the influent
data.question: what is the operation of the anaerobic reactor?
data.text: monitoring and operation of the preliminary treatment good operation of the anaerobic reactor depends fundamentally on the flow and characteristics of the wastewater to be treated and on the correct operation of the preliminary treatment units
data.question: what will be the cleaning frequency in domestic sewage?
data.text: in the case of domestic sewage, the screen cleaning should be at least daily. sand should be removed from the chambers once every 1 or 2 weeks, depending on the sand content in the influent wastewater (higher cleaning frequency for, say, 50 l of sand per 1,000 m3of influent sewage, and lower cleaning frequency for, say, 25 l of sand per 1,000 m3of influent sewage
data.context: thissectionfocusesonlyontheoperationalcontrolofreactorsoperatingcloseto steady-state conditions that is, the regime in which the system reaches more stable operational conditions, with no significant variations and instabilities over time. recommendations on the operational control during the start-up period transient regime of the system are presented in section 28.3.3. (a) monitoring and operation of the preliminary treatment good operation of the anaerobic reactor depends fundamentally on the flow and characteristics of the wastewater to be treated and on the correct operation of the preliminary treatment units. an operational routine that allows the screens and grit chambers to be cleaned at a suitable frequency should be established to assure effective removal of the coarse solids and grit present in the wastewater. in the case of domestic sewage, the screen cleaning should be at least daily. sand should be removed from the chambers once every 1 or 2 weeks, depending on the sand content in the influent wastewater (higher cleaning frequency for, say, 50 l of sand per 1,000 m3of influent sewage, and lower cleaning frequency for, say, 25 l of sand per 1,000 m3of influent sewage). regarding the most important characteristics that affect the anaerobic biodegradability (temperature and ph), these parameters can be easily measured in the influent. the preliminary treatment operation also includes the removal of blockages that may harm the uniform distribution of the influent in the treatment system. in this sense, the concentration of settleable solids is an important parameter. 780 anaerobic reactors the following figure and table (preliminary treatment) identify the main points, parameters and frequency of monitoring at the preliminary treatment stage. the troubleshooting list presented at the end of this chapter identifies some problems that can be found in the daily operation of the preliminary treatment units. preliminary treatment
data.question: What does the paper concentrates primarily on?
data.text: on financial accounting (accounting for carbon in financial accounts, and the activities of financial accounting professional bodies and standard-setters in relation to climate change
data.question: What institutions have taken the lead in engaging with climate change?
data.text: s the canadian institute of chartered accountants (cica) and the institute of chartered accountants in england and wales
data.question: What grey area the text mentions? area between carbon financial accounting and non-financial (so-called 'narrative') disclosure of corporate climate impact and carbon benchmarkingthe text discusses?
data.text: area between carbon financial accounting and non-financial (so-called 'narrative') disclosure of corporate climate impact and carbon benchmarking
data.context: the paper concentrates primarily on financial accounting (accounting for carbon in financial accounts, and the activities of financial accounting professional bodies and standard-setters in relation to climate change). this is because financial accounting is a central means by which firms in a capitalist society report on their activities. where relevant, however, we also discuss the role of auditing and management accountancy. there is a somewhat 'grey' area between carbon financial accounting and non-financial (so-called 'narrative') disclosure of corporate climate impact and carbon benchmarking; it is the latter area of activities indeed where the term 'carbon accounting' has recently become most prevalent (see for example the aldersgate group 2007). for this reason debates and activities at the intersection of corporate reporting and financial disclosure (eg the work of the climate disclosure standards board) are relevant and considered here. mainly, however, we concentrate on the role of financial accounting professional organisations, especially those such as the canadian institute of chartered accountants (cica) and the institute of chartered accountants in england and wales (icaew) who have taken the lead in engaging with climate change. we draw on in-depth interviews (#20) with key industry players active in carbon accounting, including accountancy firms, standard setters (the iasb or international accounting standards board, and the main us body, the financial accounting standards board, fasb), and financial accountants at large european companies active in emissions trading. these interviews have been transcribed and coded.i the paper is based on research funded by the uk nuffield foundation and is part of a wider project investigating precisely how carbon is being made fungible (i.e. standardised and interchangeable), using ideas from economic 4 4 sociology and political science.ii the paper builds on initial exploration of accounting for carbon in the eu ets, investigating in more depth the preliminary findings and research themes identified by mackenzie (2008). the role of accounting professional organisations in climate change governance was a finding that emerged somewhat unexpectedly out of interviews, which were focused at the outset more narrowly on eu ets financial accounting practices.
data.question: What are driven by a latitudinal trend in the slope value of climate-chronology relationships?
data.text: regional differences in growth projections are driven by a latitudinal trend in the slope value of climate-chronology relationships
data.question: For what kind of subset, the latitudinal trend is more pronounced?
data.text: the latitudinal trend is more pronounced for the high-elevation subset
data.question: What is the alternative explanation that southern and outlying populations are relatively less affected by drier conditions?
data.text: the alternative explanation could be that southern and outlying populations are genetically better adapted to drought conditions, and are therefore relatively less affected by drier conditions
data.context: moderate growth reductions were found in the southern united states, and strongly negative response in the central rocky mountains. variability of the growth response among populations decreased from northern to southern latitudes, and growth reductions were more pronounced for high than for low elevation populations. these regional differences do not reflect differences in the strength of the plant-climate relationships. there are no noteworthy latitudinal or elevational trends in the r2values for chronologies and the heat moisture index (fig. 5). instead, regional differences in growth projections are driven by a latitudinal trend in the slope value of climate-chronology relationships. for a given change in the heat moisture index, northern sources showed on average a higher decrease in ring width than southern sources. the latitudinal trend is more pronounced for the high-elevation subset, but statistically significant for both subsets as well as for high and low elevation chronologies combined p o 0.0001 after log-transformation of the 'slope' value to meet the assumption of homogeneity of variances). we can think of two possible explanations for these results. douglas-fir populations in northern latitudes may occupy an ecological niche space that is more strongly determined by climate factors, while southern and outlying populations tend to occur at sites where topographic factors contribute to soil moisture availability and therefore buffer the impact of climate on growth. however, we could not find significant differences of douglas-fir occurrences among regions with respect to a topographic convergence index as proxy for soil moisture availability or prr as a proxy for exposure to evapotranspiration (table 1). it is difficult to demonstrate the absence of a relationship, but the indices are suitable to detect regional differences in site characteristics: bunn et al (2005) using a very similar topographic convergence index and prr index found a clear influence on ring width in foxtail pine. however, it should be noted that the resolution of their data was much higher (10 m) so that micro-site conditions could be modeled. the accuracy of location information of this chronology database (approximately 250 m) did not allow matching micro-site information for analysis. the second and more convincing argument against this explanation is that microsite conditions were buffering the impact of climate on growth in southern and outlying populations, we would expect r2values to decrease accordingly, which is not the case. the alternative explanation could be that southern and outlying populations are genetically better adapted to drought conditions, and are therefore relatively less affected by drier conditions. interpreted in this way, our
data.question: Where is the greenhouse warming simulation is typical ?
data.text: as is typical in greenhouse warming simulations, the arctic becomes cloudier in ccsm4
data.question: What is the annual-mean total cloud amount rises ?
data.text: the annual-mean total cloud amount rises substantially from just under 0.48 to around 0.60 (25%) between the start and end of the twenty-first century (fig. 5a), primarily due to more low clouds (not shown
data.question: Define the time evolution of increasing cloudiness?
data.text: the time evolution of increasing cloudiness is similar to the temperature (and sea ice) time series, in that the secular trend is broken up by decadelong intervals with nearly no cloud change during the 2040s and 2090s and that the trend shows little difference among the five ensemble members
data.context: as is typical in greenhouse warming simulations, the arctic becomes cloudier in ccsm4. the annual-mean total cloud amount rises substantially from just under 0.48 to around 0.60 (25%) between the start and end of the twenty-first century (fig. 5a), primarily due to more low clouds (not shown). the time evolution of increasing cloudiness is similar to the temperature (and sea ice) time series, in that the secular trend is broken up by decadelong intervals with nearly no cloud change during the 2040s and 2090s and that the trend shows little difference among the five ensemble members. the projected cloud changes vary strongly across the arctic, exhibiting a general poleward increase that is strongly associated with the location of sea ice (fig. 5b). this tight linkage between cloud increases and sea
data.question: What facilitates renewable energy technologies?
data.text: development mechanism (cdm), which facilitate the transfer of resources to low-income countries for renewable energy technologies
data.question: What portfolio is emerging?
data.text: thanks to national policies so far, and to international investment, albeit on a still minor scale, a portfolio of low-carbon technologies is emerging, in developing as in the oecd countries
data.context: development mechanism (cdm), which facilitate the transfer of resources to low-income countries for renewable energy technologies. the cdm needs improvement because it has been criticised for paying up to 50 times as much for the reductions in emissions as the costs alone would warrant and for paying for projects that provide little additional eff ect because they would have occurred anyway.81 (2) to support, in addition, the establishment of the new fi nancing facilities proposed in the world bank's investment framework.82 (3) to add to this framework a further facility to address the problem of emissions arising from deforestation, land clearance, and land degradation. (4) to use the fi nance provided under points 2 and 3 as a means of furthering climate change policies at the national level. (5) to establish institutional arrangements for involving scientists and engineers from developing regions in r&d and the demonstration of lowcarbon technologies and practices. such arrangements were fi rst instituted fi ve decades ago for the green revolution in agriculture, with considerable success. the international community has been moving in these directions for some years. the gef and its implementing agencies, for example, already have 15 years of investment experience, and there have been numerous other multilateral and bilateral endeavours. more recently the global bioenergy partnership will "assist international exchanges of know-how and technology, promote supportive policy frameworks and identify ways of fostering investments and removing barriers to the development and implementation of joint projects".83 thanks to national policies so far, and to international investment, albeit on a still minor scale, a portfolio of low-carbon technologies is emerging, in developing as in the oecd countries. there is thus a good technological and institutional base on which to build future policies.
data.question: How many million pixels constitute the terrestrial portion of our geographic window?
data.text: nearly 5.9 million pixels of 1-km resolution constitute the terrestrial portion of our geographic window
data.question: In summarizing errors of estimate what did we noticed?
data.text: in summarizing these errors, we noticed that misclassification was related to poor alignment between the
data.question: With the help of the digitized elevations of GLOBE, how is the climate of each pixel estimated?
data.text: with the use of the digitized elevations of globe (globe task team 1999), the climate of each pixel could be estimated from the surfaces of rehfeldt (2006
data.context: nearly 5.9 million pixels of 1-km resolution constitute the terrestrial portion of our geographic window. with the use of the digitized elevations of globe (globe task team 1999), the climate of each pixel could be estimated from the surfaces of rehfeldt (2006). these estimates were then run down regression trees to predict vegetation. for mapping biotic communities, the vegetation of a pixel was declared to be that of the community given the plurality of the 100 votes. errors of estimate were calculated for all predictions that did not conform to digitized community boundaries. in summarizing these errors, we noticed that misclassification was related to poor alignment between the
data.question: Explain Helianthella plants  trial?
data.text: helianthella plants along trail 401, a few hundred meters away from the helianthella plots and about 89 m higher, no frost damage to plants along county road 317 in mount crested butte (altitude about 2895 m, 5.8 km from rmbl), but 100 mortality at horse ranch park (altitude 2706 m, 18.5 km from rmbl
data.question: How the variation will be?
data.text: this variation, even within very similar altitudes, indicates the importance of microclimate in determining both patterns of snowmelt and later air temperature. because these plant species are long-lived perennials, it is possible that the loss of reproductive potential due to frost damage to flower buds may not play a significant role in the long-term demography of their populations, if they are not limited by seed input
data.question: What is the preliminary analysis for Helianthella?
data.text: preliminary analysis of data for helianthella from a demographic study at rmbl (d. inouye, unpublished data shows that the number of plants in a set of six 1.5 3 5 m plots has decreased significantly over the past nine years
data.context: helianthella plants along trail 401, a few hundred meters away from the helianthella plots and about 89 m higher, no frost damage to plants along county road 317 in mount crested butte (altitude about 2895 m, 5.8 km from rmbl), but 100 mortality at horse ranch park (altitude 2706 m, 18.5 km from rmbl). this variation, even within very similar altitudes, indicates the importance of microclimate in determining both patterns of snowmelt and later air temperature. because these plant species are long-lived perennials, it is possible that the loss of reproductive potential due to frost damage to flower buds may not play a significant role in the long-term demography of their populations, if they are not limited by seed input. however, preliminary analysis of data for helianthella from a demographic study at rmbl (d. inouye, unpublished data shows that the number of plants in a set of six 1.5 3 5 m plots has decreased significantly over the past nine years. during this period there has been significant recruitment of seedlings in only two years (1998, 2000); no seedlings have been found since 2000, following the last year without significant frost damage
data.question: Today, how do we know about medieval Norse ideas about sustainability?
data.text: the notion of sustainability does occurs in norse records of medieval land management as contained in passages of the old icelandic law code, gragas (dennis, foote, and perkins 1993; simpson et al. 2001
data.question: How did medieval Norse people decide on stocking levels for livestock?
data.text: stocking levels were determined by the stage at which livestock began to lose weight. if the animals became thinner throughout the year, then stocking levels were deemed to be too high
data.question: What happened when the people noticed that livestock were becoming thin?
data.text: if the animals became thinner throughout the year, then stocking levels were deemed to be too high
data.context: the effective management of grazing is another key sign of adaptation. the notion of sustainability does occurs in norse records of medieval land management as contained in passages of the old icelandic law code, gragas (dennis, foote, and perkins 1993; simpson et al. 2001). the code was replaced in the 1280s a.d. after the end of the icelandic commonwealth period, but offers key insights into the principles of early land management in iceland, principles that could have been similar to those practiced in contemporary norse greenland. grazing rights were owned, managed, and regulated. stocking levels were determined by the stage at which livestock began to lose weight. if the animals became thinner throughout the year, then stocking levels were deemed to be too high. this is strong evidence that upland environmental degradation was not simply a result of over exploitation and a " tragedy of the commons ."
data.question: What is null expectations according to given in the paragraph?
data.text: according to our null expectation, the proportion of random downslope mid-range shifts despite an average upslope trend of z m is dependent on the range of random variation among shifts
data.question: How many surveys in each datasets?
data.text: each dataset comprised 3991 surveys
data.context: according to our null expectation, the proportion of random downslope mid-range shifts despite an average upslope trend of z m is dependent on the range of random variation among shifts (fig. 1). we used data from a previous study focusing on the shifts in the elevational position of plant species' maximum probability of presence (optimum) (lenoir et al. 2008) to estimate this range of random variation among shifts and then assess the proportion of random downslope mid-range shifts despite an average upslope trend of z m. that study found an average upslope trend of 65 m, among 171 plant species, between a 1905  1985 dataset and a carefully matched 1986  2005 dataset for french mountain forests. each dataset comprised 3991 surveys. to estimate the range of random variation among shifts, we constructed two random 300
data.question: Why the Equation 10.16 cannot be done directly?
data.text: he determination of the limiting flux based on equation 10.16 cannot be done directly. because equation 10.17 is not explicit in terms of c, it needs to be solved numerically by iteration (e.g. newton-raphson method) and the final result substituted again into equation 10.16
data.question: How can be obtain the solutions for the equation 10.16?
data.text: this solution can be obtained without problems using computer programs, this section presents the simpler and more didactic approach of the graphic solution, which can be also implemented in computers, using simple spreadsheets. sedimentation 451 for given values of the coefficients vo and k and of the sludge underflow velocity (qu/a), curves of the gravity flux, underflow flux and total flux can be composed graphically
data.question: Explain the relation between the examples:10.7, 10.4, 10.5.
data.text: example 10.7 illustrates the methodology to be employed. example 10.7 based on the data from examples 10.4 and 10.5, compose the solids flux curves and determine the values of (a) limiting solids flux, (b) limiting solids concentration and (c) solids concentration at the bottom sludge. determine if the sedimentation tank is overloaded or underloaded. data given in examples 10.4 and 10.5
data.context: second derivative g'' l= vo. e- k c. (c k2 - 2 k) 0 (10.18) however, the determination of the limiting flux based on equation 10.16 cannot be done directly. because equation 10.17 is not explicit in terms of c, it needs to be solved numerically by iteration (e.g. newton-raphson method) and the final result substituted again into equation 10.16. even though this solution can be obtained without problems using computer programs, this section presents the simpler and more didactic approach of the graphic solution, which can be also implemented in computers, using simple spreadsheets. sedimentation 451 for given values of the coefficients vo and k and of the sludge underflow velocity (qu/a), curves of the gravity flux, underflow flux and total flux can be composed graphically. example 10.7 illustrates the methodology to be employed. example 10.7 based on the data from examples 10.4 and 10.5, compose the solids flux curves and determine the values of (a) limiting solids flux, (b) limiting solids concentration and (c) solids concentration at the bottom sludge. determine if the sedimentation tank is overloaded or underloaded. data given in examples 10.4 and 10.5:
data.question: Why was there no justification for testing a mediated model?
data.text: because there was no association between depression at time 1 and mother-child references to emotion, there was no justification for testing a mediated model
data.question: Why were we interested in determining whether bothvariables made unique contributions to emotion understanding?
data.text: because there was a significant association between mother-child references to emotion and children's attachment security,wewereinterested in determining whether bothvariables made unique contributions to emotion understanding
data.question: Why was gender not included as a control variable?
data.text: there were no gender differences in children's emotion understanding scores, so gender was not included as a control variable
data.context: because there was no association between depression at time 1 and mother-child references to emotion, there was no justification for testing a mediated model. how are depression, mother-child references to emotion and children's attachment security related to emotion understanding? in the last set of analyses, we examined the relations between depression at time 1, mother-child references to emotion, attachment security and children's emotion understanding scores, controlling for children's receptive vocabulary skills. because there was a significant association between mother-child references to emotion and children's attachment security,wewereinterested in determining whether bothvariables made unique contributions to emotion understanding, or conversely, whether mother- child references to emotion mediated the association between attachment and emotion understanding. in this last set of models, we were also interested in identifying whether depression at time 1 remained associated with emotion understanding after accounting for both mother-child references to emotion and children's attachment security. there were no gender differences in children's emotion understanding scores, so gender was not included as a control variable. in the first step of the model, depression at time 1 and children's receptive vocabulary scores were entered into the model predicting children's emotion understanding. on the second step, attachment security was entered, and on the third step of the model, mother-childreferences to emotion were entered. results indicated that both depression at time 1 and mother-child references to emotion remained significant predictors of emotion understanding, along with children's receptive vocabulary scores. however, attachment security ceased to be a significant predictor of emotion understanding after including mother-child references to emotion in the model; the effects of security were mediated through mother-child references to emotion. to probe whether the mediation effects were statistically significant different from zero, sobel's test of mediation was employed (preacher leonardelli, 2001) and results indicated a marginally significant mediation effect p  1/4  08). the final model accounted for 50% of the variance in
data.question: What can farmers do to adapt to higher temperatures and lower precipitation environments?
data.text: for example, a farming community may plant new crops that have a higher heat tolerance or resistance to drought
data.question: Name a few ways coastal communities adapt to harsh and frequent storm surges.
data.text: a coastal community may restore mangroves to protect against more frequent storm surges, or move away from the coast altogether if highly threatened
data.question: Is adaption a generalized occurence or is it dependent on local contexts?
data.text: n each case, what constitutes adaptation depends upon the specific local context
data.context: given the many different drivers of vulnerability and the diversity of possible climatic changes, adaptation may entail any number of different activities. for example, a farming community may plant new crops that have a higher heat tolerance or resistance to drought. tour operators dependent upon reefs threatened by warming sea waters may learn new trades to diversify their livelihood. a coastal community may restore mangroves to protect against more frequent storm surges, or move away from the coast altogether if highly threatened. a government may protect citizens by investing in drought earlywarning systems, and may build its environmental observation systems in order to monitor how climate change affects important national resources. in each case, what constitutes adaptation depends upon the specific local context. the above examples highlight how climate change is entwined with a wide range of activities critical for
data.question: What did ice core records from Greenland reveal more than a decade ago?
data.text: more than a decade ago, ice core records from greenland revealed that the last glacial period was characterized by abrupt climate changes that recurred on millennial time scales
data.question: A complete understanding of the mechanisms of abrupt change requires what inclusion?
data.text: it is proposed that a complete understanding of the mechanisms of abrupt change requires inclusion of processes at both low and high latitudes, as well as the potential for feedbacks between them
data.question: What three different mechanisms are reviewed?
data.text: three different mechanisms are then reviewed: ocean thermohaline circulation, sea ice feedbacks, and tropical processes
data.context: more than a decade ago, ice core records from greenland revealed that the last glacial period was characterized by abrupt climate changes that recurred on millennial time scales. since their discovery, there has been a large effort to determine whether these climate events were a global phenomenon or were just confined to the north atlantic region and also to reveal the mechanisms that were responsible for them. in this paper, we review the available paleoclimate observations of abrupt change during the last glacial period in order to place constraints on possible mechanisms. three different mechanisms are then reviewed: ocean thermohaline circulation, sea ice feedbacks, and tropical processes. each mechanism is tested for its ability to explain the key features of the observations, particularly with regard to the abruptness, millennial recurrence, and geographical extent of the observed changes. it is found that each of these mechanisms has explanatory strengths and weaknesses, and key areas in which progress could be made in improving the understanding of their long-term behavior, both from observational and modeling approaches, are suggested. finally, it is proposed that a complete understanding of the mechanisms of abrupt change requires inclusion of processes at both low and high latitudes, as well as the potential for feedbacks between them. some suggestions for experimental approaches to test for such feedbacks with coupled climate models are given.
data.question: What is LM3?
data.text: lm3 is a new model for land water, energy, and carbon balance
data.question: What is included in LM3?
data.text: in comparison to its predecessor [the land dynamics (lad) model (milly and shmakin 2002)], lm3 includes a multilayer model of snowpack above the soil; a continuous vertical representation of soil water that spans both the unsaturated and saturated zones; a frozen soil-water phase; a parameterization of watertable height, saturated-area fraction, and groundwater discharge to streams derived from standard groundwaterhydraulic assumptions and surface topographic information; finite-velocity horizontal transport of runoff via rivers to the ocean; lakes, lake ice, and lake-ice snow packs that exchange mass and energy with both the atmosphere and the rivers; and consistent, energy-conserving accounting of the sensible heat content of water in all its phases. in stand-alone numerical experiments with observationbased atmospheric forcing, lm3 preserves the generally realistic water-balance partitioning of the lad model, ameliorates some of the deficiencies of the lad model previously identified, and provides qualitatively realistic estimates of physical variables that are not tracked by the lad model
data.question: What LM3 provides?
data.text: lm3 preserves the generally realistic water-balance partitioning of the lad model, ameliorates some of the deficiencies of the lad model previously identified, and provides qualitatively realistic estimates of physical variables that are not tracked by the lad model
data.context: the land model in cm2.5 is called lm3 (p. c. d. milly et al. 2011, unpublished manuscript) and represents a major change over the land model used in cm2.1. lm3 is a new model for land water, energy, and carbon balance. in comparison to its predecessor [the land dynamics (lad) model (milly and shmakin 2002)], lm3 includes a multilayer model of snowpack above the soil; a continuous vertical representation of soil water that spans both the unsaturated and saturated zones; a frozen soil-water phase; a parameterization of watertable height, saturated-area fraction, and groundwater discharge to streams derived from standard groundwaterhydraulic assumptions and surface topographic information; finite-velocity horizontal transport of runoff via rivers to the ocean; lakes, lake ice, and lake-ice snow packs that exchange mass and energy with both the atmosphere and the rivers; and consistent, energy-conserving accounting of the sensible heat content of water in all its phases. in stand-alone numerical experiments with observationbased atmospheric forcing, lm3 preserves the generally realistic water-balance partitioning of the lad model, ameliorates some of the deficiencies of the lad model previously identified, and provides qualitatively realistic estimates of physical variables that are not tracked by the lad model.
data.question: what does the figure 13 shows?
data.text: figure 13 shows (exemplarily for policy scenario a) the emissions on the positive side and co2 capturing on the negative side. it can quickly be seen that the share of oil in the entire remaining emissions is highest
data.question: how was the share of oil in the entire remaining emissions?
data.text: it can quickly be seen that the share of oil in the entire remaining emissions is highest
data.question: what is the reason for lot of emissions of CO2?
data.text: in this area a lot of co2 capturing is done, especially when using coal
data.context: the pursued stabilization scenario requires a fast and drastic decrease of emissions. figure 13 shows (exemplarily for policy scenario a) the emissions on the positive side and co2 capturing on the negative side. it can quickly be seen that the share of oil in the entire remaining emissions is highest. total emissions from fossil fuels stay above 3 gtc until the end of the century. most of these emissions are neutral25 ized by ccs technologies in combination with the use of biomass (green area in figure 13). the emissions are most rapidly decreasing in electricity production. in this area a lot of co2 capturing is done, especially when using coal. more than 10 gtc would be captured in 2100.
data.question: What does the removal of the organism include?
data.text: the organisms to be removed include bacteria, viruses, protozoan cysts and helminth eggs
data.question: What is the main objective of maturation ponds?
data.text: the main objective of maturation ponds is the removal of pathogens and not an additional bod removal
data.context: the removal of pathogenic organisms is one of the most important objectives of stabilisation ponds. the organisms to be removed include bacteria, viruses, protozoan cysts and helminth eggs. a certain removal occurs in the anaerobic, facultative and aerated ponds. however, most of the removal takes place in the maturation ponds which are especially designed for this purpose. table 12.3 in chapter 12 presents a summary of the removal efficiencies of the pathogens of interest in the main stabilisation pond systems. maturation ponds lead to a polishing of the effluent from any of the stabilisation pond systems previously described or, in broader terms, from any wastewater treatment system. figure 17.1 shows the flowsheet of a system of anaerobic-facultative ponds followed by a series of maturation ponds. the main objective of maturation ponds is the removal of pathogens and not an additional bod removal. maturation ponds constitute an economic alternative to the disinfection of the effluent by more conventional methods, such as chlorination.
data.question: What are the actual and potential impacts of climatic changes on sea-level?
data.text: sea levels will rise around the globe as a result of climate change
data.question: What is the primary cause, at least in near-term, in sea levels rising?
data.text: the thermal expansion of the oceans resulting from rising oceanic temperatures
data.question: What are the current predictions surrounding the speed of the melting of the Greenland ice sheet?
data.text: that it will take many hundreds of years before it is all gone
data.context: the actual and potential impacts of these climatic changes are large and wide ranging, affecting many aspects of people's everyday lives. sea-level rise sea levels will rise around the globe as a result of climate change. the primary cause, at least in the near term, is the thermal expansion of the oceans resulting from rising oceanic temperatures. this will deliver a rise of about half a metre by the end of this century.31 this prediction does not include many uncertainties. one such is the speed of the melting of the greenland ice sheet. current predictions are that it will take many hundreds of years before it is all gone. but some models suggest that as
data.question: Students describe the study?
data.text: all students agreed to write the letter. the next year we delivered some of these letters to new first-year students not participating in the study. two raters, blind to participants' condition, gender, and major, coded the essays and letters students in the first cohort wrote
data.question: What is study-ability?
data.text: results confirmed that students were sensitive to the divergent content of the two interventions and the study-skills control condition (described later). their writings did not differ by gender or major. for details, see the online supplemental material
data.question: What are tutors?
data.text: tudents read information indicating that many students lack adequate study skills at first in engineering but learn better study skills with time. for instance, the "summary of results" indicated that during their first year, "almost all" upper year students had felt "overwhelmed by the workload" and "had difficulty keeping track of due dates and deadlines" but that, over time, most students learned "proper study techniques," including "attending class regularly" and "recording
data.context: all students agreed to write the letter. the next year we delivered some of these letters to new first-year students not participating in the study. two raters, blind to participants' condition, gender, and major, coded the essays and letters students in the first cohort wrote. results confirmed that students were sensitive to the divergent content of the two interventions and the study-skills control condition (described later). their writings did not differ by gender or major. for details, see the online supplemental material. control conditions. two randomized control conditions were used. in cohort 1, the procedure was the same but the materials addressed an unrelated topic, study skills. students read information indicating that many students lack adequate study skills at first in engineering but learn better study skills with time. for instance, the "summary of results" indicated that during their first year, "almost all" upper year students had felt "overwhelmed by the workload" and "had difficulty keeping track of due dates and deadlines" but that, over time, most students learned "proper study techniques," including "attending class regularly" and "recording
data.question: What year started the Statistical Agency?
data.text: statistical agency (csa, 2012) in all four administrative zones in the lake tana basin, while corn yields were overestimated in all four zones compared to the observed data. the higher corn yields in both weather simulations were associated with high fertilizer application in the model
data.question: Define  CFSR?
data.text: these results indicate that while cfsr weather is no substitute for high-quality observed weather, it may be useful where such data are lacking. it is not always easy to find conventional weather stations at a given spatial and temporal resolution, especially in developing countries
data.question: Summarize about aquatic models
data.text: this allows the flexibility to apply different functions pertaining to hydrological models. for example, with the conventional weather, we were limited to using the hargreaves method to calculate potential evapotranspiration because this method only requires maximum and minimum temperatures to calculate potential evapotranspiration. however, availability of wind speed, relative humidity, and solar radiation data in the cfsr weather provides the flexibility to use penman-montieth and priestley-taylor methods. all in all, while hydrological model simulations should use high-quality observed weather data when available, cfsr weather is a viable option for simulating the hydrology of an area in data-scarce regions. supporting information additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article: table s1. mean monthly streamflows (over 15 year's period) at gilgel abay, gumera, rib, and megech river gauging stations with conventional weather and cfsr weather simulations. figure s1. hydrographs for monthly stream flows with the conventional weather and cfsr weather simulations at the (a) gilgel abay, (b) gumera, (c) rib, and (d) megech river gauging stations
data.context: statistical agency (csa, 2012) in all four administrative zones in the lake tana basin, while corn yields were overestimated in all four zones compared to the observed data. the higher corn yields in both weather simulations were associated with high fertilizer application in the model. these results indicate that while cfsr weather is no substitute for high-quality observed weather, it may be useful where such data are lacking. it is not always easy to find conventional weather stations at a given spatial and temporal resolution, especially in developing countries. moreover, when the data exist, they may be unreliable because of gaps and other problems, such as random errors. in such cases, it may be better to use global data sources such as cfsr. cfsr weather has an advantage over conventional weather in that it provides complete sets of climatic data. this allows the flexibility to apply different functions pertaining to hydrological models. for example, with the conventional weather, we were limited to using the hargreaves method to calculate potential evapotranspiration because this method only requires maximum and minimum temperatures to calculate potential evapotranspiration. however, availability of wind speed, relative humidity, and solar radiation data in the cfsr weather provides the flexibility to use penman-montieth and priestley-taylor methods. all in all, while hydrological model simulations should use high-quality observed weather data when available, cfsr weather is a viable option for simulating the hydrology of an area in data-scarce regions. supporting information additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article: table s1. mean monthly streamflows (over 15 year's period) at gilgel abay, gumera, rib, and megech river gauging stations with conventional weather and cfsr weather simulations. figure s1. hydrographs for monthly stream flows with the conventional weather and cfsr weather simulations at the (a) gilgel abay, (b) gumera, (c) rib, and (d) megech river gauging stations.
data.question: What does the analysis help with?
data.text: our analysis helps to substantiate the hypothesis of an increase in child malnutrition rates in both developed and developing countries in the future as a result of variability changes, all other things being equal
data.question: Where could the increases be particularly apparent?
data.text: these increases could be particularly large in sub-saharan africa as a result of high population growth rates and relatively large areas with high rainfall variability
data.question: What is the largest area needing food aid?
data.text: sub-saharan africa is already by far the largest recipient of food aid
data.context: even though simplified and with a high degree of uncertainty, our analysis helps to substantiate the hypothesis of an increase in child malnutrition rates in both developed and developing countries in the future as a result of variability changes, all other things being equal. these increases could be particularly large in sub-saharan africa as a result of high population growth rates and relatively large areas with high rainfall variability. sub-saharan africa is already by far the largest recipient of food aid: average annual shipments amount to about 2 per cent of all food consumed. under many scenarios, the number of food-insecure people in sub-saharan africa by 2020 is still likely to be at least 500 million (usda, 2010), and this is a challenge that will clearly not be made any easier by increases in rainfall and temperature variability.
data.question: which brought home the reality that the twentieth century dreams of infinite cheap energy and limitless resources were unrealistic?
data.text:  environmental shocks ' that brought home the reality that the twentieth century dreams of infinite cheap energy and limitless resources were unrealistic
data.question: Futurologists claimed we have how many years of oil left?
data.text: futurologists then claimed we only had 30 years of oil left
data.question: which nations became the most vulnerable?
data.text: the richest nations, ironically, became the most vulnerable
data.context: while the scientists of the world have long been wrestling with the theoretical problem of climate change and resource depletion, for the general public the first of the ' environmental shocks ' that brought home the reality that the twentieth century dreams of infinite cheap energy and limitless resources were unrealistic was the energy crisis of the mid-1970s. with it came the dawning realization that oil, the magic energy source from which the wealth and enjoyment of nations was built, of which every barrel can do the same ' work ' as 540 man-hours of effort, 17 would one day run out. futurologists then claimed we only had 30 years of oil left, a prediction that has proved to be, perhaps, less than half right, but globally, people started counting the barrels, and comparing them to the available reserves, and understandably, investing in renewable energy programmes. the first public blow had been struck; mankind was perceived to be vulnerable and, by now, officially engaged in a battle, not against the air, but against their own fossil fuel dependency and time, two equally powerful adversaries. and the richest nations, ironically, became the most vulnerable.
data.question: What if the Caspian Sea exceeds saturation?
data.text: the caspian sea is maintained as a saturated surface; if the predicted soil water for any grid box in the caspian sea exceeds saturation, the excess water is treated as runoff and is routed to the ocean point corresponding to the mouth of the indus river. conversely, if the predicted soil water at any grid point in the caspian sea is less than saturation, sufficient freshwater is moved instantaneously from the ocean at the mouth of the indus river to the caspian sea to maintain saturation
data.question: the greenhouse gases and solar irradiance are?
data.text: the specified anthropogenic aerosols include black carbon, organic carbon, and sulfate aerosols. natural aerosols include sea salt and dust
data.context: the differences between am2.0/lm2.0 and the atmosphere and land models described in gfdl_ gamdt are relatively minor. first, in an attempt to address a persistent cold bias, the net surface shortwave radiation in the model was increased. this was accomplished through a 45% increase (from 4.7  10 6s 1to 6.8  10 6s 1) in the cloud scheme parameter that controls the rate of erosion of clouds under convective conditions. second, the caspian sea is now treated as a special land surface type. this is necessary since the caspian sea is not included as part of the ocean model, and there is no lake model within lm2.0. the caspian sea is maintained as a saturated surface; if the predicted soil water for any grid box in the caspian sea exceeds saturation, the excess water is treated as runoff and is routed to the ocean point corresponding to the mouth of the indus river. conversely, if the predicted soil water at any grid point in the caspian sea is less than saturation, sufficient freshwater is moved instantaneously from the ocean at the mouth of the indus river to the caspian sea to maintain saturation. thus, the atmospheric model sees the caspian sea as a saturated surface, while global water conservation is maintained. third, a revised set of 1990 radiative conditions was employed, which includes updated specifications for well-mixed greenhouse gases, tropospheric and stratospheric ozone, the three-dimensional distribution of natural and anthropogenic aerosols, solar irradiance, and the distribution of land cover types. values for the well-mixed greenhouse gases and solar irradiance are listed in table 1. the specified anthropogenic aerosols include black carbon, organic carbon, and sulfate aerosols. natural aerosols include sea salt and dust. the
data.question: what will the reason of increase malaria case?
data.text: temperature rises will increase malaria cases
data.context: furthermore, the urban population in developing countries is projected to increase from 2*3 billion in 2005 to 4 billion by 2030, which is compounded by expanding urban sprawl and poor housing.35 this change will inevitably increase the risk of heatwaves and heatstrokes in cities in developing countries as a result of the so-called heat island eff ect. rising temperatures will also aff ect the spread and transmission rates of vector-borne and rodent-borne diseases. temperature aff ects rate of pathogen maturation and replication within mosquitoes, the density of insects in a particular area, and increases the likelihood of infection. therefore, some populations who have little or no immunity to new infections might be at increased risk. vector reproduction, parasite development cycle, and bite frequency generally rise with temperature; therefore, malaria, tick-borne encephalitis, and dengue fever will become increasingly widespread. in some cases, extreme events, such as heavy rains, will wash away eggs and larvae and decrease vector populations. mosquitoes responsible for malaria will grow, by accessing warm high altitudes, in places once free of the disease.36 lindsay and martens37 have used models and scenarios to estimate that 260-320 million more people will be aff ected by malaria by 2080 as a consequence of new transmission zones. other studies provide similar estimates.38,39 pascual and colleagues40 modelled the population dynamics of mosquitoes in relation to warming in east african highlands. they found that mosquito abundance is amplifi ed with warming, with an over ten-fold increase with every unit increase (0*1degc) in temperature. in kenya, meteorological factors were associated with malaria incidence, with temperature having the largest eff ect.41 this fi nding suggests that temperature rises will increase malaria cases. reiter and colleagues42 have cautioned against attributing malaria dynamics to climate change and point to the uncertainties of predicting malaria epidemics nationally and locally.
data.question: What is the difficulty in generating interactions based on patterns of co-occurrence?
data.text:  one major difficulty that our approach begins to address is that data to characterize interactions among species in diverse communities are generally lacking and are unlikely to become available in the near future
data.question: How to overcome the  data to characterize interactions among species in diverse communities are generally lacking and are unlikely to become available?
data.text: we use an approach based on network analysis to make inferences about potential broad-scale interactions between species based on the analysis of patterns of geographic overlap in the distributions of species
data.question: According to passage, on what kind of species the approach is implemented?
data.text: the approach is implemented with data on the distributions of reptile, amphibian, mammal, and bird species across most of western europe
data.context: early view (ev): 1-ev of interacting species across large areas. the approach does not seek to incorporate biotic interactions in the modelling process. instead, it seeks to generate inferences about the strength of potential interactions based on patterns of cooccurrence among species and assess the degree to which they are likely to constrain assessments of the species sensitivity to climate change. one major difficulty that our approach begins to address is that data to characterize interactions among species in diverse communities are generally lacking and are unlikely to become available in the near future. in order to address this shortfall, we use an approach based on network analysis to make inferences about potential broad-scale interactions between species based on the analysis of patterns of geographic overlap in the distributions of species. the reconstructed relationships are then used to estimate broad network properties, such as their overall robustness or resistance to species loss, as well as properties of the networked species, such as the species contributions to network robustness or the species sensitivity to the loss of links in the network (see for alternative implementations of coexistence networks in biogeography and community ecology: dos santos et al. 2008, blick and burns 2009, azaele et al. 2010, bell et al. 2010). the relationship between measured network properties and projected species distributional changes is then explored. the approach is implemented with data on the distributions of reptile, amphibian, mammal, and bird species across most of western europe. these data are used for illustration of the framework and its methods, rather than for testing inferences about biotic interactions from patterns of cooccurrence; future testing of the framework should seek to use networks with tested functional properties.
data.question: Who asked, "I wonder what he meant by that?"
data.text: count metternich of austria is reputed to have asked suspiciously, "i wonder what he meant by that
data.question: What makes "I wonder what he meant by that?" the correct question?
data.text: it is correct because it forces us to check for any hidden agenda
data.question: French diplomat Talleyrand, switched allegiance successfully from Napoleon to what?
data.text: french diplomat talleyrand, who had managed to switch allegiance successfully from napoleon to the bourbon restoration
data.context: on hearing of the death of the hitherto indestructible french diplomat talleyrand, who had managed to switch allegiance successfully from napoleon to the bourbon restoration, count metternich of austria is reputed to have asked suspiciously, "i wonder what he meant by that?" apocryphal or not, the anecdote simply applies the correct question to ask of any diplomatic action. it is correct because it forces us to check for any hidden agenda or, in the language of social theory, to check for and to identify the framing of a statement or policy. the more highly charged the issue, the more likely that there will be multiple framings, or multiple
data.question: Who have been there to see the significant changes?
data.text: for mjosa and piburger
data.question: What cause the water temperature to increse?
data.text: the lake remains on the borderline between oligotrophic and mesotrophic
data.question: Who water diatom evidence for recovery?
data.text: for loch leven and esthwaite
data.context: for mjosa and piburger see there have also been significant changes in the diatom assemblages of the sediments towards pre-eutrophication floras of the lakes. however, in mjosa not all the pre-eutrophication taxa have reappeared and the lake remains on the borderline between oligotrophic and mesotrophic, either because nitrate concentrations remain high or because water temperature has increased (hobaek et al ., 2012). also in piburger see several diatom taxa (i.e. asterionella formosa and some cyclotella species) have appeared in the lake that have not occurred previously, again possibly due to climate change (thies et al ., 2012). for loch leven and esthwaite water diatom evidence for recovery is also less apparent in accord with the less pronounced reduction in tp concentrations at these sites. both are relatively shallow sites and are more naturally eutrophic than mjosa and piburger see, and may also be more susceptible to internal p recycling.
data.question: What does the text above says about Lins and Slack (1999) in a study of streamflow trends in the United States during the period 1944-1993?
data.text: lins and slack (1999), in a study of streamflow trends in the united states during the period 1944-1993, noted that trends were most prevalent in the annual minimum to median flows and least prevalent in the annual maximum category
data.question: Where the increases in streamflow were not observed across the United States?
data.text: generally, increases in streamflow were observed across most of the united states, except in the southeast and the pacific northwest, where decreases were observed
data.question: What  is similar this  shift in streamflow?
data.text: this shift in streamflow is similar to the response of the mackenzie and severnaya dvina we predict for an increase in temperature during the winter months
data.context: lins and slack (1999), in a study of streamflow trends in the united states during the period 1944-1993, noted that trends were most prevalent in the annual minimum to median flows and least prevalent in the annual maximum category. generally, increases in streamflow were observed across most of the united states, except in the southeast and the pacific northwest, where decreases were observed. they concluded that the conterminous united states is becoming wetter and less extreme. gan (1998) in a study of the canadian prairies, found that over the last 40-50 years many stations observed positive trends in streamflow during march, attributed to an earlier onset of snowmelt, followed by lower flows in may and june. this shift in streamflow is similar to the response of the mackenzie and severnaya dvina we predict for an increase in temperature during the winter months (figure 11). similarly, grabs et al. (2000) found a positive trend in the annual discharge
data.question: The generalized phenology model is used to calculate what?
data.text: we used our generalized phenology model to calculate the relative annual controls of vpd, minimum temperature, and photoperiod spatially over the entire globe
data.question: What did each color of the Red/Green/Blue (RGB) composite represent?
data.text: the temperature, vpd, and photoperiod limits were then displayed as an red/ green/blue (rgb) composite with each color representing a variable. vpd limits are displayed in red, photoperiod limits are displayed in green and minimum temperature limits are displayed in blue
data.question: How was each value expressed in terms of the number of days that it limits phenology in a year?
data.text: we then subtracted the annual pointwise indicator sums from 365 to express each value in terms of the number of days that it limits phenology in a year
data.context: we used our generalized phenology model to calculate the relative annual controls of vpd, minimum temperature, and photoperiod spatially over the entire globe. we utilized daily gridded climate data from the national center for environment prediction (ncep)/ national center for atmospheric research (ncar) reanalysis (kistler et al ., 2001) for the year 2000 to construct a global map of the factors that limit foliar phenology. we calculated the point-wise daily indicators for minimum temperature, vpd, and photoperiod (eqns (1)-(3), respectively) and summed each indicator over the year. these indicators tell us the number of days of the year that each variable was not limiting at a given location. we then subtracted the annual pointwise indicator sums from 365 to express each value in terms of the number of days that it limits phenology in a year. we calculated the actual vapor pressure from surface air pressure and specific humidity and saturation vapor pressure from average surface temperature. vpd was calculated as the difference between saturation and actual vapor pressures. photoperiod was estimated as a function of latitude and yearday (monteith unsworth, 1990). the temperature, vpd, and photoperiod limits were then displayed as an red/ green/blue (rgb) composite with each color representing a variable. vpd limits are displayed in red, photoperiod limits are displayed in green and minimum temperature limits are displayed in blue.
data.question: What has the international community concluded about societies?
data.text: the international community has concluded that societies around the world will need to adapt to some magnitude of climate change in the 21st century
data.question: What industry has received scant consideration in climate change adaptation?
data.text: engaged in climate change adaptation research for years, adaptation has received scant consideration within the tourism-recreation industry
data.question: What is the anticipation of climate change adaptation in the ski industry?
data.text: considering the highly competitive nature of the ski industry and the generally low climate change risk appraisal within the industry, climate change adaptation is anticipated to remain individualistic and reactive for some time
data.context: regardless of the success of climate change mitigation efforts, the international community has concluded that societies around the world will need to adapt to some magnitude of climate change in the 21st century. while some economic sectors (e.g., agriculture, water resources and construction) have been actively engaged in climate change adaptation research for years, adaptation has received scant consideration within the tourism-recreation industry. this is particularly the case for adaptation by tourism operators (supply-side). one exception where progress on supply-side climate adaptation has been made is the ski industry. this paper provides a brief overview of the literature on the implications of climate change for the international ski industry and how adaptation by ski area operators has been treated within these studies. this is followed by an inventory of climate adaptation practices currently used by ski industry stakeholders, including the historical development of certain key adaptations and constraints to wider use. the characteristics of ski areas with higher adaptive capacity are identified. considering the highly competitive nature of the ski industry and the generally low climate change risk appraisal within the industry, climate change adaptation is anticipated to remain individualistic and reactive for some time. with only a few exceptions, the existing climate change literature on winter tourism has not considered the wide range of adaptation options identified in this paper and has likely overestimated potential damages. an important task for future studies is to develop methodologies to incorporate adaptation so that a more accurate understanding of the vulnerability of the international ski industry can be ascertained. keywords adaptation ae climate change ae ski industry ae tourism ae winter sports
data.question: How many residents died?
data.text: 7 residents of this ontario village died
data.context: the unexpected 1998 ice storm which caused about can $5 billion damage in eastern canada is an extreme event, which, according to the literature on climate change, is expected to become more frequent and more intense in the future (ipcc, 2001). it was vividly experienced in the region. the 2001 and 2002 eastern ontario droughts were milder forms of extreme events. the may 2000 walkerton (ontario) water quality crisis in which 7 residents of this ontario village died and 113 others fell seriously ill from e. coli contamination had circumstantial ties to climate changes in that contamination occurred after an excessively wet period succeeded a dry one coupled with contaminated run-off from agricultural lands entering the community well (o'connor, 2002). the july 2004 peterborough (ontario) flood is yet another instance of extreme event, though not experienced in eastern ontario. emergency plans offer the opportunity to take climate change risks into consideration, such as those resulting from extreme events. however, emergency plans do not suffice. risk assessment/management requires long-term strategies to be included in the planning process of municipalities and risk-reducing measures to be taken in its everyday operations; it goes well beyond the design of purely reactive emergency responses (bruce et al., 1999). this climate change adaptation case-study, after looking carefully at water quantity impacts on groundwater resources (the major source of drinking water in the region) under various climate scenarios, concludes that negative impacts are highly localized at least for unusual scenarios of temperature, precipitation
data.question: Explain large-scale motions of the atmosphere and oceans of the Earth?
data.text: although the large-scale motions of the atmosphere and oceans of the earth are very close to geostrophic and hydrostatic balance, these relations break up when moving down to the mesoscale, and the transfers of energy due to turbulence, or the non-linear interaction of inertia-gravity waves, might not follow the inverse cascade scenario described in sections iii.b.1-iii.b.2. as a matter of fact, a downscale transfer of energy is needed in the ocean to feed enhanced vertical mixing (e.g., ledwell et al. 2000) or small-scale dissipation in the ocean interior nikurashin et al. 2013
data.question: To whom the processes are necessary to close the energy budget of the ocean?
data.text: such processes are necessary to close the energy budget of the ocean wunsch and ferrari 2004
data.question: how equilibrium statistical mechanics can help understanding ?
data.text: it is therefore natural to ask how equilibrium statistical mechanics can help understanding how energy is exchanged by nonlinear interactions between the slow, balanced motions and the fast, wave motions
data.context: although the large-scale motions of the atmosphere and oceans of the earth are very close to geostrophic and hydrostatic balance, these relations break up when moving down to the mesoscale, and the transfers of energy due to turbulence, or the non-linear interaction of inertia-gravity waves, might not follow the inverse cascade scenario described in sections iii.b.1-iii.b.2. as a matter of fact, a downscale transfer of energy is needed in the ocean to feed enhanced vertical mixing (e.g., ledwell et al. 2000) or small-scale dissipation in the ocean interior nikurashin et al. 2013). such processes are necessary to close the energy budget of the ocean wunsch and ferrari 2004). it is therefore natural to ask how equilibrium statistical mechanics can help understanding how energy is exchanged by nonlinear interactions between the slow, balanced motions and the fast, wave motions. errico (1984) first observed a tendency for unforced inviscid flows described by hydrostatic primitive equations to reach an energy equipartition state, in which the energy in the fast wave modes is comparable to that in the slow balanced modes. the study by warn (1986), in the 12 context of the shallow water equations, essentially confirms that qg flows are not equilibrium states, and that a substantial part of the energy may end up in the fast (surface) wave modes at statistical equilibrium, implying a direct cascade of energy to the small scales. bartello (1995) has obtained analytically the equilibrium energy spectrum for the boussinesq equations (neglecting the nonlinear part of potential vorticity), in the presence of rotation, confirming the direct cascade of energy. in particular, there is no negative temperature states in this case, due to the presence of the inertia-gravity waves. in fact, numerical simulations pouquet and marino 2013) indicate that turbulence with rotation and stratification might have at the same time an inverse and a direct cascade of energy. a natural interpretation would be that vortical modes are responsible for the inverse cascade while waves cascade energy downscale simultaneously. bartello (1995) had discussed the possibility of a wavevortical mode decoupling on the basis of resonant triadic interactions. without any assumptions on the dynamics, another interpretation in the statistical mechanics framework uses an analogy with metastable states: restricting the equilibrium probability distribution to the slow manifold yields an inverse cascade, while taking into account the whole phase space including the waves results in a direct cascade herbert et al. 2014).
data.question: What do the simulations project by 2041-2070 and 2071-2100?
data.text: however, by 2041-2070 and 2071-2100, the simulations project a significant decrease of almost all groundwater levels and flow rate at 'kanne' compared to the control simulation
data.question: Depending on what are the mean groundwater levels expected to decrease by 2-8 m by 2071-2100?
data.text: by 2071-2100, mean groundwater levels are expected to decrease by 2-8 m depending on location in the geer basin and the climate change scenario analysed
data.question: Who has projected the greatest changes?
data.text: generally, the greatest changes are projected by had_p_h, which predicts large precipitation decreases during almost the whole year
data.context: during 2011-2040, no clear changes from the observed control simulation 1967-1997 can be identified, with large uncertainties projected in the direction of change for both surface flow rate and mean groundwater hydraulic head. however, by 2041-2070 and 2071-2100, the simulations project a significant decrease of almost all groundwater levels and flow rate at 'kanne' compared to the control simulation. by 2071-2100, mean groundwater levels are expected to decrease by 2-8 m depending on location in the geer basin and the climate change scenario analysed. for an equivalent unsaturated zone depth, which smoothes recharge fluxes, the variability of the groundwater levels is projected to increase. for the same period, flows at kanne are expected to decrease between 9% and 33%. fig. 10 shows that the decrease in flows is not significant in winter, but in summer all mean flow values and standard deviation intervals for the 2071-2100 time period are lower than the mean flow value of the control period. generally, the greatest changes are projected by had_p_h, which predicts large precipitation decreases during almost the whole year. the smallest changes are projected by arpege_h, which combines a small increase in temperature with a small decrease in precipitation. table 9 also shows the increasing importance of the evapotranspiration and water ion fluxes, compared to the annual rainfall flux which is expected to decrease in the future. however, except for arpege_h, simulations project that actual evapotranspiration rates will decrease, as the general increase in temperature is offset by the decrease in precipitation in summer. discussion of the results calibration climate change simulations indicate that groundwater levels and river flow rates are expected to decrease significantly by 2041-2070 and 2071-2100. because the calibration of the numerical model is still not perfect, uncertainty remains and may translate into the results of climate change impact studies. in particular,
data.question: What will be the next phase of Bank work on adaptation?
data.text: the next phase of bank work on adaptation will inevitably be a learning phase in which a conscious attempt is made to gather experience that can help to decide more precisely where and when strong attention to climate change risks is required, when it is not, and how to manage the risks in cases where it is
data.question: Why must the learning phase be facilitated and stimulated?
data.text: this learning phase, which has already started, should be facilitated and stimulated, so that it can gain further momentum, and lessons learned should be shared and incorporated in day-to-day bank work
data.question: What suggestions does the paper provide?
data.text: this paper provides suggestions of what the next steps in that learning phase for bank work on adaptation could be, and discusses how the bank's activities relate to the international context of climate change adaptation
data.context: the next phase of bank work on adaptation will inevitably be a learning phase in which a conscious attempt is made to gather experience that can help to decide more precisely where and when strong attention to climate change risks is required, when it is not, and how to manage the risks in cases where it is. this learning phase, which has already started, should be facilitated and stimulated, so that it can gain further momentum, and lessons learned should be shared and incorporated in day-to-day bank work. this paper provides suggestions of what the next steps in that learning phase for bank work on adaptation could be, and discusses how the bank's activities relate to the international context of climate change adaptation.
data.question: Analysis of the three decision contexts?
data.text: these three decision contexts have rather different information needs in terms of the relevant spatio-temporal scales, the consideration of non-climatic stressors and factors, the treatment of uncertainty, and the importance of normative valuations. assessments addressing the first, second, and third policy goal are denoted in this paper as 'impact assessment', (firstand second-generation) 'vulnerability assessment', and 'adaptation policy assessment', respectively
data.question: How is the detection of the trend of the evaluations determined?
data.text: detection of these trends is facilitated by the exceptional circumstance that the complete body of scientific knowledge on anthropogenic climate change, associated impacts, and potential response mechanisms is regularly synthesized by the ipcc. the preface of the wg ii contribution to the ipcc third assessment report highlights the following differences compared to earlier wg ii assessments (mccarthy et al., 2001, p. ix): - efforts to address a number of cross-cutting issues, such as sustainable development, equity, and scientific uncertainties
data.context: assessments of vulnerability to climate change are conducted in a variety of contexts, and for a diverse group of stakeholders motivated by rather different concerns. in light of the fundamental response options to climate change, three major decision contexts can be distinguished: 1. specification of long-term targets for the mitigation of global climate change. 2. identification of particularly vulnerable regions and/or groups in society to prioritize resource allocation for research and for adaptation (both internationally and nationally). 3. recommendation of adaptation measures for specific regions and sectors. these three decision contexts have rather different information needs in terms of the relevant spatio-temporal scales, the consideration of non-climatic stressors and factors, the treatment of uncertainty, and the importance of normative valuations. assessments addressing the first, second, and third policy goal are denoted in this paper as 'impact assessment', (firstand second-generation) 'vulnerability assessment', and 'adaptation policy assessment', respectively. these four assessment types are subsumed under the term 'climate change vulnerability assessment'. despite the multitude of climate change vulnerability assessments that have been conducted for many different sectors and regions, certain trends can be observed. detection of these trends is facilitated by the exceptional circumstance that the complete body of scientific knowledge on anthropogenic climate change, associated impacts, and potential response mechanisms is regularly synthesized by the ipcc. the preface of the wg ii contribution to the ipcc third assessment report highlights the following differences compared to earlier wg ii assessments (mccarthy et al., 2001, p. ix): - efforts to address a number of cross-cutting issues, such as sustainable development, equity, and scientific uncertainties.
data.question: What is plague and how is it transmitted?
data.text: plague is a bacterial disease transmitted by the bite of infected fleas, by direct contact with infected animals, and by inhaling infective bacteria
data.question: How does the plague circulate in the United States?
data.text: in the united states, plague circulates enzootically among wild rodents from the pacific coast to the western edge of the great plains, with incidental transmission to humans
data.question: When did the last urban plague epidemic in the United States occur?
data.text: the last urban plague epidemic in the united states occurred in 1924
data.context: plague. plague is a bacterial disease transmitted by the bite of infected fleas, by direct contact with infected animals, and by inhaling infective bacteria. although only 200 cases were reported worldwide in 1981, there has been a resurgence of epidemic plague, focally in all major regions of the world and particularly in africa, where about 3,000 cases are now reported annually. in the united states, plague circulates enzootically among wild rodents from the pacific coast to the western edge of the great plains, with incidental transmission to humans. the last urban plague epidemic in the united states occurred in 1924; at present, an average of 14 human cases occur in the united states per year 64 ), with a 2-fold higher incidence in adult males than females 65 ). the largest numbers of cases occur in new mexico, arizona, california, and colorado 64 ).
data.question: Who will the recasting of policy issues in the energy sector cause severe coordination problems for?
data.text: the case study demonstrates that although substantial recasting of policy issues and traditional forms of urban governance in the energy sector is underway, public authorities are confronted with severe coordination problems
data.question: Before the new changes, how did energy planning take place in the traditional way?
data.text: energy planning took place almost bilaterally between the single supervisory authority and the regional monopolist
data.question: How are they planning to tackle energy problems with the new policies?
data.text: more shifts take place towards tackling energy problems in an integrated manner across different policy fields and territorial boundaries and in cooperation with numerous private actors
data.context: the case study demonstrates that although substantial recasting of policy issues and traditional forms of urban governance in the energy sector is underway, public authorities are confronted with severe coordination problems. the more urban and regional energy policy moves away from the traditional regulatory and public ownership model, in which energy planning took place almost bilaterally between the single supervisory authority and the regional monopolist, and the more shifts take place towards tackling energy problems in an integrated manner across different policy fields and territorial boundaries and in cooperation with numerous private actors, the more institutional problems of policy-making are likely to appear.
data.question: What was at the heart of the global economic crash of 2008?
data.text: at the heart of the global economic crash of 2008 lay a black hole of worthless assets into which the markets imploded
data.question: What is an issue with modern office block walls?
data.text: many modern office blocks are built without proper walls, as described in the building regulations
data.question: What is a repercussion of badly built walls?
data.text: the result is buildings that are hugely costly to heat and cool
data.context: at the heart of the global economic crash of 2008 lay a black hole of worthless assets into which the markets imploded. the leading ' real ' asset owned by many financial institutions, along with gold, is buildings. yet the long-term value of those buildings was never really questioned. banks and insurance companies unquestioningly assumed a face value of these investments based on the short-term costs of selling and buying them on a rising bull market. well into 2007 markets were awash with cheap money apparently indiscriminately available to individuals and institutions alike to keep buying, selling, leasing and renting these assets for whatever they could get for them or get them for, in line with the market models and drivers taught relentlessly in business schools around the world. buildings ceased to be seen as much-loved homes or well-liked and respected foundation stones for durable businesses, but rather as commodities that could be traded on eventually for profit. the problem was that too little attention was paid to the durability of them as investments or their actual shelf-lives. durabilit e is the french term for sustainability and it is a very good word. investors too often had a disastrously unrealistic understanding of the economic sustainability of the assets they were happy to pay so much money for. very often it was not their own money and frequently decision-making individuals would be financially rewarded for the value of the portfolios they were trading in and were not accountable for losses incurred as a result of such decisions. sound familiar? so what is the problem? the problem is that many of these buildings are ' investment nightmares ' in the 2003 manuscript for the first edition of this book, published in early 2005, the poor quality of many modern buildings was pointed out. many modern office blocks are built without proper walls, as described in the building regulations. these require that walls should have a ' transmittance ' to heat (or u-value) of around 0.25. many of the glass-box buildings in cities have double-glazed envelopes with 10 times that u-value. increasingly in such buildings the bulk of the construction costs are used not on the fabric of the building, its walls, floors, windows, mass and insulation to protect and shelter occupants, but on machines to deal with the problem of overheating and cooling created by putting people into buildings that are little more than glass boxes with fixed windows. the result is buildings that are hugely costly to heat and cool, the more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: What did this study model?
data.text: we computed the excess mortality attributable to temperature by projecting the impact using the modelled daily series of temperature and mortality under the assumption of no adaptation or population changes, extending a method previously illustrated
data.question: How did the authors calculate total excess mortality attributed to non-optimal temperature?
data.text: briefly, for each location, we used the overall cumulative relative risk corresponding to each day's temperature to compute the attributable deaths and fraction in the next 21 days, using the minimum mortality temperature, referred to as the optimal temperature, as the reference. the sum of the contributions from all the days of the series is interpreted as the total excess mortality attributed to non-optimal temperature, whereas the components attributable to cold and heat were separated by summing the subsets corresponding to days with temperatures lower or higher than the minimum mortality temperature, respectively
data.question: How did authors address uncertainty in the data?
data.text: we used monte carlo simulations to obtain empirical cis (ecis), quantifying the uncertainty in both the estimation of the exposure-lag-response relationships and climate projections across gcms (appendix
data.context: we computed the excess mortality attributable to temperature by projecting the impact using the modelled daily series of temperature and mortality under the assumption of no adaptation or population changes, extending a method previously illustrated.16 briefly, for each location, we used the overall cumulative relative risk corresponding to each day's temperature to compute the attributable deaths and fraction in the next 21 days, using the minimum mortality temperature, referred to as the optimal temperature, as the reference. the sum of the contributions from all the days of the series is interpreted as the total excess mortality attributed to non-optimal temperature, whereas the components attributable to cold and heat were separated by summing the subsets corresponding to days with temperatures lower or higher than the minimum mortality temperature, respectively (see appendix for an illustrative example). we first calculated the excess mortality separately for each location and combinations of gcms and rcps. we then computed attributable fractions as gcm-ensemble averages by aggregating by region and country, decade, and rcp, using the related total number of deaths as denominator. we used monte carlo simulations to obtain empirical cis (ecis), quantifying the uncertainty in both the estimation of the exposure-lag-response relationships and climate projections across gcms (appendix). we did all analyses with r (version 3.4.0), using the packages dlnm and mvmeta. the code is available on request from the first author (ag).
data.question: What did the UNFCCC report estimate the adaptation costs for the health sector be?
data.text: in the range of $4-12 billion per year in 2030
data.question: What are the adaptation costs for?
data.text: preventing the additional climate-change-related cases of diarrhoeal disease, malnutrition and malaria in 2030
data.question: How were the total costs estimated?
data.text: by taking the number of additional cases and multiplying them by the costs of prevention per child, obtained from the disease control priorities in developing countries project
data.context: the unfccc report estimated the adaptation costs for the health sector to be in the range of $4-12 billion per year in 2030 (unfccc, 2007). the adaptation costs are for preventing the additional climate-change-related cases of diarrhoeal disease, malnutrition and malaria in 2030. (these are discussed in more detail below.) the total costs were estimated by taking the number of additional cases and multiplying them by the costs of prevention per child, obtained from the disease control priorities in developing countries project (world bank, 2006). thus, uncertainties relate to both the estimates of the future burden and the method for costing. the prevention activities were based on currently deployed interventions and are listed in table 4.1. the costs did not include the cost of implementing programmes, including health care personnel costs or infrastructure costs. the costs of initiating programmes in new areas can be significant. further, such costs would occur with a shift in disease distribution, even if there was no net increase in the number of cases.
data.question: Explain demonstrate?
data.text: overall, the models demonstrate the ability to represent a wide range of coupling between climate and the carbon cycle
data.question: Explain flux?
data.text: having described all of the various components of these models, we now turn back to the comparison of carbon inventory and flux
data.question: Explain ocean biota?
data.text: vegetation is quite a bit higher and the ocean biota quite a bit lower than those in the observational synthesis and box model analysis of siegenthaler and sarmiento (1993), which is used as a quasi-consensus estimate used in the intergovernmental panel on climate change
data.context: overall, the models demonstrate the ability to represent a wide range of coupling between climate and the carbon cycle. having described all of the various components of these models, we now turn back to the comparison of carbon inventory and flux estimates in fig. 1. both models demonstrate excellent agreement with previous estimates in terms of the partitioning of carbon between the various reservoirs, though the land vegetation is quite a bit higher and the ocean biota quite a bit lower than those in the observational synthesis and box model analysis of siegenthaler and sarmiento (1993), which is used as a quasi-consensus estimate used in the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) fourth assessment report (randall et al. 2007). these estimates remain highly uncertain, however. while the sabine et al. (2004) land gross primary production
data.question: What are the main goals of renewable energy?
data.text: the goal of renewables is to mitigate climate change or reduce health and environmental damages
data.question: Are sites with the highest energy output the best for offsetting health and environmental impacts?
data.text: the sites with the highest energy output are not necessarily the best for offsetting health and environmental impacts
data.question: Does the analysis take into account imports and exports of electricity from neighboring regions?
data.text: this analysis assumes that wind and solar affect only generators within the same egrid subregion; imports and exports of electricity from neighboring regions are ignored
data.context: if the goal of renewables is to mitigate climate change or reduce health and environmental damages, then i the bene fi ts of wind and solar energy vary widely depending on location, and ii the sites with the highest energy output are not necessarily the best for offsetting health and environmental impacts. these conclusions hold under a wide range of assumptions. results are most sensitive to the value of a statistical life, the social cost of co2 emissions, and the dose - response function that relates mortality to concentrations of fi ne particulate matter (16). changes to these assumptions affect the magnitude of our results, but the regional variations presented in fig. 1 persist fig. s3 ). regional variations are qualitatively consistent if we assume that wind and solar displace the average (rather than marginal) damages from electricity production fig. s4 ). this veri fi es that the conclusions of this analysis do not depend on the details of the regression model. this analysis assumes that wind and solar affect only generators within the same egrid subregion; imports and exports of electricity from neighboring regions are ignored. we can reduce, but not eliminate, the errors associated with this assumption by de fi ning larger regions, although this may mask variations
data.question: Based on the data collected, is the Canadian agricultural community worried about climate chnage?
data.text: producer interviews and focus groups reveal that, to date, there is generally little concern in the canadian agricultural community regarding climate change (e.g., references 57, 58, 72
data.question: What is the primary influence on producer decision making?
data.text: indeed, numerous studies have demonstrated that financial and economic concerns are the primary influence on producer decision making
data.context: producer interviews and focus groups reveal that, to date, there is generally little concern in the canadian agricultural community regarding climate change (e.g., references 57, 58, 72). these attitudes have been attributed to the confidence of producers in their ability to adapt to changing climatic conditions, and their tendency to be more concerned with political and economic factors.(58, 73)indeed, numerous studies have demonstrated that financial and economic concerns are the primary influence on producer decision making. this does not mean that adaptation to climate change will not occur, but rather suggests that climate change adaptations will be incidental to other adaptations, and should be viewed as one element of an overall risk management strategy.(73)
data.question: During which years were temperature anomalies monitored?
data.text: temperature anomalies were also calculated as departures of annual temperatures from the average temperature during the period 1943-2003
data.question: Which way have anomalies been represented?
data.text: we have represented anomalies instead real values to avoid scale effects when merging data from all species
data.question: What do nefative trends imply?
data.text: negative trends imply advancement of dates or compression of dates' distributions in response to warmer temperatures
data.context: fig. 2 effects of temperatures on plant phenology. each point is the annual average anomaly of phenology and temperatures for all available species in each event. we have represented anomalies instead real values to avoid scale effects when merging data from all species. phenological anomalies were calculated as departures of the annual phenological values (average dates or standard deviations) from the average of each phenological time-series during the period 1943-2003. for annual average dates, positive values denote late years, while negative values early years. for the standard deviation, positive values denote years with a broader range of dates (i.e. more spatial variability), while negative values denote years with a narrower range (i.e. more synchronization in the onset of phenophases among sites). temperature anomalies were also calculated as departures of annual temperatures from the average temperature during the period 1943-2003. error bars in the x and y -axes are not represented to improve visualization. a smoothed line has been added to show relationship between phenology and temperature. negative trends imply advancement of dates or compression of dates' distributions in response to warmer temperatures.
data.question: what are the example of irrelevant development assistance projects  to the impacts of climate change ?
data.text: for some projects, such as institution building in the human rights and education fields, climate change may be largely irrelevant or so peripheral as to be not in need of any special attention at all
data.question: what are the example of vulnerable development assistance projects  to the impacts of climate change ?
data.text: such as infrastructure projects in climate hazard areas, or projects that depend upon the reliability of future water supply, may be quite vulnerable indeed
data.question: what are the threats at the low-intensity end of the spectrum ?
data.text: there are also threats at the low-intensity end of the spectrum, including creeping hazards such as invasive species, rising ground water salinity, or the effects of a succession of moderate events that do not register in the disaster statistics but may have great social and environmental impacts
data.context: not all development assistance projects are equally vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. for some projects, such as institution building in the human rights and education fields, climate change may be largely irrelevant or so peripheral as to be not in need of any special attention at all. others, such as infrastructure projects in climate hazard areas, or projects that depend upon the reliability of future water supply, may be quite vulnerable indeed. in between is a wide array of potential project activities where climate change may be relevant but in ways that are not so immediately self evident. in most cases, vulnerability to climate change will overlap with vulnerability to current climate-related risks. hence, we propose elements of a risk management approach, which already includes many current risks and can easily be expanded to include many other elements of risks to development posed by the external environment (including, for instance, geophysical hazards). however, climate risk management goes beyond disaster risk reduction. while extreme events are an important element of climate risks, there are also threats at the low-intensity end of the spectrum, including creeping hazards such as invasive species, rising ground water salinity, or the effects of a succession of moderate events that do not register in the disaster statistics but may have great social and environmental impacts (van aalst and burton 2002). a climate risk management approach requires climate risks to be taken into account from the very first stages of project development. an initial classification of projects, done at the time of project identification, could help to determine what type of attention (and hence what tools for
data.question: Who offered the strongest financial incentives?
data.text: the strongest financial incentives, which were offered under the u.s. department of energy's bonneville power administration's 20-month interim residential weatherization program
data.question: What is the average rate of installlations per year?
data.text: eligible households installed the recommended retrofits at an average rate of 5.3 percent per year
data.question: How many utility compabies participating, offered identical packages?
data.text:  seven participating utility companies in the pacific northwest offered an identical package
data.context: a review of home energy retrofit programs from the early 1980s found that financial incentives to reduce up-front costs motivated more households to retrofit, but the strongest results by far came when incentives were combined with nonfinancial interventions that strongly marketed the programs and made it convenient for households to take advantage of the incentives. these nonfinancial features were critical even with the strongest financial incentives, which were offered under the u.s. department of energy's bonneville power administration's 20-month interim residential weatherization program from 1982-83. seven participating utility companies in the pacific northwest offered an identical package of home energy audits and financial grants to participating homeowners paying, on average, 93 percent of the cost of recommended retrofits. eligible households installed the recommended retrofits at an average rate of 5.3 percent per year, but there was tremendous variation across the utilities, with rates ranging from 1.4-19.3 percent per year, depending on how a utility marketed and implemented its version of the program--a difference between getting all the homes retrofitted in about 70 years or 5 years.26
data.question: Where is one of the worlds largest cereal and oilseed productions?
data.text: pergamino, argentina, located in the pampas, one of the world's major agricultural regions
data.question: What is another problem caused that poses an obstacle to the use of climate information
data.text: a related problem is that users sometimes confuse the different time scales of weather and climate forecasting
data.context: a necessary initial step in assessing the value of climate information for regional agriculture is to gauge user perceptions concerning the use of that information. we attempt to do so for cereal and oilseed production in pergamino, argentina, located in the pampas, one of the world's major agricultural regions. a survey of 200 farmers identified climate forecast scale and the reliability of the source of forecast as critical obstacles to adoption. users' incomplete knowledge of how el nino-southern oscillation affects their region may also pose an obstacle to greater use of climate information. a related problem is that users sometimes confuse the different time scales of weather and climate forecasting. research and outreach to downscaling forecasts temporally and spatially toward user communities would help close the gap of expectations between forecast user and provider, and would facilitate the trust building process between the two that must precede adoption. key words: climate information * attitudes * enso * agriculture
data.question: Further research is needed to determined to better understand what ?
data.text: socio-economic development, adaptation strategies, land-use patterns, air pollution and mortality displacement
data.question: The future of climate change remains what?
data.text: although the magnitude of future climate change remains uncertain
data.question: who says the future will have more  frequent heatwaves ?
data.text: fischer and schar 2010; kintisch 2009; meehl and tebaldi 2004
data.context: although the magnitude of future climate change remains uncertain, climate modeling exercises indicate that future heat waves will be more frequent, more intense and longer lasting (fischer and schar 2010; kintisch 2009; meehl and tebaldi 2004). efforts to better understand how climate change will affect population health, especially among the most vulnerable groups, are necessary (ebi 2008; who 2009b). given uncertainties in our understanding of the future population vulnerability to heat, it is important to use various methods to capture a plausible range of the health impacts of climate change (kinney et al. 2008). further research is needed to provide a stronger theoretical framework for projecting heat-related mortality under climate change scenarios, including better understanding of socio-economic development, adaptation strategies, land-use patterns, air pollution and mortality displacement.
data.question: What is hazard modeling all about?
data.text: recent reviews focus on the modelling of hazards and risks (hanewinkel et al. 2010 or on the handling of price and other market risks (hildebrandt and knoke 2011 buongiorno and zhou 2011 ). however, we are facing a new kind of uncertainties, which has been little addressed in the forest management and decision-making literature and that are those implied by climate change
data.context: conclusion finally, we discuss what to emphasise in future studies to improve the understanding of adaptive forest management and decision support tools needed to cope with climate change. keywords adaptive forest management climate change operations research market uncertainty abiotic and biotic risk 1 risk and uncertainty is, today, widely included in forest modelling. recent reviews focus on the modelling of hazards and risks (hanewinkel et al. 2010 or on the handling of price and other market risks (hildebrandt and knoke 2011 buongiorno and zhou 2011 ). however, we are facing a new kind of uncertainties, which has been little addressed in the forest management and decision-making literature and that are those implied by climate change. climate change is likely to have significant impact on forest ecosystems. a crucial word here is ' likely ' because the issue is highly uncertain as there is a lack of complete knowledge or historical parallels. there is uncertainty about the reactions of forest ecosystems to climate change, but more fundamentally, there is considerable uncertainty as to
data.question: What is geophysics?
data.text: in particular, for geophysical fluid dynamics, observers can be considered to be on the surface of a rotating sphere (a non-euclidean space
data.question: Describe Newton's motion?
data.text: approximating the rotating earth, where the sphere is embedded in a euclidean space-time background (the space-time of newtonian mechanics). a physical description of the fluid, motivated by the particle mechanics analog, includes the trajectory of fluid parcels as they move in euclidean space-time. a set of coordinates can be used to specify these trajectories (cartesian, spherical, cylindrical, etc.), and these are sometimes called physical coordinates
data.question: Describe the arrangements?
data.text: this name is not preferred here since there is nothing "unphysical" about the material coordinates. rather, the name fixed or position coordinates is preferred. in turn, it should be noted that the "fixed" coordinates for ocean modeling are actually rotating coordinates since they are fixed relative to a terrestrial observer's rotating frame of reference. hence, the coordinates commonly used in geophysical fluid dynamics are strictly not fixed in the sense of inertial coordinates. the continuum of fluid parcel trajectories is represented by the vector field x
data.context: measurements of fluids discussed here are taken by observers living on a generally curved non-euclidean surface or volume embedded in a background euclidean space-time. in particular, for geophysical fluid dynamics, observers can be considered to be on the surface of a rotating sphere (a non-euclidean space), approximating the rotating earth, where the sphere is embedded in a euclidean space-time background (the space-time of newtonian mechanics). a physical description of the fluid, motivated by the particle mechanics analog, includes the trajectory of fluid parcels as they move in euclidean space-time. a set of coordinates can be used to specify these trajectories (cartesian, spherical, cylindrical, etc.), and these are sometimes called physical coordinates. this name is not preferred here since there is nothing "unphysical" about the material coordinates. rather, the name fixed or position coordinates is preferred. in turn, it should be noted that the "fixed" coordinates for ocean modeling are actually rotating coordinates since they are fixed relative to a terrestrial observer's rotating frame of reference. hence, the coordinates commonly used in geophysical fluid dynamics are strictly not fixed in the sense of inertial coordinates. the continuum of fluid parcel trajectories is represented by the vector field x
data.question: what model the working group analysis rejects ?
data.text: the working group analysis rejects the widely used intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) climate scenarios
data.question: What includes in the business- as -usual scenarios?
data.text: the business-as-usual scenarios from image, merge, message, and minicam, and a 550 ppm stabilization scenario
data.question: How can you interpret the inclusion of 550 ppm ?
data.text: it is difficult to interpret the inclusion of the 550 ppm scenario
data.context: the working group analysis rejects the widely used intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) climate scenarios, and instead uses scenarios from four other models: the business-as-usual scenarios from image, merge, message, and minicam, and a 550 ppm stabilization scenario. it is difficult to interpret the inclusion of the 550 ppm scenario. does it imply a guess that under business-as-usual conditions, there is a 20-percent chance that the world will reach agreement on stabilization at that level? no explanation is offered. moreover, the 550 ppm scenario is not even a single, internally consistent scenario; rather, its gdp, population, and emissions trajectories are averages of the _________________________
data.question: What approach is used to prevent the modes from eventually growing outside the specified ranges in Table 3?
data.text: a modemerging approach is therefore used to prevent this problem
data.question: What does the mode-merging routine check?
data.text: the mode-merging routine checks whether d is outside the range as in table 3
data.context: since the insoluble modes (see table 3) are assumed to be non-hygroscopic and are not wet deposited via nucleation scavenging, the assumed monolayer thickness partially determines the timescale for wet removal of the bc/oc and dust aerosol in the model. 2.2.9 mode-merging as described in sects. 2.2.6 and 2.2.7, coagulation and condensation can increase the size of the modes. if this were allowed to continue indefinitely, the modes would eventually grow outside the specified ranges in table 3. a modemerging approach is therefore used to prevent this problem. after each call of the combined coagulation-nucleation subroutine, the mode-merging routine checks whether d is outside the range as in table 3, and if so, fractions fn and fm of the mode number and mass concentrations are transferred to the next largest mode as fn 1 - 0 5    1 erf   log  rx ri
data.question: What is microsporidian?
data.text: nosema apis is a microsporidian that attacks the midgut wall of adult honey bees. the disease can develop with no visible symptoms or manifest itself as a weakening of the colony, possibly ending in death. colony infestation is latent. the disease tends to emerge mainly in early spring following long, wet winters: during winter, honey bees are prevented from going outside and drop their excrement inside the hive, forming a source of contagion for other bees
data.question: Explain about Nosma Serena?
data.text: after this, the disease spreads rapidly. even though nosema apis exhibits signs common with other diseases, the disease can be identified by certain signs observable when inspecting the colony and in the laboratory (16). nosema cerana is another microsporidian species that resembles nosema apis (12). it is a parasite of apis cerana and has been transferred to apis mellifera by exchanges of genetic material
data.question: What Nosma Serena Reports on Bees?
data.text: it was recently identified in europe (12, 15). since then, it has been found the world over. nosema cerana does not cause the same signs in honey bees as nosema apis only molecular techniques can differentiate between the two microsporidians (15). this parasite is considered to be responsible for sharply dwindling honey bee populations in spain (15
data.context: nosema apis is a microsporidian that attacks the midgut wall of adult honey bees. the disease can develop with no visible symptoms or manifest itself as a weakening of the colony, possibly ending in death. colony infestation is latent. the disease tends to emerge mainly in early spring following long, wet winters: during winter, honey bees are prevented from going outside and drop their excrement inside the hive, forming a source of contagion for other bees. after this, the disease spreads rapidly. even though nosema apis exhibits signs common with other diseases, the disease can be identified by certain signs observable when inspecting the colony and in the laboratory (16). nosema cerana is another microsporidian species that resembles nosema apis (12). it is a parasite of apis cerana and has been transferred to apis mellifera by exchanges of genetic material. it was recently identified in europe (12, 15). since then, it has been found the world over. nosema cerana does not cause the same signs in honey bees as nosema apis only molecular techniques can differentiate between the two microsporidians (15). this parasite is considered to be responsible for sharply dwindling honey bee populations in spain (15).
data.question: What must become a regular part of planning for water supply, sewer, wastewater treatment, and other urban infrastructure during this century?
data.text: managing risk by adapting long-lived infrastructure to the effects of climate change
data.question: What is the agency responsible for managing New York City's (NYC) water supply, sewer, and wastewater treatment systems?
data.text: the new york city department of environmental protection (nycdep
data.question: What has the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (NYCDEP) developed?
data.text: a climate risk management framework through its climate change task force, a government-university collaborative effort
data.context: managing risk by adapting long-lived infrastructure to the effects of climate change must become a regular part of planning for water supply, sewer, wastewater treatment, and other urban infrastructure during this century. the new york city department of environmental protection (nycdep), the agency responsible for managing new york city's (nyc) water supply, sewer, and wastewater treatment systems, has developed a climate risk management framework through its climate change task force, a government-university collaborative effort. its purpose is to ensure that nycdep's strategic and capital planning take into account the potential risks of climate change--sealevel rise, higher temperature, increases in extreme events, changes in drought and flood frequency and intensity, and changing precipitation patterns--on nyc's water systems. this approach will enable nycdep and other agencies to incorporate adaptations to the risks of climate change into their management, investment, and policy decisions over the long term as a regular part of their planning activities. the framework includes a 9-step adaptation assessment procedure. potential climate change adaptations are divided into management, infrastructure, and policy categories, and are assessed by their relevance in terms of climate change time-frame (immediate, medium, and long term), the capital cycle,
data.question: what are the difference between  Observational data Sedimentary data?
data.text: in addition to assessing the quality of the fossil record, comparisons between observational data and sediment data enable the integrity of the sediment record to be checked
data.question: what are the history of Sediment?
data.text: one test is to examine the extent to which known historical events are faithfully registered by the sediments, an issue of sensitivity on the one hand and resolution on the other. in non-laminated sediments, both can be compromised by bioturbation and sediment resuspension which tend to smooth out the historical record as noted above
data.question: Specify sediment accumulation rates?
data.text: in non-laminated sediments, both can be compromised by bioturbation and sediment resuspension which tend to smooth out the historical record as noted above. even at white lough where sediment accumulation rates are >0.3 cm yr-1 for much of the 20th century, mixing processes make the identification of short-lived pulses difficult (rippey et al. 1997
data.context: in addition to assessing the quality of the fossil record, comparisons between observational data and sediment data enable the integrity of the sediment record to be checked. one test is to examine the extent to which known historical events are faithfully registered by the sediments, an issue of sensitivity on the one hand and resolution on the other. in non-laminated sediments, both can be compromised by bioturbation and sediment resuspension which tend to smooth out the historical record as noted above. even at white lough where sediment accumulation rates are >0.3 cm yr-1 for much of the 20th century, mixing processes make the identification of short-lived pulses difficult (rippey et al. 1997).
data.question: What is the headline quietly fuels global-warming debate?
data.text: the press democrat of santa rosa, calif., used the headline '[santa rosa] firm quietly fuels global-warming debate' (12 june 2003
data.question: What have been stated inaccurately by the Press?
data.text: the press also inaccurately stated that the christy/spencer work had been, for a decade, 'the only research available'. according to the press christy contends that his prior work indicates 'global warming is a natural earth cycle'. the press noted: 'christy questioned the accuracy of the [rss] data y 
data.question: What was included in the 1996 New York Times article?
data.text: it is noteworthy that a 1996 new york times article included the following admission by christy: '[e]ven the rate of warming measured from the satellites has begun to move into the range scientists expect to result from human-caused warming'.40
data.context: although scripps howard did not attempt to balance their coverage with a sceptical rebuttal, four of the five newspapers reporting the santer et al. work included remarks from christy. the press democrat of santa rosa, calif., used the headline '[santa rosa] firm quietly fuels global-warming debate' (12 june 2003). the press also inaccurately stated that the christy/spencer work had been, for a decade, 'the only research available'. according to the press christy contends that his prior work indicates 'global warming is a natural earth cycle'. the press noted: 'christy questioned the accuracy of the [rss] data y ,. the press also mentioned that the rss study 'has its critics on some internet message boards, some even suggesting the data is made up'. it is noteworthy that a 1996 new york times article included the following admission by christy: '[e]ven the rate of warming measured from the satellites has begun to move into the range scientists expect to result from human-caused warming'.40
data.question: What are your limitations?
data.text: while history is full of wooden-headed actions of countries and their leaders, as well as policies that are farsighted and attend to global welfare, attempting to incorporate these features is beyond the scope of this study of climate regimes
data.context: a. basic free-riding equilibrium there is a large literature on the strategic aspects of international environmental agreements, including those focused on climate change. one important strand is the analytical work on global public goods. the clear message is that without special features the outcome will be a prisoners' dilemma or tragedy of the commons in which there is too little abatement. this point is illustrated with a simple model that will form the backbone of the empirical model below. i begin by analyzing the costs and benefits of national climate policies in a noncooperative nc framework nash 1950 in the nc framework, countries act individually and are neither rewarded nor penalized by other countries for their policies. the analysis assumes that countries maximize their national economic welfare and ignores partisan, ideological, myopic, and other nonoptimizing behaviors. while history is full of wooden-headed actions of countries and their leaders, as well as policies that are farsighted and attend to global welfare, attempting to incorporate these features is beyond the scope of this study of climate regimes.
data.question: What three main effects of squares is partitioned into?
data.text: sshyd, ssgcm, ssrcp
data.context: the total sum of squares is partitioned into three main effects sshyd, ssgcm, ssrcp corresponding to three hydrological models, five gcms and four rcps, respectively. in addition, there are four interaction terms sshyd * gcm, sshyd * rcp, ssgcm * rcp, sshyd * gcm * rcp describing the situation where effects are non-additive or nonlinear. for example the precipitation trends in the upper niger (fig. 2) show noticeable interaction effects. there are strong dependencies of precipitation on the rcps for each single gcm. but in two three cases gcms show negative and in two cases gcms show a positive trends. 265
data.question: what is the wet bias rate in the free troposphere?
data.text: more than 100
data.question: what is the response of water vapor and tropospheric temperature to surface heating?
data.text: in contrast, the response of water vapor and tropospheric temperature to a surface warming is shown to be remarkably consistent across models and uncorrelated to the bias in the mean state
data.question: Does the climate of the troposphere vary from model to model?
data.text: in particular, the free tropospheric cold and moist bias varies significantly from one model to the next
data.context: a comparison of airs and reanalysis temperature and humidity profiles to those simulated from climate models reveals large biases. the model simulated temperatures are systematically colder by 1-4 k throughout the troposphere. on average, current models also simulate a large moist bias in the free troposphere (more than 100%) but a dry bias in the boundary layer (up to 25%). while the overall pattern of biases is fairly common from model to model, the magnitude of these biases is not. in particular, the free tropospheric cold and moist bias varies significantly from one model to the next. in contrast, the response of water vapor and tropospheric temperature to a surface warming is shown to be remarkably consistent across models and uncorrelated to the bias in the mean state. we further show that these biases, while significant, have little direct impact on the models' simulation of water vapor and lapse-rate feedbacks. citation: john, v. o., and b. j. soden (2007), temperature and humidity biases in global climate models and their impact on climate feedbacks, geophys. res. lett. 34 l18704, doi:10.1029/2007gl030429.
data.question: Where is the anoxic zone located in relation to the reactor?
data.text: through the incorporation of an anoxic zone in the reactor (zone below the air injection
data.question: What axis are biodiscs situated on?
data.text: the most widely version of rotating biological contactors are the biodiscs, a process that consists of a series of spaced discs, mounted on a horizontal axis
data.question: What is formed on the biodiscs over time?
data.text: biomass grows attached to the discs, forming a biofilm (see figure 4.34
data.context: submerged aerated biofilters achieve good nitrification efficiencies and can be modified for the biological removal of nitrogen, through the incorporation of an anoxic zone in the reactor (zone below the air injection). d) rotating biological contactors the most widely version of rotating biological contactors are the biodiscs, a process that consists of a series of spaced discs, mounted on a horizontal axis. the discs 216 to wastewater characteristics, treatment and disposal rotate slowly and maintain at each instant around half the surface immersed in the sewage and the other half exposed to the air. biomass grows attached to the discs, forming a biofilm (see figure 4.34).
data.question: What was used to measure the sap flow on a subset of six tress?
data.text: sap flow sensors
data.question: What restriction was observed for sap flow measurements?
data.text: the power demands of the sensors restricted sampling to six trees
data.question: What could sustain sap flow measurement?
data.text: solar-powered recharge of marine storage batteries
data.context: l.) than on other species. choices of canopy dominant and codominant individuals were made within a radius circumscribed by the approx. 80 m wired extension from the central data collection center. diurnal radius measurements were linked to measurements of sap flow on a subset of six trees at the lr site at 30-min intervals using sap flow sensors. for sap flow measurements, the power demands of the sensors restricted sampling to six trees, measurements of which could be sustained by available solar-powered recharge of marine storage batteries. these were colocated on trees with electronic dendrometers to provide concurrent measures of stem expansion and water use. these in turn were linked to measurements of soil water content at 10and 22-cm depths 1 m from the base of individual sampled trees and based on rates of temperature conductance through buried ceramic probes. radial increment, sap flow, and soil moisture data were automatically logged on to on-site data storage and retrieval systems for downloading at 2-3-wk intervals.
data.question: Changes in what temperature directly interacts with changes in precipitation?
data.text: changes in surface air temperature directly interact with changes in precipitation
data.question: Precipitation over land increases in high latitudes of which areas?
data.text: precipitation over land increases in high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, southern to eastern asia, and central africa
data.context: for the aogcm experiments with the sres a1b scenario, the wem of the global (land) averaged surface air temperature at the end of the twenty-first century increases by  2.7  3.7) k relative to the present value (defined as the average from 1981 to 2000) (not shown). the land warms faster than the ocean, and greater relative warming occurs in high latitudes. changes in surface air temperature directly interact with changes in precipitation. figure 3 illustrates the wem of the change in annual mean precipitation of the future (defined as the average from 2081 to 2100) against that of the present. precipitation over land increases in high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, southern to eastern asia, and central africa. in contrast, it decreases in the mediterranean region, southern africa, and southern united states. although the zonal mean precipitation coincides with this result, intermodel variability is large in the lowto midlatitude
data.question: On almost every level of emissions trading, what exists?
data.text: colonial and imperialistic dimensions
data.question: Although there may be new labels for the phenomena of colonial and imperialistic dimensions, what stays the same?
data.text: the fundamental issues
data.question: What are the dynamics of emissions trading?
data.text: a modern incarnation of a dark colonial past
data.context: on almost every level of emissions trading, colonial and imperialistic dimensions exist. there may be new labels for these phenomena, such as environmental injustice, but the fundamental issues are the same. the dynamics of emissions trading, whereby powerful actors benefit at the expense of disempowered communities in both north and south, is a modern incarnation of a dark colonial past. european colonialism extracted natural resources as well as people from the colonized world. in the 20th century, international financial institutions took on the role of economic colonizer in the form of structural adjustment policies (saps) for the "third world." now an ecological crisis created by the old colonizers is being reinvented as another market opportunity. this new market brings with it all the built-in inequities that other commodity markets thrive upon. from the pumping of pollution into communities of color in los angeles to the land grabbing for carbon "sinks" in south america, emissions trading continues this age-old colonial tradition. 16 heidi bachram
data.question: Ecological modernization theorists follow what optimism?
data.text: ecological modernization theorists follow this "socio-techno" optimism
data.question: Ecological modernization theorists contend that radical ecological reform doesn't require what?
data.text: ecological modernization theorists contend, then, that radical ecological reform does not require radical social reform
data.question: What is seen as a force that propels bureaucrats and capitalists to respond readily to social concerns.
data.text: expanding knowledge is seen as a force that propels bureaucrats and capitalists to respond readily to social concerns
data.context: ecological modernization theorists follow this "socio-techno" optimism, claiming that the forces of modernization lead to the dematerialization of society and the decoupling of the economy from energy and material consumption, allowing human society, under capitalism, to transcend the environmental crisis.99in particular, ecological modernization theorists argue that rationality, a cornerstone of modernity, percolates into all institutions of "advanced" societies.100this process leads to the emergence of "ecological rationality," which focuses on the necessity of maintaining the resources and ecosystem functions upon which societies depend, and shifts the focus away from the pure economic rationality that prevailed in the early stages of modernization. ecological modernization theory is at base a functionalist theory in that it does not see the emergence of ecological rationality as coming primarily from social conflict, but rather from ecological enlightenment within the key institutions in societies. ecological modernization theorists contend, then, that radical ecological reform does not require radical social reform - i.e., the institutions of capitalist modernity can avert a global environmental crisis without a fundamental restructuring of the social order. in the same vein, boltanski and chiapello argue that capitalism is a flexible system that is able to respond to social and natural barriers, social movements, and criticism. it is a system that can incorporate an interest for the common good of society into its operations. in fact, past criticisms of the system have helped direct capitalism in ways that allow it to flourish in order to meet social needs and desires. expanding knowledge is seen as a force that propels bureaucrats and capitalists to respond readily to social concerns.101
data.question: when does lodgepole pine established?
data.text: the extensive provenance trials for lodgepole pine established by the bc ministry of forests in 1974
data.question: how many range-wide collection of populations ?
data.text: incorporated a range-wide collection of 140 populations
data.question: how many were unbalanced design tested?
data.text: an unbalanced design tested 60 populations at each site. most of the populations tested at each site were from the local region
data.context: the extensive provenance trials for lodgepole pine established by the bc ministry of forests in 1974 (illingworth, 1978) incorporated a range-wide collection of 140 populations (provenances) from new mexico to the yukon, planted at 60 test sites in interior british columbia and two sites in the southern yukon (fig. 1). of the 140 populations, 107 were ssp. latifolia [engelmann] critchfield. an unbalanced design tested 60 populations at each site. most of the populations tested at each site were from the local region, but considerable overlap occurred across the test sites between regions. in particular, 10 populations, seven of them ssp. latifolia were tested over all sites as reference populations. populations from ssp. contorta [doug. ex loud.] critchfield and ssp. murrayana [greville and balfour] critchfield were tested only at a few test sites and generally experienced high mortality, and are therefore not included in the current analysis.
data.question: to whom are the thanks of the survey author directed?
data.text: my heartfelt thanks go to my co-authors david crichton and fergus nicol, both of them visionaries in their fields. also to those who have so generously contributed to the contents of the book - janet rudge, sari kovats, fiona mullins, aubrey meyer, colin campbell - and all of those who have helped in preparing the contents of this book through thought, word or deed
data.question: Who are thanks for the survey images?
data.text: for wonderful illustrations i would like to thank: ukcip, laurence williams, richenda connell, jacquelyn harman, adrian arbib, mark lynas, paul eugene camp, aubrey meyer, claire palmer, fergus nicol, jane matthews, gavin kenny, mary hancock, david crichton, edward mazria, rob wilby, isaac meir, charles knevitt, bryan lynas, tim helweg, rodrigo leal, john mardaljevic, bill hughes, colin campbell, louis hellman, steve sharples, cliff wassman, janet rudge, sari kovats, russell c. schnell, mark watham, alex hollingsworth, rosanna salbashian, bill bordass, catherine streater, david infield, emma perry and frances bergmann
data.question: at which address can other free ebooks proposed by the author be found?
data.text: more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.context: my heartfelt thanks go to my co-authors david crichton and fergus nicol, both of them visionaries in their fields. also to those who have so generously contributed to the contents of the book - janet rudge, sari kovats, fiona mullins, aubrey meyer, colin campbell - and all of those who have helped in preparing the contents of this book through thought, word or deed. for wonderful illustrations i would like to thank: ukcip, laurence williams, richenda connell, jacquelyn harman, adrian arbib, mark lynas, paul eugene camp, aubrey meyer, claire palmer, fergus nicol, jane matthews, gavin kenny, mary hancock, david crichton, edward mazria, rob wilby, isaac meir, charles knevitt, bryan lynas, tim helweg, rodrigo leal, john mardaljevic, bill hughes, colin campbell, louis hellman, steve sharples, cliff wassman, janet rudge, sari kovats, russell c. schnell, mark watham, alex hollingsworth, rosanna salbashian, bill bordass, catherine streater, david infield, emma perry and frances bergmann. for helping to make the book happen at architectural press i thank: alison yates, catharine steers, elaine leek and margaret denley. we are deeply grateful to the following sponsors for making it possible to have this book in colour - their support has meant a great deal to us. thank you: the ecology building society friends of the earth it should be noted that the particular views expressed in this book are solely those of the authors. more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: How many key papers on this topic have the authors published in the last two years?
data.text: we have published two key papers in the last two years on this topic (mastrandrea schneider, 2004 and schneider and mastrandrea, 2005 - listed in "selected publications
data.question: What analysis do the authors present on two key papers published in the last two years?
data.text: we present an analysis of plausible thresholds for "dangerous anthropogenic interference" (dai) - that we suggest defining in terms of the accumulation of various impacts of climate change
data.question: What is presented in Mastrandrea and Schneider (2004)?
data.text: in mastrandrea and schneider (2004), we presented a cumulative density function (cdf) of the threshold for dai, based on the ipcc "reasons for concern about climate change." each category represents a semi-independent "consensus estimate" of a metric for measuring "concern" about the climate system. one interpretation of these metrics is to see them as indicators of the level of global mean temperature change associated with dai in the categories presented
data.context: we have published two key papers in the last two years on this topic (mastrandrea schneider, 2004 and schneider and mastrandrea, 2005 - listed in "selected publications") in which we present an analysis of plausible thresholds for "dangerous anthropogenic interference" (dai) - that we suggest defining in terms of the accumulation of various impacts of climate change. in mastrandrea and schneider (2004), we presented a cumulative density function (cdf) of the threshold for dai, based on the ipcc "reasons for concern about climate change." each category represents a semi-independent "consensus estimate" of a metric for measuring "concern" about the climate system. one interpretation of these metrics is to see them as indicators of the level of global mean temperature change associated with dai in the categories presented. interpreted in this way, increasing temperatures will progressively exceed thresholds in each metric and cumulatively contribute to the likelihood that the climate change occurring will be perceived to be "dangerous" by an ever widening group of stakeholders and decision makers. this aggregation method acts to average the thresholds of each impact metric, producing a median, 50th
data.question: What is unique about September 2013 in Australia?
data.text: was australia's warmest september since records began in 1910, with anomalous heat across most of the country
data.question: What did September 2013 mark for Australia?
data.text: the peak of a record warm period for australia, which commenced in mid-2012
data.question: From where did record high September maximum temperatures over Australia arise?
data.text: from a combination of a strongly anomalous atmospheric circulation pattern, background warming, and dry and warm antecedent land-surface conditions
data.context: september 2013 was australia's warmest september since records began in 1910, with anomalous heat across most of the country (fig. 11.1a). maximum temperatures, averaged nationally, were 3.32degc above the 1961-90 average--the highest anomaly for any month on record and almost a full degree ahead of the previous september record set in 1980 (bureau of meteorology 2013b). september marked the peak of a record warm period for australia, which commenced in mid-2012. the most unusual heat began from the last week of august 2013 and continued into the first half of september. temperatures moderated from 10 september before extreme heat returned to northern and eastern australia in the final week of the month. lewis and karoly ("the role of anthropogenic forcing in the record 2013 australia-wide annual and spring temperatures" in this report) determine that the attributable risk of such extreme heat in september has increased five-fold due to anthropogenic climate change. here we take a different attribution approach and use multiple linear regression and experiments with a seasonal forecast system to explain and understand the magnitude of the september 2013 temperatures. record high september maximum temperatures over australia arose from a combination of a strongly anomalous atmospheric circulation pattern, background warming, and dry and warm antecedent land-surface conditions. s38 september 2014
data.question: What is climate change predictions?
data.text: the key issue with the management of water in the future is not only that climate change predictions are uncertain but also that the climate will be unstable and unpredictable on the basis of long-term historical data
data.question: What is Water-resource managers and policy?
data.text: water-resource managers and policy makers need to shift from risk-based approaches based on historical climate and hydrological data to decision making in an uncertain setting
data.question: How to improve the climate?
data.text: this variability poses substantial challenges in understanding regional climate systems to improve climate and hydrological modelling. improved observation and modelling of climate and hydrology are a challenge, especially for developing regions including africa, asia, and south america
data.context: at present, water resource and infrastructure management have been based on data for a stable climate.71 no assessment exists on how eff ective currently recommended interventions (from hygiene promotion to infrastructure) will be in a diff erent climate. the key issue with the management of water in the future is not only that climate change predictions are uncertain but also that the climate will be unstable and unpredictable on the basis of long-term historical data. water-resource managers and policy makers need to shift from risk-based approaches based on historical climate and hydrological data to decision making in an uncertain setting. improved data collection and modelling will provide useful ways to guide decision making, but the nature of decision making under climate change will be fundamentally diff erent. the quality and availability of data and climate models are variable worldwide. this variability poses substantial challenges in understanding regional climate systems to improve climate and hydrological modelling. improved observation and modelling of climate and hydrology are a challenge, especially for developing regions including africa, asia, and south america. observation and modelling are needed to provide baseline scientifi c input for planning and managing water resources and infrastructure. furthermore, policy makers are faced with the issue that water scarcity indexes currently only include surface water. many populations rely on ground and stored water resources, which are not currently taken into consideration.104
data.question: How many years has anthropogenic climate change been happening?
data.text: 25 years
data.question: What are the four ways Bill Riebsame views climate in relation to human society?
data.text: climate as setting, as determinant, as hazard and as resource
data.question: Which quote does Riebsame use to convey these statements?
data.text: causal chains that link climate to specific elements or behaviours of biophysical and socioeconomic systems
data.context: the rise of climate reductionism notwithstanding these examples, the fortunes of "strong determinism", both as an ideology and as an explanatory framework for climate-society relationships, waned through the twentieth century. yet with the emergence over the last 25 years of anthropogenic climate change as a physical and social phenomenon of worldwide importance, how the challenging relationship between climate and society is conceived has taken on fresh importance. geographer bill riebsame has offered four ways of viewing physical climate in relation to human society: climate as setting, as determinant, as hazard and as resource52. as riebsame explains, seeing climate as determinant requires the identification of "causal chains that link climate to specific elements or behaviours of biophysical and socioeconomic systems"53
data.question: What did we use land-use targets for?
data.text: we used land-use targets developed by snohomish basin planners as the basis for our two restoration scenarios (11, 13
data.question: What were the two components of the model?
data.text: the model had two components: an urban-growth model and a forest-conversion model
data.question: How did we first run the model?
data.text: we first ran the urban-growth model until urban-cover targets si table 3 were met
data.context: we used land-use targets developed by snohomish basin planners as the basis for our two restoration scenarios (11, 13). because the development of these land-use targets relied on proprietary land cover maps not available to us, we first replicated the planners' method for producing land-use projections (24), substituting data from the 2001 national land cover database (nlcd) map (25) for the original base map. this produced a set of land-use targets similar to those in the restoration plan for the year 2025 for each land use scenario (current, moderate restoration, and full restoration) for habitat variables that affect habitat capacity and salmon survival si table 3 ). because the land cover targets in the restoration plan were specified for 11 subbasin groups (11), but the hydrologic model required spatially explicit maps as input, we developed a land-cover allocation model to translate the targets for each restoration scenario into land-cover maps. the model had two components: an urban-growth model and a forest-conversion model. in arcgis spatial analyst (esri, redlands, ca), we developed raster-based cost-distance models, which calculated land conversion probability for each grid cell by weighting its distance from a source by its conversion cost, for urban growth and forest conversion. for the urban growth model, conversion costs for each land-cover type were calculated from the proportion of that type converted to urban areas between 1995 and 2001, as calculated from nlcd maps si table 4 ). costs were further weighted by slope, with steeper slopes less likely to be converted. for the forest-conversion model, conversion costs were calculated from slope and distance from a source. current urban areas were used as the source for urban growth and clear-cuts for forest conversion. protected areas and wetlands were masked out of all analyses, leaving land cover in these areas unchanged. we first ran the urban-growth model until urban-cover targets si table 3 were met. we then ran the forest-cover model, masking the new urban areas, and merged the results of the two models. we used a habitat capacity model, described in ref. 11, to estimate the effects of changes in riparian forest cover, off-channel habitat, stream-edge habitat, and in-stream barrier removal on habitat capacity for juvenile salmon rearing. adult spawning capacity calculations relied on a similar model based on stream width, gradient, and riparian condition and did not vary among scenarios other than being modified by spawning period stream discharge (described below).
data.question: What is the methodology used to eradicate volcanic signals?
data.text: the methodology used to remove the volcanic signal from global-mean temperatures is analogous to that used in section 3 to remove enso. in the case of enso, we drove the hasselman climate model with the time series of estimated anomalous heat fluxes in the eastern tropical pacific; in the case of volcanic eruptions, we drive the same equation with the time series of estimated volcanic radiative forcing
data.question: How does heat capacity develop in the response of the global system?
data.text: 1), and c is the heat capacity of the global atmospheric-oceanic mixed layer per unit area. the global-mean volcanic forcing is shown as the top time series of fig. 8. the forcing is derived from optical
data.context: the methodology used to remove the volcanic signal from global-mean temperatures is analogous to that used in section 3 to remove enso. in the case of enso, we drove the hasselman climate model with the time series of estimated anomalous heat fluxes in the eastern tropical pacific; in the case of volcanic eruptions, we drive the same equation with the time series of estimated volcanic radiative forcing. the response of the global ocean- atmosphere system to volcanic forcing is thus modeled as c d dt tvolcano( t 5 f t  tvolcano( t b (5) where tvolcano denotes the simulated response of monthly mean global-mean surface temperature anomalies to the forcing associated with volcanic eruptions, f t is the global-mean volcanic radiative forcing, b is the climate sensitivity used in eq. (1), and c is the heat capacity of the global atmospheric-oceanic mixed layer per unit area. the global-mean volcanic forcing is shown as the top time series of fig. 8. the forcing is derived from optical
data.question: What are the  pathogens distributed worldwide?
data.text: varroa destructor in the case of apis mellifera and apis cerana bacteria that cause american and european foulbrood; nosema apis and n. cerana and numerous viruses affecting apis mellifera
data.question: What is the pathogens or haplotypes that have limited distribution ranges?
data.text: tropilaelaps which to date has been found only in asia
data.question: What is the cause of chalkbrood disease?
data.text: fungus ascosphera apis
data.context: some known pathogens are distributed worldwide. they include: varroa destructor in the case of apis mellifera and apis cerana bacteria that cause american and european foulbrood; nosema apis and n. cerana and numerous viruses affecting apis mellifera these pathogens tend to have different haplotypes of varying virulence. climate change can encourage the transfer of these haplotypes to honey bee populations. other pathogens or haplotypes have more limited distribution ranges, such as tropilaelaps which to date has been found only in asia (34). climate change will lead to movements of honey bees of different species and races, bringing them into contact with pathogens with which they have never co-evolved, as has occurred with varroa destructor and apis mellifera in the space of a few decades last century, two extremely homogeneous haplotypes of this honey bee parasite were sufficient to invade virtually the entire apis mellifera distribution range (35). history therefore shows that such encounters can be catastrophic and that honey bees will need human assistance to survive. honey bee movements may be spontaneous and linked to changes in geographical distribution, or the result of exchanges of bees among beekeepers. there could be changes in the geographical distribution of diseases whose expression depends on climatic factors. this has happened with chalkbrood disease, which is caused by the fungus ascosphera apis which develops mainly in a humid environment.
data.question: How complex are the operation and maintenance procedures of stabilisation ponds?
data.text: the conceptual simplicity of stabilisation ponds brings as a consequence the simplicity of the operation and maintenance procedures
data.question: What is the complexity of stabilisation ponds?
data.text: the ponds are inherently simple, and they should be designed to be so in their operational routine
data.question: What is the potential impact of not following operation and maintenance procedures for stabilisation ponds?
data.text: there are several operation and maintenance procedures that should be carried out following a certain routine, without which environmental problems and a reduced treatment efficiency treatment will take place
data.context: the conceptual simplicity of stabilisation ponds brings as a consequence the simplicity of the operation and maintenance procedures. the ponds are inherently simple, and they should be designed to be so in their operational routine. in this simplicity lies the great sustainability of wastewater treatment by stabilisation ponds, mainly in developing countries. however, the operational simplicity should not be an excuse for a lack of care with the plant and the process. there are several operation and maintenance procedures that should be carried out following a certain routine, without which environmental problems and a reduced treatment efficiency treatment will take place. the present chapter deals with the following aspects related to the operation and maintenance of the ponds:
data.question: 'Developing Adaptive Capacity with a Focus on Rural Africa' forms part of which group?
data.text: developing adaptive capacity with a focus on rural africa," which forms part of the consultative group on international agricultural research (cgiar), challenge program on water and food (cpwf
data.question: who provide helpful comments on Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF)?
data.text: john hoddinott and abubeker hassen have provided helpful comments
data.question: Who provided valuable assistance in data collection?
data.text: jordan chamberlain, mulugeta tadesse, and betre alemu--provided valuable assistance in data collection
data.context: this work is supported by the federal ministry for economic cooperation and development, germany, under the project "food and water security under global change: developing adaptive capacity with a focus on rural africa," which forms part of the consultative group on international agricultural research (cgiar), challenge program on water and food (cpwf). john hoddinott and abubeker hassen have provided helpful comments. special thanks go to tekie alemu and mohamed yesuf for creating an ideal environment for this research. the gis team of the international food policy research institute (ifpri) and the ethiopian development research institute (edri)-- namely, jordan chamberlain, mulugeta tadesse, and betre alemu--provided valuable assistance in data collection. the views expressed here are the authors' alone. vi
data.question: Who previously studied the Playa de la Griega (PLG)?
data.text: the playa de la griega (plg) section is located toward the northeast of oviedo along the cantabrian shoreline and was previously studied by suarez vega (1974
data.question: Who studied the Camino (CAM)?
data.text: the camino (cam) section close to reinosa covers the upper sinemurian to upper pliensbachian and has been studied for its ammonite biostratigraphy by braga et al. (1988
data.question: Who studied the Castillo de Pedroso (CDP)?
data.text: 3, castillo de pedroso. the castillo de pedroso (cdp) section was studied previously by comas-rengifo et al. (1988
data.context: early jurassic dinoflagellate evolution figure 1. palaeogeography for the early jurassic (pliensbachian; 195 ma). studied sections are indicated: 1, mochras borehole. 2, playa de la griega. the playa de la griega (plg) section is located toward the northeast of oviedo along the cantabrian shoreline and was previously studied by suarez vega (1974). 3, castillo de pedroso. the castillo de pedroso (cdp) section was studied previously by comas-rengifo et al. (1988). 4, camino. the camino (cam) section close to reinosa covers the upper sinemurian to upper pliensbachian and has been studied for its ammonite biostratigraphy by braga et al. (1988).
data.question: Where the mode elimination procedure is based?
data.text: the mode elimination procedure is based on the assumption that the fastest component of the dynamics of the fast modes in eq
data.question: Where x y z stand for?
data.text: x y z each stands for a or b to derive effective equations for the slow modes
data.question: Which yeas MTV procedure wasused and developed ?
data.text: 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003
data.context: bxyz ijk [?] [?]xi yjzk 0 (liouville property) (d. 4) where x y z each stands for a or b to derive effective equations for the slow modes a we closely follow the mode elimination procedure used and developed in mtv (1999, 2001, 2002, 2003), but we give a more seamless version of the results in these papers which is more convenient for the computation of the coefficients in the effective equations. the mode elimination procedure is based on the assumption that the fastest component of the dynamics of the fast modes in eq. (d. 2), i.e. the dynamical system . ci 
data.question: What mas we take account of?
data.text: putting all of this together, we must take account of the risk (however small) that climate-change costs could run into the equivalent of many tens of percent of global gdp by the middle of the next century, which is much higher than the highest estimates of mitigation costs
data.question: How should the structure of risks included in the Review's formal modelling be seen?
data.text: still, the structure of risks included in the review's formal modelling should be seen as cautious (figure 1 is an intuitive illustration of this), indeed perhaps too cautious (see weitzman, 2007
data.question: The scenarios and parameter values chosen are within what ranges?
data.text: the scenarios and parameter values chosen are within the ranges established in the existing literatures, but it is these existing literatures that constrain the ability of the modelling to keep pace with newly emerging risks
data.context: putting all of this together, we must take account of the risk (however small) that climate-change costs could run into the equivalent of many tens of percent of global gdp by the middle of the next century, which is much higher than the highest estimates of mitigation costs. the review did just this.15 still, the structure of risks included in the review's formal modelling should be seen as cautious (figure 1 is an intuitive illustration of this), indeed perhaps too cautious (see weitzman, 2007). the scenarios and parameter values chosen are within the ranges established in the existing literatures, but it is these existing literatures that constrain the ability of the modelling to keep pace with newly emerging risks.
data.question: Why be thankful to the staff of Greenpeace UK, Canonbury Villas, London?
data.text: thanks go to the staff of greenpeace uk, canonbury villas, london, for allowing me access to campaign material
data.question: What were the contributions from Stokely Webster, Greenpeace UK campaigner and Angela Glienicke, Greenpeace UK Picture Editor?
data.text: the time they spent with me and the access they allowed me to images and publications
data.question: Who organized the interviews?
data.text: my thanks also go to emma gibson, greenpeace uk gm campaigner, for organising the interviews
data.context: acknowledgements thanks go to the staff of greenpeace uk, canonbury villas, london, for allowing me access to campaign material. particular thanks go to stokely webster, greenpeace uk campaigner and angela glienicke, greenpeace uk picture editor for the time they spent with me and the access they allowed me to images and publications. my thanks also go to emma gibson, greenpeace uk gm campaigner, for organising the interviews. all views expressed in the article are my own, and not those of greenpeace, unless specified. thanks also to irmi karl, kate o'riordan, tara brabazon, les levidow and the three anonymous journal reviewers for comments upon an earlier draft. notes
data.question: Which barnacle species were analyzed and modeled?
data.text: using a long-term observational data set 30 years) of competing intertidal barnacle species, we built a hierarchy of age-structured two-taxa population models semibalanus balanoides vs. chthamalus montagui and c. stellatus combined as one taxon
data.question: When will the cold-water S. balanoides disappear from southwest England?
data.text: under all emission scenarios, the cold-water s. balanoides is predicted to virtually disappear from southwest england by the 2050s
data.question: Will climate change's effect on barnacle organisms affect population size and distribution of people?
data.text: climate change impacts on organisms are unlikely to lead only to straightforward, easily predictable changes in population size and distribution
data.context: biotic interactions will modulate species' responses to climate change. many approaches to predicting the impacts of climate change on biodiversity so far have been based purely on a climate envelope approach and have not considered direct and indirect species interactions. using a long-term observational data set 30 years) of competing intertidal barnacle species, we built a hierarchy of age-structured two-taxa population models semibalanus balanoides vs. chthamalus montagui and c. stellatus combined as one taxon) to test if the presence of a dominant competitor can mediate climatic influence on the subordinate species. models were parameterized using data from populations on the south coast of southwest england and verified by hindcasting using independent north coast population data. recruitment of the dominant competitor, s. balanoides is driven by temperature. the mechanisms of competition explored included simple space preemption and temperature-driven interference competition. the results indicate that interspecific competition between juvenile barnacles is important in regulating chthamalid density but not that of the dominant competitor s. balanoides simulations were carried out using alternative future climate scenarios to predict barnacle population abundance over the next century. under all emission scenarios, the cold-water s. balanoides is predicted to virtually disappear from southwest england by the 2050s, leading to the competitive release of chthamalus throughout the entire region and thereby substantially increasing its abundance and occupied habitat (by increasing vertical range on the shore). our results demonstrate that climate change can profoundly affect the abundance and distribution of species through both the direct effects of temperature on survival, and also by altering important negative interactions through shifting competitive balances and essentially removing dominant competitors or predators. climate change impacts on organisms are unlikely to lead only to straightforward, easily predictable changes in population size and distribution. the complex, indirect effects of climate change need to be taken into account if we are to accurately forecast the long-term effects of global warming.
data.question: Which statistical model was employed to show the differences in SHRM and HR practices among firms of various ownership types ?
data.text: to show the differences in shrm and hr practices among firms of various ownership types, anova was employed
data.question: What test was used to determine which ownership types were significantly different from the others ?
data.text: a multiple comparison post hoc test with least significant difference (lsd) was used to determine which ownership types were significantly different from the others
data.question: The interaction terms of SHRM and HR practices with ownership types were entered to test which  hypothesis ?
data.text: finally, the interaction terms of shrm and hr practices with ownership types were entered to test for the moderating hypothesis
data.context: to show the differences in shrm and hr practices among firms of various ownership types, anova was employed. a multiple comparison post hoc test with least significant difference (lsd) was used to determine which ownership types were significantly different from the others. to evaluate the effects of various independent variables on the outcomes, hierarchical regression analysis was then conducted. we first entered the control variables, followed by the ownership types, shrm, and hr practices to test for their main effects. finally, the interaction terms of shrm and hr practices with ownership types were entered to test for the moderating hypothesis.
data.question: What are reflected in design and construction standards and protocols?
data.text: weather sensitivities are reflected in design and construction standards and protocols
data.question: What adaptations can be done for coastal areas threatened by sea level rise?
data.text: for coastal areas threatened by sea level rise and storm surges, adaptations may include relocation of facilities and redesigning and/or retrofitting structures with appropriate protection see 'coastal zone' chapter
data.question: In what place has these adaptions been implemented?
data.text: one example of where this has occurred is confederation bridge, which links prince edward island to mainland new brunswick
data.context: weather sensitivities are reflected in design and construction standards and protocols. no matter what the form of infrastructure, new or existing, the transportation planning process should consider the probable effects of climate change, potentially building in more resilience to weather and climate. for coastal areas threatened by sea level rise and storm surges, adaptations may include relocation of facilities and redesigning and/or retrofitting structures with appropriate protection see 'coastal zone' chapter). one example of where this has occurred is confederation bridge, which links prince edward island to mainland new brunswick. in this case, a one-metre rise in sea level was incorporated into the design of the bridge to reduce the potential effect of global warming over the estimated 100-year life of the bridge.(65, 66)
data.question: The transfer velocity ku depends on the square of what?
data.text: the transfer velocity ku depends on the square of 10-m wind speed u2
data.question: Wind driven variability contributes to what?
data.text: wind driven variability contributes to high frequency flux variability everywhere, with the sign of the u2 - d focn correlation depending on mean net air-sea flux patterns (figure 7a
data.question: Where is the impact of low frequency variations in pCO2 atm on D Focn discussed?
data.text: the impact of low frequency variations in pco2 atm on d focn is discussed in section 5.5; the high frequency atmospheric signal is small enough over the ocean (figure 10b) to have little impact on air-sea flux
data.context: (figure 10a) can be analyzed in terms of the components contributing to the model airsea flux parameterization (equation 5). the transfer velocity ku depends on the square of 10-m wind speed u2. wind driven variability contributes to high frequency flux variability everywhere, with the sign of the u2 - d focn correlation depending on mean net air-sea flux patterns (figure 7a). sea-ice coverage plays a role at high latitude both in terms of capping gas exchange and altering stratification. the impact of low frequency variations in pco2 atm on d focn is discussed in section 5.5; the high frequency atmospheric signal is small enough over the ocean (figure 10b) to have little impact on air-sea flux. variability in surface water pco2 sw is governed by thermal solubility and freshwater inputs (cooling and freshening decrease pco2), biological uptake and particle export that draws down dissolved inorganic carbon (dic) and alkalinity with the net effect of reducing pco2, and mixing/circulation that can bring up subsurface waters with elevated dic, alkalinity, nutrients, and pco2 (metabolic co2) due to respiration of organic matter at depth. the interplay of these different factors is shown in a set of d focn
data.question: In which chapter are population studies and the quantitative and qualitative characterization of the tributary addressed?
data.text: the population studies and the quantitative and qualitative characterisation of the influent are covered in chapter 2
data.question: In which chapter are the effluent needs addressed?
data.text: while the effluent requirements are discussed in chapter 3
data.question: In which chapter are the selection criteria for the initial selection of alternatives addressed?
data.text: the selection criteria for the initial screening of alternatives are described in chapters 4 and 5
data.context: selection of the alternative to be adopted and to be subjected to a detailed design, based on the technical and economical analysis the population studies and the quantitative and qualitative characterisation of the influent are covered in chapter 2, while the effluent requirements are discussed in chapter 3. the selection criteria for the initial screening of alternatives are described in chapters 4 and 5. some of the other topics are commented individually in the present chapter. an in depth analysis of these items is not the objective of the chapter, but only to emphasise their importance within the conception and design of the sewage treatment works. presented below are short comments on the integration of the points listed above within the preliminary studies phase.
data.question: Why adaptation policies are needed?
data.text: adaptation policies are needed to facilitate the adaptation of tropical forests and enhance the role of forests for the adaptation of society
data.question: What are the factors that affecting the adaptation policy?
data.text: hesitation in the design of adaptation policies and programmes is often linked to a lack of information, uncertainties about the 'exact' direction of climate change and a 'cascade of unknowns'. it is also related to political preferences for short-term economic gains, and perceived tradeoffs between the different sectors. threats like climate change and variability have been insufficiently incorporated into national strategies
data.context: adaptation policies are needed to facilitate the adaptation of tropical forests and enhance the role of forests for the adaptation of society. the mainstreaming of tropical forests in adaptation policies should follow these two objectives: first, promoting adaptation for tropical forests, by encouraging the adaptive management of forest; and second, promoting tropical forests for adaptation, by linking forests with the sectors that benefit from forest ecosystem services. the need for mainstreaming forest adaptation into policies as highlighted in previous sections, technical and societal adaptation is needed to reduce the vulnerability of human-environment systems to climate change. even with the well documented need for adaptation of forests and people to climate change, there is still a lack of adaptation policy processes at the national level. hesitation in the design of adaptation policies and programmes is often linked to a lack of information, uncertainties about the 'exact' direction of climate change and a 'cascade of unknowns'. it is also related to political preferences for short-term economic gains, and perceived tradeoffs between the different sectors. threats like climate change and variability have been insufficiently incorporated into national strategies (mortimore and manvell 2006).
data.question: How to optimize the impact of a system?
data.text: the optimisation problem as stated here does not necessarily have a unique solution (it may have several or none
data.question: How can it do?
data.text: such an action avoids a potential impact. we call it effective. for many practical purposes, "effectiveness" is not a clear-cut notion. for example, an action might avoid part of the hazard. future refinements of the framework will consider this aspect
data.question: Can do you make an exemple?
data.text: the adaptive capacity of the motorcyclist in the first example is the set of all actions that do not result in him falling down the cliff due to the oil spill. it can be thought of as a measure of, amongst other things, his skill set and the technical specifications of the motorcycle
data.context: given a system in state xk, subjected to an exogenous input ek, we can define a number of problems: a) optimisation choose an action uk[?] uksuch that yk +1is optimal, that is, [?] u' k: u' k ukwe have not yk +1[?] y' k +1). 12 the optimisation problem as stated here does not necessarily have a unique solution (it may have several or none). in addition, in realistic situations we will not have complete knowledge of f and g and therefore we will at most be able to solve approximate versions of the problem. a more useful question is therefore: b) adaptation choose an action uk[?] uksuch that not yk +1[?] yk). such an action avoids a potential impact. we call it effective. for many practical purposes, "effectiveness" is not a clear-cut notion. for example, an action might avoid part of the hazard. future refinements of the framework will consider this aspect. definition 6. an action ukis effective for a system f, g in state xksubjected to an exogenous input ekiff not yk +1[?] yk). if there are no effective actions against ek, then it is an unavoidable hazard. if ekis not unavoidable, then problem b) has at least one solution (this is not the case for problem a)). the set of effective actions available to the system can be used to interpret the notion of adaptive capacity: definition 7. the adaptive capacity of a system f, g in state xksubjected to an exogenous input ekis represented by the set of its effective actions. example 8. the adaptive capacity of the motorcyclist in the first example is the set of all actions that do not result in him falling down the cliff due to the oil spill. it can be thought of as a measure of, amongst other things, his skill set and the technical specifications of the motorcycle.
data.question: What constitutes a disaster?
data.text: in its most basic sense it is used to describe an event that brings widespread losses and disruption to a community
data.question: When does CRED classify an event as a disaster?
data.text: cred classifies an event as a disaster if at least one of the following has occurred: 10 or more people killed; 100 or more people reported affected; a call for international assistance; and/or a declaration of a state of emergency
data.context: the definition of what constitutes a disaster is another contentious issue, but in its most basic sense it is used to describe an event that brings widespread losses and disruption to a community. some definitions include the notion that it exceeds the ability of that community to cope using its own resources (isdr, 2002; parker, 2000). a number of studies and reports discussed in this paper refer to flood disasters of different scales, and statistics on flood disaster provide a useful indicator for global flood risk. the centre for research on the epidemiology of disasters (cred) manages a global database on disaster impacts. cred classifies an event as a disaster if at least one of the following has occurred: 10 or more people killed; 100 or more people reported affected; a call for international assistance; and/or a declaration of a state of emergency. according to their disaster data, floods come second only to drought/famine in recent years in causing direct mortality (as defined), and account for more than half of all people 'affected' by natural disasters. since 'people affected are those requiring immediate assistance during a period of emergency, i.e., requiring basic survival needs such as food, water, shelter, sanitation and medical assistance' (ifrc, 2003, p180), this measure provides an indication of the scale of health impact associated with flooding. though they have a number of limitations regarding the quality of information (see chapter 3), disaster statistics also provide some indication of the geography of flood risk to human populations. tables 2.2 and 2.3 compare flood and wind storm disaster statistics for different continents using the em-dat data from cred (many of the deaths attributed to wind storms are flood-related). from the tables, it is clear that flood disasters and their mortality impacts are heavily skewed toward asia, where there are high population concentrations in floodplains of major rivers, such as the gangesbrahmaputra, mekong and yangtze basins, and in cyclone-prone coastal regions such as around the bay of bengal and the south china sea. closer analysis of the statistics suggests that developing countries in general bear a disproportionate toll - with industrialised or 'high human development' countries accounting for just 0.4% and 3.7% respectively of people affected by floods and windstorms (see section 2.3). table 1.2 flood disasters by continent 1993-2002
data.question: What is the purpose of the research?
data.text: we conducted generalized additive mixed-effects models with the mgcv package under r with a smooth function for the thermal metrics to test the robustness of the linearity assumption
data.question: What are the use of comm?
data.text: we computed graphic outputs of the response of population growth rate to the thermal metrics using these gamms. in all models, we analysed data from the three countries which had different land-use histories (but also differences in size, biotic and abiotic characteristics); country was therefore considered as a random effect
data.question: Given the classification of the research?
data.text: i) within the two large countries in which population growth rates were estimated in three latitudinal belts of similar width (electronic supplementary material, s1 and s2); (ii) by using only 50 per cent of the populations, deleting the 25 per cent of data with the lowest and the largest thermal metrics values (to verify that the patterns are not only driven by edge populations at the edges of distribution ranges); and (iii) by using only one belt per country (to eliminate the possibility of artefactual results ensuing from pseudoreplication
data.context: to further test for the potential nonlinear response of growth rates to the thermal niche measures, we conducted generalized additive mixed-effects models with the mgcv package under r with a smooth function for the thermal metrics to test the robustness of the linearity assumption. we computed graphic outputs of the response of population growth rate to the thermal metrics using these gamms. in all models, we analysed data from the three countries which had different land-use histories (but also differences in size, biotic and abiotic characteristics); country was therefore considered as a random effect. similarly, species identity was considered a random effect to account for differences in global population dynamics between species. we also included a random effect of the taxonomic family nested within the taxonomic order (following the phylogeny published in jiguet et al 2010 to account for phylogenetic dependency between the species. to verify that the identified patterns were not driven by particular subsets of the data, we repeated these analyses: (i) within the two large countries in which population growth rates were estimated in three latitudinal belts of similar width (electronic supplementary material, s1 and s2); (ii) by using only 50 per cent of the populations, deleting the 25 per cent of data with the lowest and the largest thermal metrics values (to verify that the patterns are not only driven by edge populations at the edges of distribution ranges); and (iii) by using only one belt per country (to eliminate the possibility of artefactual results ensuing from pseudoreplication).
data.question: Which impacts on agricultural production?
data.text: diverse, severe, and location-specific impacts on agricultural production are anticipated with climate change
data.question: What is the last IPCC report indicates the rise of CO2?
data.text: the last ipcc report indicates that the rise of co2 and associated " greenhouse " gases could lead to a 1.4 to 5.8 degc increase in global surface temperatures, with subsequent consequences on precipitation frequency and amounts
data.question: What are the key factors in determining crop growth and productivity?
data.text: temperature and water availability remain key factors in determining crop growth and productivity
data.context: diverse, severe, and location-specific impacts on agricultural production are anticipated with climate change. the last ipcc report indicates that the rise of co2 and associated " greenhouse " gases could lead to a 1.4 to 5.8 degc increase in global surface temperatures, with subsequent consequences on precipitation frequency and amounts. temperature and water availability remain key factors in determining crop growth and productivity; predicted changes in these factors will lead to reduced crop yields. climate-induced changes in insect pest, pathogen and weed population dynamics and invasiveness could compound such effects. undoubtedly, climateand weather-induced instability will affect levels of and access to food supply, altering social and economic stability and regional competiveness. adaptation is considered a key factor that will shape the future severity of climate change impacts on food production. changes that will not radically modify the monoculture nature of dominant agroecosystems may moderate negative impacts temporarily. the biggest and most durable benefits will likely result from more radical agroecological measures that will strengthen the resilience of farmers and rural communities, such as diversification of agroecosytems in the form of polycultures, agroforestry systems, and crop-livestock mixed systems accompanied by organic soil management, water conservation and harvesting, and general enhancement of agrobiodiversity. traditional farming systems are repositories of a wealth of principles and measures that can help modern agricultural systems become more resilient to climatic extremes. many of these agroecological strategies that reduce vulnerabilities to climate variability include crop diversification, maintaining local genetic diversity, animal integration, soil organic management, water conservation and harvesting, etc. understanding the agroecological features that underlie the resilience of traditional agroecosystems is an urgent matter, as they can serve as the foundation for the design of adapted agricultural systems. observations of agricultural performance after extreme climatic events (hurricanes and droughts) in the last two decades have revealed that resiliency to climate disasters is closely linked to farms with increased levels of biodiversity. field surveys and results reported in the literature suggest that agroecosystems are more resilient when inserted in a complex landscape matrix, featuring adapted local germplasm deployed in diversified cropping systems managed with organic matter rich soils and water conservation-harvesting techniques. the identification of systems that have withstood climatic events recently or in the past and understanding the agroecological features of such systems that allowed them to resist and/or recover from extreme events is of increased urgency, as the derived resiliency principles and practices that underlie successful farms can be disseminated to thousands of farmers via campesino a campesino networks to scale up agroecological practices that enhance the resiliency of agroecosystems. the effective diffusion of agroecological technologies will largely determine how well and how fast farmers adapt to climate change. keywords agroecology climate change resilience adaptive capacity
data.question: What was observed in the Phytoplankton community response to spring warming
data.text: relative abundances of cyanobacteria, green algae and diatoms
data.question: What replaced Diatoms as the dominant phytoplankters?
data.text: green algae and cyanobacteria at day 20 and day 30, respectively
data.question: Which was more abundant the green algae or the cyanobacteria?
data.text: green algae
data.context: phytoplankton community response to spring warming in all treatments, similar shifts in the relative abundances of cyanobacteria, green algae and diatoms were observed (fig. 3). diatoms were initially by far the most dominant phytoplankters; their rapid decline was followed by peaks of green algae and cyanobacteria at day 20 and day 30, respectively. the green algae were more abundant than the cyanobacteria. the results of ranova underlined this significant response in time of the different algal functional groups (table 3, mean effect time). the time courses of all three algal functional groups (i.e. diatoms, cyanobacteria and green algae) differed significantly in response to the different climate scenarios (table 3, interaction climate * time). model results the model predictions showed a good fit with the experimental data of the algal groups (fig. 4, r2= 0.875). the model captures the observed succession of an initial dominance of diatoms followed by a peak of green algae and cyanobacteria, although the modelled peaks of green algae and cyanobacteria shortly precede those observed in the experiment. the model predictions for the limiting nutrient showed a reasonably good fit with the experimental data on srp concentrations (fig. 4, r2= 0.684). we also examined slightly more complex models, to see whether the fit could be further improved. inclusion of an extra loss term for the green algae and cyanobacteria resulted in r2= 0.878. inclusion of a separate limiting nutrient for the green algae and a
data.question: What has the recent experimental research by Rabinovich et al. Indicated?
data.text: indicated that a combination of both an abstract mindset and specific goals (or a specific mindset and goals) may be most useful in promoting climate-change-related behavior
data.question: What is goal setting theory based on?
data.text: focuses on the best way of translating intentions into action
data.question: In which geographical area are climate changes most evident?
data.text: those located in the geographic south
data.context: additionally, and building on goal setting theory, work around implementation intentions developed the idea that by specifically making plans that link situational cues (appropriate opportunities to act), with desired behavioral responses, then action can be encouraged.(33)notably, this focus on specific detail is (through clt) linked with psychological closeness, resulting in two slightly different hypotheses. psychological distance should lead to behavior that is more in line with an individual's core values; however, psychological closeness should encourage a person to act, given his or her improved ability to focus on the consequences of the actions. interestingly, recent experimental research by rabinovich et al. has indicated that a combination of both an abstract mindset and specific goals (or a specific mindset and goals) may be most useful in promoting climate-change-related behavior.(34)this points to the potential validity of both theoretical hypotheses and the possibility that these can complement rather than contradict each other. indeed, the focus of clt is clearly on how an mindset encourages behavior in line with ideals whilst goal setting theory focuses on the best way of translating intentions into action. here, we will explore the relationship between naturally arising perceptions of distance and preparedness to act to mitigate climate change and, in doing so, will consider the validity of each of these hypotheses in this domain. 1.3. the psychological distance of climate change there is currently quite limited evidence examining clt and psychological distance within the domain of climate change; however, there is a variety of disparate evidence that speaks to these issues. polling evidence indicates that people generally perceive climate change as most likely to impact geographically and temporally distant people and places.(12)in addition, climate change impacts tend to be viewed as more serious for distant locations.(35)people also clearly distinguish between personal and societal impacts of climate change, with several studies finding that personal risks of climate change are judged to be lower than societal risks.(12 35)note that these results are found within respondents in britain and the united states and that this may well be culturally bounded. indeed, the perception that climate change impacts may be more serious in developing countries, particularly those located in the geographic south may be quite accurate,(36)and importantly, these are also likely to be the countries who do not have the resources and capability to deal with these impacts. in fact, whilst cross-national studies do indicate that respondents from developing countries tend to be more concerned about local environmental issues than those from industrialized nations,(37 38)beyond this a general spatial bias appears to exist where people in both developed and developing countries tend to perceive environmental degradation to be more serious at a global level than at a local level.(38 - 40)
data.question: What caused the differences seen in the calculations?
data.text: continued note: in the calculations, small differences may occur due to rounding errors (the calculations have been done using a spreadsheet, which does not round numeric values
data.question: How did the two alternatives compare when considering land requirements?
data.text: it can be observed that both alternatives are equivalent from the point of view of land requirements and not so different in terms of the quality of the final effluent
data.question: What might lead to improvements in the effluent quality?
data.text: in each alternative, it is still possible to have an optimisation in the design, leading to improvements in the effluent quality
data.context: it can be observed that both alternatives are equivalent from the point of view of land requirements and not so different in terms of the quality of the final effluent. in each alternative, it is still possible to have an optimisation in the design, leading to improvements in the effluent quality. in the selection of the alternative, other items should be investigated, related to costs, topography, soil and other local factors. 604 stabilisation ponds example 17.2 continued note: in the calculations, small differences may occur due to rounding errors (the calculations have been done using a spreadsheet, which does not round numeric values). 5. arrangement of the ponds (including the facultative ponds)
data.question: what has been the subject of considerable speculation ?
data.text: the behaviour of tropical cyclones under enhanced greenhouse conditions has been the subject of considerable speculation but projections are difficult because tropical cyclones are not well resolved by global or regional climate models
data.question: what are the Tropical cyclones associated with?
data.text: tropical cyclones are associated with the occurrence of oceanic storm surges, gales and flooding rains in northern australia and the frequency of these events would rise if the intensity of tropical cyclones increases
data.question: what does Modelling by McInnes et al (2000) indicate?
data.text: modelling by mcinnes et al (2000) indicates that if tropical cyclone intensity around cairns increased up to 20% by 2050, the flood level associated with a one in 100 years flood would increase from the present height of 2.3 to 2.8 m
data.context: the behaviour of tropical cyclones under enhanced greenhouse conditions has been the subject of considerable speculation but projections are difficult because tropical cyclones are not well resolved by global or regional climate models (pittock et al 1996; walsh pittock 1998). present indications are that modest to moderate (0-20%) increases in average and maximum cyclone intensities are expected by the end of the century in some regions (walsh ryan 2000). future changes in frequency will be modulated by changes in enso. tropical cyclones are associated with the occurrence of oceanic storm surges, gales and flooding rains in northern australia and the frequency of these events would rise if the intensity of tropical cyclones increases. projected rises in average sea level will also contribute to more extreme storm surges (csiro 2001a). modelling by mcinnes et al (2000) indicates that if tropical cyclone intensity around cairns increased up to 20% by 2050, the flood level associated with a one in 100 years flood would increase from the present height of 2.3 to 2.8 m.
data.question: Name some of the ways people throughout the world have responded to scarcity of resources due to climatic factors.
data.text: the archaeological record indicates that people in widely separated parts of the world often responded to climatically-driven resource scarcity in ways that were broadly similar (for example, migration, increased social complexity and stratification
data.question: Does Scarbourough's analysis of Maya history hold climate change as the main reason for this population's fall?
data.text: scarborough's (2007) analysis of the rise and fall of the maya concludes that, while environmental factors played a key role in both limiting and encouraging certain aspects of development in mayan societies, the ultimate cause of their decline was related to the political systems that developed within these environments, their isolation, centralisation and elite 'hubris'. thus scarborough concludes that 'economic, political and ideological variables internal to the underpinnings of society may weigh more heavily' than environmental variables in their decline
data.question: Which prehistoric period bears some resemblance to the twenty-first century, in terms of social impact of climatic changes?
data.text: the middle holocene appears to have provided the circumstances for environmental change to become - at least temporarily - a key driver of social change in many parts of the world, and the twenty-first century is likely to generate analogous circumstances, at least in certain regions
data.context: in summary, the archaeological record indicates that people in widely separated parts of the world often responded to climatically-driven resource scarcity in ways that were broadly similar (for example, migration, increased social complexity and stratification), where they faced similar environmental and geographical constraints and opportunities. such a conclusion is not a plea for a return to simple environmental determinism. the societies that emerged from the middle holocene climatic reorganisation exhibited considerable diversity in their character, and significant variation in the trajectories of adaptation visible in the archaeological record of this period (brooks, 2006a). in some regions trends towards sedentarism in environmental refugia were also complemented by increased mobility among some groups, indicating a variety of responses to climatic deterioration (for example, di lernia, 2002). examples from later periods emphasise the interactive role of environmental change with other factors. for example, scarborough's (2007) analysis of the rise and fall of the maya concludes that, while environmental factors played a key role in both limiting and encouraging certain aspects of development in mayan societies, the ultimate cause of their decline was related to the political systems that developed within these environments, their isolation, centralisation and elite 'hubris'. thus scarborough concludes that 'economic, political and ideological variables internal to the underpinnings of society may weigh more heavily' than environmental variables in their decline (2007: 58). a survey of history and prehistory indicates that many factors drive changes in human societies. the physical or 'natural' environment is one such factor, and is often less important than factors such as social, economic and technological innovation or conflict. nonetheless, we have to recognise that any single factor has the potential to dominate over others in certain circumstances. the middle holocene appears to have provided the circumstances for environmental change to become - at least temporarily - a key driver of social change in many parts of the world, and the twenty-first century is likely to generate analogous circumstances, at least in certain regions.
data.question: What is the approach based on?
data.text: on estimating the probability that a given shock or set of shocks will move household consumption below a given minimum level (such as the consumption poverty line) or force the consumption level to stay below the given minimum if it is already below this level
data.context: this study measures the vulnerability of farmers to climatic extremes such as droughts, floods and hailstorms, by employing the "vulnerability as expected poverty" approach. this approach is based on estimating the probability that a given shock or set of shocks will move household consumption below a given minimum level (such as the consumption poverty line) or force the consumption level to stay below the given minimum if it is already below this level. the utilized data come from a household survey of farmers performed during the 2004/2005 production year in the nile basin of ethiopia. the results show that the farmers' vulnerability is highly sensitive to their minimum daily requirement (poverty line). for instance, when the daily minimum income is fixed at 0.3 united states dollars (usd) per day, only 12.4 percent of farmers are vulnerable to climate extremes, whereas 99 percent of farmers are vulnerable when the minimum requirement is fixed at 2 usd per day. the results further indicate that farmers in kola agro-ecological zones (which are warm and semi-arid) are the most vulnerable to extreme climatic events. policy-wise, these preliminary results indicate that, keeping other factors constant, increasing the incomes of farmers (with special emphasis on those in kola agro-ecological zones) and enabling them to meet their daily minimum requirements will reduce their vulnerability to climatic extremes. keywords: vulnerability to climate extremes, nile basin of ethiopia, minimum daily income
data.question: How the genomic information passed down?
data.text: the genomic information passed down by antecedents determines an individual's potential for survival, growth and reproduction
data.question: What are the fact combined?
data.text: this observation, combined with the fact that the thermal window between topt and tcrit is only 7.3degc and that thermal acclimation provides little benefit to ctmax, suggests that their topt is potentially a product of natural selection
data.question: How can the sockeye salmon accommodated?
data.text: one has to question whether or not natural selection among sockeye salmon can accommodate the rapid warming trend already evident for the fraser river (peak summer temperature has increased 1.8degc in the past 60 years). if the salmonid genome is too inflexible to adapt to a new topt, perhaps the genetic determinants of the spawning date are more flexible
data.context: like a salmon down on the fraser, swimmin' with their battered fins, searchin' for their childhood home, a patch of gravel they knew as their own. excerpt from 'the ballad of old tom jones' by barney bentall the genomic information passed down by antecedents determines an individual's potential for survival, growth and reproduction. the antecedents of present day fraser river salmon have passed on their environmental experiences through natural selection for over ~10,000 years since their post-glacial invasion. however, we have only ~60 years of reliable archival records of the river temperatures experienced during recent salmon migrations (farrell et al., 2008). nevertheless, remarkably the historic mean and median river migration temperature for weaver creek sockeye salmon is 14.5degc (their topt is 14.3degc). this observation, combined with the fact that the thermal window between topt and tcrit is only 7.3degc and that thermal acclimation provides little benefit to ctmax, suggests that their topt is potentially a product of natural selection. if this is the case, one has to question whether or not natural selection among sockeye salmon can accommodate the rapid warming trend already evident for the fraser river (peak summer temperature has increased 1.8degc in the past 60 years). if the salmonid genome is too inflexible to adapt to a new topt, perhaps the genetic determinants of the spawning date are more flexible. dangerously high temperatures could then be avoided by
data.question: Gilbert Butler Professor of Environmental Studies is Founding President of which Department?
data.text: gilbert butler professor of environmental studies, founding chair of the department of earth and planetary sciences
data.question: Who has done studies on the far-reaching effects of human activities on the composition of the atmosphere and how changes in composition affect the climate?
data.text: gilbert butler professor of environmental studies, founding chair of the department of earth and planetary sciences, and from 2000-2004 was director of the center for the environment at harvard university. his research is directed at studies of the wide-ranging effects of human activities on the composition of the atmosphere, and how changes in the composition affect climate
data.question: Kazuo Aichi is currently a member of the House of what?
data.text: kazuo aichi is currently a member of the house of representatives in the government of japan. in this capacity, he is the director of the special committee for research on the constitution of japan, and also a member of the committee on foreign affairs
data.context: prof. michael mcelroy (board chair) prof. michael mcelroy is the gilbert butler professor of environmental studies, founding chair of the department of earth and planetary sciences, and from 2000-2004 was director of the center for the environment at harvard university. his research is directed at studies of the wide-ranging effects of human activities on the composition of the atmosphere, and how changes in the composition affect climate. mcelroy has served on numerous committees of the national academy of sciences, the u.s. congress and various agencies of the u.s. government including the office of the vice-president. he is a member of the china international council for sustainable development. he received his ba and ph.d. in applied mathematics from queen's university in belfast, northern ireland. hon. kazuo aichi hon. kazuo aichi is currently a member of the house of representatives in the government of japan. in this capacity, he is the director of the special committee for research on the constitution of japan, and also a member of the committee on foreign affairs. within the liberal democratic party, he is president of the central institute of politics. prior to his current position, he was director general of the global environmental action, a non-governmental institution in japan committed to helping develop solutions to global environmental problems. he has held several positions in the japanese government, including member of the house of representatives for 24 years, state secretary of foreign affairs, minister of the environment, and minister for the state of defense. aichi received a law degree from tokyo university.
data.question: When is the half the population of the square in the playground?
data.text: in winter notably, approximately half the population of the square is in the playground
data.question: When is the lowest relative frequency in the playground?
data.text: the lowest relative frequency in the playground is during summer evening
data.question: How do neighbours view the open space under lower air temperatures?
data.text: under lower air temperatures, neighbours view the open space as a way to escape from the heat of the indoor environment
data.context: examining separately different sub-areas within the square, the situation is similar to the overall pattern described. in winter notably, approximately half the population of the square is in the playground (fig. 15). in fact the playground, as has been repeatedly mentioned, is a major attraction for the area throughout the year. even at the low presence numbers of the summer, bringing children to play appears to be the predominant reason, accounting for 60% of the people in the square at mid-morning. the lowest relative frequency in the playground is during summer evening, accounting only for 25-30% of the population found in the square. at that time, as explained in relation to figure 13, under lower air temperatures, neighbours view the open space as a way to escape from the heat of the indoor environment.
data.question: What is PCM?
data.text: parallel climate model (pcm
data.question: Analyze the PCM model
data.text: the simulated response of the tropical pacific ocean to increasing greenhouse gases (ghgs) has some elements of a positive ipo pattern in terms of warming of tropical pacific ssts, as was first noted by meehl and washington (1996). this result has been substantiated by a majority of the recent generation of global coupled models, which show such a response to increasing ghgs (meehl et al. 2007
data.question: What's the purpose of the study?
data.text: the purpose of this paper is to address whether the mid-1970s climate shift was a natural product of inherent multidecadal climate variability, whether it was caused by increases of ghgs, or whether it was some combination of the two. we will rely on twentieth-century simulations from a global coupled climate model with a combination of anthropogenic and natural forcings, and simulations with anthropogenic forcings only and natural forcings only. an unforced control run will be analyzed to estimate the inherent multidecadal variability of the earth's climate system in the absence of changes in external forcings
data.context: parallel climate model (pcm) in that study. the pcm is the model analyzed in the present paper as described below. the simulated response of the tropical pacific ocean to increasing greenhouse gases (ghgs) has some elements of a positive ipo pattern in terms of warming of tropical pacific ssts, as was first noted by meehl and washington (1996). this result has been substantiated by a majority of the recent generation of global coupled models, which show such a response to increasing ghgs (meehl et al. 2007). since ghgs were increasing throughout the twentieth century, with pacific ocean ssts possibly responding with a pattern not unlike a positive ipo, there is thus the possibility that the mid1970s shift to a more positive ipo state could have had an anthropogenic contribution. the purpose of this paper is to address whether the mid-1970s climate shift was a natural product of inherent multidecadal climate variability, whether it was caused by increases of ghgs, or whether it was some combination of the two. we will rely on twentieth-century simulations from a global coupled climate model with a combination of anthropogenic and natural forcings, and simulations with anthropogenic forcings only and natural forcings only. an unforced control run will be analyzed to estimate the inherent multidecadal variability of the earth's climate system in the absence of changes in external forcings.
data.question: What was the arguments in recent article?
data.text: in a recent article, i argued that integrated assessment models (iams) "have crucial flaws that make them close to useless as tools for policy analysis
data.question: What are the disadvantage of IAMs?
data.text: iams can be misleading - and are inappropriate - as guides for policy, and yet they have been used by the government to estimate the social cost of carbon (scc) and evaluate tax and abatement policies.2
data.question: What is the IAM-based analyses of climate policy perception of knowledge?
data.text: iam-based analyses of climate policy create a perception of knowledge and precision that is illusory, and can fool policy-makers into thinking that the forecasts the models generate have some kind of scientific legitimacy
data.context: in a recent article, i argued that integrated assessment models (iams) "have crucial flaws that make them close to useless as tools for policy analysis."1 in fact, i would argue that calling these models "close to useless" is generous: iam-based analyses of climate policy create a perception of knowledge and precision that is illusory, and can fool policy-makers into thinking that the forecasts the models generate have some kind of scientific legitimacy. iams can be misleading - and are inappropriate - as guides for policy, and yet they have been used by the government to estimate the social cost of carbon (scc) and evaluate tax and abatement policies.2
data.question: What cause the increase temperature?
data.text: the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) predicts an increase in global temperatures of between 1.4 8 c and 5.8 8 c during the 21st century, as a result of elevated co2 levels
data.question: What is the potential impact of climate change on the distributions and species?
data.text: we evaluate the potential impact of climate change on the distributions and species richness of 120 native terrestrial nonvolant european mammals under two of ipcc's future climatic scenarios. assuming unlimited and no migration, respectively, our model predicts that 1% or 5-9% of european mammals risk extinction, while 32-46% or 70-78% may be severely threatened (lose 30% of their current distribution) under the two scenarios
data.question: Which type of species, the no migration species or the distributed species, will suffer more damage from climate change?
data.text: under the no migration assumption endemic species were predicted to be strongly negatively affected by future climatic changes, while widely distributed species would be more mildly affected
data.context: the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) predicts an increase in global temperatures of between 1.4 8 c and 5.8 8 c during the 21st century, as a result of elevated co2 levels. using bioclimatic envelope models, we evaluate the potential impact of climate change on the distributions and species richness of 120 native terrestrial nonvolant european mammals under two of ipcc's future climatic scenarios. assuming unlimited and no migration, respectively, our model predicts that 1% or 5-9% of european mammals risk extinction, while 32-46% or 70-78% may be severely threatened (lose 30% of their current distribution) under the two scenarios. under the no migration assumption endemic species were predicted to be strongly negatively affected by future climatic changes, while widely distributed species would be more mildly affected. finally, potential mammalian species richness is predicted to become dramatically reduced in the mediterranean region but increase towards the northeast and for higher elevations. bioclimatic envelope models do not account for non-climatic factors such as land-use, biotic interactions, human interference, dispersal or history, and our results should therefore be seen as first approximations of the potential magnitude of future climatic changes. keywords climate change  europe  mammals  terrestrial  bioclimatic envelope models  distributions  species richness
data.question: What is one form of physical damage to plants caused by flooding?
data.text: flooding causes physical dam age to plants and soils through mechanical stresses, soil erosion and sediment deposition
data.question: What is one type of damage flooding can cause during active tree growth?
data.text: during active tree growth, flooding may cause both physiological and physical damage
data.question: What is one event that may increase the frequency of flood related injuries?
data.text: projected decreases in snowpack, earlier snowmelt, and increases in the frequency of heavy precipitation events, may increase the frequency of flood-related injuries
data.context: although projections of future precipitation are less certain than those for temperature, projected decreases in snowpack, earlier snowmelt, and increases in the frequency of heavy precipitation events, may increase the frequency of flood-related injuries (table 1; hamlet and lettenmaier, 2007). flooding causes physical dam age to plants and soils through mechanical stresses, soil erosion and sediment deposition. inundation also affects soil structure, depletes soil oxygen, and causes physiological injuries that often lead to growth reductions and plant mortality dreyer et ai., 1991 gardiner and hodges, 1996; pezeshki et ai., 1996; kozlowski, 1997; jackson, 2002; kreuzwieser et ai., 2002, 2004 ). the consequences of flooding, however, will depend on the timing and duration of the flood, and the quality of water glenz et ai., 2006 ). during active tree growth, flooding may cause both physiological and physical damage table 1), but during the dormant season, it may have iit lawlor
data.question: What is a popular concept in a diverse set of research fields?
data.text: the recent literature shows that vulnerability has become a popular concept in a very diverse set of research fields
data.question: Name 3 studies of vulnerability in this passage
data.text: it includes studies of vulnerability to terrorism, to poverty, to computer viruses, to oil spills, to globalisation, to radiation, to sars, to earthquakes, to financial collapse, to political change, and so on
data.question: Which two researcg fields have dominated vulnerability?
data.text: are natural hazards and climate change
data.context: nonetheless, a quick glance at the recent literature shows that vulnerability has become a popular concept in a very diverse set of research fields. it includes studies of vulnerability to terrorism, to poverty, to computer viruses, to oil spills, to globalisation, to radiation, to sars, to earthquakes, to financial collapse, to political change, and so on. according to the literature, households can be vulnerable, as can ecosystems, airplanes, urban infrastructure, carbon stocks, coastal zones, countries and companies. the two research fields that have dominated research on vulnerability, however, are natural hazards and climate change. in 1976, well before there was widespread awareness of the potential adverse effects of climate change on nature and society, o'keefe et al. introduced the notion of vulnerability to the naturalhazard community. they used it to point out that socioeconomic conditions, rather than natural-system phenomena, are frequently the main causes of disasters.3this point has since been reinforced by many, including nobel laureate amartya sen, who said: "[n]o substantial famine has ever occurred in any independent and democratic country with a relatively free press."4
data.question: What this study addresses to?
data.text: the future evolution of grosser aletschgletscher, switzerland, the largest glacier in the european alps
data.question: How the ice flow was described?
data.text: described with the full stokes equations
data.question: How was the glacier surface evolution obtained ?
data.text: by solving a transport equation for the volume of fluid
data.context: mathematics institute of computational science and engineering, swiss federal institute of technology (epfl), ch-1015 lausanne, switzerland 2department of mathematics and computer science, free university of berlin, d-14195 berlin dahlem, germany e-mail: guillaume.jouvet@fu-berlin.de 3department of geosciences, university of fribourg, ch-1700 fribourg, switzerland 4laboratory of hydraulics, hydrology and glaciology (vaw), eth z"urich, ch-8092 z"urich, switzerland 5institute for atmospheric and climate science, universit"atsstrasse 16, eth z"urich, ch-8092 z"urich, switzerland for more than a century alpine glaciers have been retreating dramatically, and they are expected to shrink even more quickly over the coming decades. this study addresses the future evolution of grosser aletschgletscher, switzerland, the largest glacier in the european alps. a three-dimensional combined surface mass-balance and glacier dynamics model was applied. the ice flow was described with the full stokes equations. the glacier surface evolution was obtained by solving a transport equation for the volume of fluid. daily surface melt and accumulation were calculated on the basis of climate data. the combined model was validated against several types of measurements made throughout the 20th century. for future climate change, scenarios based on regional climate models in the ensembles project were used. according to the median climatic evolution, aletschgletscher was expected to lose 90% of its ice volume by the end of 2100. even when the model was driven using current climate conditions (the past two decades) the glacier tongue experienced a considerable retreat of 6 km, indicating its strong disequilibrium with the present climate. by including a model for the evolution of supraglacial debris and its effect in reducing glacier melt, we show that this factor can significantly slow future glacier retreat.
data.question: When was the regional climate change action plan developed?
data.text: in north west england a regional climate change action plan was first developed for the years 2007-2009. this was then refreshed in february 2010 for the years 2010-2012
data.question: What was the objective of this climate change action plan?
data.text: the objective of the revised climate change action plan is not to replace, but to strengthen the vision of a lowcarbon and well adapted region, taking into account progress made to date and developments at national and international levels
data.question: What was the role of green infrastructure in climate change action plan?
data.text: green infrastructure plays a prominent role in the plan, both in terms of its role in climate change mitigation and adaptation. indeed, one of the stated actions is a "regional assessment of the risks, opportunities and priorities for green infrastructure in adapting
data.context: in north west england a regional climate change action plan was first developed for the years 2007-2009. this was then refreshed in february 2010 for the years 2010-2012. the objective of the revised climate change action plan is not to replace, but to strengthen the vision of a lowcarbon and well adapted region, taking into account progress made to date and developments at national and international levels. green infrastructure plays a prominent role in the plan, both in terms of its role in climate change mitigation and adaptation. indeed, one of the stated actions is a "regional assessment of the risks, opportunities and priorities for green infrastructure in adapting
data.question: What are four major reasons the literature on zooplankton is dominated by work on copepods?
data.text: the literature on zooplankton is dominated by work on copepods because of their cosmopolitan nature, their importance in marine foodwebs, their robust nature in the laboratory, and because of sampling and preservation bias
data.question: What are three terrestrial groups whose climate-impact research is later in the developmental stage than the research on zooplankton?
data.text: such a case-study approach is useful for the insight it provides, but it also demonstrates that climate-impact research on zooplankton is at an earlier developmental stage than many terrestrial groups, such as birds, butterflies, or flowering plants
data.question: Which two specific effects of global warming does the researcher most focus on on this paper?
data.text: the focus is on global warming, with its heating effect on the ocean's upper layers, and impacts on stratification and nutrient enrichment processes
data.context: in this review, i examine the observed and potential future response of zooplankton communities to climate change. this review is not meant to be exhaustive but to highlight case studies where climate has had a clear impact on zooplankton communities and has had or is likely to have substantial ecosystem consequences. such a case-study approach is useful for the insight it provides, but it also demonstrates that climate-impact research on zooplankton is at an earlier developmental stage than many terrestrial groups, such as birds, butterflies, or flowering plants. the focus is on global warming, with its heating effect on the ocean's upper layers, and impacts on stratification and nutrient enrichment processes. the literature on zooplankton is dominated by work on copepods because of their cosmopolitan nature, their importance in marine foodwebs, their robust nature in the laboratory, and because of sampling and preservation bias. wherever possible, however, i draw on examples from other important groups including euphausiids, foraminifera, ichthyoplankton, jellyfish, and fresh-water phytoand zooplankton. this review deliberately does not discuss microzooplankton (see calbet, 2008) or ocean acidification (see fabry et al ., 2008). i also leave it to other workers to synthesize the findings from laboratory and molecular work on physiological and genetic mechanisms through which temperature operates at the organism level.
data.question: What is more difficult to discern from these studies?
data.text: what is more difficult to discern from these studies is how individuals explain the causes and impacts of climate change, how they process information, form their views and come to change their climate-relevant behavior (rather than just expressing willingness to do so), and what the deeper motivations for, and barriers to, actual behavioral changes and other forms of engagement are
data.question: Do all studies examine perceptions of climate change using small samples and mainly qualitative, in-depth methodologies?
data.text: a small but growing number of studies have examined perceptions of climate change using small samples and mainly qualitative, in-depth methodologies
data.question: What are the benefits of small-scale studies?
data.text: small-scale studies, by virtue of focusing on a small and particular subset of larger audience segments or populations, provide insights into the particular understandings, perceptions, and levels of engagement of the group studied, as well as into the audience-specific barriers to more active engagement
data.context: what is more difficult to discern from these studies is how individuals explain the causes and impacts of climate change, how they process information, form their views and come to change their climate-relevant behavior (rather than just expressing willingness to do so), and what the deeper motivations for, and barriers to, actual behavioral changes and other forms of engagement are. a small but growing number of studies have examined perceptions of climate change using small samples and mainly qualitative, in-depth methodologies such as focus groups, personal semi-structured interviews, small-sized surveys using experimental study designs, processes with participant observation (e.g., scenario discussions with visualization), expert elicitation, or case studies. this research offers several categories of insights into individuals' understanding, perception and engagement with climate change that cannot be obtained from large-scale surveys. deep insights into understandings, perceptions and engagement among particular population segments: small-scale studies, by virtue of focusing on a small and particular subset of larger audience segments or populations, provide insights into the particular understandings, perceptions, and levels of engagement of the group studied, as well as into the audience-specific barriers to more active engagement. for example, such studies reveal differences in individual understandings, perceptions and levels of engagement among very young or older students; youth versus older individuals; particular professional groups; particular urban or rural populations, value/attitude-based segments (e.g., high/low environmental values, ideologies or party affiliation) or a set of influentials considered critical to reach for larger campaigns. some studies also focus on, or allow insights into, the ways regional populations differ from national averages, allowing for more tailored outreach campaigns. cultural differences may be as significant as those among different demographic groupings but may be glossed over (by averaging) in national samples. studies of this sort can reveal culturally resonant framings and reveal regional 'hooks' that are of interest and meaning only to the regional population. in sum, such differentiated insights provide essential information when trying to design communication that is meant to resonate with a particular audience segment. testing of the impact of different communication strategies and campaigns or policies designed to change behavior: some studies involve testing differences in receptivity to different communication channels, messengers, framings, or the use of different communication vehicles (graphic, iconic, spoken, written communications). typically it is only possible in very careful experimental, comparative studies to understand what aspects have what particular impact on the audience. it is also more economical to test
data.question: What aspects of wellbeing can be interpreted as a vulnerability to climate change?
data.text: for instance, personal safety and security is clearly related to the human vulnerability to disasters. adequate livelihoods and good health may also determine the sensitivity and adaptive capacity of a population facing a climate-related threat
data.question: What are the criteria used in the quantitative study of social vulnerability?
data.text: some criteria often used in quantitative studies of social vulnerability are related to income or wealth, education, health, social capital and networks, safety nets, or access to water (e.g., cutter et al. 2003; sullivan and meigh 2005; eakin and bojorquez-tapia 2008
data.question: Why support systems increase the adaptive capacity of an ecosystem?
data.text: supporting services contribute to the adaptive capacity of an ecosystem, because nutrient cycling and primary production are important components of the functioning, resistance and resilience of the ecosystem
data.context: ecosystem services and societal vulnerability to climate change in the conceptual framework for understanding the links between ecosystem services and human wellbeing (figure 3), many components of wellbeing can also be interpreted as dimensions of vulnerability to climate change. for instance, personal safety and security is clearly related to the human vulnerability to disasters. adequate livelihoods and good health may also determine the sensitivity and adaptive capacity of a population facing a climate-related threat. some criteria often used in quantitative studies of social vulnerability are related to income or wealth, education, health, social capital and networks, safety nets, or access to water (e.g., cutter et al. 2003; sullivan and meigh 2005; eakin and bojorquez-tapia 2008). these criteria of sensitivity or adaptive capacity of households, communities or countries are clearly linked to ecosystem services (millennium ecosystem assessment 2003, 2005). in addition to these similarities between vulnerability indicators and constituents of wellbeing, we propose to link ecosystem services and vulnerability to climate change (see figure 4), using the components of vulnerability defined by the ipcc: exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity (see appendix, figure 7 for definitions). ecosystem services may contribute to reducing exposure, sensitivity or vulnerability of coupled human-environmental systems in various ways. the exposure of a system to climate change can be reduced by mitigation policies, in which the ecosystem service of carbon sequestration has a role to play (see box 5). however, local practices of carbon sequestration will not have a measurable impact on the exposure of the locality to climate change, as carbon sequestration activities should be conducted at a global scale to have impacts on mitigation. local or regional ecosystem services are more relevant for adaptation. supporting services contribute to the adaptive capacity of an ecosystem, because nutrient cycling and primary production are important components of the functioning, resistance and resilience of the ecosystem. regulating services can decrease the sensitivity of a coupled human-environment system; for example, the water regulation services
data.question: What technique was used to test the main hypothesis on PsyCap mediation of the climate-performance relationship?
data.text: the primary analysis technique used for testing the main hypothesis on psycap mediation of the climate-performance relationship was baron and kenny's (1986) technique, as revised by kenny, kashy, and bolger (1998
data.question: What was done in the second equation?
data.text: in the second equation, the mediating variable (psycap) was regressed on the independent variable (supportive climate
data.question: What happened to the dependent variable in the third equation?
data.text: in the third equation, the dependent variable (performance) was regressed on both the independent variable (supportive climate) and the mediating variable (psycap
data.context: to test the study hypotheses, various analyses as reported in tables 1 and 2 were utilized. the primary analysis technique used for testing the main hypothesis on psycap mediation of the climate-performance relationship was baron and kenny's (1986) technique, as revised by kenny, kashy, and bolger (1998). this approach requires estimating three regression equations. in the first equation, the dependent variable (performance) was regressed on the independent variable (supportive climate). in the second equation, the mediating variable (psycap) was regressed on the independent variable (supportive climate). in the third equation, the dependent variable (performance) was regressed on both the independent variable (supportive climate) and the mediating variable (psycap). according to baron and kenny (1986), there is support for mediation if the following are obtained: (1) the first regression equation shows that the independent variable relates to the dependent variable; (2) the second equation shows that the independent variable relates to the mediating variable; and (3) the third regression shows that the mediating variable relates to the dependent variable and the
data.question: What country's perspective is this article referencing?
data.text: canadian
data.question: Adaptation to climate change is a challenge to what countries?
data.text: adaptation to climate change represents a challenge to all countries of the world, including canada
data.question: The seven sectoral chapters of the report outline what?
data.text: the potential impacts of climate change on key sectors of canada's economy, providing a review of recent research and identifying knowledge gaps and research needs
data.context: climate change impacts and adaptation: a canadian perspective presents an overview of current issues in climate change impacts and adaptation in canada, as reflected in research conducted over the past five years. the discipline has evolved significantly, as researchers from a wide range of disciplines have become increasingly involved. enhanced interest reflects the growing realization that, even with effective mitigation measures, some degree of climate change is inevitable. impacts are no longer viewed as hypothetical outcomes, but as risks that need to be addressed through adaptation. indeed, as emphasized in the third assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, adaptation is a necessary complement to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in addressing climate change at all scales. adaptation to climate change represents a challenge to all countries of the world, including canada. although climate change may be unique in its scope and the potential magnitude of its impacts, humans have always adapted to changes in their environment, both climatic and non-climatic, so there is a foundation of knowledge upon which to build. the purpose of adaptation is not to preserve the status quo, since that will simply not be possible for most ecosystems and many human systems. rather, the goal of adaptation is to reduce the negative impacts of climate change, while taking advantage of new opportunities that may be presented. since there will always be uncertainties associated with climate change, the issue is best addressed in the context of risk management. an important shift over the past 5 to 10 years has been the growing recognition of the importance of considering social, economic and political factors, in addition to biological and physical ecosystem factors, in impacts and adaptation studies. for instance, preliminary studies have been conducted into the costs of both potential impacts and various adaptation options. there has also been increasing use of the concept of vulnerability in impacts and adaptation research. vulnerability refers to the degree to which a system, region or sector is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, the effects of climate change and climate variability. research focused on vulnerability emphasizes the need to develop a strong understanding of the current state of the system being studied by involving stakeholders and taking an integrative, multidisciplinary approach. through consideration of current vulnerability, along with scenarios of future climate, social and economic conditions, it is possible to estimate future vulnerabilities in the context of risk management. continued improvements in climate modelling and scenario development are important for impacts and adaptation research. likewise, improved understanding of how adaptation occurs, and what barriers exist to successful adaptation, is extremely important. the seven sectoral chapters of the report outline the potential impacts of climate change on key sectors of canada's economy, providing a review of recent research and identifying knowledge gaps and research needs. through this review, it is evident that climate change impacts, and our ability to
data.question: What does the review also consider?
data.text: the review also considers differences in methodological approaches, particularly relating to quantification and monetisation of city-scale climate change impacts and adaptation
data.question: What does progress in mega-cities such as London and New York suggest?
data.text: progress in mega-cities such as london and new york suggests that climate change impacts can also be more formally incorporated into current planning and decision-making as long as there exists the institutional structure and coordination capacit
data.context: the review also considers differences in methodological approaches, particularly relating to quantification and monetisation of city-scale climate change impacts and adaptation. the approaches used to generate quantitative information are found to differ substantially and lack consistency with each other. consequently,t several areas are highlighted to improve methods and encourage consistency between studies, including the treatment of climate modelling, socio-economic scenarios and monetary valuation of market and non-market impacts, where comparability in approaches may serve to more easily facilitate useful transfer of findings between cities. nevertheless, and despite the limitations in coverage and methods, some conclusions relevant to policy processes can be drawn. first, city-scale vulnerabilities are likely to be greater in tdeveloping country cities, primarily reflecting the fact that the population of these cities is often growing faster than their physical infrastructure capacity, and that their existing adaptation deficit to current climate variability as well as future exposure to climate change is greater than in developed countries. most adaptive action to date has focused on awareness-raising, though progress in mega-cities such as london and new york suggests that climate change impacts can also be more formally incorporated into current planning and decision-making as long as there exists the institutional structure and coordination capacity. the existing mega-city studies show that establishment of a designated lead organisation or unit within an organisation is an effective means of co-ordinating initial scoping 6 activities, and that engagement with key sectoral stakeholders is essential if the benefits of these initial activities are to be maximised. we therefore suggest in the conclusions to this paper that with limited resources, future research effort might focus on a number of scoping case studies using common methods - possibly on a global pooled funding basis that allow other cities to explore the potential for transfer of results between cities with similar location or vulnerability characteristics. subsequent studies may be then taken where there are specific vulnerabilities and where the initial studies identify impacts that justify quantitative analysis to inform current investment and development decisions and strategies. clearly, whilst sea level rise and extreme weather events are obvious initial research areas, the lack of evidence cautions against a focus on these two categories alone. this is particularly important in moving from a generic assessment of the prioritised physical impacts, to a quantified analysis of the monetary damages. the issue of energy tdemand (particularly in existing warmer cities), is shown here to be potentially very significant, especially in economic terms, and this should also be a priority. additional impacts on health and water scarcity also warrant further investigation, together with a large number of associated cross-sectoral impacts that may be identified from taking a spatiallydefined assessment such as this.t
data.question: HOW MANY YEARS MENTIONED IN THE ABOVE PARAGRAPH?
data.text: one hundred years ago
data.question: WHAT IS  CLIMATE REDUCTIONISM?
data.text: as the ideological wars of the twentieth century reshaped political and moral worlds, environmental determinism became discredited and marginalised within mainstream academic thought. yet at the beginning of a new century with heightening anxieties about changes in climate, the idea that climate can determine the fate of people and society has re-emerged in the form of 'climate reductionism
data.question: WHAT ARE SUGGESTED IN CLIMATE REDUCTIONISM?
data.text: some possible reasons for this climate reductionism, as well as some of the limitations and dangers of this position for human relationships with the future, are suggeste
data.context: one hundred years ago, a popular theory contended that various aspects of climate determined the physiology and psychology of individuals, which in turn defined the behavior and culture of the societies that those individuals formed. as the ideological wars of the twentieth century reshaped political and moral worlds, environmental determinism became discredited and marginalised within mainstream academic thought. yet at the beginning of a new century with heightening anxieties about changes in climate, the idea that climate can determine the fate of people and society has re-emerged in the form of 'climate reductionism'. this paper traces how climate has moved from playing a deterministic to a reductionist role in discourses about environment, society and the future. climate determinism previously offered an explanation, and hence a justification, for the superiority of certain imperial races and cultures. the argument put forward here is that the new climate reductionism is driven by the hegemony exercised by the predictive natural sciences over contingent, imaginative and humanistic accounts of social life and visions of the future. it is a hegemony which lends disproportionate power in political and social discourse to model-based descriptions of putative future climates. some possible reasons for this climate reductionism, as well as some of the limitations and dangers of this position for human relationships with the future, are suggested.
data.question: What were the women clear about needing?
data.text: the women were also clear about what they needed in order to adapt to the floods: crop diversification and agricultural practices, but also skills and knowledge training to learn about flood and drought-resistant crops and the proper use of manure, pesticides and irrigation
data.question: What is considered critical?
data.text: it is critical that this local innovation and context-specific knowledge and experience be captured through further participatory research into women's existing coping strategies and adaptation priorities
data.question: What will be vital?
data.text: it is vital that these priorities are made visible and are used to inform policy decisions and programmes on adaptation
data.context: the women were also clear about what they needed in order to adapt to the floods: crop diversification and agricultural practices, but also skills and knowledge training to learn about flood and drought-resistant crops and the proper use of manure, pesticides and irrigation. the box below captures some of the specific priorities articulated by the women during the research. poor women's climate change adaptation needs and priorities the poor women of the ganges river basin, in adapting to climate change want: * a safe place to live: o relocation of communities to safer areas o solid houses built with a high plinth level to reduce inundation o shelters required for people, animals and agricultural inputs/ products * better access: o to climate change information and related knowledge and skills o to services, such as doctors and veterinaries o to safe, reasonable and fair credit and insurance o to communications, through safer roads and access to boats * other livelihood options: o through knowledge and resources for crop diversification and adaptive agricultural practices o through access to irrigation o through locally available training. (adapted from, mitchell, t. et al 2007: 16) clearly, these women have a great deal of knowledge and experience of coping with the impacts of climate change and understand their own needs and the types of interventions required for ensuring more sustainable agricultural processes in the face of these changes. this re-affirms the point made repeatedly in the literature on gender and the environment that women and men have distinct and valuable knowledge about how to adapt to the adverse impacts of environmental degradation (fao 2003; gurung et al 2006; wedo 2003). it is critical that this local innovation and context-specific knowledge and experience be captured through further participatory research into women's existing coping strategies and adaptation priorities. as noted by the actionaid/ids report, "they [the women who took part in the research] might not be aware of all the possible adaptation strategies, of all the ways to overcome constraints to the ones they are using, but they certainly know their present situation best and have an urgent list of priorities to secure a livelihood in the face of the new challenges" (mitchell et al 2007: 14). it is vital that these priorities are made visible and are used to inform policy decisions and programmes on adaptation.
data.question: Are natural hazard impacts evenly distributed around the world?
data.text: we know from the disaster statistics that natural hazard impacts are unevenly distributed around the world
data.question: What ecological and human systems are affected by climate related hazards and climate change?
data.text: climate-related hazards and climate change affect a wide range of ecological systems, including forests, grasslands, wetlands, rivers, lakes and marine environments, and human systems, including agriculture, water resources, coastal resources, health, financial institutions and settlements (ipcc, 2001 
data.question: Climate change adaptation has largely focused on what?
data.text: climate change adaptation has largely focused on how individual actors and sectors may be able to adapt to shifting environmental conditions (for example, change of crops) rather than tackling the wider structural constraints that determine vulnerability
data.context: we know from the disaster statistics that natural hazard impacts are unevenly distributed around the world. certain countries, regions and areas are more vulnerable than others because of their geographic location, climate, geology and their capacity to cope with extreme conditions. developing countries are particularly affected by climate change because climate-sensitive sectors, such as agriculture and fisheries, tend to be very important from an economic standpoint and because they have limited human, institutional and financial capacity to anticipate and respond to the effects of climate change (ipcc, 2001 ). climate-related hazards and climate change affect a wide range of ecological systems, including forests, grasslands, wetlands, rivers, lakes and marine environments, and human systems, including agriculture, water resources, coastal resources, health, financial institutions and settlements (ipcc, 2001 ). complex interactions of social, economic and environmental factors operating on different spatial and temporal scales give rise to vulnerability as they affect the ability of individuals and communities to prepare for, cope with, and recover from, disasters. population density and growth, unplanned urbanisation, inappropriate land use, environmental mismanagement and loss of biodiversity, social injustice, poverty and short-term economic vision are important determinants of vulnerability (isdr, 2002 for an earlier statement on social vulnerability, see bohle et al., 1994 ). many poor and marginalised people are directly dependent on ecosystem services for their livelihood activities and are therefore particularly vulnerable to changes in environmental conditions and factors that may limit their access to such resources (task force on climate change, vulnerable communities and adaptation, 2003 ). in addition to access to natural resources, people's vulnerability to climate-related hazards is determined by their access to social and financial resources, information and technology, as well as by the effectiveness of institutions. those most vulnerable to natural hazards tend to be particular social groups (including women, the elderly, children, ethnic and religious minorities, single-headed households), people engaged in marginal livelihoods, socially excluded groups (such as 'illegal' settlers and others whose rights and claims to resources are not officially recognised) and those with inadequate access to economic (credit, welfare) and social (networks, information, relationships) capital. so far, many efforts by both communities have concentrated on reducing the vulnerability of specific sectors to a particular hazard at the local scale. disaster risk management addresses some important scale processes by sharing the burden of disaster impacts through insurance mechanisms (mechler and pflug, 2002 ). climate change adaptation has largely focused on how individual actors and sectors may be able to adapt to shifting environmental conditions (for example, change of crops) rather than tackling the wider structural constraints that determine vulnerability. recent research on the causal structures of current patterns of human vulnerability to environmental change (kasperson and kasperson, 2001 turner et al., 2003 pelling, 2003 has improved our understanding of how human agency and socio-political structures interact with physical systems in creating hazardous situations. the multidisciplinary vulnerability framework jointly developed by researchers at the stockholm
data.question: What is "epistemological slippage"?
data.text: this transfer of predictive authority, an almost accidental transfer one might suggest rather than one necessarily driven by any theoretical or ideological stance, is what i earlier defined as "epistemological slippage
data.question: How did these models and calculations depict humans?
data.text: humans are depicted as "dumb farmers", passively awaiting their climate fate
data.question: What does the author intend to do to give some substance to his or her argument?
data.text: to give some substance to this argument i need to explore some of the historical contexts which have allowed climate models to claim such hegemony over the future and which have allowed climate reductionism to thrive
data.context: this transfer of predictive authority, an almost accidental transfer one might suggest rather than one necessarily driven by any theoretical or ideological stance, is what i earlier defined as "epistemological slippage". if not quite the inexorable geometric calculus of malthus, it nevertheless offers a future written in the unyielding language of mathematics and computer code. these models and calculations allow for little human agency, little recognition of evolving, adapting and innovating societies, and little attempt to consider the changing values, cultures and practices of humanity. the contingencies of the future are whitewashed out of the future. humans are depicted as "dumb farmers", passively awaiting their climate fate. the possibilities of human agency are relegated to footnotes, the changing cultural norms and practices made invisible, the creative potential of the human imagination ignored. climate reductionism is the means by which the knowledge claims of the climate modellers are transferred, by proximity as it were, to the putative knowledge claims of the social, economic and political analysts. to give some substance to this argument i need to explore some of the historical contexts which have allowed climate models to claim such hegemony over the future and which have allowed climate reductionism to thrive. this requires an examination of the emergence of anthropogenic climate change as a matter of scientific concern in the 1970s and 1980s and as a matter of public policy debate in the 1980s and 1990s. there are three developments that are
data.question: What was revealed by the systematic review?
data.text: our systematic review revealed that in aquatic systems, non-native animal species have a strong performance advantage associated with increases in temperatures and co2 levels
data.question: What was also identified?
data.text: we also identified weaker trends towards similar patterns with increases in co2 and precipitation among terrestrial species. increasing the disparity in performance between native and non-native species is likely to exacerbate the effects of climate change on communityand ecosystem-level processes, particularly when such non-natives negatively impact resident species
data.question: What was focused in the study?
data.text: given our focus on performance measures such as demographic rates (i.e. survival and reproduction) and biomass, components that have the potential to affect abundance, range size and per capita effects, we might speculate that impacts of aquatic non-native species could be enhanced under elevated temperature and co2 (parker et al. 1999
data.context: our systematic review revealed that in aquatic systems, non-native animal species have a strong performance advantage associated with increases in temperatures and co2 levels. we also identified weaker trends towards similar patterns with increases in co2 and precipitation among terrestrial species. increasing the disparity in performance between native and non-native species is likely to exacerbate the effects of climate change on communityand ecosystem-level processes, particularly when such non-natives negatively impact resident species. given our focus on performance measures such as demographic rates (i.e. survival and reproduction) and biomass, components that have the potential to affect abundance, range size and per capita effects, we might speculate that impacts of aquatic non-native species could be enhanced under elevated temperature and co2 (parker et al. 1999). although, in aquatic systems, negative impacts of non-native species have been most often demonstrated (e.g. williams smith 2007; sorte et al. 2010b), positive impacts could also increase under climate change, and replacement of declining natives might sometimes prove beneficial at the community or ecosystem level (e.g. crooks 1998). thus, greater focus on integrating performance measures with an understanding of non-native species' impacts, especially with climate change, is needed for predicting higher level changes under future climatic conditions. in conclusion, we found that non-native species capitalised on increased resources with environmental change, but they were also negatively affected when conditions became less suitable, and that strong differential effects of climate change on native and non-native species are more likely to be observed among aquatic animals than among terrestrial plants.
data.question: What measurement is a blended record liable to underestimate?
data.text: there are two implications for observational records. first, a blended record from air temperatures over land and sea ice and sea surface temperatures over open ocean slightly underestimates the change in temperature diagnosed using global air temperatures alone
data.question: What should the blending calculation be conducted with to avoid introducing a cool bias?
data.text: second, the blending calculation should ideally be conducted with absolute temperatures to avoid introducing a cool bias due to the transformation of cells from sea ice to open water, particularly for infilled records
data.question: What kind of approach is required for robust comparisons of observations and models?
data.text: finally, we emphasize that robust comparisons of observations and models require a like-with-like approach and encourage further development of appropriate diagnostics from model simulations to facilitate such comparisons
data.context: there are two implications for observational records. first, a blended record from air temperatures over land and sea ice and sea surface temperatures over open ocean slightly underestimates the change in temperature diagnosed using global air temperatures alone. second, the blending calculation should ideally be conducted with absolute temperatures to avoid introducing a cool bias due to the transformation of cells from sea ice to open water, particularly for infilled records. otherwise, the approach of fixing the sea ice extent (text s1) mitigates the problem at the cost of introducing a different but smaller bias. the new data set of karl et al. [2015] incorporates adjustments to ssts to match nighttime marine air temperatures huang et al. 2015] and so may be more comparable to model air temperatures. the difference between air and sea surface temperature trends diagnosed here provides support for an increase in temperature trends when using marine air temperatures, as reported in karl et al. [2015]. finally, we emphasize that robust comparisons of observations and models require a like-with-like approach and encourage further development of appropriate diagnostics from model simulations to facilitate such comparisons.
data.question: what did the search site have?
data.text: the research site was equipped with a campbell scientific cr10x data logger that continuously measured precipitation using a tipping bucket rain gauge, par using a li-cor quantum sensor, and air temperature using a thermocouple
data.question: how was the depth of the water table measured?
data.text: the depth to the water table was measured manually using a blowpipe at wells located beside each collar
data.question: what were the wells built with?
data.text: wells were constructed from 1 in. diameter pvc pipe that was perforated throughout and inserted into the peat until clay was reached (usually 1.0 to 1.5 m
data.context: the research site was equipped with a campbell scientific cr10x data logger that continuously measured precipitation using a tipping bucket rain gauge, par using a li-cor quantum sensor, and air temperature using a thermocouple. the depth to the water table was measured manually using a blowpipe at wells located beside each collar. wells were constructed from 1 in. diameter pvc pipe that was perforated throughout and inserted into the peat until clay was reached (usually 1.0 to 1.5 m). soil temperature profiles were measured at depth intervals of 5-30 cm depth using a thermocouple probe inserted into the peat and a thermometer.
data.question: What is one organizational level that climate related decisions are made at?
data.text: individuals
data.question: Other than individuals, what is one organizational level that climate related decisions are made at?
data.text: international bodies
data.context: the use of scientific information for building readiness to much longer-term climate change will certainly require at least a similar level of effort, and at minimum face similar obstacles, as discussed in a number of recent publications.65,83-87that climaterelated decisions are made at all organizational levels, from individuals to international bodies, precluding the development of 'generic' decision support, compounds the challenge. combine this with the previously mentioned difficulties in modeling the climate system over these timescales (and thus the poor prospects for forecasts that will likely not have even the credibility of the seasonal forecasts currently available) and we are faced with a significant challenge. is there a path forward?
data.question: What resembles natural wetlands in appearance?
data.text: surface flow (free water surface) wetlands these resemble natural wetlands in appearance, because they have plants which can be floating and/or rooted (emergent or submerged) in a soil layer at the bottom, and water flows freely between the leaves and the stems of these plants
data.question: Name 3 plant genera in use.
data.text: plant genera in use include: (a) emergent: typha phragmites scirpus (b) submerged: potamogeon elodea etc., (c) floating: eichornia (water hyacinth), lemna (duckweed
data.question: What is the range of water depth in these vegetated zones?
data.text: water depth is between 0.6 and 0.9 m for the vegetated zones (or less, in the case of certain emergent plants), and 1.2 to 1.5 m for free water zones
data.context: surface flow (free water surface) wetlands these resemble natural wetlands in appearance, because they have plants which can be floating and/or rooted (emergent or submerged) in a soil layer at the bottom, and water flows freely between the leaves and the stems of these plants. there can be open areas dominated by these plants or islands exerting habitat functions. plant genera in use include: (a) emergent: typha phragmites scirpus (b) submerged: potamogeon elodea etc., (c) floating: eichornia (water hyacinth), lemna (duckweed). native plants are preferred. these wetlands present a very complex aquatic ecology. they may or may not have a lined bottom, depending on the environmental requirements. water depth is between 0.6 and 0.9 m for the vegetated zones (or less, in the case of certain emergent plants), and 1.2 to 1.5 m for free water zones. this type of wetlands is adequate to receive effluent from stabilisation ponds. in these conditions, they occupy an area between 1.5 to 3.0 m2/inhab.
data.question: What is a hybrid car with no engine?
data.text: a hybrid car with no engine is simply an electric vehicle equipped with a large battery pack
data.question: Name some promising trends in improving onboard electric storage?
data.text: some promising trends in improving onboard electricity storage include the of high performance lithium ion batteries into hybrid vehicles and electric cars
data.question: What must be implemented to match the consumption scale and universal impact?
data.text: to match the consumption scale and universal impact, a portfolio of approaches that adopt to local conditions must be implemented
data.context: as mentioned before, hybrid vehicles need high energy-density batteries to extend their range and bene fi t from hybridization. a hybrid car with no engine is simply an electric vehicle equipped with a large battery pack. some promising trends in improving onboard electricity storage include the of high performance lithium ion batteries into hybrid vehicles and electric cars. the energy density of these batteries is close to twice that of its near competitive, the nickel-metal hydride battery. however, as shown in fig. 38 they are still about an order of magnitude lower than the corresponding values of combustion engines using gasoline or diesels. the comparison presented in the ragone diagram shows the challenge to all-electric transportation; even when most advanced li-ion batteries are considered, they still have substantially lower energy density that chemical engines (combustion engines or fuel cells). other storage technologies that compete with these advanced batteries include supercapacitor and different fl ywheel designs, both having much higher charging and discharging power density compatible with regenerative braking at high speeds, and power surge during fast acceleration. some hybrid con fi guration may use more than one storage device. the fi gure contracts the mass energy density of typical hydrocarbon fuels, and shows their vast advantage in energy storage. 8. conclusions we have summarized recent concerns regarding energy sources and consumption patterns, including the growing needs of a rising worldwide population that strives for better living standards and compete over limited resources, and the strong evidence that continuing use of fossil fuels without measures to reduce co2 emissions may lead to irreversible environmental damage resulting from global warming. the problem is particularly daunting because of the scale of energy consumption and its positive time derivative, and the global nature of the problem and proposed solutions. while we witness growing competition over limited resources, there is a need for global cooperation to formulate and implement solutions for harnessing more resources and mitigating the negative impacts of energy consumption. to match the consumption scale and universal impact, a portfolio of approaches that adopt to local conditions must be implemented. solutions must be endorsed and implemented globally. solutions must be technically grounded and rely on existing technologies or technologies under development. in to succeed in achieving largescale change in a timely fashion, these technologically driven solutions must be encouraged by economic incentives and supported by public policies. conservation is of the highest priority. while targeting signi fi cantly better conversion (supply-side) and end-use (demand-side) ef fi ciencies, conservation preserves energy resources and reduces the environmental impact. almost in all applications, conversion ef fi ciency can be improved, either by eliminating sources of losses or by taking advantage of waste energy. improving conversion ef fi ciency often requires complex hardware, exotic material, smart control technologies, etc, which is likely to raise the capital and operating cost. on the other hand, fuel saving could make up for some of this extra cost. furthermore, the wide spread adoption of new technologies often leads to lower prices and encourages
data.question: How important are measuring climate variables?
data.text: climate variables is a critical methodological step in identifying climate effects, regardless of the research design used
data.question: What approach is internally valid?
data.text: early analyses concerned only with measuring whether climatic factors had a nonzero effect, or the sign of an effect, used simple measures of climate such as latitude or a single indicator variable that is one if a population is exposed to a predefined event (e.g., a drought) and is zero otherwise
data.question: What are some important limitations?
data.text: first, coarse climate measures introduce large measurement errors that will cause attenuation bias, leading to under-rejection of the null hypothesis. second, the structure of a dose-response function e[ y c f c (25) is often of interest. for example, we may be interested in nonlinearities or whether multiple dimensions of climate interact in important ways, requiring that measures of climate variables be near continuous and multidimensional. third, if measures of c do not reflect scalable physical
data.context: the measurement of climate variables is a critical methodological step in identifying climate effects, regardless of the research design used. early analyses concerned only with measuring whether climatic factors had a nonzero effect, or the sign of an effect, used simple measures of climate such as latitude or a single indicator variable that is one if a population is exposed to a predefined event (e.g., a drought) and is zero otherwise. this approach is internally valid but has important limitations that are often underappreciated in the literature. first, coarse climate measures introduce large measurement errors that will cause attenuation bias, leading to under-rejection of the null hypothesis. second, the structure of a dose-response function e[ y c f c (25) is often of interest. for example, we may be interested in nonlinearities or whether multiple dimensions of climate interact in important ways, requiring that measures of climate variables be near continuous and multidimensional. third, if measures of c do not reflect scalable physical
data.question: In what ways are shock tactics used to describe or talk about climate chage?
data.text: viewed in retrospect, framing climate change as an imminent catastrophe about to happen draws attention to the issue through shock tactics
data.question: What did the UK Government's opening up of the North Atlantic for new exploration of oil signal?
data.text: in 1997 signalled an opportunity for the issue of climate change to be linked more directly to the oil industry, made relevant to a national audience
data.question: What was did the UK's Atlantic Frontier Campaign do?
data.text: communicating a stronger message about climate change by linking the potential impacts to the causes: the burning of fossil fuels
data.context: the phrase climate change, rather than global warming, is used throughout, demonstrating greenpeace's adherence to the scientific terminology used by the ipcc. however, the choice to frame climate change visually through the symbolic resonancy of the colour red (on the front page), frames this science through the more easily understood link between rising temperatures and global warming. viewed in retrospect, framing climate change as an imminent catastrophe about to happen draws attention to the issue through shock tactics; understandable given the political and media climate at the time, which had acknowledged (in 1988) then ignored (from 1992) the issue. yet this early example of climate change discourse in the making also highlights the problems in communicating the complexity of the issue, resorting to cataclysmic images that render the viewer powerless in terms of agency phase two. identifying causes, present impacts and future solutions - dirty oil versus pristine habitats the uk government's opening up of the north atlantic off the north west coast of scotland for new oil exploration in 1997 signalled an opportunity for the issue of climate change to be linked more directly to the oil industry, made relevant to a national audience. greenpeace uk launched its 'atlantic frontier campaign' communicating a stronger message about climate change by linking the potential impacts to the causes: the burning of fossil fuels. the campaign message continued with the temporal theme used in climate time bomb sharing a similar colour scheme of red, yellow and black to signify the danger of a warming planet (figure 3). however, where the discourse of climate time bomb communicated a catastrophic event about to happen, the title of
data.question: What is an element of maintaining soil surface elevation in wetlands?
data.text: tree growth
data.question: How do mangrove species play an important role in the maintenance of surface elevatin?
data.text: through differential abilities of species to promote sedimentation and sediment binding
data.context: climate change and the great barrier reef: a vulnerability assessment part ii: species and species groups sedimentation was a significant process in maintaining soil surface elevation in some wetlands but only accounted for 50 percent of variation in surface elevation. this result underscores the importance of other surface and subsurface processes in the maintenance of soil surface elevation and thus responses to sea level rise151,152,43. using rsets cahoon et al.43 observed subsidence of 37 mm per year in highly organic mangrove soils in honduras after a severe hurricane damaged the forest, demonstrating the importance of tree growth for the maintenance of soil elevation. in both salt marshes and mangroves, nutrient enrichment has been observed to enhance vertical accretion and surface elevation through deposition of roots126,117. in mangroves in micronesia, data from rsets indicate pnuemataphore type (ie mangrove species) plays an important role in the maintenance of surface elevation through differential abilities of species to promote sedimentation and sediment binding109.
data.question: After how many months did the company conduct an initial assessment?
data.text: the utility company conducted an initial assessment of this new strategy after using it for six months
data.question: What did the assessment find?
data.text: the assessment found "that customers who received the personalized report reduced energy use by 2 percent more than those who got standard statements" (ibid
data.question: What is an important strategy for reducing the level of CO2 in the atmosphere?
data.text: one of the important strategies for reducing the level of co2 in the atmosphere is developing more effective policies for protecting ecosystem services--particularly those related to carbon sequestration
data.context: the utility company conducted an initial assessment of this new strategy after using it for six months. the assessment found "that customers who received the personalized report reduced energy use by 2 percent more than those who got standard statements" (ibid.). using various forms of competition among households and groups and feedback on who is doing the best at reducing energy use is a strategy for reducing emissions that is increasingly being adopted by college campuses, small cities, and utility firms around the country. contemporary psychological studies have found that framing problems related to resource use in a social context does affect actions. schultz et al. (2007) and mumford (2007) have conducted studies finding that messages containing social references are more effective in changing behavior than messages stressing factual information. for example, statements saying that " x of guests in this hotel recycle towels," instead of specifying the amount of water saved when one recycles, lead to increased levels of recycling. 10.2. complex, multi-level systems to cope with a complex, multi-level problem given that the recognition of the danger of climate change among citizens and public officials is still relatively recent, and given the debates about who is responsible for causing the problem and for finding solutions, one cannot expect that an effective polycentric system will be constructed in the near future. but given the slowness and conflict involved in achieving a global solution, recognizing the potential of building even more effective ways of reducing energy use at multiple levels is an important step forward. further, one of the important strategies for reducing the level of co2 in the atmosphere is developing more effective policies for protecting ecosystem services--particularly those related to carbon sequestration. developing effective and adaptive programs, however, requires selecting appropriate areas and developing plans for leaving some areas untouched and for making major investments in the flora and fauna as well as the technological infrastructure of other areas (michel, 2009). this requires substantial investment in scientific modeling (nelson et al., 2009). fortunately, recent breakthroughs in using geographic information systems and in-depth knowledge of the biophysical settings to map ecological systems over time are beginning to provide the tools needed for more careful planning for improvements in ecological systems (daily et al., 2009). the models, however, need to be developed at multiple scales and decision-making units so 124 elinor ostrom
data.question: What does the SCC represent?
data.text: the scc represents the marginal cost of climate damages, or the cost of doing nothing about climate change
data.question: What are the risks represented from the marginal damages from emissions?
data.text: this occurs because the marginal damages from emissions have become so large; the uncertainties explored in our analysis, regarding damages and climate sensitivity, imply that the marginal damage curve could turn nearly vertical at some point, representing a catastrophic or discontinuous change
data.question: What does the analysis demonstrate in this study?
data.text: the analysis here demonstrates that plausible values for key uncertainties imply catastrophically large values of the scc. this result can be generalized to other environmental issues: when there is a credible risk that the marginal damage curve for an externality turns vertical at some threshold (representing discontinuous, extremely large damages), then the shadow price of the externality, such as the scc, can become so large that costbenefit analysis turns into cost-effectiveness analysis of the least-cost strategy for staying safely below the threshold
data.context: the scc represents the marginal cost of climate damages, or the cost of doing nothing about climate change. in a cost-benefit framework, it should be compared to the marginal cost of climate protection. we have compared our scc estimates to the marginal abatement cost on several versions of a maximum feasible abatement scenario, which would lead to zero or negative net global emissions before the end of this century. in the federal working group's analysis, the scc is well below the abatement cost for these scenarios. we found that under many alternate sets of assumptions, the scc is roughly equal to or greater than the cost of maximum feasible abatement. this remains true even when the scc is reestimated using a rapid-reduction emissions trajectory. once the scc is high enough to justify maximum feasible abatement in costbenefit terms, then cost-benefit analysis becomes functionally equivalent to a precautionary approach to carbon emissions. all that remains for economic analysis of climate policy is to determine the cost-minimizing strategy for eliminating emissions as quickly as possible. this occurs because the marginal damages from emissions have become so large; the uncertainties explored in our analysis, regarding damages and climate sensitivity, imply that the marginal damage curve could turn nearly vertical at some point, representing a catastrophic or discontinuous change. the factors driving this result are uncertainties, not known facts. we cannot know in advance how large climate damages, or climate sensitivity, will turn out to be. the argument is analogous to the case for buying insurance: it is the prudent choice, not because we are sure that catastrophe will occur, but because we cannot be sufficiently sure that it will not occur. by the time we know what climate sensitivity and high-temperature damages turn out to be, it will be much too late to do anything about it. the analysis here demonstrates that plausible values for key uncertainties imply catastrophically large values of the scc. this result can be generalized to other environmental issues: when there is a credible risk that the marginal damage curve for an externality turns vertical at some threshold (representing discontinuous, extremely large damages), then the shadow price of the externality, such as the scc, can become so large that costbenefit analysis turns into cost-effectiveness analysis of the least-cost strategy for staying safely below the threshold. our results offer a new way to make sense of the puzzling finding by martin weitzman: his "dismal theorem" establishes that under certain assumptions, the
data.question: What is paleoflood hydrology the study of?
data.text: paleoflood hydrology is the study of floods prior to the instrumental record or in ungaged basins
data.question: What can flood reconstructions be used to improve?
data.text: flood reconstructions can be used to improve flood-frequency estimates, as well as to provide information on the magnitude and age of the largest flood(s) for a particular basin and for hydrologically homogeneous geographical regions
data.question: What is one way Paleoflood reconstructions can be used?
data.text: paleoflood reconstructions can be used in a variety of ways. one use involves informal comparison of current floods to paleofloods, putting current floods into the context of events that appear to have occurred in the past. also, paleoflood data might be referenced in flood-frequency analyses
data.context: the prospects of climate change might compel us to consider a range of potential flood events beyond those implied by the instrumental record. paleofloods offer another way of characterizing such events. paleoflood hydrology is the study of floods prior to the instrumental record or in ungaged basins (costa, 1987; baker, 2008). more information on paleoflood hydrology can be found in appendix a. the study of landforms, sediments, and botanical evidence can be used to infer information about previous flooding. flood reconstructions can be used to improve flood-frequency estimates, as well as to provide information on the magnitude and age of the largest flood(s) for a particular basin and for hydrologically homogeneous geographical regions (jarrett and england, 2002). paleoflood reconstructions can be used in a variety of ways. one use involves informal comparison of current floods to paleofloods, putting current floods into the context of events that appear to have occurred in the past. also, paleoflood data might be referenced in flood-frequency analyses (see baker and others, 2002; baker, 2008). as with previously described uses of paleoclimate information, the use of paleoflood information requires an assumption that paleoflood magnitudes are relevant to the future.
data.question: What is intimately linked to the interacting cycles of carbon, water, and nutrients?
data.text: photosynthesis is intimately linked to the interacting cycles of carbon, water, and nutrients
data.question: What can stimulate nitrogen mineralisation?
data.text: increasing temperature can stimulate nitrogen mineralisation
data.question: What has very high rainfall for half of the year but a pronounced dry season for the other half
data.text: manila, philippines, has very high rainfall for half of the year but a pronounced dry season for the other half
data.context: photosynthesis is intimately linked to the interacting cycles of carbon, water, and nutrients (kirschbaum, 1999a, b), with the direct effects of co2 and temperature on photosynthesis, and the effects of temperature on transpiration rates having been discussed above. plants also require nutrients, especially nitrogen, which is mostly derived from the decomposition of soil organic matter. plant responses to increasing co2 can be curtailed through insufficient availability of nutrients. conversely, increasing temperature can stimulate nitrogen mineralisation and thus photosynthesis (kirschbaum, 1999b, 2000a). the combined effects of these processes are illustrated here through simulations at four different locations with contrasting climates (fig. 10 ). canberra, australia, is characterised by low and irregular rainfall without a distinct rainy season, hot summers, and fairly cool winters. manila, philippines, has very high rainfall for half of the year but a pronounced dry season for the other half, and high temperatures throughout the year. flakaliden, sweden, has very cold winters, with snow covering the ground for four to five months. precipitation is not high but more than adequate in this environment with very low evaporative demand. alice springs, australia, has a typical desert climate, characterised by hot summers and very low, and severely limiting, rainfall. for each of these sites, the comprehensive tree-growth model cenw (kirschbaum, 1999a) was run to simulate net primary production (npp) under current conditions, and for a changed climate (figs. 10,11 ). the direct effect of changing co2 concentration was simulated as described above, but was modified in the whole forest system through subsequent feedback effects. simulated responses to increasing temperature were dominated by indirect effects of temperature, while direct temperature effects played only a minor role.
data.question: How is industrialism identified? Is identified as the main factor behind global warming
data.text: often industrialism is identified as the principal factor behind global warming, but this position fails to recognize that industrialism is embedded within a particular global
data.question: What is industrialism embedded in? A specific global economic system
data.text: but this position fails to recognize that industrialism is embedded within a particular global economic system
data.question: In relation to the operations of capitalism is it necessary to understand? Yes
data.text: understanding the forces and operations of capitalism is necessary for gaining perspective on how industrial social relations function as well as how the human-nature interchange under this system contributes to global climate change
data.context: often industrialism is identified as the principal factor behind global warming, but this position fails to recognize that industrialism is embedded within a particular global economic system. understanding the forces and operations of capitalism is necessary for gaining perspective on how industrial social relations function as well as how the human-nature interchange under this system contributes to global climate change. this is not to say that other economic systems do not perpetrate and contribute to environmental degradation. soviettype societies caused immense environmental deterioration, but this does not negate the importance and urgency of analyzing the social relations, operations, and development of capitalism since it is the political-economic system that is dominant in the world today. environmental crises have existed throughout human history.60in fact, moore argues that the birth of capitalism was pushed forward, in part, by environmental contradictions and crises in feudalism, namely a metabolic rift particular to the structure of feudal agricultural production.61his analysis advances by detailing how capitalist agricultural production continued to create a metabolic rift, but it found temporary relief through establishing a global economy, which increasingly incorporated the world into a metabolic rift of global proportions as agricultural goods (food and fiber) were transferred from colonies to european nations. seeking endless accumulation of capital, agricultural practices were intensified, as land was consolidated into fewer hands. foster, through an historical analysis of liebig and marx, documents the reemergence of a soil crisis in europe in the 1800s.62
data.question: How many language in primary production?
data.text: effects of recurrent severe drought events on 32 response parameters organized into ecosystem functions
data.question: which is Central Europe during the years?
data.text: jentsch, kreyling beierkuhnlein 2007) in central europe during the years 2005-2009
data.question: How is effect in year?
data.text: data shown represent maximum effects from years with highest drought effects, averaged over all three experimental grassland communities
data.context: fig. 2. (a) above-ground net primary production (anpp), (b) cover of green biomass, and (c) root length over five growing seasons (mean+-se over all species compositions in grassland, n 15 per data point). fig. 1. effects of recurrent severe drought events on 32 response parameters organized into ecosystem functions. all data were collected at the event-i experimental site (jentsch, kreyling beierkuhnlein 2007) in central europe during the years 2005-2009. a parameter is marked as significant (filled black bar) if data of at least 1 year showed significant differences between drought and ambient conditions anova ). data shown represent maximum effects from years with highest drought effects, averaged over all three experimental grassland communities. for references of published details please refer to materials and methods section.
data.question: How was the effects of climate change on the salmon assessed?
data.text: to assess the effects of climate change and habitat restoration on chinook salmon, we drove the salmon population model with the water temperature and flow variables derived from the hydrologic model in conjunction with habitat capacity estimates for juvenile and adult fish for each land-use scenario (11
data.question: Under current climate and land conditions what did the model project?
data.text: under current climate and land-use conditions, the model projected a mean basin-wide total of 6,096 (gfdl) to 6,174 (hadcm3) spawning adults, higher than the average for the last 20 years but lower than some recently recorded returns (11, 12
data.question: What did the model project for 2050?
data.text: for 2050, the model based on the gfdl climate scenario projected a 40% average decline in basin-wide spawning populations (fig. 4 a ), and the hadcm3 model projected a 20% decline (fig. 4 b 
data.context: to assess the effects of climate change and habitat restoration on chinook salmon, we drove the salmon population model with the water temperature and flow variables derived from the hydrologic model in conjunction with habitat capacity estimates for juvenile and adult fish for each land-use scenario (11). under current climate and land-use conditions, the model projected a mean basin-wide total of 6,096 (gfdl) to 6,174 (hadcm3) spawning adults, higher than the average for the last 20 years but lower than some recently recorded returns (11, 12). holding land use constant to isolate the effects of climate, our models projected a strong negative effect of climate change on salmon. for 2050, the model based on the gfdl climate scenario projected a 40% average decline in basin-wide spawning populations (fig. 4 a ), and the hadcm3 model projected a 20% decline (fig. 4 b ). although
data.question: What is erosion likely to trigger?
data.text: erosion resulting from the combined effects of sea-level rise and changed stormand wave regimes is likely to trigger most management responses in the short term and medium term (polome et al. 2005
data.question: What do we conclude from the scenarios?
data.text: each of these scenarios is likely to have different ecological consequences for beaches that encompass environmentally 'ideal' approaches (natural shoreline change), moderate ecological impacts (nourishment) and ecologically highly destructive solutions (armouring
data.question: What does table 4 show?
data.text: the most immediate and severe ecological threat to beaches caused by climate change (table 4
data.context: (feagin et al. 2005; slott et al. 2006) as the most immediate and severe ecological threat to beaches caused by climate change (table 4). erosion resulting from the combined effects of sea-level rise and changed stormand wave regimes is likely to trigger most management responses in the short term and medium term (polome et al. 2005). however, management of large-scale and severe beach erosion and landward migration of shorelines is likely to be diverse; the following scenarios were identified as most likely: (i) do nothing - allow shoreline to recede naturally; (ii) retreat by actively moving back and removing threatened infrastructure; (iii) beach nourishment (soft engineering); (iv) 'hard engineering' using seawalls or other armouring structures; and (v) combined approaches e.g. nourish in front of seawalls). each of these scenarios is likely to have different ecological consequences for beaches that encompass environmentally 'ideal' approaches (natural shoreline change), moderate ecological impacts (nourishment) and ecologically highly destructive solutions (armouring).
data.question: What does empirical research suggest?
data.text: empirical research suggests that carbon efficiency (economic output per unit of carbon emissions) may follow an ekc, but per capita emissions increase monotonically with economic development
data.question: What is the â€œcontentionâ€ here?
data.text: our contention is neither that economic growth has not produced new technologies that are more efficient nor that improvements in technology that reduce some types of pollution have not taken place
data.question: What do ecological modernization theorists believe?
data.text: ecological modernization theorists and others of this persuasion believe that capitalism is fully able to respond to climate change through pursuing socio-technical innovation, without challenging the prevailing political-economic structure
data.context: nonetheless, ecological modernization theorists and others of this persuasion believe that capitalism is fully able to respond to climate change through pursuing socio-technical innovation, without challenging the prevailing political-economic structure. our contention is neither that economic growth has not produced new technologies that are more efficient nor that improvements in technology that reduce some types of pollution have not taken place. rather, we contend that the belief that these changes lead to benign ecological relationships needs further consideration, especially considering that capitalist expansion of commodity production - which includes energy sources as throughputs - has outstripped improvements in the efficiency of energy use. empirical research suggests that carbon efficiency (economic output per unit of carbon emissions) may follow an ekc, but per capita emissions increase monotonically with economic development.102ironically, the most efficient nations are often, in fact, the biggest consumers of natural resources.103
data.question: What is important to the advancement of school climate research?
data.text: the increased use of multi-informant (e.g., teacher, student) and multi-method (e.g., surveys, observations) strategies to assess climate is important to the advancement of school climate research
data.question: What the multiple informants and multiple methods provides?
data.text: recent work details that the use of multiple informants and multiple methods provides more accurate and reliable assessments of school climate, than relying upon one source alone (cantrell and kane 2013 
data.question: What do not allow researchers to assess school?
data.text: logistical and resource constraints do not always allow researchers to assess school
data.context: the increased use of multi-informant (e.g., teacher, student) and multi-method (e.g., surveys, observations) strategies to assess climate is important to the advancement of school climate research. there is an ongoing debate regarding the most relevant methods for measuring climate. each method has its benefits and weaknesses. for instance, student perceptions are often considered better at capturing students ' individual experiences and the psychological processes operating within the school environment (kasen et al. 2009 wang 2009 ), while observer reports are thought to be more objective and less biased by mood or prior experiences (brophy and good 1986 pianta and hamre 2009 ). however, recent work details that the use of multiple informants and multiple methods provides more accurate and reliable assessments of school climate, than relying upon one source alone (cantrell and kane 2013 ). for example, different sources (e.g., students, teachers, observers) occupy different niches within the school organization, and therefore, offer unique and only partially overlapping viewpoints of the atmosphere of the school. employing multiple informants and methods to examine school climate can boost the explanatory power of school climate, while also providing information on which sources and methods are more strongly correlated with specific student outcomes. although logistical and resource constraints do not always allow researchers to assess school
data.question: What did Dahlman note about the gap models?
data.text: dahlman (1985) noted that gap models are potentially powerful tools for simulating community-level responses to co2 increase, but only if properly parameterized and validated
data.question: How will Climate change affect gap models?
data.text: climate change will probably render the generalized treatment of plant mortality in gap models ineffectual
data.question: How are many gap models validated?
data.text: many gap models are validated by initializing the model with historical data and then the model is run to the present to compare outputs with contemporary conditions
data.context: while there is an extensive literature on how to evaluate simulation models, gap-models have yet to be subjected to the full range of testing these methods, especially with respect to mortality (botkin, 1993; shugart and west, 1980). comparative analyses of different gap-model formulations are now being actively pursued (yaussy, 2000). however, validation of models by comparison with real data on stand composition and structure is needed. dahlman (1985) noted that gap models are potentially powerful tools for simulating community-level responses to co2 increase, but only if properly parameterized and validated. otherwise, they are just exploratory exercises. there is the question whether appropriate mortality data are available or can ever be collected to extensively validate the representation of plant death in gap models, especially spatial gap models. many gap models are validated by initializing the model with historical data and then the model is run to the present to compare outputs with contemporary conditions. unfortunately, there are probably very few historical validation data sets that can be used to test the predictive power of gap models because of the compounding errors of sampling, synthesis, and extrapolation (deutschman et al., 1999). an alternative is to validate model components, such as mortality, separately using appropriate data sets that have been tested for accuracy. this will require an extensive database of field observations documenting the conditions of plant death mentioned above, which will be costly and difficult to compile. another option is to simulate the error in input data from the output predictions to create response surfaces for model mortality parameters and evaluate if the surface contains sampled reference conditions. a comprehensive sensitivity analysis can also provide ad hoc validation of many model components in lieu of readily available comparison data (van der voet and mohren, 1994). 5. conclusions climate change will probably render the generalized treatment of plant mortality in gap models ineffectual. but, we conclude that the current treatment of mortality in gap models is probably the best that can be done given the lack of comprehensive data linking mortality to physiological and environmental conditions. because the assumptions behind current mortality algorithms will not necessarily be applicable under changing climates, these algorithms must be improved based on extensive new field data to more accurately simulate the interactions of ecosystem processes and climates on mortality. listed below are some other general recommendations.
data.question: What Approach was applied to estimate the effects of the explanatory variables on the binary discrete choice of paying for the CPRS?
data.text: the binary probit regression approach was applied to estimate the effects of the explanatory variables on the binary discrete choice of paying for the cprs
data.question: What does Table 3 present?
data.text: table 3 presents the regression results
data.question: What impact, if any, was found of any of these variables?
data.text: no statistically significant impact was found of any of these variables on the probability of saying 'yes' or 'no' to the wtp questions
data.context: insert figure 4 here 6.2.2 multivariate regression results the binary probit regression approach was applied to estimate the effects of the explanatory the binary probit regression approach was applied to estimate the effects of the explanatory variables on the binary discrete choice of paying for the cprs. table 3 presents the regression results. in addition to the variables listed in table 3, numerous other variables including the stated range of temperature change, best guess of likelihood of a global agreement, exposure to tv and newspaper and a range of demographic factors, e.g. sex and age, were included in the 18 18 regression model5. no statistically significant impact was found of any of these variables on the probability of saying 'yes' or 'no' to the wtp questions.
data.question: What are some examples of greenhouse gases that play a role in the CO2 watee system?
data.text: hydrologic systems analogous to earth's water-based hydrology can be built upon other condensable greenhouse gases, any of which have multiple roles as greenhouse gas, cloud-forming substance and latent heat transporter. examples include methane on titan40and co2on early mars41
data.question: What is a unique feature of the CO2 water system?
data.text: a unique feature of the co2-water system is the interaction between the hydrologic cycle of one greenhouse gas (water) and the weathering chemistry determining the concentration of the other greenhouse gas (co2
data.question: How is the concentration of the greenhouse gas (CO2) determibed?.
data.text:  a unique feature of the co2-water system is the interaction between the hydrologic cycle of one greenhouse gas (water) and the weathering chemistry determining the concentration of the other greenhouse gas (co2
data.context: hydrologic systems analogous to earth's water-based hydrology can be built upon other condensable greenhouse gases, any of which have multiple roles as greenhouse gas, cloud-forming substance and latent heat transporter. examples include methane on titan40and co2on early mars41. a unique feature of the co2-water system is the interaction between the hydrologic cycle of one greenhouse gas (water) and the weathering chemistry determining the concentration of the other greenhouse gas (co2). one wonders whether these are the only substances on which a thermostatic feedback loop can be built, or if other planets in the universe may have found alternate solutions to the problem of maintaining habitability. i
data.question: Which region receives the greatest rainfall?
data.text: the northern, eastern and southern parts of the continent
data.question: What has happened to the surface temperatures of the Great Barrier Reef?
data.text: sea surface temperatures on the great barrier reef have increased
data.question: What are the increase in surface temperatures on the Great Barrier Reef associated with?
data.text: associated with an increase in the frequency and severity of coral bleaching and mortality
data.context: c over the last century with minimum temperatures warming faster than maxima. there have been significant regional trends in rainfall with the northern, eastern and southern parts of the continent receiving greater rainfall and the western region receiving less. higher rainfall has been associated with an increase in the number of rain days and heavy rainfall events. sea surface temperatures on the great barrier reef have increased and are associated with an increase in the frequency and severity of coral bleaching and mortality. sea level rises in australia have been regionally variable, and considerably less than the global average. snow cover and duration have declined significantly at some sites in the snowy mountains.
data.question: what are the methodologies of regional climate downscaling?
data.text: assessment of the methodologies of regional climate downscaling has been performed using a regional model wrf, with initial conditions and boundary conditions driven by coarse-resolution fnl reanalysis
data.question: what is Big-brother experiment?
data.text: we introduced a new modified big-brother experiment (bbe) denis et al. 2002]. various aspects of the regional-scales downscaling variables have been evaluated against another set of high resolution reanalysis (narr
data.question: what is cumulative probability?
data.text: cumulative probability of the distribution of correlation coefficients depicted in figure 8 for nudging experiments during jan-dec 2000
data.context: assessment of the methodologies of regional climate downscaling has been performed using a regional model wrf, with initial conditions and boundary conditions driven by coarse-resolution fnl reanalysis. we introduced a new modified big-brother experiment (bbe) denis et al. 2002]. various aspects of the regional-scales downscaling variables have been evaluated against another set of high resolution reanalysis (narr). our evaluation has focused over the conus during entire 2000, and the evaluation statistics are performed at a high temporal scale (6-hourly). we compare the long-term continuous integration with short-term reinitialized simulations. in addition, we apply figure 9. cumulative probability of the distribution of correlation coefficients depicted in figure 8 for nudging experiments during jan-dec 2000.
data.question: What did the migration distance change depend on?
data.text: this change in distance is dependent on the habitat of the species, with the strongest decrease for species from 'open dry' habitat and the weakest for species from 'open wet
data.question: What is the important impact of shifts in wintering areas?
data.text: shifts in wintering areas, and especially differential shifts between species, are likely to have an important impact on interspecific competition on the wintering grounds (greenberg, 1986; marra, 2000
data.question: Give an example of how long-term land use changes can contribute to migration distance changes.
data.text: long-term changes in the land use could be contribute to the observed patterns, for instance if in the south of europe open habitats (e.g. agricultural landscapes) disappear but become more abundant in the north of europe
data.context: we find clear changes in the migration distance in 12 of the 24 species included and this change in distance is dependent on the habitat of the species, with the strongest decrease for species from 'open dry' habitat and the weakest for species from 'open wet'. these differences could be due to a smaller effect of temperature on the suitability of the overwintering habitat in the open wet areas. an alternative explanation is that while the open dry and forest habitat is widely available, open wet areas are more restricted which makes it harder to find overwintering areas closer by. also long-term changes in the land use could be contribute to the observed patterns, for instance if in the south of europe open habitats (e.g. agricultural landscapes) disappear but become more abundant in the north of europe. the changes in migration distance are consistent with predictions from climate change. shifts in wintering areas, and especially differential shifts between species, are likely to have an important impact on interspecific competition on the wintering grounds (greenberg, 1986; marra, 2000). another implication is that if birds are wintering at more northern latitudes they will experience a different photoperiodic regime, which may in turn affect the timing of their spring migration back to the breeding grounds (coppack et al ., 2003). birds breeding and/or born in the netherlands migrate in a sw direction [analysis on all species, mean angle 5 224.7 1 angular deviation 5 53.7; raleigh test: z 5 7.55, p o 0.01 (batchelet, 1981)], and this direction has not changed over time, thus indicating that a shortening of
data.question: What was used to compare the performance of the conventional and CFSR weather simulations (Figure 7)?
data.text: hydrographs with the long-term average monthly streamflow were used to compare the performance of the conventional and cfsr weather simulations (figure 7
data.question: What did the CFSR weather simulation replicate?
data.text: the cfsr weather simulation replicated the peaks of the observed average monthly streamflows at the gilgel abay river gauging station
data.question: What did the average monthly streamflow hydrograph generated with conventional weather replicate?
data.text: while the average monthly streamflow hydrograph generated with conventional weather replicated better the observed low flows and the rising and recession curves (figure 7a
data.context: simulation of streamflows, compared with observed streamflows. hydrographs with the long-term average monthly streamflow were used to compare the performance of the conventional and cfsr weather simulations (figure 7). the cfsr weather simulation replicated the peaks of the observed average monthly streamflows at the gilgel abay river gauging station, while the average monthly streamflow hydrograph generated with conventional weather replicated better the observed low flows and the rising and recession curves (figure 7a). for the gumera gauging station, the conventional weather simulation was better at replicating the rising and recession curves of the hydrograph, but both simulations underestimated the peak (figure 7b). the average monthly hydrographs with the
data.question: According to the projected changes in Canadian regions in relation to harvesting; Which region would be impacted and which would benefit?
data.text: the researchers found that northern regions were expected to benefit, whereas southern regions could potentially experience decreases in sustainable harvests. this was due primarily to the assumption that colder regions would profit more from longer ice-free periods and warmer growing seasons
data.question: Which region is supposed to profit from longer periods without ice and warmer growing seasons?
data.text: this was due primarily to the assumption that colder regions would profit more from longer ice-free periods and warmer growing seasons
data.context: projected change region in sustainable harvest atlantic marine decrease arctic marine increase for most species pacific marine decrease in southern regions (salmon) increase in northern regions (salmon) southern freshwater decrease northern freshwater increase in general, the researchers found that northern regions were expected to benefit, whereas southern regions could potentially experience decreases in sustainable harvests. this was due primarily to the assumption that colder regions would profit more from longer ice-free periods and warmer growing seasons. water temperature, however, is not the only factor that must be considered in projecting the impacts of climate change on canadian fisheries. increases in extreme events, changes in circulation patterns and sea-lake-river ice regimes, and invasions of exotic species must also be included. the complexity this adds to impact assessments is such that most predictions for the fisheries sector have tended to be qualitative in nature, estimating only whether the impacts will be positive or negative.(13)
data.question: What is the consequence of the shift from government to governance?
data.text: project proliferation is seen as a consequence of the shift from government to governance
data.question: What is broader, governance or management?
data.text: governance is a much broader idea than management
data.question: What things does management encompasses?
data.text: it encompasses the totality of mechanisms and instruments available for influencing social and organisational change, especially adaptation, in certain directions
data.context: in addition to the understandings of projects outlined in the previous two sections some practitioners conceive of projects as 'temporary organisations', though often embedded in or between permanent organisations. from the perspective of those who are trying to understand projects in a wider social setting, project proliferation is seen as a consequence of the shift from government to governance. it is argued [42 that 'the project has become a post-modern symbol of adaptability and contin gency - it is thought of as a superior way of reacting to unforeseen and non-standard situations'. in part, it is argued, this has happened by opening up who participates in projects. others argue it has arisen because of the moral weakness of the state. governance is a much broader idea than management, it encompasses the totality of mechanisms and instruments available for influencing social and organisational change, especially adaptation, in certain directions 13 sjoblom [35 claims that the shift from government, which many regard as associated with top down or command and control practices, to governance is 'one of the mega trends in industrialised societies' (p. 9). governance, as a concept, has of course the same origins as cybernetics (meaning steersman or helmsman). in practice it means adjusting to circumstances. perhaps more significantly in the context of a climate-changing world the question becomes: how do we as a species chart a
data.question: Most of the flood-affected people barely have any what?
data.text: most of the flood-affected people barely have any savings or food stocks
data.question: Flood affected families mainly cope with a flood crisis with the help of what?
data.text: flood affected families mainly cope with a flood crisis with the help of informal credit
data.question: Sometimes richer, well-off families in a village lend what to flood affected local residents?
data.text: sometimes richer, well-off families in a village lend money to flood affected local residents
data.context: roy brouwer et al. 17 who do not8. similar results have been found by rasid (2000), who showed that a majority of floodplain residents - mainly farmers - prefer regulated flood levels instead of total flood prevention, where the preferred level of inundation corresponds with the ideal flood depth for the cultivation of floodplain rice. from the key informant interviews, it appears that the existence of social networks or an institutional set-up in the area for a more collective ex ante or ex post coping strategy to flooding is very thin. moreover, no differences between villages in this poor and severely flood struck can be detected in terms of formal or informal institutional arrangements to cope with flood hazards within the community9. flood affected poor families are allowed to take shelter in village schools or higher local government buildings, where they can stay as long as the area remains flooded (weeks/months). families who lose their home and livelihood and remain without savings or other sources of income can move to flood relief camps in the district (upazilla) headquarters, which are usually set up and managed by local government. most of the flood-affected people barely have any savings or food stocks. based on the 2004 regional flood report (lcg bangladesh, 2004), it was estimated that flood affected floodplain residents required food-aid for between 150 to 180 days as they did not have any possibilities of income generation until the next harvesting season. also the existence of formal credit institutions to help rehabilitate flood struck households in the study area is rare. flood affected families mainly cope with a flood crisis with the help of informal credit. relatives, neighbours and family friends help flood affected families by providing loans and other assistance, or flood affected families buy food from local shops on a credit basis. sometimes richer, well-off families in a village lend money to flood affected local residents. a number of leading non-government organizations (ngos) that mainly deal with micro-credit also operate in the study area. although existing literature suggests that ngos such as the bangladesh rural advancement committee (brac) play an important role in ex-post coping response to flood disasters by distributing flood relief, agricultural inputs and subsidized micro-credits in flood affected regions in bangladesh (zaman, 1999), most key informants in this particular area stated that these ngos play almost no role at all. most flood-affected families depend on relatives, neighbours and informal micro-credit systems to cope with floods. a study based upon survey data collected after the 1988 flood disaster (haque and zaman, 1994) furthermore shows that around 70 percent of the affected farmers in bangladesh mitigated their income and asset losses by selling land, livestock and other belongings. this was not observed in our case study, or mentioned by the key informants as an effective common coping strategy, possibly because of the fact that many floodplain residents in this specific case study area are so poor (half of the sample lives under the poverty threshold) that they have insufficient income or assets to sell at all.
data.question: Describe the different ways of information presented?
data.text: this information is presented in two different ways, in absolute numbers of people found in a specific area, as well as in percentage of people, as distributed in the different areas of the site
data.question: Name the two types reason?
data.text: the different size and nature of the two sites mean that they have the potential to attract different numbers of people
data.question: Describe about  Karaiskaki?
data.text: karaiskaki is smaller in size and of neighbourhood character, thus attracting primarily residents in the area, while the seashore attracts people from municipalities outside alimos, who come to the area to be near the sea
data.context: beyond the correlation on a daily basis, it is also interesting to examine the mean diurnal pattern of use of space on a seasonal basis for both sites. most of this information is presented in two different ways, in absolute numbers of people found in a specific area, as well as in percentage of people, as distributed in the different areas of the site. this is done for two reasons. the different size and nature of the two sites mean that they have the potential to attract different numbers of people. karaiskaki is smaller in size and of neighbourhood character, thus attracting primarily residents in the area, while the seashore attracts people from municipalities outside alimos, who come to the area to be near the sea. the second reason for presenting percentages is that the success of different areas within a site, in conjunction with the relevant microclimatic conditions, can be judged by examining the relative presence of people in those areas.
data.question: In which year was the book 'Cross' translated?
data.text: the connections here, again, are many and complex. suffice it to say for now that croce's 1911 book, la filosofia di giambattista vico, dedicated, significantly, to wilhelm windelband, was translated into english in 1913 by none other than collingwood, who was an admirer, if not a follower, of the italian master
data.question: Tell Collingwood's own argument for separating natural history from humans?
data.text: however, collingwood's own argument for separating natural history from human ones developed its own inflections, while running, one might say, still on broadly viconian lines as interpreted by croce. nature, collingwood remarked, has no "inside
data.question: What did Collingwood mention?However, Collingwood's own argument for separating natural history from human ones developed its own inflections, while running, one might say, still on broadly Viconian lines as interpreted by Croce. Nature, Collingwood remarked, has no "inside
data.text: in the case of nature, this distinction between the outside and the inside of an event does not arise. the events of
data.context: the connections here, again, are many and complex. suffice it to say for now that croce's 1911 book, la filosofia di giambattista vico, dedicated, significantly, to wilhelm windelband, was translated into english in 1913 by none other than collingwood, who was an admirer, if not a follower, of the italian master. however, collingwood's own argument for separating natural history from human ones developed its own inflections, while running, one might say, still on broadly viconian lines as interpreted by croce. nature, collingwood remarked, has no "inside." "in the case of nature, this distinction between the outside and the inside of an event does not arise. the events of
data.question: How does one usefully inform conservation and climate policy?
data.text: it is essential that we can reasonably attribute changes in populations and communities to climate and/or land use change
data.question: What is a basic requirement to conservation and climate policy?
data.text: a basic requirement is to have measurements of the degree to which land use and local climate has changed in any area, concurrent with measurements of biodiversity change
data.question: What is needed to allow statistical analyses?
data.text: sufficient independent samples are needed to allow statistical analyses which give an appropriate degree of confidence in associations
data.context: in order to usefully inform conservation and climate policy, it is essential that we can reasonably attribute changes in populations and communities to climate and/or land use change. in order to do this, well designed experiments and analyses are required, which control for one driver while exploring the effects of another. a basic requirement is to have measurements of the degree to which land use and local climate has changed in any area, concurrent with measurements of biodiversity change. sufficient independent samples are needed to allow statistical analyses which give an appropriate degree of confidence in associations. in these analyses, it is important that spatial autocorrelation is accounted for, to prevent anticonservative estimates of the significance of associations ('psuedoreplication').148
data.question: Explain the life cycle and aerosol distribution in the stratosphere?
data.text: the life cycle and aerosol distribution in the stratosphere is governed by a complex interplay of (i) atmospheric transport, including troposphere to stratosphere exchange through direct injections
data.question: What are the direct injections?
data.text: direct injections such as volcanic eruptions and transport of tropospheric precursor gases across the tropical tropopause layer (ttl), and stratospheric transport through the large-scale brewer-dobson circulation (bdc
data.question: Which is included in aerosol formation,growth and removal?
data.text: chemistry and microphysics, including aerosol formation, growth, and removal, through sedimentation and in air traversing the extratropical tropopause
data.context: the life cycle and aerosol distribution in the stratosphere is governed by a complex interplay of (i) atmospheric transport, including troposphere to stratosphere exchange through direct injections such as volcanic eruptions and transport of tropospheric precursor gases across the tropical tropopause layer (ttl), and stratospheric transport through the large-scale brewer-dobson circulation (bdc) and (ii) chemistry and microphysics, including aerosol formation, growth, and removal, through sedimentation and in air traversing the extratropical tropopause. an overview of these processes is given below, followed by more detailed descriptions on how various source gases and processes contribute to stratospheric aerosol (section 3). figure 1 illustrates the relevant processes that govern the life cycle and distribution of stratospheric aerosol.
data.question: In which country was the study of 600 enterprises done?
data.text: these firms were located in four different regions in china
data.question: Which two informants from each firm were invited to do face-to-face interviews for the study?
data.text: the first respondent, the ceo, provided strategy-related information about the firm. the second respondent, either the hr director or financial director, provided information about hr practices
data.question: In this study, from which economic sector did the majority of the enterprises come from?
data.text: the majority of these enterprises (80%) are in the manufacturing sector
data.context: the data for this study were collected through a survey of 600 chinese enterprises. these firms were located in four different regions in china (i.e., beijing, shanghai, guangdong, and sichuan) and represented various industries and ownership types. the survey was part of a larger study conducted in collaboration with the national bureau of statistics of china (nbs) in 2003. the firms in the sample were randomly selected from those registered with the local government. two informants from each firm were invited to participate in the survey through faceto-face interviews. the first respondent, the ceo, provided strategy-related information about the firm. the second respondent, either the hr director or financial director, provided information about hr practices and objective firm-level data. since the study was administered by the nbs, these respondents were very cooperative in providing information. we cross-validated the information provided by the two respondents and found high consistency and reliability of our data. of the sample, 150 (25%) are from each of the four regions. regarding ownership types, 161 (26.8%) are soes, 120 (20%) are fies, 228 (38%) are poes, and the remaining 91 (15.2%) belong to other types of ownership. the majority of these enterprises (80%) are in the manufacturing sector.
data.question: What can create an attitude of forgiveness in buildings?
data.text: occupants have more access to building controls
data.question: What does forgiveness in buldings mean as it relates to the heating and colling systems?
data.text: he attitude of the occupants to the building is affected so that they will overlook shortcomings in the thermal environment more readily
data.question: What is adaptive opportunity in buildings?
data.text: the ability to open a window, draw a blind, use a fan and so on
data.context: buildings differ in a number of ways: in addition to their individual physical form, they differ in their services, in what sort of heating or cooling system is provided and whether it is used, in the possibilities they offer for occupants to control their environment, and in the policies of management about whether there is a dress code and so on. there are other aspects of building services that affect the comfort of occupants. leaman and bordass 14 have demonstrated that there is more ' forgiveness ' of buildings in which occupants have more access to building controls. by forgiveness they mean that the attitude of the occupants to the building is affected so that they will overlook shortcomings in the thermal environment more readily. a more robust characterization is that of baker and standeven. 15 they identify an ' adaptive opportunity ' afforded by a building that will affect the comfort of its occupants. the premise is that the more opportunity occupants have to adapt the environment to their liking the less likely are they to experience thermal stress and the wider will be the range of acceptable conditions figure 9.5 ). adaptive opportunity is generally interpreted as the ability to open a window, draw a blind, use a fan and so on. it must also include dress code working practices and other factors that influence the interaction between occupant and building. changes in clothing, activity and
data.question: What is a difficult parameter to assess?
data.text: the difficult parameter to assess is the past change that can be associated with a particular anthropogenic component such as carbon dioxide, as represented by the histogram on the x axis in fig. 3
data.question: Where does complexity arise?
data.text: the complexity arises in the need to separate the components of the observed trends into those associated with greenhouse gases, aerosols, natural forcing factors and internal climate variability
data.question: What does the method compute?
data.text: the method computes a correction factor or recalibration of simulated past changes that can be used to scale future projections assuming that the empirical relationship continues to hold
data.context: the ask25,26 method exploits the possibility, demonstrated using ebms, that a bias in the temperature change in the future related to a particular forcing agent may be empirically related to the bias in the past change associated with that forcing agent by a scaling factor (fig. 3). the method computes a correction factor or recalibration of simulated past changes that can be used to scale future projections assuming that the empirical relationship continues to hold. the uncertain elements of the approach are the scaling factor and the component of past change related to a forcing agent. in the global mean temperature case, the scaling factor may be relatively well constrained (fig. 3b). the difficult parameter to assess is the past change that can be associated with a particular anthropogenic component such as carbon dioxide, as represented by the histogram on the x axis in fig. 3. the observed record of global and large-scale temperature change is made of components forced by anthropogenic factors such as greenhouse gas and aerosols, external factors such as solar variability and volcanic eruptions and internally generated natural variability. detection and attribution techniques seek to estimate these individual components of trends from the observed record, using complex climate model simulations in combination with regression techniques. uncertainties arise because the responses to some forcing agents may correlate through time (for example, concurrent rises in greenhouse gases and aerosols) making it hard to estimate the regression coefficients, because of uncertainties in reconstructing past forcing agents, and because of potential errors in the complex model response to the forcing. the ask technique can therefore be thought of as generating an ensemble of future projections by sampling a large number of possible past trends that are attributable to a particular forcing agent. the parameters of the relationship between the past and the future and the attributable warming are constrained by observations and complex model studies and thus the projections are also constrained by those observations. by specifying the components of the radiative forcing separately, it is possible to make projections for combinations of radiative forcing that may occur in the future but that did not occur in the past. initial studies focused on global mean temperatures27 but have been extended to constrain continental-scale temperature changes25. the strengths of the approach are in the simplicity of the idea of extrapolating uncertainties in past trends. the complexity arises in the need to separate the components of the observed trends into those associated with greenhouse gases, aerosols, natural forcing factors and internal climate variability. for global mean projections, this separation is the largest source of uncertainty26. for regional quantities, relationships between past and future trends may be weak and for some variables and for smaller-scale regions, such relationships may not be evident in the complex models used in the detection and attribution step. in the example highlighted here, a simple ebm is used to obtain the relationship between past warming and future change, hence it is tempting to conclude that the projections only quantify the uncertainty in the forced response. however, the estimate of the warming attributable to greenhouse gases is contaminated with natural variability (as we only have one realization of the real world) so some account is taken of the random component. limitations on computer resource also mean that results are often obtained from initial-condition ensembles from a small number of different climate models. hence there is a potential for modelling uncertainties to be undersampled.
data.question: How important is the conclusion of the climate study? Is that adding the skyscraper has the biggest impact
data.text: the main conclusion of the study is that the addition of the high-rise tower has the largest impact
data.question: In the current situation what does quality class A refer to on the west side of the stadium? Refers to a good windy climate to sit, stroll and walk
data.text: in the present situation, the quality class a at the west side of the stadium refers to a good wind climate for sitting, strolling and walking
data.question: What happens in the new situation? This area is partially converted to quality class B or C
data.text: however, in the new situation, this area is partly converted to quality class b or c, where c is considered a bad wind climate for sitting, a moderate wind climate for strolling and a sufficiently good wind climate for walking
data.context: urban physics: effect of the micro-climate on comfort, health and energy demand 203 criteria, figure 6 (c) and (d) are obtained. they show the exceedance probability of the 5 m/s discomfort threshold. also here, the negative impact of the new high-rise tower is clear. finally, these probabilities are converted into quality classes figure 6 (e) and (f)). the main conclusion of the study is that the addition of the high-rise tower has the largest impact. in the present situation, the quality class a at the west side of the stadium refers to a good wind climate for sitting, strolling and walking. however, in the new situation, this area is partly converted to quality class b or c, where c is considered a bad wind climate for sitting, a moderate wind climate for strolling and a sufficiently good wind climate for walking. this study, to our knowledge, is the first published demonstration project based on the dutch wind nuisance standard. apart from the validation of the cfd simulations, the further development of this standard would benefit from validation by comparison with local surveys on the perception of wind comfort or wind nuisance itself.
data.question: What is more important: to examine relationships with organizational performance in the future or to obtain cross-sectional data that link climate to performance in the recent past?
data.text: it is important to examine relationships with organizational performance in the future, rather than (as is common in this field) obtaining cross-sectional data that link climate to performance in the recent past
data.question: How does the author suggest to study the relation between performance and climate?
data.text: it is thus desirable also to study performance prior to the measurement of climate, and to control for those earlier values in examining associations between climate and later performance
data.question: Is it usual to use the across-time control in this area?
data.text: this across-time control has almost never been used in this area; it will be applied here
data.context: it is important to examine relationships with organizational performance in the future, rather than (as is common in this field) obtaining cross-sectional data that link climate to performance in the recent past. in addition, although correlations between climate and subsequent levels of (for instance) company productivity or profitability provide important information, significant associations might arise because previous performance influenced later climate. it is thus desirable also to study performance prior to the measurement of climate, and to control for those earlier values in examining associations between climate and later performance. this across-time control has almost never been used in this area; it will be applied here.
data.question: what PET means?
data.text: physiologically equivalent temperature
data.question: compare past stydies with the future ones?
data.text: the effects of climate change on human health and well-being have been underestimated in past studies, because these were based on air temperature changes rather than changes in pet
data.context: using the measure of physiologically equivalent temperature (pet) it is analysed how changes in the thermal environment can affect human well-being. historical data used in this study have been assembled for the normal climate period 1961-1990 (cntrl). future conditions are calculated based on the period 2071-2100, for which simulated datasets are available, based on gcms integrated with scenarios. the scenarios used here are the intergovermental panel on climate change (ipcc) second report on emission scenarios (sres) a1f and b1a, which represent a worst and a moderate climate case. the results are shown for december, january and february (djf, winter months in the northern hemisphere), and for june, july and august (jja, summer months in the northern hemisphere). areas with extreme and uncomfortable thermal conditions and heat stress affections can be identified. in many regions of the world, e.g. the mediterranean and north america, changes in thermal perception by humans are shown to outpace changes in air temperature. this has major implications for the assessment of the health effects of climate change. it is highly likely that the effects of climate change on human health and well-being have been underestimated in past studies, because these were based on air temperature changes rather than changes in pet, which describes the effects of meteorological and thermo-physiological parameters. keywords thermal comfort, physiologically equivalent temperature, heat stress
data.question: What is evolution an expected response of?
data.text: evolution is an expected response to environmental change, and, similarly, climatic change and other environmental shifts are widely acknowledged to be important mechanisms driving evolution
data.question: What does the paleocene eicebe boundary show?
data.text: the paleocene-eocene boundary is one case where the correlation of a turnover pulse of mammalian faunal change with climate change appears unequivocal
data.question: Who studied late paleocene and early eocene mammals in north america?
data.text: sloan (1970), gingerich (1976, 1985), and rose (1981b) studied
data.context: evolution is an expected response to environmental change, and, similarly, climatic change and other environmental shifts are widely acknowledged to be important mechanisms driving evolution. why then is it so difficult to show correlations in time between mammalian evolution and changing climates? for every study claiming to see some correlation of mammalian evolution with climate change, there is another questioning such an interpretation. sloan (1970), gingerich (1976, 1985), and rose (1981b) studied late paleocene and early eocene mammals in north america and regarded mammalian faunal change through this interval as a consequence of climatic cooling followed by warming, a pattern questioned by krause and maas (1990). stucky (1990), janis (1993), and webb and opdike (1995) studied broad changes in cenozoic mammalian faunas and related these to climate change, but subsequent studies of the north american record by prothero (1999) and alroy et al. (2000) failed to find relationships to climate and instead emphasized intrinsic biotic controls on faunal change. vrba (1985) studied mammalian faunal change through the pliopleistocene record in southern africa and developed a 'turnover pulse' hypothesis of climatically driven rapid speciation and faunal evolution, but evidence for the principal pulse was queried by behrensmeyer et al. (1997). the paleocene-eocene boundary is one case where the correlation of a turnover pulse of mammalian faunal change with climate change appears unequivocal. here i summarize what is known of the north american paleocene-eocene transition based on the stratigraphic record of mammals and climate in the vicinity of polecat bench in the northern bighorn basin of northwestern wyoming.
data.question: With the change in atmospheric circulation, which places have been affected?
data.text: southern united states [30,100], the mediterranean region, south america, southern africa, madagascar, and southern australia
data.question: What happens when there is a drastic increase in temperature in arid places?
data.text: increased forest fires that burn hotter and are more destructive
data.question: atmospheric circulation expanded in which direction?
data.text: expands poleward with global warming
data.context: theory and climate models indicate that the tropical overturning (hadley) atmospheric circulation expands poleward with global warming there is evidence in satellite and radiosonde data and in observational data for poleward expansion of the tropical circulation by as much as a few degrees of latitude since the 1970s [34-35], but natural variability may have contributed to that expansion change in the overturning circulation likely contributes to expansion of subtropical conditions and increased aridity in the southern united states [30,100], the mediterranean region, south america, southern africa, madagascar, and southern australia. increased aridity and temperature contribute to increased forest fires that burn hotter and are more destructive
data.question: What are the concepts used in water policy?
data.text: water policy (2002), which formalizes the concept of the rights of water users, and allows trading in entitlements
data.question: In Agriculture Who characterized the natural irrigation?
data.text: agriculture in jaunsar-bawar is characterized by natural irrigation i.e. no lift irrigation, tubewells/borewells, but only guhls
data.question: What is the percentage of water flow decreses in spring?
data.text: there has been a decrease in spring discharge ranging from 25% to 75%, and this has resulted in a considerable decrease in water flow; estimated to be around 30-40% in the last decade or two
data.context: water policy (2002), which formalizes the concept of the rights of water users, and allows trading in entitlements. the mid-himalayan ranges are dry, with small streams fed by winter snow. agriculture in jaunsar-bawar is characterized by natural irrigation i.e. no lift irrigation, tubewells/borewells, but only guhls. sati (2005) cites a 1996 study which found that in about half of uttarakhand's villages, springs had either ceased to yield water, or did so only during the rainy season, calling this the ''too little -- too much syndrome''. there has been a decrease in spring discharge ranging from 25% to 75%, and this has resulted in a considerable decrease in water flow; estimated to be around 30-40% in the last decade or two. against this background, the draft water policy for the state notes that production of food grains has increased from around 0.5 million tonnes in the 1950s to about 1.79 million tonnes in 1999/2000, but stipulates that this will have to be raised to around 2.5 million tonnes by the year 2025.
data.question: What does Fig. 5 show?
data.text: shows a sample section of the matrix from 1994 - 2004
data.question: What is the difference between the brighter and darker areas in the data?
data.text: where brighter values represent ice snow and darker values water, black areas are gaps of missing data in the time series
data.question: Are you able to conclude duration of ice off conditions from the image?
data.text: the duration of ice off conditions is clearly identifiable in the image
data.context: fig. 5. visualization of profile data. a) shows a sample section of the matrix from 1994 - 2004 where brighter values represent ice snow and darker values water, black areas are gaps of missing data in the time series. the duration of ice off conditions is clearly identifiable in the image, with the longest duration in the south (right) and shortest in the north (left). b) three dimensional view of the matrix. c) example profiles for three lakes representing a gradient from north to south. 498 r. latifovic, d. pouliot remote sensing of environment 106 (2007) 492 - 507 fig. 6. results of comparison between phenology dates obtained from ground observations and satellite remote sensing. right shows comparison for visual assessment and left shows comparison for automated analysis. 499 r. latifovic, d. pouliot remote sensing of environment 106 (2007) 492 - 507
data.question: How will the relationships between demographic variables and climate variations change when climate change falls outside the average range?
data.text: the characteristics of relationships between demographic variables and climate variations are likely to change once changes in climate fall outside the average range. the effects of climate variables on demographic rates may become greater, new effects may emerge, or the direction of relationships may change
data.question: What key component is important to understand the effect of climate change on species distributions?
data.text: to gauge the effects of climate change on species distributions, an understanding of the effects of climate on immigration and emigration rates and the processes of dispersal is vital, particularly in changed landscapes where these rates are "+$! already affected
data.question: True or false?: the effect of climate on demographic rates is overestimated
data.text: the relative effects of climate on demographic rates probably are underestimates
data.context: to gauge the effects of climate change on species distributions, an understanding of the effects of climate on immigration and emigration rates and the processes of dispersal is vital, particularly in changed landscapes where these rates are "+$! already affected. v. synthesis and future work demographic rates are rarely the focus of studies on the effects of human pressures on native populations of plants and animals. however, these effects can be substantial and their identification enables a better understanding of the mechanisms through "+"! which pressures affect population viability. that vegetation loss, fragmentation and degradation affect demographic rates in plant and animal populations is not unexpected given the widespread declines in biodiversity that have been seen as a result of these pressures (foley et al. 2005; butchart et al. 2010). our finding that the mean effect of climate on demographic rates is of comparable magnitude to ($$! changes in landscape condition is significant and supports recent assertions that climate change will become as, or more, important in species declines and extinctions in coming decades (e.g. mantyka-pringle et al. 2012). the relative effects of climate on demographic rates probably are underestimates. most studies assess relationships between general climate measures, ($"! such as annual temperature or seasonal precipitation within average ranges of yeartoyear variation. the characteristics of relationships between demographic variables and climate variations are likely to change once changes in climate fall outside the average range. the effects of climate variables on demographic rates may become greater, new effects may emerge, or the direction of relationships may change. there (#$! are likely to be critical windows of climate effects on population parameters, where 26
data.question: What does the figure 11 shows?
data.text: figure 11 shows the present-day cre as a function of lts
data.question: What could happen if the CRE values was pure function of LTS?
data.text: if cre was a pure function of lts and nothing else, then the cre values in the warmer climate would simply move
data.context: an interesting question to consider at this point is how much of the response in a given lts bin can be attributed to changes in lts within that bin (assuming any relationship between lts and cre in the control climate remains unchanged) and how much is due to a change in such a relationship, or other factors. figure 11 shows the present-day cre as a function of lts, from the models and from two sets of satellite observations and analyses. if cre was a pure function of lts and nothing else, then the cre values in the warmer climate would simply move
data.question: Are climate scientists able to use rainfall to detect significant changes in climate in Mongolia?
data.text: not appropriate
data.question: Do indigenous observations agree with data from climate scientists?
data.text: contradicted by meteorological records
data.question: What rainfall parameters are climate scientists looking at to demonstrate climate change to indigenous groups in the area?
data.text: rainfall
data.context: marin (2010) comes to similar conclusions from work with nomadic pastoralists in mongolia, where indigenous observations diverge and are even contradicted by meteorological records and predictions. as in the inuit case outlined above, parameters recorded by scientists, such as absolute measures of rainfall, are not appropriate nor subtle enough to detect changes of significance for herders, such as increased patchiness of rainfall (referred to as 'gan' or silk embroidery rain) and an increase in hard rains that run-off instead of penetrating into the soil (marin, 2010: 167). faced with the challenge of climate change and the numerous unknowns ahead, efforts to create a constructive dialogue between indigenous peoples and scientists constitute an important step towards decision-making based on the best available knowledge.
data.question: The combination of molecular approaches with breeding designs results in what?
data.text: combining molecular approaches with breeding designs places the molecular data into a heritability framework and provides more precise estimates of the mechanistic underpinnings of genetic variation in the traits of interest. examples of such combined approaches are now emerging
data.question: What were the results of the study?
data.text: this study found strong genetic correlations in gene expression, but that downstream gene expression was largely buffered from changes in the expression of upstream regulator genes. characterising variation in the molecular phenotype and the molecular signature of selection among different selection lines in experimental evolution studies would provide unprecedented insights into how organisms cope with climate change
data.question: What kind of insights would variation in the molecular phenotype can give the researcher?
data.text: characterising variation in the molecular phenotype and the molecular signature of selection among different selection lines in experimental evolution studies would provide unprecedented insights into how organisms cope with climate change
data.context: the approaches described above can be integrated with each other in ways that minimise their respective weaknesses. for example, combining molecular approaches with breeding designs places the molecular data into a heritability framework and provides more precise estimates of the mechanistic underpinnings of genetic variation in the traits of interest. examples of such combined approaches are now emerging. in an elegant set of experiments, runcie et al. (2012) combined a multi-environment breeding design with molecular analyses to estimate how temperature alters additive genetic variance in developmental gene expression of the purple sea urchin, strongylocentrotus purpuratus interestingly, this study found strong genetic correlations in gene expression, but that downstream gene expression was largely buffered from changes in the expression of upstream regulator genes. characterising variation in the molecular phenotype and the molecular signature of selection among different selection lines in experimental evolution studies would provide unprecedented insights into how organisms cope with climate change. we recognise that adding an additional layer to any one of these approaches exacerbates what is already a daunting and costly challenge. nevertheless, a combined approach will yield insights that greatly outweigh the sum of their collective parts and our recommendation echoes similar calls in other fields to combine experimental and molecular approaches.
data.question: What is the total years undergone on the same spin-up procedure?
data.text: all simulations have undergone the same spin-up procedure, totaling 1422 years
data.question: What are the two exceptions to the spin-up procedure initial conditions and boundary conditions?
data.text: all simulations have undergone the same spin-up procedure, totaling 1422 years, with the same initial conditions and boundary conditions, with the exception of solar constant and palaeogeography
data.question: What natural Earth feature is initialized as stationary?
data.text: the ocean is initialised as stationary
data.context: all simulations have undergone the same spin-up procedure, totaling 1422 years, with the same initial conditions and boundary conditions, with the exception of solar constant and palaeogeography (as discussed in sects. 2.3 and 2.1). the ocean is initialised as stationary, with a zonal mean temperature structure given by an idealised cosine function of latitude, (21 - z 20)( 22cos( ph 10), where ph is latitude and z is the model vertical level from 1 at the ocean surface to 20 at a depth of ~ 5200 m, and a constant salinity of 35 ppt. the atmosphere is initialised from an arbitrary atmospheric state from a previous preindustrial simulation. land-surface initial
data.question: What is leaf senescence?
data.text: leaf senescence consists of the orderly degradation of the cells of the leaf, leading to cell death and ultimately to leaf fall
data.question: Are all the nutrients of the fallen leaf resorpted by the plant?
data.text: nutrient resorption is not absolute, and falling leaves retain a certain amount of nutrients, whose concentrations represent the proficiency of nutrient resorption (killingbeck, 1996
data.question: What is the nutrient-resorption efficiency?
data.text: the proportion of the nutrients in green leaves prior to senescence that are resorbed before abscission is known as the nutrient-resorption efficiency (aerts, 1996; killingbeck, 1996
data.context: leaf senescence consists of the orderly degradation of the cells of the leaf, leading to cell death and ultimately to leaf fall. the degradation of the cells is a prerequisite step required for the resorption of nutrients. nutrient resorption is not absolute, and falling leaves retain a certain amount of nutrients, whose concentrations represent the proficiency of nutrient resorption (killingbeck, 1996). the proportion of the nutrients in green leaves prior to senescence that are resorbed before abscission is known as the nutrient-resorption efficiency (aerts, 1996; killingbeck, 1996). senescence implies a radical change in foliar metabolism that shifts from assimilation to the remobilization of resources, as shown by the dynamics of the transcriptomes, proteomes, and metabolomes of foliar cells. the onset of leaf senescence, the tipping point in the transition from anabolism to catabolism, manifests before the mentioned external signals are visible. the onset begins with the down-regulation of genes associated with photosynthesis and with the up-regulation of genes associated with senescence (breeze et al. 2011; guo, 2013). by the end of the process of leaf senescence, a large fraction of the mobile nutrients have been transferred to the perennating organs. the recovery of nutrients is a complex challenge given the variety of nutrient-containing molecules and the compartmentalization in organelles. leaf senescence proceeds sequentially beginning with the disassembly of the chloroplast, while mitochondria and nuclei remain functional (inada et al. 1998; keech et al. 2007). the degradation of chlorophyll, the cause of the characteristic leaf yellowing, occurs early to prevent the formation of oxygen radicals that could disturb the activity of enzymes (hortensteiner, 2006). mitochondria maintain integrity until the
data.question: At what temperature motile algae escape from upperface layer?
data.text: the motile algae tend to escape from the upper surface layer (30 to 50 cm) of high temperature (occasionally 35*c or more), and form a dense layer of algae, which hinders the penetration of the solar energy
data.question: Reason for capacity to stabilise in stratified ponds ?
data.text: because of these aspects, in stratified ponds there may be a low presence of algae in the photic zone, which reduces the oxygen production of the system and consequently its capacity to stabilise the organic matter
data.question: What are the reasons and effects for pond surface stratified?
data.text: in locations with little or no wind at the pond surface, the pond may remain stratified. the stratification can be interrupted by means of a natural mixing mechanism, denominated turnover or thermal inversion (see figure 13.6). in stratified tropical lakes, the thermal inversion can take place in the cold period (winter). besides 510 stabilisation ponds this, in shallow lakes, such as stabilisation ponds, the mixing can happen once a day, according to the following sequence (silva and mara, 1979
data.context: the motile algae tend to escape from the upper surface layer (30 to 50 cm) of high temperature (occasionally 35*c or more), and form a dense layer of algae, which hinders the penetration of the solar energy. because of these aspects, in stratified ponds there may be a low presence of algae in the photic zone, which reduces the oxygen production of the system and consequently its capacity to stabilise the organic matter. in locations with little or no wind at the pond surface, the pond may remain stratified. the stratification can be interrupted by means of a natural mixing mechanism, denominated turnover or thermal inversion (see figure 13.6). in stratified tropical lakes, the thermal inversion can take place in the cold period (winter). besides 510 stabilisation ponds this, in shallow lakes, such as stabilisation ponds, the mixing can happen once a day, according to the following sequence (silva and mara, 1979):
data.question: which countries focused on the work?
data.text: the work has focussed on the press of the uk and the united states (us
data.question: Why the choice of the UK press in the analysis?
data.text: this study follows this bias in choosing to analyse the uk press, as this was most accessible and familiar
data.context: this paper follows the vast majority of research into climate change and the media in using newspapers as the focus of analysis, both because of their importance within the overall media discourse, and the relative ease of analysis. although the body of research includes analyses of the press in australia (mcmanus, 2000), belgium (mormont and dasnoy, 1995), finland (dispensa and brulle, 2003), france (brossard et al., 2004), germany (weingart et al., 2000) and new zealand (bell, 1994), much of the work has focussed on the press of the uk and the united states (us). this study follows this bias in choosing to analyse the uk press, as this was most accessible and familiar. it also follows most of the previous work in using national newspapers, felt to be the most interesting and relevant to research.
data.question: What did the services firm sample provide?
data.text: services firm the services firm sample in study 2 has been in existence for approximately 30 years and provides technical and administrative services to insurance firms and individual customers
data.question: Explain the current working employee divisions?
data.text: there are currently 1200 people employed in the division where this study took place. with the exception of a small group 25) of computer programmers, all non-management employees are non-exempt and the company offers traditional benefits to all employees
data.question: What is the working time of employees?
data.text: the firm uses only one shift (i.e., 8:00a.m.-5:00p.m.) and all employees are located in the same building
data.context: services firm the services firm sample in study 2 has been in existence for approximately 30 years and provides technical and administrative services to insurance firms and individual customers. there are currently 1200 people employed in the division where this study took place. with the exception of a small group 25) of computer programmers, all non-management employees are non-exempt and the company offers traditional benefits to all employees. the insurance service specialists that participated in this study work in an environmentally controlled office located in a medium-sized city in the middle of the u.s. the firm uses only one shift (i.e., 8:00a.m.-5:00p.m.) and all employees are located in the same building. employees receive telephone calls and e-mails from both commercial (insurance firm) and individual clients. the majority of working hours is devoted to the use of a database to serve and process insurance claims or make changes to policies based on customer requests. employees generally interface with their manager and coworkers throughout the day in between phone calls and on scheduled work breaks. high-technology manufacturing firm the high technology manufacturing firm sample in study 3 has been in existence since 1916 when its founder bought a shipyard in the state of washington in the u.s. the firm now employs over 100 000 people and is one of the largest military contactors for the united states department of defense. the major divisions in the organization include commercial manufacturing, military manufacturing, space exploration, and satellite services. employees who participated in this study are electrical design engineers and technicians for the commercial division. specifically, the employees design wire bundle assemblies for the electrical subsystems of the products. they are generally highly compensated and work in an office building with frequent visits to the factory floor where they personally attend to design issues while products are being manufactured. in addition, the work day consists of team meetings and designing components at computerized design stations using engineering software. they are generally highly educated and commonly work autonomously and simultaneously on multiple projects.
data.question: WHY IS IT DIFFICULT TO MODEL THE ATMOSPHERIC RESPINSE TO extratropical SST variability
data.text: the study of the atmospheric response to extratropical sst has been challenging in both observations and modeling. the atmospheric response to extratropical sst anomalies is difficult to assess from observations alone because of the overwhelming climate noise of atmospheric internal variability. modeling the atmospheric response to extratropical sst variability is also difficult because the response involves
data.question: WHAT IS THE MOST CHALLENGING ISSUE?
data.text: n studying ocean-atmosphere feedbacks in the extratropics, the most challenging issue is the atmospheric response to extratropical sst
data.question: WHAT IS MISSING IF A REVIEW OF  interdecadal variability is not complete?
data.text: a review of interdecadal variability is not complete if it does not address ocean-atmosphere interaction in the extratropics
data.context: a review of interdecadal variability is not complete if it does not address ocean-atmosphere interaction in the extratropics because the mechanism responsible for interdecadal variability often involves ocean dynamics and ocean-atmosphere feedbacks outside the tropics. furthermore, interdecadal sst variability exhibits large variance in the extratropics (boer 2000) and therefore its climate impact needs to be understood. in studying ocean-atmosphere feedbacks in the extratropics, the most challenging issue is the atmospheric response to extratropical sst. in contrast to the linear stationary baroclinic atmospheric response to tropical sst forcing (gill 1980; lindzen and nigam 1987), the atmospheric response to extratropical sst variability remains poorly understood (frankignoul 1985; kushnir et al. 2002). this has undermined our understanding of ocean-atmosphere feedback in the extratropics and, in turn, its role in interdecadal variability. the study of the atmospheric response to extratropical sst has been challenging in both observations and modeling. the atmospheric response to extratropical sst anomalies is difficult to assess from observations alone because of the overwhelming climate noise of atmospheric internal variability. modeling the atmospheric response to extratropical sst variability is also difficult because the response involves
data.question: What happens if tipping happens early in time?
data.text: at a low carbon stock, the consumption loss from the feedback tipping point is smaller because the policymaker can avoid some of the potential climate damages by sharply reducing emissions upon tipping
data.question: How can the policymaker can avoid some of the potential climate damages?
data.text: by sharply reducing emissions upon tipping
data.question: What are the pros to an optimal response to crossing each threshold?
data.text: determines the cost of crossing each threshold
data.context: the optimal response to crossing each threshold endogenously determines the cost of crossing each threshold (figure 4c). we present this cost as the permanent (balanced growth equivalent) percentage loss of consumption.17for the carbon sink tipping point, the permanent consumption loss is between 0.6% and 0.7% for the next 150 years. in contrast, the climate sensitivity tipping point induces a permanent consumption loss that increases from 0.35% to 1.7% over the next 150 years. if tipping happens early in time, at a low carbon stock, the consumption loss from the feedback tipping point is smaller because the policymaker can avoid some of the potential climate damages by sharply reducing emissions upon tipping. there is no similarly effective policy response for the carbon sink
data.question: For how many years there's sufficient coal reserves ?
data.text: there are sufficient global reserves of coal left to last for over 200 years
data.question: In 2020, how much coal provides in energy consuption compared to 1960 ?
data.text: coal currently provides only 26% of the world's primary energy consumption, very much less than in 1950 when this figure was 59
data.question: Where's the majority of worlds coal reserves ?
data.text: over 50% of the reserves are in the usa, china and russia
data.context: there are sufficient global reserves of coal left to last for over 200 years. coal currently provides only 26% of the world's primary energy consumption, very much less than in 1950 when this figure was 59%. there are abundant reserves of coal in the ground, estimated to be capable of lasting over 200 years. over 50% of the reserves are in the usa, china and russia. the coal industry has the problems of poor working conditions in some mines and the high costs of transport for the fuel. in france nearly all coal mines closed by 2005. the main problem with coal now is that it is a dirty fuel and contributes 38% of co 2 emissions from commercial fuels. it is also a major source of sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions as well as particulates and other emissions. the uk government has struggled to find ways of accommodating the eu's directive on sulphur emissions, which threatened the future of britain's more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: What would government countries adopt with risky behaviors
data.text: governments countries may adopt more risky behaviors if they expect international agencies/donor countries to provide funds should climate-related crisis occur--hence the need for all countries and development agencies to create and adopt mechanisms to discourage such behavior
data.question: On this on what basis would the international community provide support,
data.text: on this basis, the international community might provide support, in the form of e.g., financial or technological transfers or of capacity building, to improve anticipative and reactive adaptation and thus limit the externality.13
data.question: What do some adaptation measures require
data.text: some adaptation measures require the provision of regional/transnational public goods that member countries either cannot afford or have difficulties agreeing upon
data.context: rationale for public intervention by the international community with regard to adaptation there are an analogous set of rationale at the global level for public intervention by developed countries and international development agencies to support adaptation in developing countries, despite the fact that most of the benefits may be local. regional/transnational public goods some adaptation measures require the provision of regional/transnational public goods that member countries either cannot afford or have difficulties agreeing upon. moral hazard/free rider problems governments countries may adopt more risky behaviors if they expect international agencies/donor countries to provide funds should climate-related crisis occur--hence the need for all countries and development agencies to create and adopt mechanisms to discourage such behavior. regional/global externalities/spillovers some of the adverse effects of climate change can spill over into neighboring countries even though the level of anticipative or reactive adaptation might be optimal from the individual country's point of view. on this basis, the international community might provide support, in the form of e.g., financial or technological transfers or of capacity building, to improve anticipative and reactive adaptation and thus limit the externality.13
data.question: how are greenhouse gasses emitted?
data.text: greenhouse gases, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch4) and nitrous oxide (n2o), are emitted through natural processes
data.question: name 4 greenhouse gasses
data.text: water vapour, carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch4) and nitrous oxide (n2o
data.question: give an example of how there has been an increased concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere over the past century
data.text: for example, the atmospheric concentration of co2 has increased by about 30% since the industrial revolution, from 280 parts per million (ppm) in the late 1700s to about 372 ppm in 2002 (figure 2; reference 7). humans have also introduced other, more potent greenhouse gases, such as halocarbons (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons) to the atmosphere
data.context: greenhouse gases, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch4) and nitrous oxide (n2o), are emitted through natural processes, including plant decomposition and respiration, volcanic eruptions, and ocean fluxes (e.g., evaporation). once in the atmosphere, these gases trap and reflect heat back toward the earth's surface through a process known as the greenhouse effect. although this process is necessary for maintaining temperatures capable of supporting life on earth, human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and land-use changes, have significantly increased the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere over the past century. for example, the atmospheric concentration of co2 has increased by about 30% since the industrial revolution, from 280 parts per million (ppm) in the late 1700s to about 372 ppm in 2002 (figure 2; reference 7). humans have also introduced other, more potent greenhouse gases, such as halocarbons (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons) to the atmosphere. this buildup of greenhouse gases due to human activity enhances the earth's natural greenhouse effect.
data.question: Undefined which affect slope stability in mountainous areas?
data.text: can affect slope stability in glacierized high-mountain areas
data.question: How many kilometers from Hualcan?
data.text: these stations are located 28 - 58 km from hualcan and might provide an approximation of the local temperatures at hualcan
data.question: (Extrapolated) shows how many degrees Celsius
data.text: both temperature records show that maximum temperatures were consistently above freezing up to 10 days before failure, reaching up to 8degc at 5400 masl (extrapolated
data.context: in addition to long-term warming, seasonal and diurnal temperature variations, in particular maximum temperatures, can affect slope stability in glacierized high-mountain areas. huggel et al. 2010 found that many slope failures in rock and ice around the world were preceded by particularly warm periods days and weeks before failure. the critical point is air temperatures above freezing, implying melting and infiltration of liquid water into bedrock cleft systems and at the base of steep glaciers. we analyzed temperature records at yanamarey and artesonraju stations at 4698 m and 4811 masl, respectively, ten days before the 10 april 2010 rock-ice avalanche from hualcan. these stations are located 28 - 58 km from hualcan and might provide an approximation of the local temperatures at hualcan, although the horizontal thermal homogeneity at higher elevations found in the tropics (juen et al. 2007 might be less valid for shorter time periods of hours and days. both temperature records show that maximum temperatures were consistently above freezing up to 10 days before failure, reaching up to 8degc at 5400 masl (extrapolated). while such temperature conditions are probably not unique in the cordillera blanca, it is likely that it implied melt water infiltration into rock clefts, with a destabilizing effect due to processes such as hydrostatic pressure variations, refreezing at night with volume expansion, or reduction of cohesion in ice-filled clefts (hasler et al. 2011 ). while this analysis does not directly allow any attribution of the april 2010 slope failure to climate change effects, it should emphasize the possible role of increasing temperatures for slope stability in temperature-sensitive glacierized mountain regions such as at hualcan. risk reduction and adaptation measures must be able to cope with the currently prevailing uncertainties related to limited knowledge of climate change effects on high-mountain slope stability, in particular in terms of timing and location of slope failures. it is worth noting that climate change effects on slope stability in cryosphere environments can thereby be effective over the long-term (e.g. decadeto century-scale glacier retreat and debuttressing effects) or short-term (e.g. very warm periods), and are typically overlaid on predisposing geological, topographic, and other factors that determine the basic susceptibility of slopes to
data.question: Which year started the conceptual tools?
data.text: retzlaff 1968). in addition, the conceptual tools that are developed need to recognize the multivariate character of the processes under analysis
data.question: What is the name of the person study underscores the recommendation?
data.text: they also suggest how the index can be improved. the study underscores the recommendation by moss et al. (2001) that the methodology used to construct vulnerability indicators be transparent and understandable
data.question: What are the different approaches have been used in selecting vulnerability indicators?
data.text: thus, two different approaches have been used in selecting vulnerability indicators: one based on a theoretical understanding of relationships and the other based on statistical relationships. in his review of national environmental indicators, niemeijer (2002) makes a broad distinction between the parallel theory-driven approach, where the best possible indicators are selected from a theoretical point of view, and a data-driven approach
data.context: (retzlaff 1968). in addition, the conceptual tools that are developed need to recognize the multivariate character of the processes under analysis. the computation of an index relies on conceptualization of the relationships between indices (niemeijer 2002). there are numerous methodological assumptions that are made in the aggregation of indices, not least in the weighting of different variables (world economic forum 2002; niemeijer 2002). the theory inter-relating postulated causes has to be well specified and assumptions well understood in order for an indicator study to be verifiable and comparable, and in order to allow the improvement and updating of such exercises when new knowledge about vulnerability becomes available. assessing the human development index (hdi), sagar and najam (1998), test its applicability by examining the validity of the conceptual basis for the construction of the index. the examination enables them to argue that the hdi presents a distorted picture of the world due to faulty assumptions and factors ignored, in terms of the application of additivity of key development dimensions as well as the under-representation of income disparities. they also suggest how the index can be improved. the study underscores the recommendation by moss et al. (2001) that the methodology used to construct vulnerability indicators be transparent and understandable. in a case such as this, where the consensual knowledge base is limited, taking care in perceiving and defining the problem becomes all the more important and should be an iterative, participatory and ongoing process (bell and morse 1999). the sources of diversity in study approaches evident in table ii can be summarized in terms of a crude typography, inclusive/comprehensive as opposed to selective/limited in terms of the number of variables employed. this typography does, however, mask a more philosophical distinction between those studies basing the selection of indicators on some theoretical understanding of the factors determining levels of vulnerability and those adopting a more empirical, evidence-driven approach. thus, two different approaches have been used in selecting vulnerability indicators: one based on a theoretical understanding of relationships and the other based on statistical relationships. in his review of national environmental indicators, niemeijer (2002) makes a broad distinction between the parallel theory-driven approach, where the best possible indicators are selected from a theoretical point of view, and a data-driven approach. the first represents a deductive research approach and the second an inductive research approach. conceptual understanding plays a role in both and is central to maintaining transparency of assumptions.4
data.question: Define lgp change layers of Africa?
data.text: in a recent study (thornton et al., 2006), lgp change layers for africa were combined with an agricultural systems classification, on the basis that land-use options define at least part of the livelihood strategies for millions of rural people who depend on natural resources to at least some extent for their well-being
data.question: Name the combinations used for other important communities?
data.text: we used a combination of the sere steinfeld (1996) livestock system classification and the fao farming systems classification (dixon and gulliver, 2001) to include other important communities whose livelihoods are not dependent on livestock
data.question: How to identify the risk in LGP change?
data.text: by overlaying the lgp changes on the agricultural systems map, it is possible to identify those systems most at risk from both positive and negative (but mostly negative) changes in lgp
data.context: such information can be used in various ways. in a recent study (thornton et al., 2006), lgp change layers for africa were combined with an agricultural systems classification, on the basis that land-use options define at least part of the livelihood strategies for millions of rural people who depend on natural resources to at least some extent for their well-being. we used a combination of the sere steinfeld (1996) livestock system classification and the fao farming systems classification (dixon and gulliver, 2001) to include other important communities whose livelihoods are not dependent on livestock. by overlaying the lgp changes on the agricultural systems map, it is possible to identify those systems most at risk from both positive and negative (but mostly negative) changes in lgp. figure 2 maps the areas of africa that are classified as lga and mra systems (rangeland-based arid-semiarid, and mixed rainfed arid-semiarid, respectively) projected to undergo at least a 20% reduction in lgp to 2050, using downscaled outputs from the hadley gcm (hadcm3) model for the same two greenhouse gas emission scenarios used in figure 1, a1f1 and b1.
data.question: What was used to infer hybrid fertility?
data.text: the correspondence, or lack thereof, between an individual's mtdna and microsatellite ancestry was used to infer hybrid fertility
data.question: What is the result of an individual assigned to one species but the mtDNA of the other species?
data.text: individuals assigned to one species, but with mtdna of the other species, should be a result either of mating between hybrids or between a hybrid and parental type
data.question: What are the two types of relative timescales called?
data.text: relative timescale over which hybridization between these species has taken place (i.e., contemporary or historical
data.context: finally, the correspondence, or lack thereof, between an individual's mtdna and microsatellite ancestry was used to infer hybrid fertility. individuals assigned to one species, but with mtdna of the other species, should be a result either of mating between hybrids or between a hybrid and parental type. using a similar criterion, we could also assess the relative timescale over which hybridization between these species has taken place (i.e., contemporary or historical). for example, an individual that was highly assigned (defined here as q 4 0.95) to one species based upon microsatellite dna, but with mtdna of the opposite species, would likely be the result of hybridization and multiple generations of backcrossing to a parental type.
data.question: Of What is consist the trickling filter?
data.text: a trickling filter consists basically of a tank filled with a highly permeable material, onto which wastewater is loaded in the form of drops or post-treatment of effluents from anaerobic reactors 823 jets
data.question: Explain, how the wastewater percolates work.
data.text: wastewater percolates towards the bottom drains, allowing bacterial growth on the surface of the packing material, in the form of a fixed film (biofilm). wastewater passes over the biofilm, allowing a contact between the microorganisms and the organic matter
data.question: What is the main purpose of the new innovative researchers and how they can contribute to the reduction of the power?
data.text: the main and innovative purpose of the researches carried out in the past years was to evaluate the applicability and behaviour of the trickling filters, when used for polishing of effluents from anaerobic reactors, particularly uasb reactors. this association (uasb reactor tf) may contribute significantly to the reduction of the power and operational costs of the treatment plant
data.context: as described in chapter 43, a trickling filter consists basically of a tank filled with a highly permeable material, onto which wastewater is loaded in the form of drops or post-treatment of effluents from anaerobic reactors 823 jets. wastewater percolates towards the bottom drains, allowing bacterial growth on the surface of the packing material, in the form of a fixed film (biofilm). wastewater passes over the biofilm, allowing a contact between the microorganisms and the organic matter. although the trickling filters (tf) are wastewater treatment systems with great potential and numerous advantages, mainly because of their simplicity and low operational costs, few units have been implemented so far with the purpose of performing the post-treatment of effluents from anaerobic reactors. the main and innovative purpose of the researches carried out in the past years was to evaluate the applicability and behaviour of the trickling filters, when used for polishing of effluents from anaerobic reactors, particularly uasb reactors. this association (uasb reactor tf) may contribute significantly to the reduction of the power and operational costs of the treatment plant.
data.question: What did the PIU review pave the way for?
data.text: the piu review paved the way for a new white paper on energy, the first comprehensive energy white paper since 1967
data.question: What two factors did the 2003 White Paper focus upon?
data.text: the 2003 white paper had a strong focus on both energy efficiency and renewable energy as solutions to climate change
data.question: What was the 2003 White Paper found to be lacking in?
data.text: it was criticised, however, for being strong on rhetoric about climate change but lacking in substance and detailed policies
data.context: the piu review paved the way for a new white paper on energy, the first comprehensive energy white paper since 1967 (see wade and leach, 2003). it was in the white paper that 12 12 the government first committed to a goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 60 per cent by 2050, as recommended by the rcep (dti, 2003; rcep, 2000). the 2003 white paper had a strong focus on both energy efficiency and renewable energy as solutions to climate change, operating within an international market framework. it was criticised, however, for being strong on rhetoric about climate change but lacking in substance and detailed policies (see for example hoc environmental audit committee, 2003).
data.question: What animal in singapore has been suspected to be the source of human sporadic human cases of JE?
data.text: wild boars have been suspected to be the source of sporadic human cases of je
data.question: How many bat species have been isolated?
data.text: two bat species
data.question: Is it possible for humans in vicinity to be Infected?
data.text: humans in the vicinity of this cycle could be accidentally infected
data.context: indochinese peninsula to northern asia several additional wild animal species are considered part of alternative jev cycles: wild boars have been suspected to be the source of sporadic human cases of je in singapore wild peridomestic mammals (raccoons, wild boars, raccoon dogs) in japan, and flying foxes in australia tested positive for jev reacting antibodies [50,51]. in china, jev has been isolated from two bat species in the wild cycle, jev vectors, although highly zoophilic, are largely opportunistic blood feeders and their feeding pattern relies more likely on the host availability within the given landscape than on innate preferences [40,53]. humans in the vicinity of this cycle could be accidentally infected.
data.question: What is the complexity of climate change influences?
data.text: the potential complexity of climate change influences with other factors associated with vector populations is well illustrated by the distribution of tsetse flies in sub-saharan africa (mcdermott et al., 2001). tsetse flies transmit african trypanosomes widely in livestock (ruminants, equids, and pigs
data.question: How do flies behave in the face of climate change?
data.text: tsetse are very sensitive to environmental change, either due to climate or direct human impacts on habitat but the impacts of major species groups vary. forest and riverine species are much more sensitive to climatic factors that savannah species while riverine species are much more adaptable to increasing human population densities than the other groups
data.question: What are the predictions for flies in climate change?
data.text: predictions of climate and population change on tsetse density indicates that tsetse populations and animal trypanosomosis will decrease most in semi-arid and sub-humid zones of west africa and in many but not all
data.context: the potential complexity of climate change influences with other factors associated with vector populations is well illustrated by the distribution of tsetse flies in sub-saharan africa (mcdermott et al., 2001). tsetse flies transmit african trypanosomes widely in livestock (ruminants, equids, and pigs). tsetse are very sensitive to environmental change, either due to climate or direct human impacts on habitat but the impacts of major species groups vary. forest and riverine species are much more sensitive to climatic factors that savannah species while riverine species are much more adaptable to increasing human population densities than the other groups. predictions of climate and population change on tsetse density indicates that tsetse populations and animal trypanosomosis will decrease most in semi-arid and sub-humid zones of west africa and in many but not all
data.question: What are the two time slices that PRECIS simulations are carried out?
data.text: the precis simulations are carried out for only two time slices, viz. 1961-1990 and 2071-2100
data.question: What time slice is the control and what time slice is the perturbed periods?
data.text: 1961- 90 (the control) and 2071-2100 (the perturbed) periods
data.question: What is one of the simplest assumptions to make about the trends in location and scale?
data.text: one of the simplest assumptions to make about the trends in location and scale is that they are linearly dependent on the total radiative forcing
data.context: as noted earlier, the precis simulations are carried out for only two time slices, viz. 1961-1990 and 2071-2100, as the lbcs were available only for these periods. in order to generate scenario products for periods intermediate between the two available simulations created for the 1961- 90 (the control) and 2071-2100 (the perturbed) periods, a simple solution suggested by d. b. stephenson and c. a. t. ferro (pers. commun. d.b.stephenson@reading.ac.uk has been adopted. it is assumed here that the probability distribution of the values for a given parameter changes simply due to anthropogenic trends in location (e.g. mean) and scale (e.g. standard deviation). in other words, it is assumed that the shape of the probability distribution stays constant under increased greenhouse forcing. this assumption appears to work moderately well for regional climate simulations of daily minimum and maximum temperatures over europe25. one of the simplest assumptions to make about the trends in location and scale is that they are linearly dependent on the total radiative forcing. in other words, the location and scale are linear functions of the logarithm of the equivalent co2 concentration as specified by the ipcc sres scenarios. this is a more justifiable assumption than assuming linear-in-time trends and can be used to obtain intermediate simulations for different sres scenarios. in the present study, the above approach is used to estimate the changes in all-india and state wise means of
data.question: How Polynomials were fitted ?
data.text: polynomials were fitted through the cluster means by date (constrained through the origin) and showed that in many cases a quadratic fit over time would have sufficed, but there were numerous cases where only a fourth-order polynomial would suffice
data.question: What's the decision made concerning fitting polynomials?
data.text: we therefore decided to fit fourth-order polynomials throughout. fourth-order polynomial fits were made for all models at all scenarios and another set was made for the average of the four models
data.context: polynomials were fitted through the cluster means by date (constrained through the origin) and showed that in many cases a quadratic fit over time would have sufficed, but there were numerous cases where only a fourth-order polynomial would suffice. we therefore decided to fit fourth-order polynomials throughout. fourth-order polynomial fits were made for all models at all scenarios and another set was made for the average of the four models. world maps of the residual surfaces were constructed for every time period for each variate and for each model and scenario. visual inspection of every map showed that deviations from the fitted curves were within expectations for all of the models.
data.question: What did the large majority of survey respondents across study sites indicated they adopted?
data.text: the large majority of survey respondents across study sites indicated they adopted coping or adaptation measures to counter adverse effects of extreme weather events and slow-onset changes (median: 88%, see table 2
data.question: How many case studies does this section give an overview of findings from?
data.text: this section gives an overview of findings from the nine case studies
data.question: What does Table 2 show about residual loss and damage?
data.text: table 2 shows the percentage of households in each research site experiencing particular climate-related stressors and impacts on their household economy, the proportion of households that adopted coping or adapting measures, and the proportion of households incurring residual loss and damage
data.context: this section gives an overview of findings from the nine case studies. more in-depth analyses of the situation in individual case study areas are published in separate papers in this special issue, and section 4 discusses four 'loss and damage pathways', illustrated with examples from the field. table 2 shows the percentage of households in each research site experiencing particular climate-related stressors and impacts on their household economy, the proportion of households that adopted coping or adapting measures, and the proportion of households incurring residual loss and damage. the large majority of survey respondents across study sites indicated they adopted coping or adaptation measures to counter adverse effects of extreme weather events and slow-onset changes (median: 88%, see table 2).
data.question: How many people populate tbe complex delta region?
data.text: over 120 million people populate the complex delta region
data.question: How much of the worlds population live within 60 miles of the shoreline?
data.text: as mentioned previously, a third of the world's population lives within 60 miles of a shoreline
data.question: What results from oceanic thermal expansion and ice-cap melting?
data.text: rising sea levels, which result from oceanic thermal expansion and ice-cap melting
data.context: both demand and compensatory rises in food production will be complicated by high land loss, a result of industrialisation, urbanisation, and sea level rises and increased fl ooding. also, an expansion of the global population will eventually bring a substantial rise in co2 emissions. rising sea levels, which result from oceanic thermal expansion and ice-cap melting, will be a major contributing factor to population displacement.4 the recent doubling of sea level rise projections from the march, 2009, copenhagen conference are especially worrying. as mentioned previously, a third of the world's population lives within 60 miles of a shoreline, and a high number of these live at low altitudes. the rising of the sea level will be most intensely felt in densely populated, low-lying river deltas, such as the delta region of bangladesh or the nile delta in egypt. in bangladesh, for instance, over 120 million people populate the complex delta region: a 0*5-m sea level rise will account for 10% land loss and a displacement of 6 million people; a rise of 1*0 m will cause 20% land loss and a population displacement of 15 million people.86
data.question: what are one of the main variables controlling elevational distribution across a diverse taxonomic and ecological range of species ?
data.text: temperature
data.question: what are Vector-borne diseases?
data.text: widely distributed pathogens transmitted to hosts by arthropod vectors
data.question: What is the rising global temperature predicted to do?
data.text: expand the distribution of vector-borne diseases
data.context: many studies have described trends in the structure of assemblages along elevational gradients, and have found temperature to be one of the main variables controlling elevational distribution across a diverse taxonomic and ecological range of species [1-3]. however, little is known about the distribution of pathogenic organisms on these gradients. vector-borne diseases are widely distributed pathogens transmitted to hosts by arthropod vectors such as biting flies the rising global temperature is predicted to expand the distribution of vector-borne diseases there are two reasons for this: abundances of most vectors are positively related to temperature and for most vector-borne diseases, transmission may be enhanced by higher ambient temperature. the development of plasmodium for example, can occur between 16-30 u c, with optimal temperatures around 28- 30 u c, whereas temperatures lower than 16 u c greatly inhibit parasite development in contrast to predictions for vector borne parasites, many studies have reported reductions in geographical range size and abundance, and shifts to lower latitudes or high altitudes, in a wide range of organisms that are potential hosts for these parasites [8- 11]. range expansion of vector borne parasites may increase their prevalence in many host populations. increased parasite loads can have negative effects on host populations, reducing growth and causing higher mortality and/or lower birth rates [12-15]. these effects could amplify the risk of extinction for many already threatened species. the study of parasite distributions in relation to climate gradients is important in helping us to understand how host species might be affected by changing parasite prevalence under climate change. elevational gradients provide an excellent framework for such research, because temperature is closely
data.question: Why were the errors in this region not credible?
data.text: however, due to the lack of observational constraints in the mesosphere the errors in this region are not credible
data.question: What is the cold bias throughout the southern hemisphere polar stratosphere consistent with?
data.text: cy35r3rf shows a cold bias throughout the southern hemisphere polar stratosphere with an error of around -8 k at a height of 2 hpa (the height of the uppermost amsu-a channel), consistent with the strong southern winter polar stratosphere cold bias apparent in the cy35r3rf climate simulation (figure 4
data.question: What is the westerly bias in the southern hemisphere polar upper stratosphere consistent with?
data.text: similarly, cy35r3rf shows a significant westerly bias in the southern hemisphere polar upper stratosphere, consistent with the overly strong winter westerly jet in the cy35r3rf climate simulation (figure 4
data.context: however, due to the lack of observational constraints in the mesosphere the errors in this region are not credible. cy35r3rf shows a cold bias throughout the southern hemisphere polar stratosphere with an error of around -8 k at a height of 2 hpa (the height of the uppermost amsu-a channel), consistent with the strong southern winter polar stratosphere cold bias apparent in the cy35r3rf climate simulation (figure 4). this bias is not apparent in cy35r3. away from the southern winter pole the two forecasts have largely similar stratospheric temperature biases. similarly, cy35r3rf shows a significant westerly bias in the southern hemisphere polar upper stratosphere, consistent with the overly strong winter westerly jet in the cy35r3rf climate simulation (figure 4). this bias is also not apparent in cy35r3. in the troposphere the differences between cy35r3 and cy35r3rf are statistically not significant.
data.question: For what an integrated assessment model of climate change is used?
data.text: we use an integrated assessment model of climate change to analyze how the implementation of different decision-making criteria affects preferred investments into climate control, the distribution of outcomes, the robustness of the strategies, and the economic value of information
data.question: Why Dynamic Integrated model of Climate and the Economy (DICE-07) is modified?
data.text: modify the dynamic integrated model of climate and the economy (dice-07) to include a simple representation of a climate threshold response, parametric uncertainty, structural uncertainty, and learning
data.question: What eEconomic analyses of climate change strategies typically adopt?
data.text: economic analyses of climate change strategies typically adopt the expected utility maximization (eum) framework
data.context: we use an integrated assessment model of climate change to analyze how the implementation of different decision-making criteria affects preferred investments into climate control, the distribution of outcomes, the robustness of the strategies, and the economic value of information. specifically, we modify the dynamic integrated model of climate and the economy (dice-07) to include a simple representation of a climate threshold response, parametric uncertainty, structural uncertainty, and learning. economic analyses of climate change strategies typically adopt the expected utility maximization (eum) framework. we compare eum with two decision criteria adopted from the finance literature, namely limited degree of confidence (ldc) and safety first (sf). both criteria increase the relative weight of the performance under the worst-case scenarios compared to eum. the tradeoff between maximizing expected utility and minimizing the worst case outcomes is shown to be equivalent for the ldc
data.question: What is aerosol?
data.text: aerosols lofted to high altitudes by springtime asian dust storms advect across the pacific ocean and, as recognized in recent years, regularly reach the western us. as part of our long-term cirrus cloud research program using remote sensing measurements, we have observed unusually warm cirrus ice clouds associated with transported asian dust aerosols
data.question: What is polarization?
data.text: the polarization lidar data presented for illustration here suggest that the dust particles, which are indicated to be especially active ice nuclei, can affect the formation and phase of clouds, and hence alter their radiative properties at least as far away as the eastern great basin of the us. index terms: 0320 atmospheric composition and structure
data.question: Cloud physics?
data.text: cloud physics and chemistry; 0305 atmospheric composition and structure: aerosols and particles (0345 4801); 3360 meteorology and atmospheric dynamics: remote sensing; 9320 information related to geographic region: asia
data.context: aerosols lofted to high altitudes by springtime asian dust storms advect across the pacific ocean and, as recognized in recent years, regularly reach the western us. as part of our long-term cirrus cloud research program using remote sensing measurements, we have observed unusually warm cirrus ice clouds associated with transported asian dust aerosols. the polarization lidar data presented for illustration here suggest that the dust particles, which are indicated to be especially active ice nuclei, can affect the formation and phase of clouds, and hence alter their radiative properties at least as far away as the eastern great basin of the us. index terms: 0320 atmospheric composition and structure: cloud physics and chemistry; 0305 atmospheric composition and structure: aerosols and particles (0345 4801); 3360 meteorology and atmospheric dynamics: remote sensing; 9320 information related to geographic region: asia
data.question: Why is there a distortion of emissions on the basis of geographical location?
data.text: is a function of policy not underlying costs
data.question: Is the Kyoto framework a high-cost method of reducing emissions?
data.text: it creates major distortions in efficiency terms, too, making it a high-cost method of reducing emissions (we return to these policy costs below
data.context: just to complete the criticisms of the production-based kyoto framework, note that, in addition to failing on both counts above, it creates major distortions in efficiency terms, too, making it a high-cost method of reducing emissions (we return to these policy costs below). in the kyoto world, countries have differential greenhouse-gas caps. given that emissions are closely tied to energy intensity, energy-intensive industries face a distortion on the basis of geographical location, which is a function of policy not underlying costs. hence the problem of 'carbon leakage': production simply shifts from high cap to low (or no) cap locations, thereby, in the process, exacerbating the gap between carbon production and consumption.
data.question: will renewables nor the biofuels make much immediate difference to climate change?
data.text: neither the renewables not the biofuels investments are likely to make much immediate difference to climate change
data.question: can the capital stock be considered rigid?
data.text: between now and then, the capital stock has considerable rigidity
data.context: though policy costs will play a (perhaps significant) part in political debate, the effectiveness in terms of climate-change mitigation will also feature prominently. in this context, the implications of the eu's package are especially relevant: that neither the renewables not the biofuels investments are likely to make much immediate difference to climate change. in the case of renewables, once the costs of the supporting (fossil) fuels are taken into account to ensure continuous supplies, the impact in parts per million on carbon concentrations is likely to be minimal at the global level. in the case of biofuels, there are good reasons for thinking that some (perhaps much) of the target will be counter-productive--actually increasing emissions relative to conventional fossil fuels. when the biodiversity and carbon-release effects of rainforest destruction to carve out land for biofuel crops are taken into account, and the impact on world food markets is added (including greater agricultural intensity and the cultivation of marginal land), the current biofuels policy is at best ill-conceived. though the politics have determined the shape and scale of the eu proposals, they are also a product of the limited policy options available in the short term (which in practice means at least until 2020). between now and then, the capital stock has considerable rigidity. there will be a significant replacement cycle in power generation across europe over the next decade, but much of this will have its impact in the following decade (2020-30). nuclear and ccs are, in particular, largely post 2020-options. for this reason, and because renewables and biofuels will not make much difference to the overall problem--and both at relatively high cost--considerable emphasis naturally falls on energy-efficiency measures.
data.question: Storm tracks play a major role in?
data.text: regulating the precipitation and hydrological cycle in midlatitudes
data.question: The changes in the location and amplitude of the storm tracks in response to global warming will have what impact?
data.text: significant impact
data.question: Finally a sequence of cause and effect for the storm track response in the warming world is proposed that combines energy budget constraints what?
data.text: midlatitude storm
data.context: storm tracks play a major role in regulating the precipitation and hydrological cycle in midlatitudes. the changes in the location and amplitude of the storm tracks in response to global warming will have significant impacts on the poleward transport of heat, momentum and moisture and on the hydrological cycle. recent studies have indicated a poleward shift of the storm tracks and the midlatitude precipitation zone in the warming world that will lead to subtropical drying and higher latitude moistening. this study agrees with this key feature for not only the annual mean but also different seasons and for the zonal mean as well as horizontal structures based on the analysis of geophysical fluid dynamics laboratory (gfdl) cm2.1 model simulations. further analyses show that the meridional sensible and latent heat fluxes associated with the storm tracks shift poleward and intensify in both boreal summer and winter in the late twenty-first century (years 2081-2100) relative to the latter half of the twentieth century (years 1961-2000). the maximum dry eady growth rate is examined to determine the effect of global warming on the time mean state and associated available potential energy for transient growth. the trend in maximum eady growth rate is generally consistent with the poleward shift and intensification of the storm tracks in the middle latitudes of both hemispheres in both seasons. however, in the lower troposphere in northern winter, increased meridional eddy transfer within the storm tracks is more associated with increased eddy velocity, stronger correlation between eddy velocity and eddy moist static energy, and longer eddy length scale. the changing characteristics of baroclinic instability are, therefore, needed to explain the storm track response as climate warms. diagnosis of the latitude-by-latitude energy budget for the current and future climate demonstrates how the coupling between radiative and surface heat fluxes and eddy heat and moisture transport influences the midlatitude storm track response to global warming. through radiative forcing by increased atmospheric carbon dioxide and water vapor, more energy is gained within the tropics and subtropics, while in the middle and high latitudes energy is reduced through increased outgoing terrestrial radiation in the northern hemisphere and increased ocean heat uptake in the southern hemisphere. this enhanced energy imbalance in the future climate requires larger atmospheric energy transports in the midlatitudes which are partially accomplished by intensified storm tracks. finally a sequence of cause and effect for the storm track response in the warming world is proposed that combines energy budget constraints with baroclinic instability theory. keywords storm tracks  global warming 1 mid-latitude storm tracks play an important role in the earth's climate system. eddies within the storm tracks transport large amounts of energy poleward affecting the
data.question: Climate scepticism has a strong presence within which two political parties in the US?
data.text: climate scepticism has a strong presence within the republican party and the tea party movement in the usa
data.context: climate scepticism has a strong presence within the republican party and the tea party movement in the usa. it should be stressed that this presence is to be found only in parts of the republican party, as senator and 2008 presidential candidate john mccain for example accepted the need to limit greenhouse gas emissions. however, climate scepticism has not been so closely associated with mainstream right-wing parties in other countries (boykoff 2011 chapter 6). few studies have been carried out as to whether climate scepticism (in its various forms) is more likely to be found in right-leaning media. the literature that does exist suggests that there is a correspondence. for example, carvalho and burgess found important differences in the coverage of three british broadsheet newspapers in the period 1985-2001, which they attribute in part to the 'profound ideological differences' between them 'in their representations of scientific knowledge claims' (carvalho and burgess 2005 ). in short, the conservative, right-of-centre times was more inclined to question the science compared to the liberal, social democratic guardian
data.question: How important are the glaciers in the Himalayas?
data.text: these glaciers are a freshwater reserve; they provide the headwaters for nine major river systems in asia - a lifeline for almost one-third of humanity
data.question: What could happen if the glaciers of the Himalayas disappear?
data.text: there is clear evidence that himalayan glaciers have been melting at an unprecedented rate in recent decades; this trend causes major changes in freshwater flow regimes and is likely to have a dramatic impact on drinking water supplies, biodiversity, hydropower, industry, agriculture and others, with far-reaching implications for the people of the region and the earth's environment
data.question: What is beneficial about this report on the Himalayas?
data.text: the report and multimedia product will be useful for scientists, planners, and decision makers, as well as for raising the awareness of the public at large to the potential impacts of climate change in the himalayas
data.context: the himalayas have the largest concentration of glaciers outside the polar region. these glaciers are a freshwater reserve; they provide the headwaters for nine major river systems in asia - a lifeline for almost one-third of humanity. there is clear evidence that himalayan glaciers have been melting at an unprecedented rate in recent decades; this trend causes major changes in freshwater flow regimes and is likely to have a dramatic impact on drinking water supplies, biodiversity, hydropower, industry, agriculture and others, with far-reaching implications for the people of the region and the earth's environment. one result of glacial retreat has been an increase in the number and size of glacial lakes forming at the new terminal ends behind the exposed end moraines. these in turn give rise to an increase in the potential threat of glacial lake outburst floods occurring. such disasters often cross boundaries; the water from a lake in one country threatens the lives and properties of people in another. regional cooperation is needed to formulate a coordinated strategy to deal effectively both with the risk of outburst floods and with water management issues. the international centre for integrated mountain development (icimod) in partnership with unep and the asia pacific network and in close collaboration with national partner organisations documented baseline information on the himalayan glaciers, glacial lakes, and glofs in an earlier study which identified some 200 potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the himalayas. the study published here builds upon these past initiatives and investigates the impact of climate change on selected glaciers and glacial lakes. the publication provides an account of glacier retreat and growth of glacial lakes in two selected river sub-basins, one in nepal and one in bhutan. it describes important methodological aspects of assessing the vulnerability for glof hazards based on empirical data and evidence. it also investigates the possibility of devising a method for regular temporal monitoring of glacial lakes in remote and inaccessible mountain locations using satellite-based techniques. the results provide a basis for the development of monitoring and early warning systems and planning and prioritisation of disaster mitigation efforts that could save many lives. the report also provides useful information for those concerned with water resources and environmental planning. this report is also being packaged in a multi-media cd-rom with films, 3-d visualisation photographs, and satellite images. the report and multimedia product will be useful for scientists, planners, and decision makers, as well as for raising the awareness of the public at large to the potential impacts of climate change in the himalayas. with this information, we hope to contribute to improving the lives of mountain people and help safeguard future investments in the region. it highlights the need to replicate, refine, and scale up such studies, using scientific approaches and empirical evidence, in other parts of the himalayan region. we are convinced that it will increase the awareness of the readers of the need to support initiatives. vi icimod is grateful to the united nations environment programme regional office for asia and the pacific (unep/roap) for its support for this work. we are also pleased that the project has enabled us to continue to strengthen our collaboration with the royal government of bhutan's department of geology and mines and to continue to assist in developing regional capacity and co-operation. we are grateful to the european space agency (esa) for providing satellite images for regular temporal monitoring of the imja glacial lake in nepal. finally, i wish to thank the authors and many contributors for preparing this timely and relevant report at a time when the issue of climate change is being hotly debated in the international arena. we hope that this report will serve as a milestone for studying the impact of climate change in the himalayas. dr. andreas schild director general icimod vii
data.question: What model do the simulations, described by Gao and others, use?
data.text: we analyze the simulations described by gao et al. [2006], which use the abdus salam ictp regional climate model regcm3 pal et al. 2007
data.question: What happens in a "double nested" mode?
data.text: in this ''double-nested'' mode, a higher resolution limited area grid is nested within a lower resolution limited area grid, much as a single limited area grid is nested within a global gcm or reanalysis grid. output from the outer nested grid (50 km horizontal resolution with 14 sigma levels in the vertical) is interpolated to higher resolution and used as lateral boundary conditions for the inner nested grid (20 km horizontal resolution with 18 sigma levels in the vertical
data.question: What are lateral boundary conditions provided by?
data.text: lateral boundary conditions are provided by 50 km resolution simulations driven by the hadam3h atmospheric general circulation model (gcm) giorgi et al. 2004a, 2004b
data.context: we analyze the simulations described by gao et al. [2006], which use the abdus salam ictp regional climate model regcm3 pal et al. 2007]. in these simulations, regcm3 is run on a 20 km resolution grid covering the mediterranean region. lateral boundary conditions are provided by 50 km resolution simulations driven by the hadam3h atmospheric general circulation model (gcm) giorgi et al. 2004a, 2004b]. in this ''double-nested'' mode, a higher resolution limited area grid is nested within a lower resolution limited area grid, much as a single limited area grid is nested within a global gcm or reanalysis grid. output from the outer nested grid (50 km horizontal resolution with 14 sigma levels in the vertical) is interpolated to higher resolution and used as lateral boundary conditions for the inner nested grid (20 km horizontal resolution with 18 sigma levels in the vertical). in order to maintain consistency between the nested simulations, the
data.question: What are the two variables involved in stochastic climate modeling?
data.text: two sets of variables referred to as climate and unresolved variables
data.question: What variables are involved in non-linear self interaction in stochastic modeling?
data.text: stochastic modeling of the nonlinear self-interaction of the unresolved variables
data.context: we have developed a systematic mathematical strategy for stochastic climate modeling based on the following three-step procedure: (1) identification of two sets of variables referred to as climate and unresolved variables. the former are the variables we are ultimately interested in; the latter are the variables whose dynamics are essential to driving the climate variables but are irrelevant for a meaningful macroscopic description of the state of the system. (2) stochastic modeling of the nonlinear self-interaction of the unresolved variables. (3) elimination of the unresolved variables by averaging techniques in the limit of infinite separation between the time scales for the dynamics of the climate and the unresolved variables.
data.question: Are policy sectors competing for attention on the agenda when it comes to climate change?
data.text: the case of climate change and energy policy demonstrates an arena in which policy sectors are not competing for attention on the agenda, but are converging
data.question: In what are based the traditional policy models?
data.text: traditional models of the policy process are based on the assumption that policy change takes place within a single 25 25 sector or policy domain
data.question: What is suggested?
data.text: we suggest that the assumption that policy networks operate within domains, and that policy change takes place within these domains, is problematic when policies converge. equally, locating policy change somewhere 'outside' the subsystem, or through the clash of beliefs, knowledge or discourses, is limited for explaining the dynamics of the energy-climate change arena
data.context: the case of climate change and energy policy demonstrates an arena in which policy sectors are not competing for attention on the agenda, but are converging. traditional models of the policy process are based on the assumption that policy change takes place within a single 25 25 sector or policy domain. although these ideas have been useful for analysis of sectors facing abrupt, short-lived problems, even theories based on fluid, adaptable issue networks such as discourse coalitions struggle when faced with the convergence of sectors. we suggest that the assumption that policy networks operate within domains, and that policy change takes place within these domains, is problematic when policies converge. equally, locating policy change somewhere 'outside' the subsystem, or through the clash of beliefs, knowledge or discourses, is limited for explaining the dynamics of the energy-climate change arena.
data.question: What a a Canadian Perspective is about?
data.text: is not a comprehensive assessment of the literature, but rather a summary of recent studies with the goal of raising awareness of the range and significance of climate change impacts and adaptation issues
data.question: How the term "climate change" is used?
data.text: the term "climate change" is used to refer to any change in climate over time, whether it be the product of natural variability, human activity or both
data.question: What this research provides in the field of climate change impacts?
data.text: it provides examples of new and often innovative research
data.context: this report, climate change impacts and adaptation: a canadian perspective provides an update to the canada country study by focusing on research conducted between 1997 and 2002. a considerable amount of work has been completed on climate change impacts and adaptation during this time, due in part to the attention brought to the issue by the canada country study, as well as targeted research funding programs and international initiatives, such as the reports of the ipcc. climate change impacts and adaptation: a canadian perspective is not a comprehensive assessment of the literature, but rather a summary of recent studies with the goal of raising awareness of the range and significance of climate change impacts and adaptation issues. throughout the report, the term "climate change" is used to refer to any change in climate over time, whether it be the product of natural variability, human activity or both. that is how the ipcc uses the term, but it differs from the usage of the unfccc, which restricts the term to climate changes that can be directly or indirectly related to human activity. although this review focuses primarily on canadian research on climate change impacts and adaptation, additional reference material is included to provide both a north american and a global context for the canadian work. the report also highlights the results of research funded by the government of canada's climate change action fund. although much of this research has not yet been subject to full peer review, it provides examples of new and often innovative research in the field of climate change impacts and adaptation. climate change impacts and adaptation: a canadian perspective begins with a chapter that introduces key concepts in impacts and adaptation research, and discusses current directions in understanding vulnerability, scenarios and costing. this is followed by seven chapters that each focus on sectors of key importance to canada, namely water resources, agriculture, forestry, coastal zone, fisheries, transportation, and human health and well-being. vulnerability is a key theme throughout the report. this focus reflects the shift in impacts and adaptation research over recent years from projecting potential impacts to understanding the risk that climate change presents to the environment, economy and society see 'directions' chapter). vulnerability, defined as "the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes,"(14)provides a basis for managing the risks of climate change despite the uncertainties associated with future climate projections. in that sense, this report also serves as a primer for the next national-scale assessment of climate change impacts and adaptation, which will focus on understanding canada's vulnerability to climate change.
data.question: wich reason the quantity of fuel consumed?
data.text: urban architecture, public transport systems and forth
data.question: what depends on historic incomes and prices?
data.text: the lagged endogenous variable
data.context: git  1/4  cpa ity b itemit. (1) however, it clearly takes a long time to adjust the stock of vehicles, not to speak of roads, urban architecture, public transport systems and forth. for this reason the quantity of fuel consumed in any particular year depends not only on current income and prices but also on a number of other variables such as the number and type of cars--which in turn depends on historic incomes and prices. for time-series data, it is common to use a so-called lagged endogenous model such as (2). git  1/4  cpa ity b itgl it  1emit. (2) the lagged endogenous variable git  1 can be seen as representing the inertia of the system and it is easy to show4
data.question: Why is tuna not generally considered to be supported by coastal habitats
data.text: tuna depend mainly on the food webs of the open ocean
data.question: what percent of pelagic fish in 10 countries and territories is tuna estimated to make up?
data.text: at least 50
data.question: why it is not possible to estimate the likely changes in availability of tuna per capita in the future?
data.text: because there are few data available to indicate potential present-day sustainable catches of tuna by coastal communities
data.context: tuna were not included in the calculations because although they have been estimated to make up at least 50% of pelagic fish in 10 countries and territories (supplementary table s1), tuna depend mainly on the food webs of the open ocean and so are not generally considered to be supported by coastal habitats. in addition, it is not possible to estimate the likely changes in availability of tuna per capita in the future because there are few data available to indicate potential present-day sustainable catches of tuna by coastal communities. rather, it is very likely that coastal communities could make substantially greater catches of tuna both now and in the future if they are provided with access (ref 9, chapter 13) and appropriate fishing methods (ref 43).
data.question: What was asserted in the IPCC's First Assessment Report in 1990?
data.text: however, whilst the ipcc's first assessment report in 1990 asserted that human activities were increasing the atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases
data.question: What is the goal of Greenpeace's public campaigns?
data.text: greenpeace's public campaigns seek to do just that: infiltrate popular culture through a media presence by making environmental issues culturally meaningful and symbolically recognisable
data.question: When was the authour a volunteer with the Greenpeace organization?
data.text: through my involvement with the organisation as a volunteer from 1995-2002
data.context: communication strategies of greenpeace greenpeace is involved in a variety of campaigning strategies, which include producing scientific reports, lobbying governments for policy change, working with industry to promote change in practices, staging direct actions, and providing environmental information for the public, governments and industries. however, it is the public campaign literature, often distributed by the local greenpeace groups, which i am directly examining in this paper (with some reference to other greenpeace activities) as greenpeace stated in 2004, 'if the issues of biotechnology and global warming are ever to truly command the attention of politicians, they will need to infiltrate popular culture' (greenpeace international, 2004c). greenpeace's public campaigns seek to do just that: infiltrate popular culture through a media presence by making environmental issues culturally meaningful and symbolically recognisable. the printed public campaign literature that provides the basis of my analysis was sourced from visits to the greenpeace uk offices and focuses primarily upon greenpeace uk campaigns. greenpeace uk does not have a systematised archive of campaign materials, making it difficult to obtain an overview of its climate change campaigns. this is exacerbated by the fact that greenpeace campaigners often change every few years to be replaced by new staff, either from within or outside of the organisation. accessing the material, and constructing a historical overview of its campaigns was thus based upon knowledge provided by interviews with current campaigners,10as well as my own knowledge of greenpeace uk climate change campaigns through my involvement with the organisation as a volunteer from 1995-2002. this paper now examines the strategies employed by greenpeace to communicate climate change in light of the problems of communication already discussed. the five representational strategies identified in my analysis establish particular relations between the temporal and the visual in the very process of making climate change meaningful and relevant. given the investment of the organisation in communicating the science and effects of climate change before visible impacts, how then have the temporal limitations of photography been negotiated in greenpeace's climate change communication? phase one. immanent and inevitable destruction from a warming planet greenpeace has been monitoring scientific and news reports of major extreme weather events and natural climate-related disasters since the ipcc's [intergovernmental panel on climate change] first warning in 1990. greenpeace believes that the only conclusion that can be drawn from this 'catalogue of disasters' is that global warming is now detectable and the first impacts of human-induced climate change are in fact already being felt. (greenpeace international, 1994) it is widely acknowledged that margaret thatcher's speech to the royal society in september 1988 put the issue of climate change on the uk political agenda, accompanied by a subsequent increase in media coverage (farrow, 2000; weart, 2003; carvalho and burgess, 2005). however, whilst the ipcc's first assessment report in 1990 asserted that human activities were increasing the atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases, by 1992 political and media interest in the issue had waned. uncertainties over of representational politics of climate change communication 135
data.question: This section evaluates the performance of the CCMs in how many principal areas?
data.text: this section evaluates the performance of the ccms in four principal areas (see table 6.1
data.question: What does subsection 6.3.1 deal with?
data.text: subsection 6.3.1 deals with photolysis rates
data.question: Subsection 6.3.4 evaluates what exactly?
data.text: finally, subsection 6.3.4 evaluates the performance of the models for chemistry related to polar ozone depletion
data.context: this section evaluates the performance of the ccms in four principal areas (see table 6.1). subsection 6.3.1 deals with photolysis rates. subsection 6.3.2 covers fast radical chemistry outside of the polar winter/spring. subsection 6.3.3 investigates reservoir species and long-lived tracers. finally, subsection 6.3.4 evaluates the performance of the models for chemistry related to polar ozone depletion. throughout this analysis, output is taken from either the ccmval-2 ref-b1 or ref-b2 simulations. throughout this chapter, quantitative estimates of ccm performance for a range of diagnostics have been obtained by using a formula based on the grades from douglass et al. (1999) and waugh and eyring (2008):
data.question: What was noted when water temperatures were -1 to -2 deg C?
data.text: note that periods when water temperatures were -1 to -2 deg c, melting ice was present
data.question: What was gone by February 1998?
data.text: in 1998, ice was gone by the end of february, and the bloom occurred in open water in may
data.question: When did the bloom occur?
data.text: the bloom occurred in open water in may
data.context: fig. 5. time series of sea water temperature and fluorescence (yellow trace) from mooring 2 in the southeastern bering sea for 1995 through 2001. note that periods when water temperatures were -1 to -2 deg c, melting ice was present. in 1997, ice retreat occurred in april, and the spring bloom occurred early and in association with the ice. in 1998, ice was gone by the end of february, and the bloom occurred in open water in may. modified from stabeno, bond, kachel, salo and schumacher (2001). table 1 relationship between the timing of ice retreat and the type of spring bloom bloom occurs at the ice edge bloom in open water ice gone by mid-march 0 7 ice remains after late march 6 0
data.question: What is the primary requirement to make countries responsible for environmental responsibility?
data.text: climate burdens should reflect historical emissions activity
data.question: How can  someone fix accountability of developed countries to green house emissions?
data.text: there have been numerous changes in international boundaries since 1750 thus questioning the fairness of holding developed countries responsible for the greenhouse emissions of their prior incarnations (caney 2005, pp. 58-60). it has been suggested that this problem could be solved if we restrict historical environmental politics 559
data.context: 'contribution to problem' reasoning, then, upsets the convention that the resources available to a country alter its environmental responsibilities. the problem here is not merely that the approach ceases to apply in the absence of anthropogenic causality or wrongdoing, or that it denies that a country's wealth is relevant in isolation of its historical responsibility, but that it can often only be reconciled with our intuitions by rejecting the core thesis that climate burdens should reflect historical emissions activity. a second problem for both forms emerges from the historical nature of the problem. at the individual level, it seems obvious that the 'contribution to problem' approach cannot deal well with the fact that many of the individual citizens and policymakers responsible for their countries' historical emissions are now dead. shouldering their descendants with the responsibility for financing climate policy would be to require compensation from the wrong people such problems re-emerge, albeit subtly, at the national level since there have been numerous changes in international boundaries since 1750 thus questioning the fairness of holding developed countries responsible for the greenhouse emissions of their prior incarnations (caney 2005, pp. 58-60). it has been suggested that this problem could be solved if we restrict historical environmental politics 559
data.question: Seeds were collected from which three categories of latitude sites?
data.text: each point is the mean of a pair of populations t 95% confidence interval (ci)] grown from seeds collected from northern (blue triangles), southern (red circles), and mid-latitude sites (purple squares
data.question: Adaptive landscapes were modeled for a single quantitative trait representing a trade-off between which two factors?
data.text: adaptive landscapes modeled for a single quantitative trait representing a trade-off between reproductive timing versus size at maturity (pc1, x axis) in three environments: short (timmins), long (bef), and intermediate growing seasons (ksr
data.question: What is represented by the solid curves in each graph?
data.text: solid curves in each graph show the predicted adaptive landscape, and dotted lines show the consequences for fitness of populations collected from northern (blue triangles), southern (red circles), and intermediate latitudes (purple squares
data.context: fig. 1. rapid evolution of local adaptation to climate among invasive populations of l. salicaria resultingfromalatitudinalshiftin the adaptive landscape. a evidence for local adaptation based on survival and fruit production data over 4 years (2007 - 2010) at each of three sites spanning a latitudinal gradient of 10deg(~1000km). each point is the mean of a pair of populations t 95% confidence interval (ci)] grown from seeds collected from northern (blue triangles), southern (red circles), and mid-latitude sites (purple squares). b adaptive landscapes modeled for a single quantitative trait representing a trade-off between reproductive timing versus size at maturity (pc1, x axis) in three environments: short (timmins), long (bef), and intermediate growing seasons (ksr). solid curves in each graph show the predicted adaptive landscape, and dotted lines show the consequences for fitness of populations collected from northern (blue triangles), southern (red circles), and intermediate latitudes (purple squares). c observed cumulative reproductive output (circles) over 4 years (2007 - 2010) and nonlinearfitnesssplines(solidcurves) of 450 plants from three pairs of populations collected from northern (blue), southern (red), and intermediate latitudes (purple), reciprocally transplanted into the three common garden sites.
data.question: From where the data's are used?
data.text: data were used from all available stations, including stations influenced by urbanisation and land-use change, stations that are no longer active, and stations that are not routinely reported in real time
data.question: Why  grids were 'relaxed' to a zero?
data.text: at times and in places where no station data were available, the grids were 'relaxed' to a zero anomaly, relative to the 1961-90 climatology, following new et al (2000
data.question: What happen if Fluctuations occur over time?
data.text: fluctuations over time in the numbers and locations of adjacent stations may lead to abrupt and incorrect changes in the climate of an individual grid box, particularly changes in variability
data.context: data were used from all available stations, including stations influenced by urbanisation and land-use change, stations that are no longer active, and stations that are not routinely reported in real time. * at times and in places where no station data were available, the grids were 'relaxed' to a zero anomaly, relative to the 1961-90 climatology, following new et al (2000). any improvement in this respect requires open access to existing data-sets and digitisation of paper records. * fluctuations over time in the numbers and locations of adjacent stations may lead to abrupt and incorrect changes in the climate of an individual grid box, particularly changes in variability. therefore alternative data-sets should be used for monitoring, detection and attribution purposes: examples include jones and moberg (2003) for temperature and hulme et al (1998) for precipitation. the observed grids presented here are intended to complement such alternative data-sets, by providing spatially and temporally complete grids that incorporate all the available information about the actual changes in climate experienced over the last century, irrespective of cause. these same features make it important for analysts of impacts to be aware of the characteristics of the climatic time-series of the grid boxes of interest. in particular, analysts should check whether values have been 'relaxed' to a zero anomaly, or whether there are changes over time that are related to fluctuations in the number of adjacent stations. metadata supplied with the observed grids indicate how many stations potentially contributed to each individual value. this data-set is capable of improvement in a number of ways. among the most desirable improvements for the future include: * extending the time scale to a daily resolution, which will only be possible for the observed period in data-rich regions -- possibly with the assistance of weather generators -- and will require rcms for future scenarios; * extending the number of climatic variables included; * extending the number of climate models represented; * improving the observed records, to enhance the historic record and the representation of interannual variability; * incorporating modelled changes in the interannual variance (mitchell, 2001), rather than merely changes in the multi-decadal mean. the authors of this data-set welcome dialogue in two directions in particular: 1. with those who wish to use the data-set to examine the possible effects of future climate change; 2. with those who wish to deploy the concepts explained in this paper to develop similar data-sets.
data.question: How was the value approximations of the livestock conducted and why?
data.text: for the purposes of the abm, different types of livestock are assigned different but relative value approximations in order for a standard calculation of livestock assets to be achieved
data.question: On what basis ,these relative values are assigned to the livestock?
data.text: these relative values are assigned as a result of consideration of the potential value of an animal to a household in burkina faso following 2 months of fieldwork in the country interviewing people in rural and urban locations
data.question: Of the livestock types recorded by the EMIUB data, what are proposed to be of the greatest livestock value to Burkinabe people and why?
data.text: f the livestock types recorded by the emiub data, cattle are proposed to be of the greatest livestock value to burkinabe people. wouterse and taylor (2008) note that cattle represent a considerable capital asset as they provide continual supplies of milk and manure while also
data.context: for the purposes of the abm, different types of livestock are assigned different but relative value approximations in order for a standard calculation of livestock assets to be achieved. these relative values are assigned as a result of consideration of the potential value of an animal to a household in burkina faso following 2 months of fieldwork in the country interviewing people in rural and urban locations. of the livestock types recorded by the emiub data, cattle are proposed to be of the greatest livestock value to burkinabe people. wouterse and taylor (2008) note that cattle represent a considerable capital asset as they provide continual supplies of milk and manure while also
data.question: how many kilometres it covers?
data.text: gridded hourly radar data for the united kingdom at 5-km resolution are available from the nimrod database
data.question: what is the purpose of this study?
data.text: in this study we are assessing the climatology of hourly rainfall accumulated over several years
data.question: what are the areas it covers?
data.text: assumptions in the conversion of reflectivity to rain/snow rate, evaporation below the beam, and attenuation that may lead to systematic underestimation of heavy rain
data.context: gridded hourly radar data for the united kingdom at 5-km resolution are available from the nimrod database (golding 1998) for the period 2003-10. these have been used here to assess the spatial and temporal characteristics of hourly rainfall in the 1.5and 12-km rcms. although there is considerable overlap between the radar and the model data period, model data are not available for all 8 years of the radar periiod. specifically the model data span 1989-2008 and, owing to highresolution sst data only currently being available until the end of 2008, it has not been possible to extend the run further. we note, however, that, due to the large size of the 12-km-rcm domain and that observational constraints are only fed in at the lateral and sea surface boundaries, we would not expect the day-to-day series of weather patterns over the united kingdom in the models to exactly correspond to those in reality even for the same set of years. in this study we are assessing the climatology of hourly rainfall accumulated over several years, which is not expected to vary greatly from one decade to the next. to confirm this, we compare rainfall characteristics in the radar with those in the models for two separate 8-yr model periods (1990-97 and 2000-07). we also only show differences that are significant compared to year-to-year variability (see section 2c). there are many issues with radar data. it can be affected by clutter (e.g., phone masts in the way of the beam), deflection of the beam onto the ground (anomalous propagation), increased signal at the melting level (bright band), assumptions in the conversion of reflectivity to rain/snow rate, evaporation below the beam, and attenuation that may lead to systematic underestimation of heavy rain. it is also less reliable in mountainous areas because the lower-elevation beams may be blocked and unusable and more assumptions then have to be made. all of these effects can lead to errors or biases in the measurement of precipitation amounts. the met office calibrates against rain gauges and employs algorithms to take account of the above when producing a u.k. radar composite (harrison et al. 2000), but the quality control is difficult and some problems cannot be fully rectified. nevertheless, radar is still particularly useful for capturing the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of precipitation, which is of interest in this study. we would also expect the rank of precipitation at a given point in space or time relative to the full data series to be reliably captured, even if there may be a bias in the absolute rainfall amount. as described below, this is exploited here through the use of percentile thresholds. note that throughout this paper we use the term rainfall when strictly we are referring to precipitation. specifically we are comparing model precipitation (including rain and snow) with hourly precipitation accumulations derived from radar reflectivity. in fact, the majority of precipitation over the united kingdom (particularly the southern regions considered in this study) is in the form of rain and not snow, but we do not explicitly distinguish these and include both fractions in the analysis.
data.question: For what the compromise is usually made?
data.text: a compromise is usually made to represent the climate system by models that are averaged over one or more spatial dimensions or by threedimensional models that are limited to simulating particular ''snapshots'' in time
data.question: When there is prominent decreases in ice melt and increases in snowfall?
data.text: prominent decreases in ice melt and increases in snowfall are simulated during three time intervals near 26, 73, and 117 thousand years ago (ka) when aphelion was in late spring and obliquity was low
data.context: progress in understanding how terrestrial ice volume is linked to earth  s orbital configuration has been impeded by the cost of simulating climate system processes relevant to glaciation over orbital time scales (103-105years). a compromise is usually made to represent the climate system by models that are averaged over one or more spatial dimensions or by threedimensional models that are limited to simulating particular ''snapshots'' in time. we take advantage of the short equilibration time 3 10 years) of a climate model consisting of a three-dimensional atmosphere coupled to a simple slab ocean to derive the equilibrium climate response to accelerated variations in earth  s orbital configuration over the past 165,000 years. prominent decreases in ice melt and increases in snowfall are simulated during three time intervals near 26, 73, and 117 thousand years ago (ka) when aphelion was in late spring and obliquity was low. there were also significant decreases in ice melt and increases in snowfall near 97 and 142 ka when eccentricity was relatively large, aphelion was in late spring, and obliquity was high or near its long term mean. these ''glaciation-friendly'' time intervals correspond to prominent and secondary phases of terrestrial ice growth seen within the marine d18o record. both dynamical and thermal effects contribute to the increases in snowfall during these periods, through increases in storm activity and the fraction of precipitation falling as snow. the majority of the midto high latitude response to orbital forcing is organized by the properties of sea ice, through its influence on radiative feedbacks that nearly double the size of the orbital forcing as well as its influence on the seasonal evolution of the latitudinal temperature gradient.
data.question: What is half the world's population infected by?
data.text: nearly half of the world's population is infected by vector-borne diseases
data.question: What climate could increase health risk to the UK from vector borne diseases?
data.text: climate change bringing warmer weather and flooding could increase the risk in the uk
data.question: What are "Zoonoses"?
data.text: zoonoses are diseases that can be spread from vertebrate animals
data.context: nearly half of the world's population is infected by vector-borne diseases. many are associated with standing water. diseases like malaria, chikungunya fever, west nile virus and dengue fever are all dependent on warm temperatures and humidity. climate change bringing warmer weather and flooding could increase the risk in the uk. in the meantime there are serious health risks from flooding due to zoonoses and water-borne pathogens. zoonoses are diseases that can be spread from vertebrate animals. these include anthrax and weil's disease, spread by flood waters. water-borne pathogens like cryptosporidium can come from sewage or from the bodies or excreta of animals and can be spread by flood waters often reaching drinking water supplies through reservoirs. cryptosporidium is not destroyed by normal water treatment plants and there
data.question: What is the main feature of most of the available cost estimates?
data.text: most of the available cost estimates are bottom-up estimates based on a long history of coastal management and engineering experience
data.question: What is the UNFCCC study for coastal zones is based on?
data.text: hence, the unfccc study for coastal zones is based on extensive experience, and a good description of the adaptation measures, as well as a consideration of quite detailed data at the segment level
data.question: Is the UNFCCC study detailed?
data.text: it is much more detailed than any earlier assessment tool
data.context: most of the available cost estimates are bottom-up estimates based on a long history of coastal management and engineering experience. this draws mainly on the use of dykes (for flood management) and nourishment (to preserve beaches). these costs have been documented globally by ipcc czms (1990) and hoozemans et al. (1993), based on the global experience of delft hydraulics (now deltares). hence, the cost estimates are grounded in coastal engineering experience and are reasonably robust. the unfccc study used the diva tool and focused on dyke construction and upgrade, and beach nourishment. the costs are derived from the earlier studies and the practical experience of delft hydraulics in coastal engineering projects around the world. residual damages are also costed in terms of land values, depth-damage curves and the costs of relocating people. the computations are conducted on 12,148 coastal segments that collectively make up the world's coast, except for antarctica (mcfadden et al., 2007; vafeidis et al., 2008). hence, the unfccc study for coastal zones is based on extensive experience, and a good description of the adaptation measures, as well as a consideration of quite detailed data at the segment level. it is much more detailed than any earlier assessment tool.
data.question: What did the study find in groundwater?
data.text: this study has found that groundwater tested positive for bacteria in many areas with counts amplified in areas with intensive agriculture and in areas with dug wells
data.question: Which is one of the most eutrophic rivers in Ontario?
data.text: the south nation is one of the most eutrophic rivers in ontario containing a large amount of nitrates and methyl mercury
data.context: reduced flow for tributaries of the st. lawrence and ottawa rivers may exacerbate current water quality problems in a predominantly agricultural region, especially in the raisin and the south nation watersheds. currently, the state of these watersheds is perceived as good by municipal and cas' staff. however, the quality, but not the quantity, of both surface water and groundwater, especially as related to organic waste, is definitely one of the ca staff's major concerns. staff also cites the lack of pertinent data as another concern. this study has found that groundwater tested positive for bacteria in many areas with counts amplified in areas with intensive agriculture and in areas with dug wells. in any climate scenario, regular testing of water quality should be a priority. in general nitrate was not found in levels exceeding the guideline, although some wells that were dug shallow and located in intensive agricultural areas had high levels of nitrate the south nation is one of the most eutrophic rivers in ontario containing a large amount of nitrates and methyl mercury. an optimization non-point pollution model applied to the south nation indicates that best management practices, alone or in combination, are unable to improve water quality to the level of national guidelines without reducing the level of agricultural activities. though climate change may be beneficial for agriculture in the region (especially for corn and soybean; see e.g. weber et al., 2003 and the literature cited), it will require rural municipalities, within their area of jurisdiction, to become more involved with the diffuse polluting impacts of changing agricultural activity through, for example, reductions in nutrient loading (e.g. with the suggested phosphorus credit system), development of vegetated riparian zones, and wetland protection and creation. also, increased corn production (e.g. for subsidized ethanol production in the context of climate change mitigation) would further contribute to the deterioration of water quality in the south-nation watershed.21an ethanolprocessing plant is currently being built in cornwall. 3.4. impact of climate projections on built infrastructure
data.question: Over the past three to four decades, decreases in sea-ice extent in the Arctic have brought what?
data.text: increased attention to the potential use of the northwest passage as an international shipping route
data.question: Many believe that continued warming will lead to increased or decreased shipping through Artic Water?
data.text: substantial increases in shipping through arctic waters
data.question: Overall, the potential opening of the Northwest Passage would present what range of new opportunities and challenges for northern Canada?
data.text: including new economic development, sovereignty issues, and safety and environmental concerns
data.context: canadian arctic due to the potential for increased marine transport through the arctic archipelago see 'coastal zone' chapter). over the past three to four decades, decreases in sea-ice extent in the arctic see 'fisheries' chapter) have brought increased attention to the potential use of the northwest passage as an international shipping route.(46, 47)in fact, many believe that continued warming will lead to substantial increases in shipping through arctic waters (e.g., references 47, 48). however, although ice cover would decrease, conditions may become more dangerous because a reduction in seasonal ice would allow more icebergs from northern glaciers, and hazardous, thick, multiyear ice from the central arctic basin, to drift into the archipelago.(49)overall, the potential opening of the northwest passage would present a range of new opportunities and challenges for northern canada, including new economic development, sovereignty issues, and safety and environmental concerns.
data.question: What is the composition of the emissions?
data.text: while the mixture of emissions from cookstoves depends strongly on the stove, fuel, and user
data.question: What is warming?
data.text: the near-term climate impact of residential biomass and coal burning is estimated to be net warming, even when coemitted re fl ecting aerosols (e.g., organic carbon) are considered.39when methane and carbon dioxide are accounted for, the long-term climate e ff ect of residential solid fuel use is strongly warming
data.question: What is Greenhouse Gases?
data.text: studies show that controlling both short-lived climate pollutants such as bc and methane and long-lived greenhouse gases can increase the chances of limiting global temperature rise to below 2 deg c, a long-term international goal for avoiding the most dangerous impacts of climate change.34,40,41in south asia where over half of bc comes from cookstoves (figure 2),42bc also disrupts the monsoon and accelerates melting of the himalayan-tibetan glaciers.32,35as a result, water availability and food security are threatened for millions of people. these problems are compounded by crop damage from ozone produced in part by cookstove emissions and from surface dimming as airborne bc intercepts sunlight. in addition, since bc is an indicator of the toxic substances in pm2.5, reducing bc is likely to reduce harmful health e ff ects.43
data.context: while the mixture of emissions from cookstoves depends strongly on the stove, fuel, and user, the near-term climate impact of residential biomass and coal burning is estimated to be net warming, even when coemitted re fl ecting aerosols (e.g., organic carbon) are considered.39when methane and carbon dioxide are accounted for, the long-term climate e ff ect of residential solid fuel use is strongly warming. studies show that controlling both short-lived climate pollutants such as bc and methane and long-lived greenhouse gases can increase the chances of limiting global temperature rise to below 2 deg c, a long-term international goal for avoiding the most dangerous impacts of climate change.34,40,41in south asia where over half of bc comes from cookstoves (figure 2),42bc also disrupts the monsoon and accelerates melting of the himalayan-tibetan glaciers.32,35as a result, water availability and food security are threatened for millions of people. these problems are compounded by crop damage from ozone produced in part by cookstove emissions and from surface dimming as airborne bc intercepts sunlight. in addition, since bc is an indicator of the toxic substances in pm2.5, reducing bc is likely to reduce harmful health e ff ects.43
data.question: Explain about Anthropogenic heat flu?
data.text: anthropogenic heat flux (ahf), a consequence of non-renewable energy use and the second law of thermodynamics, is not included in state-of-the-art climate simulations
data.question: What are  suitable for climate model application?
data.text: here, global inventories and parameterizations of ahf, suitable for climate model application, are developed for 2005-2100. although global-mean ahf is small, it may approach 1 w m 2over large regions by 2040
data.context: anthropogenic heat flux (ahf), a consequence of non-renewable energy use and the second law of thermodynamics, is not included in state-of-the-art climate simulations. here, global inventories and parameterizations of ahf, suitable for climate model application, are developed for 2005-2100. although global-mean ahf is small, it may approach 1 w m 2over large regions by 2040. climate simulations do not show significant continental-scale surface temperature response to this forcing in the near-future, but annual-mean warming of 0.4-0.9  c occurs over large industrialized regions in one 2100 scenario, supporting recent work by chaisson [2008]. in present-day experiments, gridcells subject to ahf greater than 3.0 w m 2
data.question: What have climate variations influenced?
data.text: climate variations influenced the agricultural productivity, health risk, and conflict level of preindustrial societies
data.question: What did the increased climate variability from ~250 to 600 C.E. coincide with?
data.text: increased climate variability from ~250 to 600 c.e. coincided with the demise of the western roman empire and the turmoil of the migration period
data.question: What do the tree ring - based reconstructions of Central Europe show?
data.text: we present tree ring - based reconstructions of central european summer precipitation and temperature variability over the past 2500 years
data.context: climate variations influenced the agricultural productivity, health risk, and conflict level of preindustrial societies. discrimination between environmental and anthropogenic impacts on past civilizations, however, remains difficult because of the paucity of high-resolution paleoclimatic evidence. we present tree ring - based reconstructions of central european summer precipitation and temperature variability over the past 2500 years. recent warming is unprecedented, but modern hydroclimatic variations may have at times been exceeded in magnitude and duration. wet and warm summers occurred during periods of roman and medieval prosperity. increased climate variability from ~250 to 600 c.e. coincided with the demise of the western roman empire and the turmoil of the migration period. such historical data may provide a basis for counteracting the recent political and fiscal reluctance to mitigate projected climate change.
data.question: What is relationships between climatic conditions and water use in Phoenix?
data.text: model coefficients indicate that changes in temperature, precipitation, and/or drought conditions certainly affect water use, although the magnitude of the water-use response to changes in climate is relatively low in an urban environment in which a sizable majority of residential water use is for outdoor purposes
data.question: Explanations about climatic, social and behavioral?
data.text: we believe there are both climatic and social and behavioral explanations for this finding. in climatic terms, phoenix is an arid city in which annual potential evapotranspiration is more than 6 times the normal annual precipitation. it is possible to sustain an urban region of almost 4 million residents in this desert setting because phoenix is reliant for water, not on local supplies, but on a vast water frontier, including the colorado river basin and the upstream watersheds of the salt and verde rivers
data.question: What is National Science Foundation?
data.text: this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant ses-0345945 decision center for a desert city (dcdc). any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the national science foundation
data.context: results show that there are statistically significant relationships between climatic conditions and water use in phoenix. model coefficients indicate that changes in temperature, precipitation, and/or drought conditions certainly affect water use, although the magnitude of the water-use response to changes in climate is relatively low in an urban environment in which a sizable majority of residential water use is for outdoor purposes. we believe there are both climatic and social and behavioral explanations for this finding. in climatic terms, phoenix is an arid city in which annual potential evapotranspiration is more than 6 times the normal annual precipitation. it is possible to sustain an urban region of almost 4 million residents in this desert setting because phoenix is reliant for water, not on local supplies, but on a vast water frontier, including the colorado river basin and the upstream watersheds of the salt and verde rivers. phoenix is so chronically short of precipitation that even sizable variation in local climatic conditions has a small effect on local water demand patterns because local demand is met by hydroclimate conditions in faraway places (e.g., the upper reaches of the colorado river basin). also relevant are effects of water policy and human behavior. the city had a water conservation program in effect during the study period, and we estimate that it reduced per capita water use by 15%. in addition, there are behavioral barriers that limit the responsiveness of water use to climatic conditions. to reduce outdoor water use during cooler, wetter periods, residents would need to adjust their mechanical irrigation systems or change their watering habits. in a study of the differences in water use between mesic and xeric applications in phoenix, martin (2001) found surprisingly little difference because residents with xeric designs do not adjust their water applications to account for seasonal changes in evapotranspiration. water use is inherently a human-dominated activity, and the critical issue is their perception of the landscape's needs and their ability to respond to that perception by changing their watering practices. climate and water use are linked by a complicated set of behavioral processes, about which we know relatively little, but which are crucial for the design of programs for the more efficient use of urban water in a desert city. acknowledgments. this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant ses-0345945 decision center for a desert city (dcdc). any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the national science foundation.
data.question: What effect is climate change having in the U.S., Meehl, and Tebaldi?
data.text: climate change is shifting the overall temperature distribution higher in the u.s. and increasing the frequency of heat waves meehl and tebaldi, 2004 
data.question: What type of areas are especially vulnerable to the effects of temperature distribution?
data.text: urban areas are especially vulnerable because of the high concentrations of susceptible populations, and the influence of the urban heat island effect
data.question: What are some examples of uncertainties that people face due to climate change?
data.text: uncertainties in climate change projections include not only the change in the absolute temperature but also changes in weather variability. additional uncertainties may arise from changes over time in population demographics, economic well-being, and underlying disease risk, as well as our understanding of the exposure-response relationship for heat-related mortality
data.context: climate change is shifting the overall temperature distribution higher in the u.s. and increasing the frequency of heat waves meehl and tebaldi, 2004 ). urban areas are especially vulnerable because of the high concentrations of susceptible populations, and the influence of the urban heat island effect. thus, preparing for and preventing heat-related health problems is likely to be of growing importance in urban areas. however, forecasting future public health consequences of climate change is a challenging task, due in part to uncertainties in the nature and pace of adaptations that populations and societal infrastructure will undergo in response to long-term climate change. uncertainties in climate change projections include not only the change in the absolute temperature but also changes in weather variability. additional uncertainties may arise from changes over time in population demographics, economic well-being, and underlying disease risk, as well as our understanding of the exposure-response relationship for heat-related mortality
data.question: What is the benefit of this method of discourse analysis adopted for this research?
data.text: the method of discourse analysis adopted for this research benefits from being more inductive
data.question: What is the first step of this discourse analysis?
data.text: the first step lies in laying out the fundamental components of different discourses
data.question: What is the next step after discrete discourses have been identified?
data.text: once discrete discourses have been identified, simple descriptive statistics can be used to analyse where and when they were represented
data.context: it is suggested here that the method of discourse analysis adopted for this research benefits from being more inductive. instead of identifying potential influencing factors in advance, the first step lies in laying out the fundamental components of different discourses. once discrete discourses have been identified, simple descriptive statistics can be used to analyse where and when they were represented. investigation into the factors influencing the construction of the different discourses can then be pursued from a more nuanced and less subjective basis. this method is therefore consistent with macdonald's (2003) approach to 9 media discourse, which embarks with openness as to the discourse patterns that may emerge from the reading of media texts.
data.question: On which the regression was based on?
data.text: the regression was based on a linear relationship between height and age when, in fact, height-age relationships tend to be logistic
data.question: Which model was suitable?
data.text: yet, for the ages under consideration, a linear model obviously was suitable (fig. 2a). second, to accommodate the well-known fact that tree growth is dependent on temperature, the approach incorporated into the regression coefficient a variable (degreedays 5 degc) reflecting the temperature regime of the planting site
data.question: How the tree growth can be determined?
data.text: tree growth is determined by many environmental factors (e.g. soils, competition, insects) in addition to climate, the regressions were forced through the observed data points to arrive at an expected height at a target age of 13 and finally, because coefficients of variation remained relatively constant in time (table 3), provenance variation about an adjusted site mean could be reintroduced at the target-age
data.context: our approach for adjusting tree heights to a common age is probably as realistic biologically as is statistically possible with only 30 observations. consider, first, that the regression was based on a linear relationship between height and age when, in fact, height-age relationships tend to be logistic. yet, for the ages under consideration, a linear model obviously was suitable (fig. 2a). second, to accommodate the well-known fact that tree growth is dependent on temperature, the approach incorporated into the regression coefficient a variable (degreedays 5 degc) reflecting the temperature regime of the planting site. third, because tree growth is determined by many environmental factors (e.g. soils, competition, insects) in addition to climate, the regressions were forced through the observed data points to arrive at an expected height at a target age of 13 and finally, because coefficients of variation remained relatively constant in time (table 3), provenance variation about an adjusted site mean could be reintroduced at the target-age. nevertheless, the approach doubtlessly introduces errors that most likely accrue from two primary factors. first, growth rates of trees are determined as much by the genotypes that are planted on the site as by environmental conditions of the site itself (monserud rehfeldt, 1990). in the data we assembled, a sub-sample of only 35 of the populations was grown at each site, and this factor undoubtedly biased site means. second, tree growth is influenced by cultural conditions (e.g. density, spacing, vegetation control), biotic effects (e.g. insects, diseases), and abiotic factors (e.g. droughts, unseasonable frosts) for which our approach could not account. because of these sources of error and because of the general problem foresters historically have faced in developing site-specific relationships between height and age, perhaps it should be satisfying for errors of estimate to be only 10% (table 4). still, errors can be quite large (e.g. footner lake, table 4), but by limiting the discrepancy between the target-age and the age from which adjustments were made, they should be acceptable. our approach therefore seems to be a reasonable means of assembling heterogeneous data from disparate series of provenance tests. for such data, genetic responses to climate could not be assessed without adjusting height for age.
data.question: How are the environmental conditions associated with tropical cyclogenesis identified?
data.text: to identify environmental conditions associated with tropical cyclogenesis and track within each cluster, we first considered sst anomalies composited around cluster membership (fig. 9
data.question: What does the anomalies represent?
data.text: anomalies represent local deviation from the monthly mean, and the month is chosen based on the genesis date of each cluster member. the anomalies are standardized to accommodate the greater variance in the early and late parts of the hurricane season and the regional variance differences between the pacific and atlantic
data.question: How is the standard mean of the anomaly calculated?
data.text: this was done by dividing the monthly anomaly at each position by the standard deviation of sst for that month at that position (based on 1950-2007
data.context: to identify environmental conditions associated with tropical cyclogenesis and track within each cluster, we first considered sst anomalies composited around cluster membership (fig. 9). anomalies represent local deviation from the monthly mean, and the month is chosen based on the genesis date of each cluster member. the anomalies are standardized to accommodate the greater variance in the early and late parts of the hurricane season and the regional variance differences between the pacific and atlantic. this was done by dividing the monthly anomaly at each position by the standard deviation of sst for that month at that position (based on 1950-2007).
data.question: What does Figure 2 display?
data.text: figure 2 displays the climatological distribution of quikscat wind stress for june-august
data.question: In which month does the seasonal transition from northeast to southwest?
data.text: the seasonal transition from the northeast to southwest monsoon occurs in may
data.context: this section describes the evolution of the oceanatmosphere system in the summer scs. we begin with an examination of surface winds, which are key to understanding both sst and ocean circulation. 3.1. prevailing winds and land orographic effect on average, the seasonal transition from the northeast to southwest monsoon occurs in may lau et al. 1998]. in summer, the southwesterly winds prevail in scs. figure 2 displays the climatological distribution of quikscat wind stress for june-august. at about 10  n off vietnam, the southwesterly wind stress reaches a maximum  0.18 nm 2) that is twice as strong as in the ambient. while this wind jet is present in several other ocean wind
data.question: In which age group and sex, bullying is prevalent ?
data.text: the results showed that bullying perpetration is highly stable from t1 to t2, suggesting this behavior is common and persistent among youth. moreover, it tends to be higher among males and youth 13-15 years of age, typically students in middle school, as reported in previous studies (eron, huesmann, brice, fischer, mermelstein, 1983; karriker-jaffe, foshee, ennett, suchindran, 2008; koops de castro, 2004
data.question: What are the predictors of bullying behavior ?
data.text: ndividual perceptions of self-esteem, school climate, and approving normative beliefs were relevant predictors of subsequent bullying behavior. in addition to the estimated independent effects, a significant interaction effect was found between school climate and self-esteem
data.question: What was the behavior of youth with high self-esteem in schools ?
data.text: youth with high self-esteem participating in schools considered supportive apparently found that context reaffirming and thus were less likely to resort to bullying behavior. however, within schools perceived as nonsupportive, higher self-esteem was associated with higher bullying
data.context: the results showed that bullying perpetration is highly stable from t1 to t2, suggesting this behavior is common and persistent among youth. moreover, it tends to be higher among males and youth 13-15 years of age, typically students in middle school, as reported in previous studies (eron, huesmann, brice, fischer, mermelstein, 1983; karriker-jaffe, foshee, ennett, suchindran, 2008; koops de castro, 2004). as expected, individual perceptions of self-esteem, school climate, and approving normative beliefs were relevant predictors of subsequent bullying behavior. in addition to the estimated independent effects, a significant interaction effect was found between school climate and self-esteem. that effect suggested that the way in which self-esteem is expressed varies by social context. youth with high self-esteem participating in schools considered supportive apparently found that context reaffirming and thus were less likely to resort to bullying behavior. however, within schools perceived as nonsupportive, higher self-esteem was associated with higher bullying. approving normative beliefs and school climate significantly predicted t2 bullying as expected. specifically, youth who reported approving beliefs about bullying behavior and who held more negative perceptions of
data.question: What should be included in national policy guides regarding managing climate change?
data.text: national policy should develop and validate simple guides, such as table 3, and disseminate them using established communication principles. it should also include making more nuanced, household-specific information widely available--for example, by supporting the provision of credible, convenient, and lowcost household and travel energy audits and carbon calculators
data.question: Which levels of government should participate in these initiatives?
data.text: federal, state, and local governments and various nongovernmental organizations can carry out these initiatives
data.question: Are there any events in recent history that demonstrate the challenges of achieving energy-saving?
data.text: research conducted during the last u.s. energy crisis in the late 1970s demonstrates that the difficulty and inconvenience of identifying and taking effective energy-saving steps was a major barrier to action, even when utility companies offered to rebate households a majority of the cost of major home retrofits
data.context: what policy can do without a concerted national policy effort, individual and household behavior can only go so far. part of national policy for limiting climate change should make accurate, credible, and actionable information widely available on what households can do to reduce their energy use and carbon footprints. national policy should develop and validate simple guides, such as table 3, and disseminate them using established communication principles. it should also include making more nuanced, household-specific information widely available--for example, by supporting the provision of credible, convenient, and lowcost household and travel energy audits and carbon calculators. improvements to existing appliance certification and labeling programs (to compare products in different classes or find the most efficient energy star appliances more easily) and new rating and labeling systems for the energy cost of ownership of new homes are also desirable initiatives. federal, state, and local governments and various nongovernmental organizations can carry out these initiatives. as with current appliance labeling programs, federal agencies can develop and validate information about manufactured equipment and provide for its distribution by businesses to consumers. local governments and consumer organizations might be best for providing assurance about the quality of private energy auditors and the vendors and installers of household energy technology. but information alone--even much more useful information than is currently available--is not enough to induce behavior change, especially for many efficiency increases that involve significant initial monetary costs. there are major barriers to change, in addition to knowledge, which must be overcome, even among people who know which actions to take and would like to take them.23 for example, many equipment choices are shaped by intermediaries, such as builders and repair personnel who offer equipment options to households when their attention is focused on other things, such as kitchen design or the need to replace a water heater quickly. actions like upgrading home insulation and furnace and air-conditioning efficiency can yield major savings, but many households lack the funds needed to make the investments. renters cannot install such upgrades, and buyers of existing or newly built homes usually cannot choose the efficiency of heating and airconditioning equipment and insulation. even when people can afford major efficiency improvements, many may be inhibited by the logistical difficulties of arranging and scheduling the multiple contractors that may be needed to install space-conditioning equipment, insulation, and storm windows and doors. even lowor no-cost actions compete for people's limited time and attention. many believe that higher energy costs will cause households to economize by investing in energy efficiency. but households historically have not responded to price signals by making anywhere near all the energy-efficiency investments that are economically efficient. a major reason is the cost of information in time and effort required to estimate the actual returns on investment and to find the best products, vendors, lenders, and installers. a large organization can save enough money through energy actions to recoup the cost of hiring someone to find the most cost-effective savings opportunities, contract for the needed work, and ensure its quality. few households are in this position, and people know it intuitively. research conducted during the last u.s. energy crisis in the late 1970s demonstrates that the difficulty and inconvenience of identifying and taking effective energy-saving steps was a major barrier to action, even when utility companies offered to rebate households a majority of the cost of major home retrofits.24
data.question: What is the effect of the marginalization of livestock within mainstream climate policy discourse?
data.text: the marginalization of livestock within mainstream climate policy discourse might reasonably be expected to contribute to low levels of media attention and awareness among publics
data.question: What did the multinational survey undertaken in 2014 conclude?
data.text: a multinational survey undertaken in 2014 concluded that 'many consumers, especially those who eat meat more regularly than others, do not think that meat consumption is environmentally detrimental
data.question: How does the understanding of the livestock sector's contribution to climate change relate to voluntary consumer action to reduce emissions?
data.text: understanding of the livestock sector's contribution to climate change is a precondition for voluntary consumer action to reduce emissions from meat and dairy products
data.context: the marginalization of livestock within mainstream climate policy discourse might reasonably be expected to contribute to low levels of media attention and awareness among publics. where they exist, national polls and assessments do indicate low levels of coverage66 and public understanding of the links between meat and dairy consumption and climate change.67 a multinational survey undertaken in 2014 concluded that 'many consumers, especially those who eat meat more regularly than others, do not think that meat consumption is environmentally detrimental'.68 this awareness gap inhibits a demand-side response. understanding of the livestock sector's contribution to climate change is a precondition for voluntary consumer action to reduce emissions from meat and dairy products. it is also necessary to ensure public acceptance of efforts to shift consumer behaviour, whether through public policy or campaigns.
data.question: What changes are among primary tree responses to environmental changes?
data.text: changes in growth and reproduction are among the primary responses of trees to environmental variation
data.question: What is difficult to investigate according to Brubaker?
data.text: the population-level response of trees to climate is difficult to investigate directly, owing to the long lifespan of individuals and often extended juvenile (nonreproductive) periods (brubaker, 1986
data.question: What do we expect to see happening in parallel woth climate change?
data.text: in parallel with long-term changes in climate, we expect to see long-term trends in tree growth and reproduction, with consequent impacts on population size and the species' distribution
data.context: changes in growth and reproduction are among the primary responses of trees to environmental variation. in parallel with long-term changes in climate, we expect to see long-term trends in tree growth and reproduction, with consequent impacts on population size and the species' distribution. however, the population-level response of trees to climate is difficult to investigate directly, owing to the long lifespan of individuals and often extended juvenile (nonreproductive) periods (brubaker, 1986). as individuals of many tree species may survive for many hundreds of years, assessment of geographical range changes is complicated by their longevity. adult trees may persist at the edges of the species' distribution long after the climate has become unsuitable for their successful reproduction (lamarche, 1973; pigott huntley, 1978). although there are now numerous reports of ongoing climate-related range changes of woody species (see e.g. wardle coleman, 1992; meshinev et al ., 2000; sturm et al ., 2001; kullman, 2002, 2003; lloyd fastie, 2003; pen~uelas boada, 2003; sanz-elorza et al ., 2003), these are heavily biased toward the leading edge of the species' distribution. as recruitment is generally more sensitive to climate than mortality, an increase in reproduction at the expanding range edge of a tree species' distribution occurs more rapidly than an increase in the mortality of established trees at the retreating edge (lamarche, 1973;
data.question: What did Wanta and Hu discover about news stories in 1994?
data.text: wanta and hu 1994 found a rapid decline of effects of news stories on public opinion
data.question: What did MacKuen conclude in 1981?
data.text: mackuen 1981 found that the effect of news coverage of energy issues on public opinion decayed in a month
data.question: What is the general assumption in this analysis?
data.text: we assume independent effects between quarters
data.context: price of oil 3.1 data analysis in this analysis, we assume independent effects between quarters, i.e., that the previous quarter ' s independent variables do not influence public opinion in the following quarter. this assumption is in line with the media-effects literature, where the time decay effect of media messages on public opinion are well established, and virtually never exceed a month, much less a quarter. in a comprehensive review of media effects decay, wanta and hu 1994 found a rapid decline of effects of news stories on public opinion. for example, the effect of national television news on public opinion disappeared in as few as 8 weeks. integrating a large number of studies of media effects on a variety of attitudes, mccombs 2004 46) concludes that press coverage has the greatest effect during the first week and then decays logarithmically. examining environmental and energy issues, mackuen 1981 found that the effect of news coverage of energy issues on public opinion decayed in a month. watt et
data.question: What does the increase in productivity of the water body cause?
data.text: the increase in productivity of the water body causes a rise in the concentration of heterotrophic bacteria
data.question: Which conditions are most prominent in the bottom of the water body?
data.text: in the bottom of the water body there are predominantly anaerobic conditions
data.question: What do the reducing conditions associated with anaerobiosis lead to?
data.text: with the anaerobiosis, reducing conditions prevail, leading to compounds and elements being present in a reduced state
data.context: anaerobic conditions in the bottom of the water body the increase in productivity of the water body causes a rise in the concentration of heterotrophic bacteria, which feed on the organic matter from algae and other dead microorganisms, consuming dissolved oxygen from the liquid medium. in the bottom of the water body there are predominantly anaerobic conditions, owing to the sedimentation of organic matter and the small penetration of oxygen, together with the absence of photosynthesis (absence impact of wastewater discharges to water bodies 137 of light). with the anaerobiosis, reducing conditions prevail, leading to compounds and elements being present in a reduced state:
data.question: Can models be directly copied from developed countries?
data.text: institutional development takes time and the models cannot be directly copied from developed countries
data.question: Is institutional development a continuous process?
data.text: it must be recognised that institutional development is a continuous process, building on the experience of prior organisations
data.question: What are the main points to be emphasised for developing countries?
data.text: the main points to be emphasised for developing countries are (johnstone and horan, 1996): (a) consider the process of institutional development and technical improvementstobelongterm;(b)buildonpastexperiences;(c)separateregulatory and operational duties and responsibilities; (d) develop regulatory systems and procedures needed to enforce standards; (e) ensure that sufficient legal powers are in force; (f) recognise the costs of regulation and legal enforcement. 162 to wastewater characteristics, treatment and disposal
data.context: an efficient implementation of standards must go in parallel with the development of the institutional framework necessary for monitoring, controlling, regulating and enforcing the standards. this topic is well discussed by johnstone and horan (1996) and some of the points are summarised below. institutional development takes time and the models cannot be directly copied from developed countries. even though lessons should be learned from other countries that have already passed the basic steps of institutional development, an adaptation is also required in order to accommodate the countries' specific economic, cultural and social conditions. however, experience from other countries can help in structuring the organisations, especially when they are introduced for the first time. it must be recognised that institutional development is a continuous process, building on the experience of prior organisations. another important point is the need to separate the duties and responsibilities of regulating quality with those of achieving standards. this is especially true when private sector operators have to comply with standards. the main points to be emphasised for developing countries are (johnstone and horan, 1996): (a) consider the process of institutional development and technical improvementstobelongterm;(b)buildonpastexperiences;(c)separateregulatory and operational duties and responsibilities; (d) develop regulatory systems and procedures needed to enforce standards; (e) ensure that sufficient legal powers are in force; (f) recognise the costs of regulation and legal enforcement. 162 to wastewater characteristics, treatment and disposal
data.question: What industries are affected by floods?
data.text: garments, textiles, leather, cold storage, timber and furniture, and food and agro-based industries
data.question: How do industries affected by floods prepare?
data.text: usually discontinue their operations during fl oods as fl oodwater often disrupts physical, mechanical and electronic functioning
data.question: What is the result of flooding to major industries?
data.text: as a result, garment industries, for example, often fail to meet shipment or delivery deadlines in both the local and international markets. the total loss to large-scale
data.context: most small-, mediumand large-scale industries and factories are affected by fl oods. this includes garments, textiles, leather, cold storage, timber and furniture, and food and agro-based industries. most of the affected industries and factories usually discontinue their operations during fl oods as fl oodwater often disrupts physical, mechanical and electronic functioning. as a result, garment industries, for example, often fail to meet shipment or delivery deadlines in both the local and international markets. the total loss to large-scale industry in dhaka in the 1998 fl ood was equivalent to more than us$ 30 million, while the loss to small and medium size industry in the city was us$ 36 million.(17)
data.question: What does the upper-tropospheric tropical regions also warm?
data.text: the upper-tropospheric tropical region consistently warms more than the upper-tropospheric polar regions
data.question: What models mapped the spread in the temperature difference responses?
data.text: as noted by rind (2008) for the cmip3 models, the spread in the temperature difference responses is larger than the spread of the global mean surface temperature responses
data.question: What causes an increase in the multi-model mean in the SH and a decrease in the NH?
data.text: the lower-level temperature difference increases in the multi-model mean in the sh and decreases in the nh
data.context: the equator-to-pole temperature differences used here are defined in section 2.2 and consist of seasonal-mean values of the equator-to-pole temperature difference at a lower-tropospheric level (850 hpa) and at an upper-tropospheric level (250 hpa). figure 3 shows the range of 10 model responses of each temperature difference for both summer and winter. also shown for reference is the range of responses of the global mean surface temperature t s). as noted by rind (2008) for the cmip3 models, the spread in the temperature difference responses is larger than the spread of the global mean surface temperature responses. the upper-level temperature difference increases in all models in both hemispheres and in both of the seasons considered. that is, the upper-tropospheric tropical region consistently warms more than the upper-tropospheric polar regions. the lower-level temperature difference increases in the multi-model mean in the sh and decreases in the nh. therefore there is an asymmetry between the responses of the low-level temperature differences in the nh and sh, as can be seen in the cross section of figure 1. however, the only lower-level temperature difference with a complete agreement on the sign of responses between the models is [?] t 850nh
data.question: What does the author suggest to mitigate the problem of individual reference?
data.text: given that individual student perceptions of climate are expected to vary, it is worth exploring how individuals may differentially rate student body perceptions and experiences based upon the characteristics of their peer group affiliations
data.question: What is the challenge of dependence on combined averages to measure school climate?
data.text: dependence on combined averages to measure school climate also presents a challenge to understanding how the breakdown of individual features of climate uniquely contribute, interact, or combine to influence student outcomes
data.question: What is the importance of thinking about the wording of items used to measure climate?
data.text: a second caveat is that greater appreciation should be given to the wording of items used to measure climate. aggregating items that are worded to reflect individual perceptions of the school as a whole (e.g., b i feel that i fit in at this school versus aggregating items that are worded to reflect how the student body perceives the school as a whole (e.g., b students feel that they fit in at this school lead to differential points of reference, which can ultimately lead to differential findings
data.context: the multidimensional measurement and characterization of school climate must be strengthened. this is readily apparent when reviewing how climate is actually measured throughout the literature. one important issue is the common practice of using a single scale, or the combined averages from different scales, to measure school climate. relying solely upon one scale to capture school climate in general, or a single domain of climate, limits responses to the constraints of the scale, which often contains only a few items and overlooks other relevant features of school climate. dependence on combined averages to measure school climate also presents a challenge to understanding how the breakdown of individual features of climate uniquely contribute, interact, or combine to influence student outcomes. often, scant justification is provided to support the methods used to create school climate composites, and how selections of these measurement methods are preferable to other conceptualizations and measurements. a second caveat is that greater appreciation should be given to the wording of items used to measure climate. aggregating items that are worded to reflect individual perceptions of the school as a whole (e.g., b i feel that i fit in at this school versus aggregating items that are worded to reflect how the student body perceives the school as a whole (e.g., b students feel that they fit in at this school lead to differential points of reference, which can ultimately lead to differential findings. another rarely addressed topic is that of individual reference; to wit, students ' ratings of school climate may widely vary from student to student. are students relying upon their classmates, peer groups, or closest friends as their frame of reference? do these frames of reference remain consistent across multiple waves of data collection? given that individual student perceptions of climate are expected to vary, it is worth exploring how individuals may differentially rate student body perceptions and experiences based upon the characteristics of their peer group affiliations.
data.question: What is the estimate of carbon neutral thermal energy that should be provisioned by the middle of the century?
data.text: 10-30 tw
data.question: What can it cause by delaying the launch of new low-carbon technologies?
data.text: risks even greater environmental harm in the second half of this century and beyond
data.question: How long will it take to achieve substantial reductions in temperatures compared to the coal-based system?
data.text: will take the better part of a century
data.context: here, we have examined energy system transitions on the scale of the existing electricity sector, which generates ~ 1 twe primarily from approximately 3 tw thermal energy from fossil fuels 3 ]. it has been estimated, however, that 10-30 tw of carbon-neutral thermal energy must be provisioned by mid-century to meet global demand on a trajectory that stabilizes the climate with continued economic growth 1 ]. it appears that there is no quick fix; energy system transitions are intrinsically slow 13 ]. during a transition, energy is used both to create new infrastructure and to satisfy other energy demands, resulting in additional emissions. these emissions have a long legacy due to the long lifetime of co2 in the atmosphere and the thermal inertia of the oceans. despite the lengthy time lags involved, delaying rollouts of low-carbon-emission energy technologies risks even greater environmental harm in the second half of this century and beyond. this underscores the urgency in developing realistic plans for the rapid deployment of the lowest-ghg-emission electricity generation technologies. technologies that offer only modest reductions in emissions, such as natural gas and--if the highest estimates from the life-cycle analyses (som table s1 available at stacks.iop.org/ erl/7/014019/mmedia are correct--carbon capture storage, cannot yield substantial temperature reductions this century. achieving substantial reductions in temperatures relative to the coal-based system will take the better part of a century,
data.question: What percent of the earth is covered by Tropical forest ?
data.text: tropical forests cover less than 10% of the world's land area, but are very important providers of ecosystem services at various scales
data.question: what are the various documented details about  the Goods produced by Tropical forests ?
data.text: tropical forests produce diverse goods for local people, as documented in asia (kusters and belcher 2004), africa (sunderland and ndoye 2004) and latin america (alexiades and shanley 2005
data.question: State the importance of wood  in Tropical countries ?
data.text: wood is currently an important economic forest commodity for many tropical countries. fuel wood is also important, especially in developing countries where it meets about 15% of energy demand--and more than 90% in 13 countries (shvidenko et al. 2005
data.context: tropical forests cover less than 10% of the world's land area, but are very important providers of ecosystem services at various scales, from local (e.g., non-timber forest products, pollination and scenic beauty) to regional (e.g., hydrological services) and global (e.g., carbon sequestration). the biological richness of tropical forests (50-90% of earth's terrestrial species) contributes to the supply of many ecosystem services (wri et al. 1992). tropical forests produce diverse goods for local people, as documented in asia (kusters and belcher 2004), africa (sunderland and ndoye 2004) and latin america (alexiades and shanley 2005). wood is currently an important economic forest commodity for many tropical countries. fuel wood is also important, especially in developing countries where it meets about 15% of energy demand--and more than 90% in 13 countries (shvidenko et al. 2005). non-wood forest products are extremely diverse, from fodder for animals and food for people to medicines and cosmetics. the livelihoods of 250 million to one billion people depend on these products (byron and arnold 1999). edible
data.question: On which individuals focus?
data.text: individuals orient their focus on healthy conditions
data.question: Which concept is likely to garner considerable support for public health measures for prevention?
data.text: health by default
data.question: What enhances if an environment that maximizes health?
data.text: liberty
data.context: once individuals orient their focus on healthy conditions as the default, a number of potential environmental changes can be considered seriously. if school is to be an environment in which children are exposed to only healthy conditions, the presence of soft drinks, vending machines, a la carte items in cafeterias, and physical education programs take on new meaning. the "health by default" concept is likely to garner considerable support for public health measures for prevention. in selling this concept, it will be important to appeal to the cultural values of the target population. in the u.s. these will include individualism and resistance to being told what to do, particularly by government. we argue that an environment that creates ill health in children usurps an individual's liberty and interferes with the right of children to be healthy and happy. an environment that maximizes health enhances liberty.
data.question: Why manufactured risks occurs?
data.text: risk society (1992), has drawn attention to the nature of 'manufactured risks' in contemporary society - potentially far more catastrophic and far-reaching than 'natural hazards' - but offers insufficient empirical detail on the precise role of the media in communicating environmental risks
data.question: How did the article start off?
data.text: the article starts off by providing an overview of previous studies in this area, highlighting their principal strengths and weaknesses, and finally concludes by addressing new developments and possibilities for future research. issue attention cycles there is a relatively long history of research into the role of the media in reporting environmental issues, but it wasn't until the 1990s that we began to see the emergence of a range of studies focusing specifically upon climate change
data.question: What did the past study suggest?
data.text: past studies suggest that reporting was often affected by journalists' lack of knowledge of the issues (e.g. wilson 2000a). coverage has been variable; whilst some accounts have hampered accurate representation of climate science other reporting has been more mixed (boykoff and roberts 2007
data.context: risk society (1992), has drawn attention to the nature of 'manufactured risks' in contemporary society - potentially far more catastrophic and far-reaching than 'natural hazards' - but offers insufficient empirical detail on the precise role of the media in communicating environmental risks. however, until relatively recently, mainstream sociology has tended to overlook climate change as an issue worthy of attention (see lever-tracy 2008). accordingly, this article seeks to demonstrate how climate change connects with key debates within sociology concerning knowledge, risk and power and why it is of central importance and relevance for the discipline. in particular, it examines the merits of three major analytical approaches: political economy, structuralism and culturalism. given the wide ranging multi-disciplinary nature of the area, this review is inevitably limited in scope and draws especially upon us and uk contexts - where much of the research has been conducted. throughout the piece, i make reference to different strands of the literature that readers may follow according to their particular interests. the article starts off by providing an overview of previous studies in this area, highlighting their principal strengths and weaknesses, and finally concludes by addressing new developments and possibilities for future research. issue attention cycles there is a relatively long history of research into the role of the media in reporting environmental issues, but it wasn't until the 1990s that we began to see the emergence of a range of studies focusing specifically upon climate change. recent years have witnessed increasing interest among scholars from a range of disciplines in investigating how the media are reporting anthropogenic climate change. some are snapshot studies (e.g. antilla 2005; hulme 2007), while others attempt to track the development of issues over a considerable length of time (e.g. boykoff 2007b; carvalho and burgess 2005). since 2000, the associated risks have been treated with greater urgency as the topic has risen up the political agenda, and journalists have increasingly made links between dramatic weather events (such as floods and heat waves) and global climate change (carvalho and burgess 2005). past studies suggest that reporting was often affected by journalists' lack of knowledge of the issues (e.g. wilson 2000a). coverage has been variable; whilst some accounts have hampered accurate representation of climate science other reporting has been more mixed (boykoff and roberts 2007). studies suggest that in general the media have tended to provide relatively little discussion of adaptation to climate change (which may be anticipatory or reactive) and instead concentrated upon less radical mitigation measures in the reduction of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere (boykoff and roberts 2007). many of the studies mentioned above usefully drawn attention to the ebbs and flows in reporting climate change over time. they have helped
data.question: According to a possible ranking of vulnerabilities to help assess priorities,  describe catastrophic vulnerabilities.
data.text: catastrophic vulnerabilities (key management objectives would not be achievable and there is little or no expectation of them being realized under current or alternative strategies
data.question: How would you describe insignificant vulnerabilities?
data.text: insignificant vulnerabilities (key management objectives are achievable and no immediate action is required
data.question: With moderate vulnerabilities and no strategy changes, would key management objectives be at risk?
data.text: moderate vulnerabilities (key management objectives would be placed at considerable risk without a change in strategies and/or tactics
data.context: as part of the initial vulnerability and stakeholder workshop process, a prioritization of vulnerabilities would be required. a possible ranking of vulnerabilities to assess priorities could include: (1) catastrophic vulnerabilities (key management objectives would not be achievable and there is little or no expectation of them being realized under current or alternative strategies); (2) major vulnerabilities (key management objectives would not be achievable with existing strategies but alternative strategies offer potential pathways to realize these goals); (3) moderate vulnerabilities (key management objectives would be placed at considerable risk without a change in strategies and/or tactics); (4) minor vulnerabilities (key management objectives are achievable with existing strategies and only minor change in tactics is required); and (5) insignificant vulnerabilities (key management objectives are achievable and no immediate action is required).
data.question: Was there a variable in change between those dates?
data.text: 1961 1990
data.question: What are precipitation fields?
data.text: precipitation fields
data.question: How does Climate Research play a key role?
data.text: climate research
data.context: precipitation the precipitation verification data were obtained from the climate research unit of the university of east anglia. the observed climatological data covering the 1961 1990 period comes from up to 19,800 stations, which are mapped onto a 0.5deg grid over land treating elevation dependency explicitly. grid points are filled in using thin plate splines in regions where rain gauges are missing or sparse (new et al. 1999). the monthly anomalies, from a less dense network of stations, are estimated locally and then combined with the high-resolution climatology to obtain the total precipitation fields. in regions of sparse data coverage of anomalies, most notably over parts of central africa and the middle east, angular distance weighting was used to interpolate the values spatially (new et al, 2000). the final gridded data 7 set contains no missing data. the high resolution data were up-scaled to the t42 grid for comparison with the agcm precipitation fields.
data.question: Which groups must concur on an adaptive management approach?
data.text: the office of management and budget (omb), the office of science and technology policy (ostp), the office of information and regulatory affairs (oira), the council on environmental quality (ceq), and the council of economics advisors (cea) are groups that may have an interest in these changes and would need to concur on new approaches
data.question: What factos does the discount rate affect?
data.text: the discount rate used in the economic analysis of projects affects the valuation of benefits and costs that will be accrued in the future
data.question: Why is an adaptive management approach needed?
data.text: federal guidelines have generally favored plans based on economic optimization for expected conditions rather than plans that are robust for a range of uncertain conditions
data.context: planning analysis involves economic as well as technical evaluation of potential projects. the discount rate used in the economic analysis of projects affects the valuation of benefits and costs that will be accrued in the future. as such, the choice of discount rate can affect decisionmaking. as discussed in chapter 4, the development of robust plans and adaptive management are means of coping with increased uncertainty about the future. federal guidelines have generally favored plans based on economic optimization for expected conditions rather than plans that are robust for a range of uncertain conditions. an adaptive management approach may require changes in how projects are funded, since funding would need to be provided for monitoring conditions and updating plans over time. changes in the discount rate and guidelines for making economic decisions would require broad agreement among the entities of the executive branch. the office of management and budget (omb), the office of science and technology policy (ostp), the office of information and regulatory affairs (oira), the council on environmental quality (ceq), and the council of economics advisors (cea) are groups that may have an interest in these changes and would need to concur on new approaches. an adaptive management approach that requires funding for monitoring conditions and making changes over time may be viewed favorably by omb if it means less investment in the initial years of a project.
data.question: When compared to tropics, how much spatial area does the grid cells have in polar regions on a regular latitude-longitude grid?
data.text: on a regular latitude-longitude grid, the grid cells in the polar regions have a far smaller spatial area than in the tropics
data.question: What estimate for the variability should be used to estimate ToE?
data.text: one option is to use the historical observations, but this is complicated by the trends in temperature, and short time-series for many regions. we later test the sensitivity to other options which include using each gcm ' s own estimate of internal variability, or using a multi-model median estimate
data.context: different gcms show a very wide range of interannnual variability [e.g., randall et al. 2007]. these differences in variability characteristics across gcms raises a key issue: what estimate for the variability should be used to estimate toe? one option is to use the historical observations, but this is complicated by the trends in temperature, and short time-series for many regions. we later test the sensitivity to other options which include using each gcm ' s own estimate of internal variability, or using a multi-model median estimate. 3.1. sensitivity to spatial grid used before considering the differences in variability, another question arises concerning the spatial grid for analysis. on a regular latitude-longitude grid, the grid cells in the polar regions have a far smaller spatial area than in the tropics. this could distort the analysis as smaller areas are likely to have larger variability solely due to their size and would artificially inflate toe at the poles, relative to tropical regions for instance. to examine this sensitivity we compare the interannual variability for the high northern latitudes using the native gcm data remapped on two different grids before analysis (figure 1). the median standard deviation of annual mean temperature on an icosahedral grid, with roughly equal areas in each grid cell (top left), and a regular latitudelongitude 5deg  5deg grid (bottom left) show very similar patterns, but there are two key points to note. first, there is a local minimum in sat variability in the vicinity of the north pole, which is perhaps not widely appreciated [e.g., christensen et al. 2007; mahlstein et al. 2011]. secondly, there are small differences between the results for the different grids, with the icosahedral grid showing generally smaller variability in some high latitude regions as would be expected if the grid size is having an effect. however, the differences are small and for the toe analysis we focus on the regular latitude-longitude 5deg  5deg grid. figure s2 in text s1 in the auxiliary material shows maps of toe on the icosahedral grid for comparison.1
data.question: How many climate models are there?
data.text: there are over twenty well-known climate models, all with readily available output
data.question: How many climate studies use the model developed by the Hadley Centre?
data.text: in their survey of economic assessments of climate change impacts, burke et al. (2011) found that 50 percent of the studies used the model developed by the hadley centre to calculate economic climate change impacts across a variety of sectors, of which 17 percent used only the hadley model
data.question: How many health impact studies rely on the Hadley model alone?
data.text: among health impact studies, 38 percent relied on the hadley model alone
data.context: there are over twenty well-known climate models, all with readily available output.14this section discusses how the choice of gcm affects estimates of climate impacts. in their survey of economic assessments of climate change impacts, burke et al. (2011) found that 50 percent of the studies used the model developed by the hadley centre to calculate economic climate change impacts across a variety of sectors, of which 17 percent used only the hadley model. among health impact studies, 38 percent relied on the hadley model alone. however, there is no evidence that the hadley model or, in fact, any other model should be the preferred climate model to use. this is supported by the fact that for some climate indicators, such as precipitation, the predictions for certain regions vary dramatically across models. in the extreme, some models predict wetter summers for west africa and others predict drier summers--all using the same sres scenarios. one way to address the challenge of having to choose one gcm is to use model or ensemble averages (e.g., tebaldi and knutti 2007). this decreases the reliance on a single model. however, we believe it is important to either report the impacts for a number of climate models separately or to average them and indicate the variability in impacts across models. this is not difficult to do, and, given the low costs of data storage on personal computers and the access to free bandwidth for most academics, there is no reason not to. alternatively, if predicted changes within a study area vary more across than within climate models, then presenting a set of uniform scenarios might be informative and also highlight the sensitivity of the results. we next turn to a set of issues that arise when one tries to match the time and spatial scale of the gcm to that of the econometric model for simulation purposes.
data.question: What happened to predation during the Phanerozoic?
data.text: durophagous predation increased several times during the phanerozoic
data.question: What adaptations in gastropods can be seen?
data.text: in gastropods, adaptations of the shell to increasing predation pressure included increased spination, ribbing, and other defensive sculpture (vermeij 1977, 1987
data.question: How were Paleozoic fauna restricted?
data.text: the paleozoic fauna, rich in brachiopods, bryozoans, echinoderms, and other epifaunal, suspension-feeding taxa (as well as ectocochleate cephalopods), was progressively restricted to more offshore, deeper-water habitats as the modern fauna spread from onshore to offshore environments
data.context: durophagous predation increased several times during the phanerozoic, but the fossil record suggests that some of the most significant changes occurred as part of the mesozoic marine revolution (aberhan et al. 2006, vermeij 1977). modern, skeletonbreaking predators, particularly teleosts, neoselachians, and decapod crustaceans, began to diversify in nearshore environments during the jurassic (thies reif 1985; vermeij 1987). radiations of durophagous taxa are thought to have driven the evolution of architectural defenses in a variety of marine invertebrates during the mesozoic and cenozoic. in gastropods, adaptations of the shell to increasing predation pressure included increased spination, ribbing, and other defensive sculpture (vermeij 1977, 1987). the coleoid cephalopods--those forms, including octopus, squid, and cuttlefish, that lack an external shell--radiated beginning in the mesozoic, at least partially in response to the evolution of skeleton-crushing fish and marine reptiles. the slow-moving, externally shelled (ectocochleate) cephalopods--ammonoids and nautiloids--came under increasing predation pressure in nearshore environments. the faster-moving, fish-like coleoids radiated into a variety of niches in nearshore environments that had been vacated by extinction and ecological displacement of the ectocochleates (aronson 1991; packard 1972). octopods are predators of skeletonized invertebrates in shallow benthic communities at temperate and tropical latitudes, and they can be significant consumers in some situations. a direct consequence of increased predation, evident at multiple spatio-temporal scales, is a decline in the occurrence of dense populations of prey. dense populations of epifaunal, suspension-feeding ophiuroids are excluded from most modern coastal environments by predatory fish and crabs (aronson 1989). the primary predators of epifaunal ophiuroids living in dense populations are slow-moving invertebrates, including asteroids and polychaetes, and the low levels of predation the ophiuroids experience are reflected in low frequencies of sublethal arm damage (regenerating arms). on a macroecological-macroevolutionary scale, the diversification of durophagous predators during the mesozoic caused a global decline in the occurrence of these dense, low-predation ophiuroid populations in shallow-water habitats (aronson 1992). the mesozoic-cenozoic escalation in predation resulted from radiations in nearshore environments of taxa comprising the "modern evolutionary fauna" (sensu sepkoski 1991). the modern fauna, which is rich in mollusks, active bioturbators, and durophagous predators, replaced the "paleozoic evolutionary fauna" in coastal environments. the paleozoic fauna, rich in brachiopods, bryozoans, echinoderms, and other epifaunal, suspension-feeding taxa (as well as ectocochleate cephalopods), was progressively restricted to more offshore, deeper-water habitats as the modern fauna spread from onshore to offshore environments. durophagous predators originated onshore, largely eliminating epifaunal, suspension-feeding populations from soft-substratum habitats jablonski bottjer 1991, sepkoski 1991). from the jurassic onward, epifaunal suspension feeders on soft substrata were replaced by infaunal and more mobile epifaunal suspension feeders, giving onshore soft-substratum communities their modern, bivalve-dominated ecology (aberhan et al. 2006, bottjer
data.question: Is there a wide amount of systematic knowledge about the climate variability of the Holocene period?
data.text: although the climate of the holocene (11,500 cal yr b.p. to the present) has sustained the growth and development of modern society, there is surprisingly little systematic knowledge about climate variability during this period
data.question: What have many paleoclimate studies over the last decade highlighted about the last glacial interval?
data.text: many paleoclimate studies over the last decade have highlighted the extreme climate fluctuations of the last glacial interval
data.question: What does the examination of globally distributed high-resolution climate proxy records demonstrate?
data.text: we present in this paper a selection of globally distributed high-resolution climate proxy records. examination of these records demonstrates that, although generally weaker in amplitude than the dramatic shifts of the last glacial cycle, holocene climate variations have been larger and more
data.context: although the climate of the holocene (11,500 cal yr b.p. to the present) has sustained the growth and development of modern society, there is surprisingly little systematic knowledge about climate variability during this period. many paleoclimate studies over the last decade have highlighted the extreme climate fluctuations of the last glacial interval. if we are to understand the background of natural variability underlying anthropogenic climate change, however, it is important to concentrate on climate of the more recent past. to seek a more comprehensive view of natural climate variability during the present holocene interglacial. we present in this paper a selection of globally distributed high-resolution climate proxy records. examination of these records demonstrates that, although generally weaker in amplitude than the dramatic shifts of the last glacial cycle, holocene climate variations have been larger and more
data.question: What is the Joint Committee responsible for?
data.text: the joint committee will be responsible for scientific planning, coordination, guidance, and oversight of the ipy
data.question: How many nations have formally declared the intent to participate by forming national committees?
data.text: nearly 20 nations have formally declared the intent to participate by forming national committees
data.question: When did the International Council for Science (ICSU) form an International Planning Group?
data.text: the international council for science (icsu) formed an international planning group in may 2003
data.context: the international council for science (icsu) formed an international planning group in may 2003 to establish the characteristics defining the polar year and produce an initial outline science plan as well as recommendations for an implementation strategy, including outreach and education elements. the planning group completed its work in september 2004 and was succeeded by an ipy joint committee (jc) and an international programme office established by the icsu and the world meteorological organization (wmo). the joint committee will be responsible for scientific planning, coordination, guidance, and oversight of the ipy. in conjunction with the wmo, the international programme office will support the ipy jc. nearly 20 nations have formally declared the intent to participate by forming national committees, and several more have contributed as points of contact.
data.question: What is the concept of the model?
data.text: the model is based on the concept of a general equilibrium approach
data.question: What does the model determines?
data.text: therefore the model determines market clearing prices by equalizing economic demand and supply
data.question: What are the gases included by this model?
data.text: the model includes three of these gases: carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch4) and nitrous dioxide (n2o) which are considered the most influential greenhouse gases within the short term modeling period of 50 years
data.context: the model is based on the concept of a general equilibrium approach. therefore the model determines market clearing prices by equalizing economic demand and supply. it is assumed that all factor markets have perfect competitive behavior, and that demand and supply is cleared by market prices (market clearance condition). the output of domestically produced goods of sector j is an input to the armington production sector. armington goods are produced by the armington sector and are used for energy, consumption, investment and public production. furthermore, profit maximization implies that no activity earns a positive profit (zero profit condition). consumption maximization implies that excess demand is always zero, i.e., means income must be balanced with expenditures (income balance condition). the sectoral disaggregation contains five energy sectors: coal, natural gas, crude oil, petroleum and coal products and electricity. the dynamic international competitive energy market for oil, coal and gas is modeled by global and regional supply and demand, while the oil market is characterized by imperfect competition with the intention that opec regions can use their market power to influence market prices. energy related greenhouse emissions occur as a result of economic and energy consumption and production activities. currently, a number of gases have been identified as having a positive effect on radiative forcing and are included in the kyoto protocol as ''basket'' greenhouse gases. the model includes three of these gases: carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch4) and nitrous dioxide (n2o) which are considered the most influential greenhouse gases within the short term modeling period of 50 years. excluding the other gases is not believed to have substantial impacts on the analysis' insights. because of the short term application of the climate submodel, we consider only the first atmospheric lifetime of greenhouse gases, assuming that the remaining emissions have an infinite life time. the atmospheric concentrations induced by energy related and non-energy related emissions of co2, ch4 and n2o have impacts on radiative forcing, influencing potential and actual surface temperature and sea level. market and non-market damages determine regional and overall welfare development.
data.question: What do we overlap with the delta approach?
data.text: with the delta approach, we overlay lowto mediumresolution anomalies onto high-resolution 1961-90 baseline climate data to generate estimates for individual years or periods
data.question: What does this approach allow us to take advantage of?
data.text: this approach allows us to take the full advantage of the interpolated and lapse-rate-adjusted baseline data to produce thousands of high-resolution derivative surfaces for historical time periods
data.question: the precipitation variables showed considerable variation in which?
data.text: however, precipitation variables showed considerable variation in statistical precision among individual years
data.context: with the delta approach, we overlay lowto mediumresolution anomalies onto high-resolution 1961-90 baseline climate data to generate estimates for individual years or periods. this approach allows us to take the full advantage of the interpolated and lapse-rate-adjusted baseline data to produce thousands of high-resolution derivative surfaces for historical time periods (as well as for future periods) without massively increasing the size of the database. because their original baseline data (at a resolution of 0.5 8 are replaced with the spatially more accurate interpolated and lapse-rate-adjusted baseline data, the amount of error associated with their baseline data is expected to be reduced, which is relatively large and more difficult to model than with anomalies (mbogga et al. 2009; mitchell and jones 2005). although we did not carry out an explicit comparison in this paper, mbogga et al. (2009) have previously shown that this improves the statistical accuracy of historical data. assessment of annual variables for individual years in this paper as well as the previous study (mbogga et al. 2009) showed that prediction accuracy is high for temperatures, except for the first third of the twentieth century. however, precipitation variables showed considerable variation in statistical precision among individual years. predictions for longer periods (5, 10, and 30 years) are expected to be more reliable than those for individual years where stochasticity in weather conditions plays a much greater role. to implement the delta approach, we chose the 1961- 90 normals as a common reference period because this time interval corresponds to the period with the most extensive weather station network (fig. 5). the 1961-90 normals also represent a reference period prior to the recent pronounced anthropogenic warming signal. more recent climate normal grids are therefore not necessarily superior to serve as reference period for the delta method, just because they are more recent. note that alternate normal periods can easily be generated at high accuracy for all climate variables with this approach by overlaying a medium-resolution anomaly surfaces representing other normal periods.
data.question: What does this formula allows for?
data.text: this formula allows for computing the material entropy production due to fluid motions bypassing all the complex fluid dynamical behavior of the system
data.question: Where should one look for an in-depth discussion of different ways for computing the material entropy production and of the effect of coarse graining the thermodynamic fields?
data.text: for an in-depth discussion of different ways for computing the material entropy production and of the effect of coarse graining the thermodynamic fields
data.context: t (68) usually, this is referred to as indirect formula for computing the material entropy production goody 2000), because it provides an alternative way for estimating the material entropy production of the geophysical fluid by only looking at the correlation between radiative heating rates and temperature fields). therefore, this formula allows for computing the material entropy production due to fluid motions bypassing all the complex fluid dynamical behavior of the system. see lucarini and pascale (2014) for an in-depth discussion of different ways for computing the material entropy production and of the effect of coarse graining the thermodynamic fields. starting from eq. (68) it is possible to derive for earth conditions an approximate formula for the long term average of the material entropy production, and to disentangle the contributions due to horizontal and vertical processes lucarini et al. 2011) as . smat [?] . sv mat+ . sh mat, where . sh mat= - 
data.question: What is a hillscope?
data.text: thus at a hillslope cell the atmospherically induced recharge is dissipated laterally to the neighbors, and at a river cell, lateral groundwater convergence from the neighbors is discharged into the rivers
data.question: What is a feasible grid size?
data.text: n continental-scale models, a feasible grid cell size is normally too coarse for resolving hillslopes and river valleys; a cell size on the order of 10 m is often considered adequate for such purposes zhang and montgomery 1994]. in this work, we use a grid size of 1.25 km, although fully aware of the limitations introduced to the results
data.context: thus at a hillslope cell the atmospherically induced recharge is dissipated laterally to the neighbors, and at a river cell, lateral groundwater convergence from the neighbors is discharged into the rivers. in continental-scale models, a feasible grid cell size is normally too coarse for resolving hillslopes and river valleys; a cell size on the order of 10 m is often considered adequate for such purposes zhang and montgomery 1994]. in this work, we use a grid size of 1.25 km, although fully aware of the limitations introduced to the results; we will simulate the equilibrium water table at this resolution for the time being and refine it in the future when it becomes feasible. figure 6. (a) groundwater store, sg, and associated fluxes, cross-section view; (b) plan view of lateral groundwater flow to neighboring cells, qn (n 1 8); (c) replacing the square grid cells with octagons to calculate the width (w) of flow cross section between two cells; and (d) calculating flow transmissivity (t) assuming exponential decay in hydraulic conductivity (k).
data.question: What does Figure 6 depict?
data.text: figure 6 depicts an example of such prediction overlaid to the pdf of possible actual futures of figure 4
data.question: What do we mean by "bottleneck steps"?
data.text: it is thus important to understand and assess the contributions of different sources of uncertainty in a climate change prediction, so that "bottleneck steps" in the prediction process can be identified and improved
data.question: What did we =define in Section 3?
data.text: in section 3 we defined the objective of a climate change prediction as the production of a pdf of possible future climates as defined by the statistics of a given variable of interest
data.context: in section 3 we defined the objective of a climate change prediction as the production of a pdf of possible future climates as defined by the statistics of a given variable of interest. figure 6 depicts an example of such prediction overlaid to the pdf of possible actual futures of figure 4. the width of the pdf is a measure of uncertainty and this is generally different between the prediction and the "actual" future climate pdf. this difference measures the added uncertainty to the "intrinsic" one (see section 3) introduced by the imperfect knowledge of relevant processes and the deficiences in the models, data and methods used to produce the prediction (jones, 2000; visser et al., 2000). if we had a perfect climate system model, a perfect observing system and a perfect knowledge of the statistical behavior of the external forcings, this added uncertainty would be eliminated and the uncertainty in the prediction would essentially reflect the stochastic and non-linear nature of the climate change problem. it is thus important to understand and assess the contributions of different sources of uncertainty in a climate change prediction, so that "bottleneck steps" in the prediction process can be identified and improved. 250 filippo giorgi
data.question: Define best agreement in the predictions model?
data.text: the best agreement in the predictions of clouds, radiation, and precipitation is achieved by the ipcc mean model, which is constructed by averaging each field during each month across all models in the ensemble
data.question: What is the behaviour of  GTD2007?
data.text: gtd2007 note the same behavior across a much wider range of physical variables
data.question: Describe the mechanism used to get the result?
data.text: one possibility is that models do a better job simulating large-scale, slowly varying features than those nearer the grid scale at monthly time resolution. high scores for the mean model fields might then arise because the mean model fields are smoother in space and time than any of the individual models, leaving the large-scale agreement but removing the small-scale errors. the second possibility is that the systematic errors associated with individual models are, to some extent, distributed around no error, so that averaging
data.context: as we noted in the last section, the best agreement in the predictions of clouds, radiation, and precipitation is achieved by the ipcc mean model, which is constructed by averaging each field during each month across all models in the ensemble. gtd2007 note the same behavior across a much wider range of physical variables. there are at least two mechanisms that might lead to this result. one possibility is that models do a better job simulating large-scale, slowly varying features than those nearer the grid scale at monthly time resolution. high scores for the mean model fields might then arise because the mean model fields are smoother in space and time than any of the individual models, leaving the large-scale agreement but removing the small-scale errors. the second possibility is that the systematic errors associated with individual models are, to some extent, distributed around no error, so that averaging figure 2. summary taylor diagrams showing errors in top-of-atmosphere radiative fluxes, top-of-atmosphere cloud forcing, cloud fraction, and surface precipitation rate computed over the mean annual cycle. following taylor [2001], the radial distance from the origin denotes the standard deviation of each data set (the primary observations are shown as a dashed radius) and the angular distance from the horizontal denotes the correlation coefficient r between each data set and the primary observations. the centered rms error is indicated by the distance to the intersection of the dashed line and the horizontal axis with units and magnitude indicated by the radial axis. here the size of the symbol (diameter for circles, edge length for squares) indicates the mean bias and a yellow outline indicates a negative bias. each diagram includes both the amip (blue) and 20th century (gray) runs; where a model has submitted both runs the points are joined by a line. the ipcc mean model, computed separately for the amip and 20th century ensembles, is shown as a square, while the ecmwf models are shown in pink (era40) and yellow (c32r1). the superparameterized cam is shown in green, and all three versions of the ncar cam are denoted with asterisks. metrics for each quantity are computed with respect to the primary data set listed in table 1; differences between the primary and secondary observational estimates are shown in red.
data.question: What is sea ice?
data.text: a major control on the interactions between marine and terrestrial ecosystems
data.question: What is the undersurface of sea ice?
data.text: a growth site for the algae and invertebrates that sustain the marine food web
data.question: What would changes in sea-ice conditions affect?
data.text: the length of the fishing season, the safety of using sea-ice as a hunting platform, and potentially alter the fish species available for harvesting
data.context: sea ice is a major control on the interactions between marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and the undersurface of sea ice is a growth site for the algae and invertebrates that sustain the marine food web.(58)some studies suggest that a decrease in sea ice could threaten arctic cod stocks because their distribution and diet are highly dependent on ice conditions.(59)however, a decrease in sea ice could, in the short term, increase the number and extent of highly productive polynyas (areas of recurrent open water enclosed by sea ice),(13)enabling some species to benefit from an increase in food supply. fishing practices would also be impacted by changes in the extent, thickness and predictability of sea-ice cover. changes in sea-ice conditions would affect the length of the fishing season, the safety of using sea-ice as a hunting platform, and potentially alter the fish species available for harvesting. marine mammals, including polar bears, seals and whales, which contribute significantly to the subsistence diets and incomes of many northerners, are known to be sensitive to climate change. for example, polar bears are directly and indirectly affected by changes in temperature and sea-ice conditions, with populations located near the southern limit of their species distribution being especially sensitive.(60)for example, observed declines in bear condition and births in the western hudson bay region have been associated with recent warming trends, which have caused earlier ice break-up, thereby restricting access to the seals that are a critical source of nutrition for the bears.(60, 61)seals, in turn, may be affected by reduced predation,(58)as well as by habitat degradation or loss.(59)
data.question: The strength of snow albedo feedback can be quantified as the product of how many terms?
data.text: the strength of snow albedo feedback can be quantified as the product of two terms, one representing the dependence of planetary albedo on surface albedo p/ s) and another representing the change in surface albedo induced by a unit temperature change
data.question: The discussed model relates full-sky planetary albedo to how many quantities?
data.text: this model relates full-sky planetary albedo to known quantities, including clear-sky planetary albedo, cloud cover, cloud optical thickness, and surface albedo
data.question: What can be derived as a result of the advantage of this particular model?
data.text: the advantage of this model is that we can use it to derive an expression for a true partial derivative of planetary albedo with respect to surface albedo
data.context: the strength of snow albedo feedback can be quantified as the product of two terms, one representing the dependence of planetary albedo on surface albedo p/ s) and another representing the change in surface albedo induced by a unit temperature change s/  ts). the p/ s term is the variation in planetary albedo with surface albedo in nh extratropical land areas, with other factors such as water vapor concentration and cloud fixed. however, cloud properties can change substantially over the course of transient climate change experiments, and these can in turn have a large effect on incoming solar radiation. this makes it particularly difficult to quantify the strength of this aspect of snow albedo feedback. to isolate the surface contribution from that of cloud, we develop an analytical model governing planetary albedo. this model relates full-sky planetary albedo to known quantities, including clear-sky planetary albedo, cloud cover, cloud optical thickness, and surface albedo. it captures both interannual and geographical variability in planetary albedo in simulated and satellite-based datasets extremely well. the advantage of this model is that we can use it to derive an expression for a true partial derivative of planetary albedo with respect to surface albedo. it includes a contribution from the cloudless atmosphere, represented by an effective clear-sky atmospheric transmissivity as
data.question: What does each category in ref. 12 represent?
data.text: each category represents a semiindependent ''consensus estimate'' of a metric for measuring ''concern'' about the climate system
data.question: What does the color gradient in each category represent?
data.text: specifically, we view the increasing scale and intensity of impacts represented by the color gradient in each category as an estimate not only of physical climate impacts, but also of societal perceptions of danger from those impacts
data.question: Will increasing temperatures exceed or fail to meet thresholds?
data.text: interpreted in this way, increasing temperatures will progressively exceed thresholds in each metric
data.context: in ref. 12, we presented a cumulative density function (cdf) of the threshold for dai, based on the ipcc reasons for concern about climate change (ref. 3 and fig. 1). each category represents a semiindependent ''consensus estimate'' of a metric for measuring ''concern'' about the climate system. we view these metrics as indicators of the level of global mean temperature change associated with dai in the categories presented. specifically, we view the increasing scale and intensity of impacts represented by the color gradient in each category as an estimate not only of physical climate impacts, but also of societal perceptions of danger from those impacts. interpreted in this way, increasing temperatures will progressively exceed thresholds in each metric and cumulatively contribute to the likelihood that the climate change occurring will be perceived to be dangerous by humanity as a whole. in other words, as warming intensifies, more and more stakeholders will perceive that dai thresholds are being exceeded (based on their own value-driven assessments of what constitutes dai in various metrics), cumulatively adding to the global perception of danger from climate change.
data.question: What are some examples of major crop diseases related to the amount of rainfall in Africa?
data.text: maize streak virus and cassava mosaic virus in areas where rainfall increases, and sorghum head smut (a fungal disease) in areas where rainfall decreases
data.question: What may increase outbreaks of epizootic diseases such as Rift Valley Fever and African Horse Sickness?
data.text: increased frequency of floods may increase outbreaks of epizootic diseases such as rift valley fever and african horse sickness
data.question: What general principle crosscuts these projections of impacts on crops and livestock species?
data.text: the increased understanding of the importance of extreme events
data.context: there is evidence of increased risk of crop pests and diseases of crops under climate change, although knowledge of likely impacts in the tropics and on smallholder systems is much less developed. modeling responses of both pathogens and (where relevant) insect vectors to rising temperatures and changing precipitation is complex, but there is cause for concern over possible spread of major diseases that attack smallholder crops in africa: e.g., maize streak virus and cassava mosaic virus in areas where rainfall increases, and sorghum head smut (a fungal disease) in areas where rainfall decreases (which would be compounded by farmers switching adaptively to sorghum in areas where maize becomes marginal) (75). for diseases of livestock, modeling studies suggest overall slight declines in habitat suitable for tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis and east coast fever, although effects will be localized. increased frequency of floods may increase outbreaks of epizootic diseases such as rift valley fever and african horse sickness (76). a general principle that crosscuts these projections of impacts on crops and livestock species is the increased understanding of the importance of extreme events (67). increases in frequency of extreme events may go beyond the impacts of mean climate change in lowering long-term yields by damaging crops at particular developmental stages, making the timing of agricultural operations more difficult, and reducing incentives to cultivate (77). increased frequency of heat waves and heavy precipitation events is regarded as very likely by ipcc working group 1 (78) and increased drought regarded as likely. burke et al. (79) demonstrate the risk of widespread drought in many regions including africa. focus on extreme events in much of the literature on developing countries implicitly recognizes that their impacts are likely to be felt more strongly than the impacts of changing means in the medium-term (to 2025), a point made explicitly by corbera et al. (80).
data.question: What does the pH at any one place in the ocean largely depend on?
data.text: the processes that operate to modify this ratio
data.question: What does the organic carbon pump do?
data.text: removes dic from the surface ocean through photosynthesis and adds dic to the deep sea as a consequence of the oxidation of sinking organic carbon particulates
data.question: What will changes in the strength of the organic pump change?
data.text: the ph gradient from surface to deep
data.context: b values for g. sacculifer (planktic), c. mundulus and c. wuellerstorfi (benthic) give a ph difference of 0.254 ph units. (2) ph is determined by the ratio of total alkalinity (alk) to total dissolved inorganic carbon (dic) and the depth profile of ph at any one place in the ocean depends largely on the processes that operate to modify this ratio. most significant is the operation of the organic carbon pump, which removes dic from the surface ocean through photosynthesis and adds dic to the deep sea as a consequence of the oxidation of sinking organic carbon particulates. changes in the strength of the organic pump will thus change the ph gradient from surface to deep (the main limitation of the approach (1) above). like ph, the carbon isotopic composition of dic is also largely controlled by the operation of the organic carbon pump. this is because biological utilisation of isotopically ''light'' carbon in the surface ocean drives the
data.question: What were the human chronologies insignificant compared to?
data.text: geological time
data.question: How have we changed the chemistry of our atmosphere/
data.text: causing sea level to rise, ice to melt, and climate to change
data.question: What do humans now weild?
data.text: a geological force
data.context: scholars writing on the current climate-change crisis are indeed saying something significantly different from what environmental historians have said so far. in unwittingly destroying the artificial but time-honored distinction between natural and human histories, climate scientists posit that the human being has become something much larger than the simple biological agent that he or she always has been. humans now wield a geological force. as oreskes puts it: "to deny that global warming is real is precisely to deny that humans have become geological agents, changing the most basic physical processes of the earth." for centuries, [she continues,] scientists thought that earth processes were so large and powerful that nothing we could do could change them. this was a basic tenet of geological science: that human chronologies were insignificant compared with the vastness of geological time; that human activities were insignificant compared with the force of geological processes. and once they were. but no more. there are now so many of us cutting down so many trees and burning so many billions of tons of fossil fuels that we have indeed become geological agents. we have changed the chemistry of our atmosphere, causing sea level to rise, ice to melt, and climate to change. there is no reason to think otherwise.25
data.question: What are 2 things with regards to climate change  that are not typically considered when buying appliances?
data.text: furthermore, neither energy consumption (including embodied energy and potential future energy savings) nor environmental impact are typically considered when buying appliances (for which initial cost is the primary motivating factor; brooke lyndhurst, 2007
data.context: there is low salience of climate change, energy and sustainability in individuals' day--to--day choices and actions (e.g., macnaghten and jacobs, 1997, whitmarsh, 2009a). growing awareness of environmental problems at an or general level tends not to be translated into personally-- relevant cognitions or motivating attitudes (lorenzoni et al., 2007). furthermore, neither energy consumption (including embodied energy and potential future energy savings) nor environmental impact are typically considered when buying appliances (for which initial cost is the primary motivating factor; brooke lyndhurst, 2007). understanding about environmental issues tends to be limited to or vague concepts; for example while most people are aware of the main causes of climate change, understanding about the relative contribution of different activities to causing climate change is lower and there is confusion associated with emissions--related terminology (e.g., carbon dioxide, carbon, carbon equivalent) and difficulty visualizing quantification of emissions (anable et al., 2006, dft, 2007).
data.question: What happen since the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro?
data.text: the science of climate change has come a long way since the earth summit in rio de janeiro
data.question: Which year was the  adoption of the Kyoto Protocol?
data.text: 1997
data.question: What is the four building blocks of the Bali Action Plan?
data.text: climate change adaptation
data.context: the science of climate change has come a long way since the earth summit in rio de janeiro (1992) and the adoption of the kyoto protocol (1997). we now recognise that some degree of climate change is inevitable, and even the best case scenario is going to have major impacts on global weather patterns and, consequently, people's lives--especially the poor. mitigation of climate change is no longer enough. we have to adapt to the impending changes as they arise; or, better still, anticipate those changes by having adaptation strategies in place. climate change adaptation is one of the four building blocks of the bali action plan. forests are a vital part of any global effort to address climate change. to date, however, forests have been mostly considered in the context of mitigation through reforestation, afforestation, and more recently, avoided deforestation and forest degradation. yet with over a billion people dependent (in one way or another) on forests for their livelihood, forests can also play a crucial role in adaptation. forests provide many millions of people with raw materials in the form of food, fuel and materials for shelter. and they provide ecosystem services--such as water regulation, erosion control and carbon storage--to billions more. we need forests to continue providing these raw materials and ecosystem services into the future, and in the face of climate change.
data.question: What do model-based analyses of climate-driven change show?
data.text: the continued persistence of climate relicts is at odds with the pessimistic predictions of many model-based analyses of climate-driven range changes
data.question: How does rising CO2 concentrations affect plant growth?
data.text: rising co2 concentrations can lead to elevated plant growth through a combination of increased photosynthesis and water-use efficiency (poorter navas 2003
data.question: How are higher latitudes predicted to rise in temperature by 2100?
data.text: annual mean temperature possibly rising up to 8*c by 2100
data.context: the continued persistence of climate relicts is at odds with the pessimistic predictions of many model-based analyses of climate-driven range changes. the apparent contradiction arises, among other factors, because current species distribution models lack the spatial and biological detail required to predict the persistence of populations at the local level, where fine-scale variation in landscape characteristics can buffer climates against change or provide alternative potential habitats (thuiller et al. 2008, willis baghwat 2009). the favorable effect of landscape heterogeneity on the historical long-term viability of relict populations highlights that future global warming does not necessarily doom climate relict populations to extinction. however, such populations are undeniably in a precarious situation and, hence, particularly susceptible to threats from warming and other drivers of global change. the current trend of rapidly rising global temperatures is now well established, and co2 emissions continue to rise faster than in the most pessimistic intergovernmental panel on climate change scenario (le quere et al. 2009). high latitudes are predicted to experience the strongest warming, with annual mean temperature possibly rising up to 8*c by 2100, although many temperate regions may expect increments between 2 and 5*c (ipcc 2007). hence, future broad-scale warming may relatively soon exceed small-scale temperature differentials in all but the most heterogeneous landscapes. although changes in precipitation are less easy to predict than those of temperature, it appears likely that precipitation will increase in many high-latitude areas but decrease in many warm temperate and subtropical regions (ipcc 2007). the global trends of temperature and precipitation and the greater spatial variability in precipitation trends also imply that not all regions that will become warmer will inevitably become dryer and more inhospitable. instead, some regions could maintain benign conditions and possibly even extend their role as centers of climate relict diversity in a world of rapid change (crimmins et al. 2011). the uncertainties about direct effects of future climate change are further exacerbated by diverse associated processes. for instance, rising co2 concentrations can lead to elevated plant growth through a combination of increased photosynthesis and water-use efficiency (poorter navas 2003). this implies that al relict plants threatened by increasing drought stress could benefit from rising co2 levels, whereas bl relicts could be compromised by resulting changes
data.question: How is the sensitivity of surface climate change investigated for the Northern Hemisphere?
data.text: sensitivity of surface climate change to land types is investigated for the northern hemisphere by subtracting the reanalysis from the observed surface temperature (omr
data.question: What was the basis of that approach?
data.text: the basis of this approach is that while reanalysis represents the large-scale climate changes due to greenhouse gases and atmospheric circulation, it is less sensitive to regional surface processes associated with land types
data.question: What does OMR trends reveal?
data.text: omr trends reveal 1) warming over barren areas is larger than most other land types. 2) urban areas show large warming second only to barren areas. 3) croplands with agricultural activity show a larger warming than natural broadleaf forests. the overall assessment indicates surface warming is larger for areas that are barren, anthropogenically developed, or covered with needle-leaf forests
data.context: sensitivity of surface climate change to land types is investigated for the northern hemisphere by subtracting the reanalysis from the observed surface temperature (omr). the basis of this approach is that while reanalysis represents the large-scale climate changes due to greenhouse gases and atmospheric circulation, it is less sensitive to regional surface processes associated with land types. omr trends derived from two independent reanalyses (era40 and nnr) and two observations (cru and ghcn) show similar dependence upon land types, suggesting the attribution of omrs to different land types is robust. omr trends reveal 1) warming over barren areas is larger than most other land types. 2) urban areas show large warming second only to barren areas. 3) croplands with agricultural activity show a larger warming than natural broadleaf forests. the overall assessment indicates surface warming is larger for areas that are barren, anthropogenically developed, or covered with needle-leaf forests. citation: lim, y.-k., m. cai, e.kalnay, and l. zhou (2005), observational evidence of sensitivity of surface climate changes to land types and urbanization, geophys. res. lett. 32 l22712, doi:10.1029/2005gl024267.
data.question: How can we reduce carbon emissions?
data.text: these may include the adoption of selected new technologies and best-management practices, as well as changes in travel patterns that reduce exposure to risk
data.question: What can we regarding the personal mobility?
data.text: for personal mobility, promising examples include encouraging information-sector employees to work from home (telework); changing land-use patterns to shorten commutes and increase accessibility to goods and services; and providing financial incentives to use transport modes that are inherently safer and more reliable, even in the face of a changing climate
data.question: Do we need to use financial incentives to reduce carbon emissions?
data.text: providing financial incentives to use transport modes that are inherently safer and more reliable, even in the face of a changing climate
data.context: fortunately, many initiatives that are consistent with sustainability principles not only facilitate the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, but also increase resilience to potential climate change impacts. these may include the adoption of selected new technologies and best-management practices, as well as changes in travel patterns that reduce exposure to risk. for personal mobility, promising examples include encouraging information-sector employees to work from home (telework); changing land-use patterns to shorten commutes and increase accessibility to goods and services; and providing financial incentives to use transport modes that are inherently safer and more reliable, even in the face of a changing climate.
data.question: What does the author infer from the Cook's distance value?
data.text: the cook ' s distances cook, 1979 show that the regression results re fl ect the broad population rather than a small number of in fl uential outliers
data.question: What does the author infer from the variannce inflation factor (vif) value?
data.text: the variance in fl ation factor velleman and welsch, 1981 ranges between 1.0 and 2.7, indicating that the problem of multicollinearity among meteorological variables is generally unimportant
data.question: What is the R2 (coefficient of determination) value?
data.text: the coef fi cient of determination r2) quanti fi es the fraction of variance of pm2.5 that can be accounted for with the mlr model kutner et al., 2004 
data.context: the cook ' s distances cook, 1979 show that the regression results re fl ect the broad population rather than a small number of in fl uential outliers. the variance in fl ation factor velleman and welsch, 1981 ranges between 1.0 and 2.7, indicating that the problem of multicollinearity among meteorological variables is generally unimportant. the coef fi cient of determination r2) quanti fi es the fraction of variance of pm2.5 that can be accounted for with the mlr model kutner et al., 2004 ). in addition to full-year regressions, we also conducted regressions for seasonal subsets of data (djf, mam, jja, son). these generally showed results similar to the full-year correlations but we will highlight some prominent differences. 3. correlations of pm2.5 and components with meteorological variables 3.1. total pm2.5
data.question: what first author did?
data.text: with approval from educational personnel, the first author met with students to explain the purpose of the study and invite them to participate
data.question: who can participate in study ?
data.text: during a second meeting, students who returned a signed parental consent form (approximately 50%) had the opportunity to participate in the study
data.context: with approval from educational personnel, the first author met with students to explain the purpose of the study and invite them to participate. letters to parents and parental consent forms were sent home with all fifthand sixth-grade students at seven elementary and five middle schools from two neighboring school corporations. during a second meeting, students who returned a signed parental consent form (approximately 50%) had the opportunity to participate in the study. the first author explained the confidential and voluntary nature of the study, gave instructions, and read all items aloud while the students followed along completing their own questionnaire. all questionnaires were completed between february and april when all students had attended their physical education class for at least 12 weeks.
data.question: What did the twitter Revolutions of 2009 reignite?
data.text: the twitter revolutions of 2009 reignited the question of whether new social media have any real effect on contentious politics
data.question: What has the article argued?
data.text: this article has argued that critically examining the relation between transforming conditions for communication and collective action demands recognition of the ways in which social technologies infuse specific protest ecologies
data.question: What has the article further suggested?
data.text: the article has further suggested that although different protest ecologies are expected to be different, three dimensions facilitate analysis and comparison over different cases: the way twitter streams represent networking mechanisms crosscutting the protest ecology; how they embed and are embedded in various kinds of gatekeeping processes; and how they reflect changing dynamics in the ecology over time
data.context: the twitter revolutions of 2009 reignited the question of whether new social media have any real effect on contentious politics. this article has argued that critically examining the relation between transforming conditions for communication and collective action demands recognition of the ways in which social technologies infuse specific protest ecologies. the immediate question from this perspective is neither what twitter does to contentious politics nor what specific actors do with twitter. rather, this approach looks to the roles of social technologies as organizing mechanisms (as organizational agents), and the traces of these technologies that may reflect larger organizational schemes in a protest ecology (as windows). the article has further suggested that although different protest ecologies are expected to be different, three dimensions facilitate analysis and comparison over different cases: the way twitter streams represent networking mechanisms crosscutting the protest ecology; how they embed and are embedded in various kinds of gatekeeping processes; and how they reflect changing dynamics in the ecology over time. illustrating this argument in the context of two different protests we saw indications of some of the specifics of the respective ecologies and their dynamics, as well as differing roles played by the twittering within these ecologies. among other things, it appears that while the #thewave was successfully harnessed as an amplifying mobilization and publicity resource by a set of central actors, #cop15 indicated how more self-organizing streams may seek resources in different ways from organization-centered ones. as a note of caution, it should be stressed that this approach yields indications rather than full descriptions, and that the illustrative analyses presented here are limited. future studies would need to delve even deeper into these hashtags, including reintroducing users into the analysis to ascertain who does what and helps create what kinds of resources. in many episodes of contentious action, moreover, a twitter hashtag is just one of many digital media mechanisms operating to bring publics together to act in concerted or less organized ways: future research would also need to reembed these hashtags more fully into the complex episodes of digitally networked contentious politics in which they appear. an overarching point of these analyses is that viewing twitter as a communication update service may not distinguish the most intriguing
data.question: What is climate change?
data.text: respondents were asked to convey their perceptions of likelihood of the world reaching a global agreement on climate change mitigation on a scale of 0 and 100 percent. more than eighty percent of the respondents believed that the chance was below fifty percent while half of them believed that the chance is less than thirty percent, i.e
data.context: respondents were asked to convey their perceptions of likelihood of the world reaching a global agreement on climate change mitigation on a scale of 0 and 100 percent. more than eighty percent of the respondents believed that the chance was below fifty percent while half of them believed that the chance is less than thirty percent, i.e. unlikely. a high and significant positive correlation (r=0.50, p <0.001) was observed between respondents' best guess of policy effectiveness with global co-operation and their best guess of likelihood of achieving a global cooperation. this implies that, on average, respondents who stated higher best guess of policy
data.question: What is a method of aggregating costs and benefits over a long time horizon by summing net costs (or benefits)?
data.text: discounting is a method of aggregating costs and benefits over a long time horizon by summing net costs (or benefits), which have been multiplied by a discount rate typically greater than zero, across future time periods. if the discount rate equals zero, then each time period is valued equally (case of infinite patience
data.context: our research indicates first, that abrupt changes are possible when certain thresholds are exceeded, and second, that including abrupt changes in integrated assessment models - common policy analysis tools which couple models of the climate system and the economic system and balance costs and benefits of climate change mitigation to determine an "optimal" policy - like the one discussed above, could significantly alter the definition of what is "optimal." policy is also highly important in inducing more research into the development of "clean" (non-co2-emitting) technologies. there is overwhelming evidence that energy policies are of critical importance to the development of alternative technologies and are more effective in spurring technological advancement than subsidies. "optimal" policies will rely not only on climate sensitivity and the degree of climate damages, but on the discount rate. discounting is a method of aggregating costs and benefits over a long time horizon by summing net costs (or benefits), which have been multiplied by a discount rate typically greater than zero, across future time periods. if the discount rate equals zero, then each time period is valued equally (case of infinite patience). if the discount rate is infinite, then only the current period is valued (case of extreme myopia). the discount rate chosen in assessment models is critical, since abatement costs will be typically incurred in the relatively near term, but the brunt of climate damages will be realized primarily in the long term. thus, if the future is sufficiently discounted, present abatement costs, by construction, will outweigh discounted future climate damages. in our recent research, we have found that incorporating large, non-linear damages (like "surprises") into our modeling considerably increases present "optimal" carbon taxes, using conventional discounting with pure rate of time preferences (a factor proportional to the discount rate) of 1.5% to 3.0%. in the figure below, also from mastrandrea schneider (2004), we show how the probability of dai changes with the pure rate of time preference. as shown for the median threshold case, the probability of dai rises from near zero with a 0% prtp (implying high carbon taxes) to 30% with a 3% prtp (implying low carbon taxes). article 2 of the unfccc mandates, "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" our more recent research has focused on the implications of the uncertainty in the climate system for choosing stabilization levels, and probabilistic analysis of the relationship between concentration stabilization levels, temperature increase, and "dangerous" climate impacts.
data.question: Is there an increased risk for the neverlands?
data.text: the climate change projections for the netherlands project an increased risk of coastal and river flooding
data.question: What campaign was launched in 2003?
data.text: the netherlands live with water
data.question: What does the campaign emphasize?
data.text: the need to store water along both the main national and regional water management systems during times of excessive rainfall or high levels of river discharge
data.context: the climate change projections for the netherlands project an increased risk of coastal and river flooding. it was acknowledged in 2000 that the current water management system based on technological solutions is inadequate, and that more space needs to be made for water. it was also recognised that citizens do not sufficiently recognise and acknowledge the potential problems associated with water. consequently, in 2003 "the netherlands live with water" public awareness campaign was launched. the campaign emphasises the need to store water along both the main national and regional water management systems during times of excessive rainfall or high levels of river discharge. it also promotes the actions that individuals can do themselves to help reduce the threat of flooding. the campaign has used the netherlands favourite weather presenter as their spokesman. independent reviewers have assessed the campaign as being an effective awareness raising approach.
data.question: What will happen if the service height decreases and the vertically averaged density decreases ?
data.text: if the vertically averaged density decreases, the surface height increases, and vice versa
data.question: What does the absence of a part of the Boussinesq fluid's service height equation show ?
data.text: this steric effect is absent from the boussinesq fluid's surface height equation, thus necessitating a diagnostic correction to compute the absolute surface height for sea level studies with boussinesq models, as discussed by greatbatch (1994) and mellor and ezer (1995
data.question: What differences in diagnostic corrections may be important for sea level studies ?
data.text: the diagnostic correction misses a potentially significant level of spatial variability in the surface height that is captured by the nonboussinesq surface height
data.context: d [?]t ln rz, which is derived by dividing rzfrom both sides of equation (3.64), or the analogous term in equation (3.62), represent a fundamentally new process that provides a change in free surface height upon changing the vertically averaged density. if the vertically averaged density decreases, the surface height increases, and vice versa. this steric effect is absent from the boussinesq fluid's surface height equation, thus necessitating a diagnostic correction to compute the absolute surface height for sea level studies with boussinesq models, as discussed by greatbatch (1994) and mellor and ezer (1995). however, as noted by greatbatch et al. (2001), the diagnostic correction misses a potentially significant level of spatial variability in the surface height that is captured by the nonboussinesq surface height. such differences may be important for sea level studies, especially those associated with climate change and under situations where ageostrophic effects are important. losch et al. (2004) provide further discussion within the context of other model uncertainties. 3.4.3.3 surface kinematic boundary condition to derive the surface kinematic boundary condition, apply the time and space derivatives on the left-hand side of equation (3.56) to yield r
data.question: What did the LIMITS study investigate?
data.text: the limits study on durban platform scenarios investigated a set of different outcomes of the durban platform negotiations on a global climate agreement to take effect in 2020
data.question: What did the study assume?
data.text: the study assumed two different long term forcing targets with a significant probability to limit global mean warming to 2oc, and two different levels of mitigation effort until 2020
data.question: How were the scenarios run?
data.text: the scenarios were run by an ensemble of seven integrated assessment and energy-economy models allowing an evaluation of the robustness of results against structural model uncertainty
data.context: the limits study on durban platform scenarios investigated a set of different outcomes of the durban platform negotiations on a global climate agreement to take effect in 2020. in particular, the study assumed two different long term forcing targets with a significant probability to limit global mean warming to 2oc, and two different levels of mitigation effort until 2020.the study also investigated a number of "durban failure" scenarios including a scenario where the adoption of a global treaty is delayed until 2030, and two scenarios which project fragmented action in the absence of a global treaty over the entire 21st century. the scenarios were run by an ensemble of seven integrated assessment and energy-economy models allowing an evaluation of the robustness of results against structural model uncertainty. the climate outcome of the various climate policy scenarios was derived with the climate model magicc which provides a probabilistic representation of uncertainty about the climate response. a number of important findings could be derived, some of which are new and some of which support findings from other studies. first, extrapolating the fragmented action at the level of ambition of current emissions reduction pledges as assumed in this study (see section 2 and the som for the assumptions underlying the reference scenarios), global greenhouse gas emissions return to 60-140% of today's level by 2100. this leads to atmospheric
data.question: What is interesting about the period 56-51 million years ago?
data.text: this is a particularly interesting time because it is estimated to have been one of the warmest intervals in earth's history
data.question: What is the thermal maximum during the Paleocene-Eocene?
data.text: paleocene-eocene thermal maximum (petm) (56.3 mya) estimated to have been ~ 31-34*c
data.question: Over 10,000 years how much did the temperature rise?
data.text: evidence from various paleoclimatic proxies indicate that at the beginning of this interval, global temperatures rose by ~ 5*c in 10,000
data.context: the first interval of time to examine is between 56 and 51 myr. this is a particularly interesting time because it is estimated to have been one of the warmest intervals in earth's history and to have had the lowest equator-to-pole temperature gradient of the past 55 myr (blois hadly 2009, moran et al. 2006). evidence from various paleoclimatic proxies indicate that at the beginning of this interval, global temperatures rose by ~ 5*c in 10,000 years (zachos et al. 2001) with average values in northern tropics during the paleocene-eocene thermal maximum (petm) (56.3 mya) estimated to have been ~ 31-34*c. by the eocene climatic optimum (53-51 mya), tropical
data.question: What is a d180?
data.text: a proxy for north atlantic region temperature
data.context: asian source areas at least during this period of unusually powerful monsoon activity (see auxiliary material). these ice core proxies for east asian climate change (dust concentration for dust storm activity and rel. ca for changes of moisture transport) are important tools as they offer excellent time control and very high temporal resolution. it is possible to compare them with d18o (a proxy for north atlantic region temperature) from the same ice core to investigate phase lags between these two regions at times of rapid climate change without any relative dating uncertainties. in the following we will look at case studies of do events and at the younger dryas (yd).
data.question: How can a sociaty move from being reactive to proactive in preventing climate change?
data.text: gradual adaptation to a new world shaped by climate change, adapting institutions and promoting innovative organisations. within human settlements, planning processes need to adapt to climate change at all levels (eg, cities, regions, and infra structures) to avoid both the short-term inevitable consequences of climate change during the next 20-30 years due to the inertia in the climate system and the potential consequences of non-action or late response
data.question: What is a common approach to battling climate change, that is NOT the key solution?
data.text: simply giving money is not the solution
data.question: Adaptation requires what three key eliments in order for households, communictys and local governaces to take action?
data.text: adaptation requires local knowledge, skills, and capacity. households, community organisations, and local government need to have the will and capacity to take action
data.context: a need also exists to look at responses not only to climate-change-related disasters but also to move to prevention approaches and gradual adaptation to a new world shaped by climate change, adapting institutions and promoting innovative organisations. within human settlements, planning processes need to adapt to climate change at all levels (eg, cities, regions, and infra structures) to avoid both the short-term inevitable consequences of climate change during the next 20-30 years due to the inertia in the climate system and the potential consequences of non-action or late response. thus, information and systems for better planning under climate change conditions need to be developed, and land-use planning and building regulations need to be rethought. moreover, climate change policies should not be self-contained but need transversal responses integrated with other policies (eg, housing, health, and poverty reduction), and policy responses and eff orts vertically (at the diff erent levels of governance) and horizontally (within the structure of government, and with civil society, ngos, and the private sector). adaptation requires local knowledge, skills, and capacity. households, community organisations, and local government need to have the will and capacity to take action. simply giving money is not the solution. a strategy to benefi t poor people will not work if local government refuses to work with them or sees them as the issue. the vulnerability of both urban and rural poor people is not simply due to their poverty but, often, to the failure of local government. good governance initiatives are often focused on central rather than local or municipal governments, and international agencies fail to under stand the limitations and constraints on local govern ment.
data.question: What are The analogue method is also relatively data demanding?
data.text: in the absence of surveillance systems, necessary human and environmental statistics may be hard to assemble
data.question: What trend influence behavior?
data.text: apparent trends can also emerge because of the undue influence of a single outlier
data.context: the analogue method is also relatively data demanding; in the absence of surveillance systems, necessary human and environmental statistics may be hard to assemble. even so, catastrophic weather events (such as hurricane katrina) can trigger major shifts in policy and attitudes to risk despite being problematic to attribute to climate change. 5.4. trend extrapolation climate trend analysis can be a very appealing option, at least when extrapolating over the next few years. the attendant data and technical requirements are low compared with other scenario methods. but an assumption is made that recent climate behaviour is a sound basis for predicting the future. this may be reasonable for slowly varying components of the earth system such as sea level, or ocean temperatures which are highly correlated between successive years, even decades (section 7.2). regional climate trends that are largely driven by these elements may be robust in the near term (e.g. marengo and camargo, 2008). the trend need not be linear as testified by the extensive literature on climate cycles (e.g. becker et al ., 2008). however, trends are highly susceptible to false tendency (chappell and agnew, 2004; legates et al ., 2005). this can arise because data are not homogeneous, having been affected by a host of non-climatic influences such as encroachment of urban areas, changes in observer, instrumentation, monitoring network density, station location or exposure (kalnay and cai, 2003; davey and pielke, 2005). even if a physically plausible climate trend is found, the amount of explained variance may be low as in the case of regional rates of sea-level rise (plag, 2006). there is also no guarantee that a trend will persist, as evidenced by the abrupt changes in rainfall and atmospheric circulation of the last century (baines and folland, 2007; narisma et al ., 2007). apparent trends can also emerge because of the undue influence of a single outlier, particularly if it occurs towards the end of the record. multi-decadal variability in annual rainfall totals can cause the strength and/or even the sign of an extrapolated trend to change depending on the period and/or length of record chosen (figure 3). others have demonstrated that misleading trends can be an artefact of the statistical method used to divide data, such as percentile-based indices for temperature
data.question: Where does positive correlation is generally observed?
data.text: a positive correlation is generally observed in cooler areas because increased precipitation is associated with the import of warm and humid tropical air, and cloud cover keeps the underlying surface warmer
data.question: Which countries in the world have both negative and positive correlation?
data.text: united states, russia, france, and spain
data.context: the third pitfall relates to the classic omitted variables problem. many economic studies, including (but not limited to) those estimating climate change impacts, have focused on the impact of one weather variable in isolation, for example, regressing income only on precipitation shocks (miguel, satyanath, and sergenti 2004). while precipitation shocks are exogenous and hence a plausible instrument for income, it is important to note that to the extent that precipitation and temperature are correlated, the coefficient on precipitation will measure the combined effect of the two variables. this is particularly important in the climate change context if the estimated coefficient is used to estimate climate change impacts under a climate influenced by human activity. in order to obtain unbiased estimates of the effects of changes in precipitation and temperatures, which are historically correlated, both variables must be included in the regression equation, especially if the correlation is predicted to change in the future. to underline the importance of this observed correlation between different climate indicators, figure 1 shows the correlation coefficients between annual average temperature and total precipitation for each of the cru (version ts2.1) time series (ts) grid cells for the years 1960-1999. the map indicates clearly that the correlations vary greatly and that there are regions with both significant positive and significant negative correlation between precipitation and temperature. this implies that if one controls for only one of the two weather variables in a regression, the sign of the omitted variable bias will depend on the location under study. hot areas generally show negative correlation (as high as  0.7) because more precipitation and the associated evaporation results in cooling and lower average temperatures. in contrast, a positive correlation is generally observed in cooler areas because increased precipitation is associated with the import of warm and humid tropical air, and cloud cover keeps the underlying surface warmer. it is noteworthy that some large and not-so-large countries have areas of both negative and positive correlation (e.g., united states, russia, france, and spain).
data.question: What is the "denial countermovement"?
data.text: the tea party thereby joined an already active "denial countermovement"--consisting of fossil fuel corporations and business allies like the u.s. chamber of commerce, conservative think tanks and their funders, conservative media, and a large supporting cast of front groups, bloggers, and contrarian scientists
data.question: What event energized the "denial countermovement"?
data.text: energized by obama's election and fearful that his leadership combined with the (temporary) democratic majority in both houses of congress would result in national legislation and u.s. agreement to international treaties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.27 their successful efforts not only helped to block national legislation and to limit obama's ability to commit the u.s. to international agreements
data.question: Which congressional majority opposed the Obama administration's climate change initiatives?
data.text: this has produced a republican congress that provides a sturdy legislative wall against obama administration climate change initiatives, and in general does its best to undermine growing evidence of the seriousness of climate change
data.context: the tea party thereby joined an already active "denial countermovement"--consisting of fossil fuel corporations and business allies like the u.s. chamber of commerce, conservative think tanks and their funders, conservative media, and a large supporting cast of front groups, bloggers, and contrarian scientists--energized by obama's election and fearful that his leadership combined with the (temporary) democratic majority in both houses of congress would result in national legislation and u.s. agreement to international treaties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.27 their successful efforts not only helped to block national legislation and to limit obama's ability to commit the u.s. to international agreements, but they led to skepticism and even denial of humancaused climate change becoming normative among republican elites and activists. this has produced a republican congress that provides a sturdy legislative wall against obama administration climate change initiatives, and in general does its best to undermine growing evidence of the seriousness of climate change.28
data.question: Explain Evaporation Losses?
data.text: evaporative losses are removed from system storage before other potential storage reductions, such as water deliveries, are considered
data.question: Define Colorado River?
data.text: the colorado river is among the most heavily regulated in the world. since 1922 there have been over 50 court decisions, state statutes, interstate compacts, 344 niklas s. christensen et al
data.question: Explain models use specified ?
data.text: the models use specified operating policies to simulate reservoir levels, releases, hydropower production and diversions
data.context: for this study, we developed the colorado river reservoir model (crrm). crrm is a simplified version of the usbr colorado river simulation system (crss) (schuster, 1987; usdoi, 1985) that represents the major physical water management structures and operating policies of the system. both models simulate the movement and distribution of water within the basin on a monthly time step, using naturalized (unimpaired) streamflow time series at the inflow points shown in figure 1 as input. the models use specified operating policies to simulate reservoir levels, releases, hydropower production and diversions. reservoir evaporation is modeled as a function of reservoir surface area and mean monthly temperature. evaporative losses are removed from system storage before other potential storage reductions, such as water deliveries, are considered. the colorado river is among the most heavily regulated in the world. since 1922 there have been over 50 court decisions, state statutes, interstate compacts, 344 niklas s. christensen et al.
data.question: Implicit in the above?
data.text: is that much damage will not be adapted to over the longer term, because adaptation is either not economic or not feasible
data.question: Residual damage?
data.text: we term this 'residual damage
data.question: In the UNFCCC?
data.text: in the unfccc report it is not clear how much residual damage might be expected
data.context: implicit in the above (and illustrated in figure 2) is that much damage will not be adapted to over the longer term, because adaptation is either not economic or not feasible. we term this 'residual damage'. in the unfccc report it is not clear how much residual damage might be expected. but it is very important that we start to consider this, because the amount may be significant and is likely to increase over time. in the evaluation reported here, residual impacts are estimated at about a fifth of all impacts in agriculture in 2030 (see chapter 2 in this report) and, over the longer term, may account for up to two-thirds of all potential impacts across all sectors, depending on the amount of climate change not avoided by mitigation (see chapter 8 in this report).
data.question: When was the first year that the UK become an importer of gas?
data.text: the uk was a net importer of gas for the first time in 2004 
data.question: When did the fossil fuel prices rise sharply?
data.text: fossil fuel prices rose sharply in 2004
data.question: Why did the UK become a net importer of gas?
data.text: further, the uk's north sea oil and gas reserves appeared to have peaked: the uk was a net importer of gas for the first time in 2004 (ibid. 2006b
data.context: despite the new position of climate change as a central issue on the energy agenda, the debate about the nature of the uk's energy policy remained wide open. in particular, concerns about energy security and the resulting impact on fuel prices continued to be voiced. fossil fuel prices rose sharply in 2004 and the reliability of gas exports from russia to europe came under scrutiny (dti, 2006b). the ukrainian gas pipeline conflict early in 2006 represented a policy 'focusing event' (kingdon, 2003), strengthening concerns about the uk's security of supply (dti, 2006b). further, the uk's north sea oil and gas reserves appeared to have peaked: the uk was a net importer of gas for the first time in 2004 (ibid. 2006b). the 2003 energy white paper appeared to some insufficient as a response to these issues (see for example cbi, 2007).
data.question: what the CDSB and their counterparts are proposing is voluntary rather than mandatory corporate reporting.
data.text: this situation in financial carbon accounting, where conflict appears to have eased
data.question: What are CDSB and its counterparts proposing? A voluntary corporate report
data.text: what the cdsb and their counterparts are proposing is voluntary rather than mandatory corporate reporting
data.context: this situation in financial carbon accounting, where conflict appears to have eased, points to the possible benefits of continuing voluntary measures in the carbon disclosure (nonfinancial) aspects of carbon accounting. conflict has not been evident there yet: what the cdsb and their counterparts are proposing is voluntary rather than mandatory corporate reporting. the accounting standard setters (iasb and fasb) will perhaps do well to take heed from the case of ifric-3 as to the dangers of rushing in too soon with mandatory guidance: ideally a transition to mandatory rules and practices will come at a point when corporations feel ready to welcome this clarity.
data.question: What region is the main source of the atmosphere's sensible and latent heat, and water vapour?
data.text: the tropics are the main source of the atmosphere's sensible and latent heat, and water vapour, and are therefore important for reconstructions of past climate1
data.question: Why are the tropic important for the reconstructions of past climate?
data.text: the tropics are the main source of the atmosphere's sensible and latent heat, and water vapour, and are therefore important for reconstructions of past climate1
data.question: What is the current climate of the northeastern Brazil?
data.text: here we present a 210,000-year (210-kyr) record of wet periods in tropical northeastern brazil--a region that is currently semi-arid
data.context: the tropics are the main source of the atmosphere's sensible and latent heat, and water vapour, and are therefore important for reconstructions of past climate1. but long, accurately dated records of southern tropical palaeoclimate, which would allow the establishment of climatic connections to distant regions, have not been available. here we present a 210,000-year (210-kyr) record of wet periods in tropical northeastern brazil--a region that is currently semi-arid. the record is obtained from speleothems and travertine deposits that are accurately dated using the u/th method. we find wet periods that are synchronous with periods of weak east asian summer monsoons2, cold periods in greenland3, heinrich events in the north atlantic4and periods of decreased river runoff to the cariaco basin5. we infer that the wet periods may be explained with a southward displacement of the intertropical convergence zone. this widespread synchroneity of climate anomalies suggests a relatively rapid global reorganization of the ocean-atmosphere system. we conclude that the wet periods probably affected rainforest distribution, as plant fossils show that forest expansion occurred during these intermittent wet intervals, and opened a forest corridor6-8
data.question: How many steps are presented to guide the development of an appropriate local level or Municipal Adaptation Strategy?
data.text: the following 10 steps are presented to guide the development of an appropriate local level or municipal adaptation strategy (see also figure 1
data.question: How can cities capture this information?
data.text: capture this information on local vulnerability maps using gis and other tools
data.question: Which areas would the climate impact assessment include?
data.text: the climate impact assessment would include sea-level rise, drought and fl ood-prone areas
data.context: the following 10 steps are presented to guide the development of an appropriate local level or municipal adaptation strategy (see also figure 1): * assess current climate trends and future projections for the geographical region; * undertake a climate vulnerability assessment of the municipal area. many cities will not have collected and analyzed this information and would therefore have to develop this assessment from scratch: $? identify current sectoral and cross-sectoral vulnerabilities based on current climate variability risks and trends; $? identify future potential vulnerabilities based on future projected climate scenarios and future climate risks; $? capture this information on local vulnerability maps using gis and other tools. the climate impact assessment would include sea-level rise, drought and fl ood-prone areas; * review current development plans and priorities. most municipalities would be able to fi nd this information in their various strategic plans; * overlay development priorities, expected climate change, current climate vulnerability and expected future climate vulnerability using gis for spatial interrogation, and other participatory and quantitative assessments for further analysis. these various overlays will assist in identifying hotspots where adaptation activities should be focused; * develop adaptation options using new and existing consultative tools. these options should integrate climate-sensitive responses with
data.question: What has an important influence on the travel decisions of tourists
data.text: climate
data.question: What are the Three salient findings?
data.text: significant variation in the perceived optimum climatic conditions for the 3 major tourism environments, differences in the relative importance of the 4 climatic parameters in the 3 tourism environments, and similarities as well as differences in the climatic preferences of respondents from the 3 nations
data.question: What are the relative importance of 4 climatic parameters?
data.text: temperature, precipitation, sunshine, wind
data.context: climate has an important influence on the travel decisions of tourists. this paper reviews the distinct lines of inquiry that have been used to examine the influence of climate on tourist decision making, and attempts to define optimal climatic conditions for tourism. the study examined tourist perceptions of optimal climatic conditions (for temperature, sunshine, wind) and the relative importance of 4 climatic parameters (temperature, precipitation, sunshine, wind) in 3 major tourism environments (beach-coastal, urban, mountains). a survey instrument was administered to university students (n 831) representing the young-adult travel segment, in 3 countries (canada, new zealand, sweden). three salient findings include: significant variation in the perceived optimum climatic conditions for the 3 major tourism environments, differences in the relative importance of the 4 climatic parameters in the 3 tourism environments, and similarities as well as differences in the climatic preferences of respondents from the 3 nations. these findings have several implications for the literature on climate and tourism, including the development of climate indices for tourism, destination choice and travel pattern modelling, and climate change impact assessments. when applied to a broader cross-cultural sample of tourist segments, the present approach could potentially reveal the complexities of tourist preferences for climate. key words: climate * tourism * tourism climate index * weather
data.question: What is a rotavirus?
data.text: rotavirus infections and climate variability 1283 temperature, seasonal patterns, between-year variations and public holidays, the pattern shows a linear negative slope with humidity, which was confirmed by fitting a linear model p 0 05 by wald test
data.question: What is the percentage increase in the number of rotavirus patients?
data.text: the number of rotavirus diarrhoea cases increased by 2 6% (95% ci 0 0-5 3
data.question: How is rotavirus shown?
data.text: relationship with river level the relationship between the relative risk of hospital visits for rotavirus diarrhoea and river level is shown
data.context: rotavirus infections and climate variability 1283 temperature, seasonal patterns, between-year variations and public holidays, the pattern shows a linear negative slope with humidity, which was confirmed by fitting a linear model p 0 05 by wald test). for a 1% decrease in humidity, the number of rotavirus diarrhoea cases increased by 2 6% (95% ci 0 0-5 3). the distributed lag model showed that there was suggestive evidence for an effect of humidity at lag 0, and this effect decreased to null thereafter (fig. 5). relationship with river level the relationship between the relative risk of hospital visits for rotavirus diarrhoea and river level is shown
data.question: How do global and regional analyses use climate models?
data.text: the global and regional analyses used climate models to define alternative plausible distributions of the risk factor in geographic regions over several decades
data.question: What have decisions on greenhouse emissions influenced?
data.text: decisions on greenhouse gas emissions influence global climate over many decades, and the impacts on human societies are therefore likely to be increasingly evident over similar periods
data.question: What do we mean by a logical baseline â€œexposureâ€?
data.text: a logical baseline "exposure" for comparison would consist of a climate not yet affected by any human activities
data.context: the global and regional analyses used climate models to define alternative plausible distributions of the risk factor in geographic regions over several decades. many risk factors for health can potentially be altered over relatively short periods (i.e., up to several years). in these cases the focus is usually on calculating current attributable and avoidable burdens to indicate the benefits of addressing the risk factor in the near future. in contrast, decisions on greenhouse gas emissions influence global climate over many decades, and the impacts on human societies are therefore likely to be increasingly evident over similar periods. in this case the full implications of policy change are made clear only when exposure and associated effects are considered over the medium to long term. a logical baseline "exposure" for comparison would consist of a climate not yet affected by any human activities. this is commonly
data.question: what is identical boundary conditions?
data.text: using identical boundary conditions, differences in the formulation of ccms will lead to differences in their common prognostic or diagnostic fi elds. these differences will represent the internal uncertainties in dynamics, physics and chemistry in ccms as used here
data.question: what is similations "REF -b0" and REF -b1?
data.text: the ccmval-2 simulations "ref-b0" and "ref-b1" (section 2.5.2), covering the near-present and the past, respectively, have been designed primarily to address internal modelling uncertainties since ssts, sea ice, and other external forcings such as volcanic eruptions and variations of solar irradiation, are prescribed based on observations
data.question: what IS "REF-B2"?
data.text: by contrast, the "ref-b2" simulations, covering the past and future, also include external uncertainty because here sst and sea ice data are obtained from climate simulations, with associated biases (section 2.5.3.1). further external uncertainties are associated with the future ghg and ods forcings assumed in ref-b2
data.context: a source of error in ccmval integrations relates to de fi ciencies in model formulation. using identical boundary conditions, differences in the formulation of ccms will lead to differences in their common prognostic or diagnostic fi elds. these differences will represent the internal uncertainties in dynamics, physics and chemistry in ccms as used here. the ccmval-2 simulations "ref-b0" and "ref-b1" (section 2.5.2), covering the near-present and the past, respectively, have been designed primarily to address internal modelling uncertainties since ssts, sea ice, and other external forcings such as volcanic eruptions and variations of solar irradiation, are prescribed based on observations. by contrast, the "ref-b2" simulations, covering the past and future, also include external uncertainty because here sst and sea ice data are obtained from climate simulations, with associated biases (section 2.5.3.1). further external uncertainties are associated with the future ghg and ods forcings assumed in ref-b2.
data.question: What do Moser and Ekstrom recognize?
data.text: moser and ekstrom11 recognize that the process of adaptation involves multiple linked steps at several scales, including identifying and learning about risks, evaluating response mechanisms, creating enabling conditions, mobilising resources, implementing adaptation options, and revising choices with new learning
data.question: What do they argue?
data.text: they argue that barriers can emerge at each of these steps and that there is a need for improved knowledge of these barriers
data.context: moser and ekstrom11 recognize that the process of adaptation involves multiple linked steps at several scales, including identifying and learning about risks, evaluating response mechanisms, creating enabling conditions, mobilising resources, implementing adaptation options, and revising choices with new learning. they argue that barriers can emerge at each of these steps and that there is a need for improved knowledge of these barriers. for instance, the best technical solutions may be ignored or rejected if cognitive, behavioral and cultural barriers exist regarding perceptions of risk, the need to adapt and the willingness to accept change. in other cases, the ability of certain individuals or actors to employ particular forms of adaptation may be impeded by regulative controls, societal norms and various forms of institutional inequities. while such barriers may delay, divert or block adaptation and make it more difficult to plan and implement sustainable adaptive action25,they are seen   to be surmountable (p. 22027).11, 16
data.question: how does Climate change affect the deep ocean?
data.text: climate change also affects predicted ocean ph and carbonate mineral saturation state in the deep ocean
data.question: what is the reason of the diminished reduction of pH in the deep ocean ?
data.text: the diminished reduction of ph in the deep ocean is due to increased ocean stratification and reduced north atlantic overturning, both of which lead to reduced transport of anthropogenic co2 from the surface ocean to ocean depth
data.question: what is the reason for larger Waragonite in the deep ocean?
data.text: the reduced ocean mixing and circulation also lead to larger waragonite in the deep ocean
data.context: climate change also affects predicted ocean ph and carbonate mineral saturation state in the deep ocean as shown in figure 4. relative to the simulation with d t2x 0.0  c, the simulation with d t2x 4.5  c predicts a greater reduction of ph near ocean surface (as previously noted), but a smaller reduction in the deep ocean. the diminished reduction of ph in the deep ocean is due to increased ocean stratification and reduced north atlantic overturning, both of which lead to reduced transport of anthropogenic co2 from the surface ocean to ocean depth. the reduced ocean mixing and circulation also lead to larger waragonite in the deep ocean.
data.question: what economic theory argues about emission taxes?
data.text: some economic theory argues that emission taxes are a superior economic instrument to an emissions trading program, most networked public and private sector actors are committed to an emissions trading program (cooper, 1998; mckibbin wilcoxen, 2002; pizer, 1997
data.question: what drivers creation of the U.S national SO2 trading program
data.text: economic and political drivers were also behind the creation of the u.s. national so2 trading program
data.question: which tax polices have few identifiable supporters in the public or private sectors
data.text: co2 tax policies have few identifiable supporters in the public or private sectors
data.context: of course, support for a trading scheme is linked with a general private and public sector interest in market based policy instruments. even though some economic theory argues that emission taxes are a superior economic instrument to an emissions trading program, most networked public and private sector actors are committed to an emissions trading program (cooper, 1998; mckibbin wilcoxen, 2002; pizer, 1997). such a program would create new markets with associated property rights to be priced in the market, rather than establish a new tax scheme that would be a much harder sell politically. these economic and political drivers were also behind the creation of the u.s. national so2 trading program and the recent european co2 trading program as opposed to so2 and co2 tax schemes. bp has also operated internal trading-like programs for reducing their ghg emissions (victor house, 2006). meanwhile, co2 tax policies have few identifiable supporters in the public or private sectors.
data.question: What is excluded from most IAMs?
data.text: equity between regions of the world, in the present or at any moment in time, is intentionally excluded from most iams, even those that explicitly treat the regional distribution of impacts
data.question: What are the assumptions of climate economic models made?
data.text: most climate economic models implicitly assume that little attention is needed to the problems of equity across time and space
data.question: How models are assumed in the area of intertemporal choice?
data.text: in the area of intertemporal choice, most models have high discount rates that inflate the importance of the short-term costs of abatement relative to the long-term benefits of averted climate damage. together with the common assumption that the world will grow richer over time, discounting gives greater weight to earlier, poorer generations relative to later, wealthier generations
data.context: most climate economic models implicitly assume that little attention is needed to the problems of equity across time and space. in the area of intertemporal choice, most models have high discount rates that inflate the importance of the short-term costs of abatement relative to the long-term benefits of averted climate damage. together with the common assumption that the world will grow richer over time, discounting gives greater weight to earlier, poorer generations relative to later, wealthier generations. equity between regions of the world, in the present or at any moment in time, is intentionally excluded from most iams, even those that explicitly treat the regional distribution of impacts.
data.question: What is the effect of density?
data.text: the relationships selected by fi tting the model to the current patterns of genetic variation are represented by shading, with darker colors representing more frequently selected values and the median of the relationships shown as a black line
data.question: What is a selected fitting?
data.text: the relationships selected by fi tting the model to the current patterns of genetic variation are represented by shading, with darker colors representing more frequently selected values and the median of the relationships shown as a black line
data.question: What is genetic variation?
data.text: the relationships selected by fi tting the model to the current patterns of genetic variation are represented by shading, with darker colors representing more frequently selected values and the median of the relationships shown as a black line
data.context: fig. 1. the effect of npp on population density (individuals per kilometer squared) plotted on a log - log scale. the relationships selected by fi tting the model to the current patterns of genetic variation are represented by shading, with darker colors representing more frequently selected values and the median of the relationships shown as a black line. population densities for modern hunter - gatherers (not used to inform on the parameters of the model) are plotted as blue circles. inset shows the role of the two model parameters nppl ow and npphigh) on the same log - log scale as the fi gure.
data.question: What expression does the climate express?
data.text: almost all climate model projections reveal an increase of high latitude temperature and high latitude precipitation (meehl et al., 2007b
data.question: What is high latitude temperature and high latitude action?
data.text: both of these effects tend to make the high latitude surface waters lighter and hence increase their stability. as seen in figure 12.35, all models show a weakening of the amoc over the course of the 21st century (see section 12.5.5.2 for further analysis
data.question: Describe the planned change in the strength of AMOC at high latitudes?
data.text: titude surface waters lighter and hence increase their stability. as seen in figure 12.35, all models show a weakening of the amoc over the course of the 21st century (see section 12.5.5.2 for further analysis). projected changes in the strength of the amoc at high latitudes appear stronger in geophysical fluid dynamics laboratory (gfdl) cm2.1 when density is used as a vertical coordinate instead of depth (zhang, 2010a
data.context: almost all climate model projections reveal an increase of high latitude temperature and high latitude precipitation (meehl et al., 2007b). both of these effects tend to make the high latitude surface waters lighter and hence increase their stability. as seen in figure 12.35, all models show a weakening of the amoc over the course of the 21st century (see section 12.5.5.2 for further analysis). projected changes in the strength of the amoc at high latitudes appear stronger in geophysical fluid dynamics laboratory (gfdl) cm2.1 when density is used as a vertical coordinate instead of depth (zhang, 2010a). once the rf is stabilized, the amoc recovers, but in some models to less than its preindustrial level. the recovery may include a significant overshoot (i.e., a weaker circulation may persist) if the anthropogenic rf is eliminated (wu et al., 2011a). gregory et al. (2005) found that for all eleven models
data.question: Which areas are estimated to have climate-related energy demand impacts?
data.text: the larger commercial, industrial, and transportation sectors
data.question: What will be needed in order to explore and prioritize the full range of adaptation alternatives
data.text: more sophisticated tools
data.question: Why are new approaches and methods are needed?
data.text: to provide credible population forecasts on time scales that are relevant to climate change studie
data.context: in closing this section, we list a number of specific research needs, beyond the scope of the current investigation, which have emerged in the course of preparing this paper: population projections over long time horizons (> 20 years) are 1. very uncertain and lack a credible scientific basis. new approaches and methods are needed to provide credible population forecasts on time scales that are relevant to climate change studies. more detailed projections of specific impacts to daily maximum and 2. minimum temperature are needed to facilitate better projections of daily average and peak loads. we have focused here on climate sensitivities related primarily 3. to residential and commercial space heating and cooling needs. additional analyses estimating climate-related energy demand impacts in the larger commercial, industrial, and transportation sectors are needed to extend these results. the combined effects of hydrologic changes and climate change 4. adaptation on the columbia river hydro system are only partially understood, and more resources need to be focused on this problem. in particular the combined effects of adaptation for hydropower production, flood control, and instream flow for fish are needed. more sophisticated tools will be needed to explore and prioritize the full range of adaptation alternatives, and to understand the
data.question: How many degrees of Arctic warming does the model produce between 2005 and 2100?
data.text: the model produces an annual-mean, area-averaged arctic warming of around 8 k between 2005 and 2100
data.question: In which decade does the model show no  temperature increase?
data.text: there is no temperature increase during the entire decade of the 2040s
data.question: In which decades do the model show rapid temperature rise?
data.text: the temperature rises relatively rapidly during the 2030s and 2080s
data.context: the model produces an annual-mean, area-averaged arctic warming of around 8 k between 2005 and 2100 (fig. 4a; linear trend 5 9.6 k) that is similar among all the ensemble members. even when averaged over five ensemble members, the warming trend is not monotonic throughout the century. there is no temperature increase during the entire decade of the 2040s and only a slight ensemble-mean warming in the 2090s. by contrast, the temperature rises relatively rapidly during the 2030s and 2080s. this highly uneven warming trend even under the most extreme rcp greenhouse-forcing scenario underscores the strong internal variability of arctic climate
data.question: Health outcomes are worse for which income bracket?
data.text: whether in a developed or developing country, health outcomes are worst for those on low incomes20
data.question: Why are the results so low?
data.text: because they lack access to the health system
data.question: What diseases have an increased effect in low-resource settings?
data.text: infectious and vector-borne diseases related to climate change will have their greatest eff ect in resource-poor settings through poor housing, poor water supplies and sanitation, and increased vulnerability
data.context: poor people are greatly aff ected by disease worldwide. whether in a developed or developing country, health outcomes are worst for those on low incomes20 because they lack access to the health system. hiv/aids, tuberculosis, and malaria have perpetuated poverty in developing countries because of the cost of treatment and the loss of productivity. infectious and vector-borne diseases related to climate change will have their greatest eff ect in resource-poor settings through poor housing, poor water supplies and sanitation, and increased vulnerability. gender inequity is another important factor. in developing countries, women are among the most vulnerable to climate change; they not only account for a large proportion of the agricultural workforce but also have few alternative income opportunities. women manage households and care for family members, which limit their mobility and increase their vulnerability to natural disasters and other local sudden climate changes. eff orts to keep the adverse eff ects of climate change to a minimum should ensure that policies address issues of women's empowerment. individual assets that bring benefi ts to a woman's family and community, such as health and education, are easily attainable with good reproductive health. in particular, adequate birth spacing improves maternal and infant health and resilience, and contributes signifi cantly to women's ability to be economically productive. gender diff erences must be taken into account not just in terms of diff erential vulnerability but also as diff erential adaptive capacity. during a natural disaster, for example, women have a key role in protecting, managing, and recovering lost household resources, and often develop innovative strategies to address climate change.120 case studies in senegal, bangladesh, and ghana showed grassroots women's groups developing strategies to cope with issues related to energy and forestry, agriculture, water resources, and trade. women should be perceived as powerful contributors of change and should be fully integrated into climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies at all levels. vulnerability will exist to both climate change and poverty, especially in developing countries.121 the vulnerability of poor people to climate change is manifested in three main ways: exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. the world's poor nations are exposed to the eff ects of climate change due to their geographical location.122 also, low education, income, health, and other contextual factors reduce the adaptive capacity of developing countries. therefore, future vulnerability to the health eff ects of climate change depends on development and climate change itself. the challenge is to reduce not only poverty but also the diseases related to poverty, such as water-borne and vector-borne diseases, which require sustainable development with a functioning primary and secondary health system. this challenge should be underpinned by a strong public health infrastructure, incorporating
data.question: What happens when ice sheets recede?
data.text: at the margin of the ice sheet, the ice begins to float, interacts with the ocean, and eventually calves into icebergs. this boundary controls whether the ice sheet is stable to perturbations, induced perhaps by warmer oceans or atmosphere
data.question: Why Is It Hard to Predict the Future of Ice Sheets?
data.text: recent observations of widespread acceleration of glaciers draining the greenland ice sheet have brought our uncertainty in specifying these boundary conditions to prominence. greenland appears capable of responding to changing atmospheric and ocean conditions around its margins much faster than expected 7-9 ). the immediate challenge for modelers is to improve the description of the basal and terminal processes such that these changes can be reproduced in model simulations. this is a substantial task, but it is made more feasible by the observations of change that reveal the time scales of response [see also the accompanying perspective by truffer and fahnestock 10 )], and it provides a superb opportunity to test whether the processes we expect to be important are correctly represented in the models. in recent years, many changes have also been observed in west antarctica: thinning and loss of buttressing ice shelves, accelerating glacier flow, thinning of the seaward portion of many glaciers in the region, and inland retreat of the point at which the ice begins to float. the latest theoretical advances have done nothing to allay fears concerning the potential instability of marine ice sheets 6
data.question: What are the changes have been observed in West Antarctica in recent years?
data.text: thinning and loss of buttressing ice shelves, accelerating glacier flow, thinning of the seaward portion of many glaciers in the region, and inland retreat of the point at which the ice begins to float
data.context: nor is it certain that the basal boundary condition will remain constant on the decadal to centennial time scales that are of interest to the ipcc, especially in greenland, where meltwater can flood through crevasses to lubricate the base of the ice sheet 4 ). at the margin of the ice sheet, the ice begins to float, interacts with the ocean, and eventually calves into icebergs. this boundary controls whether the ice sheet is stable to perturbations, induced perhaps by warmer oceans or atmosphere. early theories suggested that the location of the margin might be unstable enough that a small perturbation could trigger runaway retreat inland (see the figure) 5 ). since then, glaciologists have debated whether such extreme behavior could really occur. a new boundary-layer theory for coastal ice shows the way forward 6 ). this theory still needs to be incorporated into large-scale ice sheet models, but early indications are that the instability highlighted by earlier theories should be taken seriously. recent observations of widespread acceleration of glaciers draining the greenland ice sheet have brought our uncertainty in specifying these boundary conditions to prominence. greenland appears capable of responding to changing atmospheric and ocean conditions around its margins much faster than expected 7-9 ). the immediate challenge for modelers is to improve the description of the basal and terminal processes such that these changes can be reproduced in model simulations. this is a substantial task, but it is made more feasible by the observations of change that reveal the time scales of response [see also the accompanying perspective by truffer and fahnestock 10 )], and it provides a superb opportunity to test whether the processes we expect to be important are correctly represented in the models. in recent years, many changes have also been observed in west antarctica: thinning and loss of buttressing ice shelves, accelerating glacier flow, thinning of the seaward portion of many glaciers in the region, and inland retreat of the point at which the ice begins to float. the latest theoretical advances have done nothing to allay fears concerning the potential instability of marine ice sheets 6 (see the figure). determining whether small changes could really trigger substantial deglaciation is complicated enough. to compound this, there are no clear-cut records of marine ice sheet deglaciation for comparison, either on earth today or in the geological record. there have probably been many marine ice sheet deglaciations during the glacial cycles of the past 2 million years, but the geological record was bulldozed away as the ice sheets subsequently readvanced. only the record of the last deglaciation, since about 18,000 years ago, remains intact. this deglaciation caused two periods of global sea-level rise at rates far higher than those projected by the ipcc 2 ). however, most of that rise resulted from nonmarine ice sheets, and the sea-level curve on its own does not tell us to what extent marine ice sheets are unstable. indeed, there is still major uncertainty as to how much of the west antarctic ice sheet survived in recent interglacial periods that were globally warmer than today and that are the best analog for future greenhouse warming. in the absence of a sufficiently well-documented example of marine ice sheet retreat, hypotheses of instability could be missing important processes that limit the rate or extent of retreat, or conversely,
data.question: What does effective response require?
data.text: considerable commitment to preparedness and risk reduction
data.question: what do Agencies from flood-prone areas need  to put strategies in place and ensure they are capable of functioning when emergencies arise?
data.text: long-term commitment
data.context: as for most aspects of hazards response, a key message from the review is that effective response requires considerable commitment to preparedness and risk reduction, both in time and financial support. agencies from flood-prone areas need a long-term commitment to put strategies in place and ensure they are capable of functioning when emergencies arise. for example, flood risk should be factored into mainstream health system planning. external agencies need to provide a presence beyond the immediate flood relief phase, preferably with a long-term commitment to capacity building and broad-based community involvement in intervention projects. for the south, in particular, health risk reduction from floods may require an increase and/or a shift in emphasis in external funding assistance.
data.question: What can constrain policymakers?
data.text: awareness and knowledge gaps, misinformation about the opportunities associated with mitigation and adaptation investments, and insufficient technical capacity, can constrain policymakers from creating enabling environments for low-carbon and climate-resilient investments, and prevent private investors from supporting promising projects
data.question: What does Landscape 2013 estimate?
data.text: landscape 2013 estimates that public actors, such as governments and dfis, committed at least usd 0.5 billion to build climate-specific capacity and knowledge
data.question: What is embedded within larger interventions?
data.text: technical assistance and capacity building is often embedded within larger interventions, or part of the everyday work of public entities, and hence is not classified as a distinct category
data.context: awareness and knowledge gaps, misinformation about the opportunities associated with mitigation and adaptation investments, and insufficient technical capacity, can constrain policymakers from creating enabling environments for low-carbon and climate-resilient investments, and prevent private investors from supporting promising projects. landscape 2013 estimates that public actors, such as governments and dfis, committed at least usd 0.5 billion to build climate-specific capacity and knowledge.58 technical assistance and capacity building is often embedded within larger interventions, or part of the everyday work of public entities, and hence is not classified as a distinct category. some dfis and un organizations also do not measure and/or report capacity building for climate change as a standalone category. this value is therefore an underestimate.
data.question: Why is it said that model predictions of climate change are uncertain ?
data.text: model predictions of climate change are uncertain for the following three principal reasons. a natural variations in climate the climate system has internal variability (an oft-quoted example being the el nin~o phenomenon) that arises via the accumulation of variations in day-to-day weather and interactions between components of the system (the ocean and atmosphere in the case of el nin~o). this class of uncertainty is often labelled as initial condition uncertainty, in keeping with the idea of the sensitive dependence on initial conditions encountered in chaotic nonlinear systems. it is certainly not possible, even given a perfect model and perfect initial conditions, to predict the timing of a particular weather system or el nin~o event 30 years into the future. rather, we seek to quantify the uncertainty in the prediction that arises owing to these random unpredictable events. it may, however, be possible to predict the phase of some longer time-scale variations in some aspects of the system, perhaps the ocean meridional overturning circulation or heat content. this has led to the idea of initializing climate models with observations troccoli palmer 2007 which, while still being at an early stage, is a candidate for quantifying uncertainty in near-term predictions, in comparison with the usual approach of assuming an envelope of natural variability that surrounds the signal of climate change. b uncertain pathways for forcing agents such as greenhouse gas emissions this involves factors outside the realm of climate science: diverse areas of research such as economics, population dynamics and 'green technologies' to name but a few. formal quantification of future anthropogenic forcing agents has been said to be impossible, leading many to dismiss the idea that we will ever be able to produce probabilistic predictions with all uncertainties quantified. however, the problem is not as grave as it might first appear
data.question: What has led to the idea of initializing climate models ?
data.text: it may, however, be possible to predict the phase of some longer time-scale variations in some aspects of the system, perhaps the ocean meridional overturning circulation or heat content. this has led to the idea of initializing climate models with observations
data.question: Name some of the  factors outside the realm of climate science?
data.text: factors outside the realm of climate science: diverse areas of research such as economics, population dynamics and 'green technologies' to name but a few
data.context: model predictions of climate change are uncertain for the following three principal reasons. a natural variations in climate the climate system has internal variability (an oft-quoted example being the el nin~o phenomenon) that arises via the accumulation of variations in day-to-day weather and interactions between components of the system (the ocean and atmosphere in the case of el nin~o). this class of uncertainty is often labelled as initial condition uncertainty, in keeping with the idea of the sensitive dependence on initial conditions encountered in chaotic nonlinear systems. it is certainly not possible, even given a perfect model and perfect initial conditions, to predict the timing of a particular weather system or el nin~o event 30 years into the future. rather, we seek to quantify the uncertainty in the prediction that arises owing to these random unpredictable events. it may, however, be possible to predict the phase of some longer time-scale variations in some aspects of the system, perhaps the ocean meridional overturning circulation or heat content. this has led to the idea of initializing climate models with observations troccoli palmer 2007 which, while still being at an early stage, is a candidate for quantifying uncertainty in near-term predictions, in comparison with the usual approach of assuming an envelope of natural variability that surrounds the signal of climate change. b uncertain pathways for forcing agents such as greenhouse gas emissions this involves factors outside the realm of climate science: diverse areas of research such as economics, population dynamics and 'green technologies' to name but a few. formal quantification of future anthropogenic forcing agents has been said to be impossible, leading many to dismiss the idea that we will ever be able to produce probabilistic predictions with all uncertainties quantified. however, the problem is not as grave as it might first appear. for adaptation questions, the inertia of the climate system means that predictions are relatively
data.question: How Significant shifts  in climate are considered?
data.text: significant shifts in climate are considered a threat to plants and animals with significant physiological limitations and limited dispersal abilities
data.question: Which is the global hotspot?
data.text: the southern appalachian mountains are a global hotspot for plethodontid salamander diversity. plethodontids are lungless ectotherms, so their ecology is strongly governed by temperature and precipitation
data.question: Explain southern Appalachia exist?
data.text: many plethodontid species in southern appalachia exist in high elevation habitats that may be at or near their thermal maxima, and may also have limited dispersal abilities across warmer valley bottoms
data.context: background: significant shifts in climate are considered a threat to plants and animals with significant physiological limitations and limited dispersal abilities. the southern appalachian mountains are a global hotspot for plethodontid salamander diversity. plethodontids are lungless ectotherms, so their ecology is strongly governed by temperature and precipitation. many plethodontid species in southern appalachia exist in high elevation habitats that may be at or near their thermal maxima, and may also have limited dispersal abilities across warmer valley bottoms. methodology/principal findings: we used a maximum-entropy approach (program maxent) to model the suitable climatic habitat of 41 plethodontid salamander species inhabiting the appalachian highlands region (33 individual species and eight species included within two species complexes). we evaluated the relative change in suitable climatic habitat for these species in the appalachian highlands from the current climate to the years 2020, 2050, and 2080, using both the hadcm3 and the cgcm3 models, each under low and high co2 scenarios, and using two-model thresholds levels (relative suitability thresholds for determining suitable/unsuitable range), for a total of 8 scenarios per species. conclusion/significance: while models differed slightly, every scenario projected significant declines in suitable habitat within the appalachian highlands as early as 2020. species with more southern ranges and with smaller ranges had larger projected habitat loss. despite significant differences in projected precipitation changes to the region, projections did not differ significantly between global circulation models. co2 emissions scenario and model threshold had small effects on projected habitat loss by 2020, but did not affect longer-term projections. results of this study indicate that choice of model threshold and co2 emissions scenario affect short-term projected shifts in climatic distributions of species; however, these factors and choice of global circulation model have relatively small affects on what is significant projected loss of habitat for many salamander species that currently occupy the appalachian highlands.
data.question: What factors will affect the success or failure of innovations in low-carbon solutions?
data.text: the success or failure of such innovations also depends on companies' bargaining power and whether they rely on specialized assets for commercialization owned by others in their supply chain or (potential) competitors, and their ability and willingness to cooperate with these other companies
data.question: What is a key driver of the divergence in managerial perceptions and interpretations of the problems in developing low-carbon solutions?
data.text: these sometimes divergent perspectives particularly stem from the considerable uncertainty and complexity in view of the diversity of contexts and policy responses, which means that capabilities developed in response to this 'moving target' will need constant rejuvenation
data.question: Give some examples of influences on companies' efforts to deal with trade-offs and uncertainties created by the climate policy deadlock
data.text: technological dynamism, complementarity between new technologies and existing assets, and ownership of specialized assets for commercialization
data.context: this paper has used different lenses to explore some key trade-offs related to innovating for climate change from the company perspective, in the broader context of technological change, complementary capability development and sociotechnical systems. it has discussed the scaling up of existing technologies, in view of the fact that there is no 'silver bullet' solution yet, and how the balance between further technological development and deployment of the existing collection of technologies are best to be found. a related issue is how and in what way low-carbon solutions are commercialized, targeting consumers in either mainstream markets or niche markets. this is all the more important as choices have to be made on technological trajectories in a market transition towards a lowcarbon economy, which may entail incremental or more radical innovations. the success or failure of such innovations also depends on companies' bargaining power and whether they rely on specialized assets for commercialization owned by others in their supply chain or (potential) competitors, and their ability and willingness to cooperate with these other companies. although presented separately, there are clear overlaps between the three trade-offs. for example, scaling up low-carbon technologies is not only a technological issue. it also involves being able to target mainstream markets, which often depends on cooperation with powerful players in focal markets. similarly, low-carbon technologies that need large amounts of r&d are in general fi rst commercialized on a small scale in niche markets. it is important to note that managerial perceptions and interpretations of the problem and its solution(s) may differ considerably (kolk and levy, 2004; sharma, 2000). these sometimes divergent perspectives particularly stem from the considerable uncertainty and complexity in view of the diversity of contexts and policy responses, which means that capabilities developed in response to this 'moving target' will need constant rejuvenation. perceptions also infl uence which positions companies take vis-a-vis the various trade-offs (kolk and pinkse, 2008). we have explained how several industryand fi rm-specifi c factors - technological dynamism, complementarity between new technologies and existing assets, and ownership of specialized assets for commercialization - infl uence how companies strike a balance between the different trade-offs and deal with the uncertainty created by the current 'climate policy deadlock'. of course, this list of factors is not exhaustive, and considering how other
data.question: Why must effluent flow measurements be carried out?
data.text: to record the discharge pattern and variations
data.question: Does the domestic flow variation follow the daily discharge pattern?
data.text: the daily discharge pattern for industrial wastewater does not follow the domestic flow variations
data.question: Is the total maximum flow less than or more than the simple sum of the maximum flows?
data.text: the total maximum flow (domestic industrial) is normally less than the simple sum of the maximum flows
data.context: occasional mixing of wastewater with domestic sewage and storm water additionally, whenever possible, effluent flow measurements must be carried out throughout the working day, to record the discharge pattern and variations. in the event of having no specific information available for the industry, table 2.12 can be used as a starting point to allow estimation of the probable effluent flow range. these values are presented in terms of water consumption per unit of product manufactured. for simplicity it can be assumed that sewage flow is equal to water consumption. it can be seen from the table that there is a great variety of consumption values for the same type of industry. if there are no specific data available for the industry in question, specific literature references relative to the industrial process in focus must be consulted. the table presented only gives a starting point for more superficial or general studies. the daily discharge pattern for industrial wastewater does not follow the domestic flow variations, changing substantially from industry to industry. industrial flow peaks do not necessarily coincide with the domestic peaks, that is to say, the total maximum flow (domestic industrial) is normally less than the simple sum of the maximum flows.
data.question: How can losses from phoma stem canker be minimized?
data.text: for instance, losses from phoma stem canker of oilseed rape caused by leptosphaeria maculans can be minimized with a 'low' adaptation strategy, which may require some farmer-led changes to adopt best management practices, but 'high'level long-term success will require significant changes and investments from the public and private sector, including the farmer (barnes et al. 2010
data.question: How would you categorize the processes keeping organisms in benign balance?
data.text: these factors or processes can be categorized in terms of risk mitigation and risk enhancement (fig. 2
data.question: How would it be possible to to solve the challenve of increasing food production?
data.text: however, if the challenge of increasing food production by 50% by 2050 can be met only by deploying cultivars with single or multiple resistance genes or by use of fungicides
data.context: all crop protection could be considered as an integrated approach since pesticides are directly applied only when there is a perceived or actual threat. however, such applications of conventional crop protection products often disrupt the many processes keeping such organisms in some sort of benign balance in non-epidemic situations. these factors or processes can be categorized in terms of risk mitigation and risk enhancement (fig. 2). these ratedetermining processes are the result of complex interactions between these 'remediating' and 'enhancing' influences. each process itself is a complex biological system with multiple components, each influenced by climatic variables in different ways. the challenge is to rank the influences of both the processes and the key environmental / climatic influences in parallel in order to construct influence models to predict the likely effects of climate change on production systems. garrett et al. (2011) offer one approach to improve understanding of these complexities. the robustness, vulnerability or sensitivity of different processes should be assessed together with the feasibility of manipulating them. for example, enhancing endophytic colonization of plants offers prospects of enhanced abiotic and biotic tolerance, thus addressing multiple consequences of climate change in some plants. however, the magnitude of the responses is likely to be limited and for many plants appropriate endophytes may not be available. there are also many practical issues in establishing and maintaining colonization that have not yet been determined. by comparison, deployment of a major gene for resistance effective under a range of environmental conditions delivers high efficacy for a narrow target disease control with limited duration and high vulnerability. enhanced efficacy can be delivered through incorporating heterogeneity into both the crop and risk mitigation processes, effectively spreading risk, albeit at the expense of maximum gain from implementation of less durable options, such as deployment of resistant cultivars in extensive monoculture or extensive use of a single fungicide (newton et al. 2009). however, if the challenge of increasing food production by 50% by 2050 can be met only by deploying cultivars with single or multiple resistance genes or by use of fungicides, it will be difficult to argue for an alternative approach that may not produce the highest attainable yields. there are many possible intervention points in the crop-pest / pathogen interaction, but decisions on which are to be prioritized will depend on a combination of their likely effects and the feasibility of manipulating them in a beneficial way that is both practical and acceptable. many treatments require initial investment in capacity and resource building referred to above, but if the potential benefits are great then this should guide investment. rankings are suggested in terms of high, medium or low in fig. 1, but their validity should be the focus of research policy debate. to be an effective input to policy debates, potential strategies must accompany cost estimates for various levels of adaptations. for instance, losses from phoma stem canker of oilseed rape caused by leptosphaeria maculans can be minimized with a 'low' adaptation strategy, which may require some farmer-led changes to adopt best management practices, but 'high'level long-term success will require significant changes and investments from the public and private sector, including the farmer (barnes et al. 2010). pests and pathogens frequently co-exist with crops in benign relationships where symptoms or damage remain
data.question: True or false, Unit homogeneity assumptions can never tested or eliminated entirely?
data.text: unit homogeneity assumptions can be weakened but never tested or eliminated entirely
data.question: if the effects of high-frequency changes equal the effects estimated with long differences and in cross section, then what does this mean?
data.text: if the effects of high-frequency changes equal the effects estimated with long differences and in cross section, then one possible explanation is that the marginal treatment comparability assumption is valid
data.question: How is it possible to implement a partial test of the marginal treatment comparability assumption?
data.text: it may be possible to implement a partial test of the marginal treatment comparability assumption by comparing whether estimated effects are similar when using approaches that exploit climatic variations at different temporal frequencies
data.context: unit homogeneity assumptions can be weakened but never tested or eliminated entirely, a fundamental limitation in causal inference generally. however, it may be possible to implement a partial test of the marginal treatment comparability assumption by comparing whether estimated effects are similar when using approaches that exploit climatic variations at different temporal frequencies. if ^ bcs ^ bld ^ bts, i.e., if the effects of high-frequency changes equal the effects estimated with long differences and in cross section, then one possible explanation is that the marginal treatment comparability assumption is valid, and temporary changes in realizations of c have similar effects to analogous changes in c this could be true if the sum of all belief effects is small on net. versions
data.question: Which year Population growth is projected to increase?
data.text: the analysis makes a number of necessary but unlikely assumptions. the number of annual cases of diarrhoeal disease, malaria and malnutrition is assumed to remain the same over time. population growth is projected to increase under the medium variant from 6.1 billion in 2000 to 8.3 billion in 2030
data.question: Describe events when the population increases
data.text: using the current number of cases in the analysis assumes that incidence will decrease as population increases, without attribution of the possible reasons for such a decline. if disease incidence rates remain constant, or decline less rapidly, until 2030, then the number of cases attributed to climate change would increase in these estimates (and therefore the costs would increase). the estimates also assume that the cost of the interventions remain constant from 2000 to 2030
data.question: Explain  unit cost?
data.text: there are further uncertainties about the unit cost, which varies significantly between countries (world bank, 2006). it should also be noted that new interventions may be developed in the next few years (e.g. a vaccine for malaria) or current ones may become ineffective (e.g. through widespread insecticide resistance in mosquitoes). the health interventions in table 4.1 are not 100% effective (based on research on both efficacy and compliance) (edejer et al, 2005). therefore, they will not prevent all the additional cases attributed to climate change, and there will be some 'residual' health impacts
data.context: the analysis makes a number of necessary but unlikely assumptions. the number of annual cases of diarrhoeal disease, malaria and malnutrition is assumed to remain the same over time. population growth is projected to increase under the medium variant from 6.1 billion in 2000 to 8.3 billion in 2030. using the current number of cases in the analysis assumes that incidence will decrease as population increases, without attribution of the possible reasons for such a decline. if disease incidence rates remain constant, or decline less rapidly, until 2030, then the number of cases attributed to climate change would increase in these estimates (and therefore the costs would increase). the estimates also assume that the cost of the interventions remain constant from 2000 to 2030. there are further uncertainties about the unit cost, which varies significantly between countries (world bank, 2006). it should also be noted that new interventions may be developed in the next few years (e.g. a vaccine for malaria) or current ones may become ineffective (e.g. through widespread insecticide resistance in mosquitoes). the health interventions in table 4.1 are not 100% effective (based on research on both efficacy and compliance) (edejer et al, 2005). therefore, they will not prevent all the additional cases attributed to climate change, and there will be some 'residual' health impacts.
data.question: What is the cause of increase in fire frequency of boreal forest in Alaska?
data.text: by black spruce in the middle holocene, which caused an increase in fire frequency
data.question: The dominance of which plants resulted in functional diversity?
data.text: replacement of temperate deciduous broadleaved species by mediterranean trees
data.question: What may lead to greater stocks in carbon?
data.text: greater phenological diversity may lead to a longer period of annual functioning and therefore greater stocks in carbon
data.context: (johnson, 1992). similar effects have been documented during the invasion of boreal forests in alaska by black spruce in the middle holocene, which caused an increase in fire frequency (lynch et al ., 2003). conversely, dynamic models predict an increase in deciduous species and concurrent changes in fire regimes for these regions under scenarios of climate change (rupp et al ., 2000). in the southern part of temperate europe, we predicted a replacement of temperate deciduous broadleaved species by mediterranean trees (all functional types). these resulted in an increase in functional diversity, producing communities more functionally mixed. greater phenological diversity may lead to a longer period of annual functioning and therefore greater stocks in carbon. the ranges of temperate tree species can often be related to the length of the growing season (gdd5) and especially to absolute minimum temperature (woodward, 1987). in particular, the limit where broadleaved evergreen species are replaced by deciduous species is mostly climatically determined (woodward, 1987). however, the northern limit of mediterranean species in europe appears to be controlled by a combination of growing season length (or cumulated heat) and minimum winter temperature (woodward, 1987). climate change is likely to be reflected in these with increasing growing season length and decreasing minimum temperatures. such changes are likely to lead to the northwards expansion of mediterranean species,
data.question: Does climate change effect the frequency of forest fires?
data.text: fire frequency and severity will affect forest productivity. hence, climate change may either enhance or mitigate fire risk, depending on whether fuels become dryer or wetter in each location and whether the increased warming causes a decrease in forest growth due to drying and increased fire frequencies, or an increase in growth due to warming
data.question: Will altitude be a contributing factor towards the regularity of forest fires?
data.text: particularly at higher elevations. in fuel-limited ecosystems such as pinon-juniper and portions of the lower montane, fires are projected to become less frequent since these forests are likely to become less productive due to the warmer and possibly drier conditions
data.question: What are the key differences between mechanical treatments versus a prescribed fire to keep wildfires at bay?
data.text: both prescribed fire and mechanical treatments have the potential to restore and maintain historical forest structure, promote native diversity, and lower the risk of severe air quality events. treated forests will store less carbon than untreated forests but, in montane ecosystems, should be more resistant to type conversion and the associated long-term loss of carbon stock. where feasible, prescribed fire in these forests may be the better choice for mimicking a natural process and promoting biodiversity, whereas mechanical treatments produce many of the benefits of prescribed fire without associated air quality concerns or the risk of fire escape
data.context: over the longer term, after the next fire modifies existing fuel loads, the projections for future fire regimes are less certain due in large part to the uncertainty in the forecasts for future precipitation, the role of invasive annual grasses, future land management and land use changes, and how the changes in climate, fire frequency and severity will affect forest productivity. hence, climate change may either enhance or mitigate fire risk, depending on whether fuels become dryer or wetter in each location and whether the increased warming causes a decrease in forest growth due to drying and increased fire frequencies, or an increase in growth due to warming, particularly at higher elevations. in fuel-limited ecosystems such as pinon-juniper and portions of the lower montane, fires are projected to become less frequent since these forests are likely to become less productive due to the warmer and possibly drier conditions. in forest types where fires are climate-limited, such as the upper montane and subalpine, fire frequency may increase as fuel production does not limit fire occurrence, and the fire season will increase in length and severity due to the lighter snowpack, earlier snowmelt, increased fire season length, and warmer temperatures. these changes will almost certainly overwhelm any possible increases in precipitation. we also assessed how each these projected trajectories in fire frequency and severity are likely to affect four key ecosystem services: carbon sequestration, runoff and water quality, air quality, and biodiversity. to some extent, impacts on ecosystem services can be influenced by future forest management alternatives. in pinon-juniper, management actions that prevent wildfire and increase fire suppression effectiveness would help to preserve woodland structure and its associated biodiversity, limit opportunities for annual grass invasion, maintain carbon stocks, and preserve water and air quality. in lower and upper montane forests, both prescribed fire and mechanical treatments have the potential to restore and maintain historical forest structure, promote native diversity, and lower the risk of severe air quality events. treated forests will store less carbon than untreated forests but, in montane ecosystems, should be more resistant to type conversion and the associated long-term loss of carbon stock. where feasible, prescribed fire in these forests may be the better choice for mimicking a natural process and promoting biodiversity, whereas mechanical treatments produce many of the benefits of prescribed fire without associated air quality concerns or the risk of fire escape. finally, in subalpine forests, allowing wildfires to burn where possible would mimic the natural fire process in these systems, benefit forest species, and maintain carbon stores. however, wildfires come with drawbacks in terms of potential increases in erosion and episodes of poor air quality. the feasibility of alternative fire management approaches will be greatly constrained by local considerations such as land ownership patterns, agency budgets and logistics, federal and local policies, tolerance of risk, and landscape context. further, our assessment shows that there tend to be tradeoffs among management alternatives, and that often no single management strategy will simultaneously optimize each of the four ecosystem services considered here. nevertheless, some management approaches may be more beneficial than others for conserving forest ecosystem services, and these will vary widely by forest type. key research needs include the relative roles of fuel versus climate limitation in the risk, occurrence, and severity of future fires across the forested zones of the rocky mountains, and how land management activities will interact with climate to impact forest ecosystem services in the region. despite remaining uncertainties, our current knowledge is sufficient to make informed management decisions that reasonably weigh the likely consequences of alternative management strategies under a future climate. acknowledgement we thank two anonymous reviews for their comments on an earlier version of this paper. references
data.question: What is one of the most sensitive indicators of climate?
data.text: glaciers are one of the most sensitive indicators of climate
data.question: What plan provides an opportunity for developing and economic transitioning countries to coherently address the needs, priorities and responsibilities in the environment.
data.text: the bali strategic plan, adopted by 23rd session of unep governing council in 2005 provides an opportunity for developing countries and countries in economic transition to coherently address the needs, priorities and responsibilities in the field of environment
data.question: What two regions are benefited by the extensive research, studies and reports that were supported by UNEP?
data.text: i am sure that this comprehensive report and digital database will be of service to all the scientists, planners and decision-makers working in and outside the region in this field
data.context: glaciers are one of the most sensitive indicators of climate as they grow and shrink in response to the changing air temperature. the glaciers of the hindu kush-himalaya (hkh) are nature's renewable storehouse of fresh water from which hundreds of millions of people downstream benefit just when it is most needed during the dry hot season before the start of monsoon. understanding the pattern of snow accumulation and melting is therefore important for the appropriate utilization of this himalayan water resource. observing glacier advancement and recession is also important as it can assist in identifying and thus mitigating mountain disasters in order to safeguard the livelihoods of vulnerable mountain people and their downstream neighbors. climate change in the himalayas: monitoring of glaciers and glacial lakes is one of the outputs under the bali strategic plan for technology support and capacity building. the bali strategic plan, adopted by 23rd session of unep governing council in 2005 provides an opportunity for developing countries and countries in economic transition to coherently address the needs, priorities and responsibilities in the field of environment. the book is built upon the research which unep supported during 1999 - 2001, where comprehensive inventory and a geographic information system (gis) database of glaciers and glacial lakes in nepal and bhutan were prepared using available maps, satellite images, aerial photographs, reports, and field studies. this report includes a description of the methods used to identify glaciers and glacial lakes, including those that are potentially dangerous. it is complemented by an inventory and maps of the glaciers and glacial lakes in nepal and bhutan. the book includes a summary of the results of studies of various glacial lakes and a brief review of the causes and effects of known glacial lake outburst floods or glof events in nepal and bhutan. i am sure that this comprehensive report and digital database will be of service to all the scientists, planners and decision-makers working in and outside the region in this field. through informed actions, we hope it will contribute to improving the lives of those living in the mountains and help safeguard future investments, such as infrastructure for the benefit of people in the region. unep is grateful to the international centre for integrated mountain development (icimod) for carrying out this important project and to both national governments concerned for their viii valuable support and advice. we are also pleased that this project has enabled us to continue and strengthen our collaboration in assisting to develop regional capacity with the department of hydrology and meteorology (government of nepal) and the department of geology and mines, ministry of trade and industry (royal government of bhutan). achim steiner united nations under-secretary general and executive director united nations environment program ix
data.question: What is purpose of the paper?
data.text: rather than highlighting and critically assessing each of the studies that have used unreliable techniques and provided questionable interpretations, the purpose of the present paper is to (1) overview the common techniques and methodologies used to measure mo2,min and mo2,max in fishes, (2) highlight areas that require additional care and consideration by scientists, (3) provide some recommendations to ensure that future measurements of mo2 in fishes are necessarily rigorous and comparable between studies, (4) explore the relevance and usefulness of aerobic scope and toptas, and (5) call for caution when interpreting results of future studies so that the ocltt hypothesis is tested rather than assumed to be widely applicable
data.question: What is the focus of the paper?
data.text: while this paper focuses on fishes, much of the information is relevant to all vertebrates (e.g. amphibians) and invertebrates (e.g. corals, crustaceans, molluscs) that obtain oxygen from aquatic environments
data.question: For what animals is this paper relevant?
data.text: while this paper focuses on fishes, much of the information is relevant to all vertebrates (e.g. amphibians) and invertebrates (e.g. corals, crustaceans, molluscs) that obtain oxygen from aquatic environments
data.context: cech, 1990), we felt a new review was timely given the relatively recent advent of new technologies and the renewed interest in metabolic measurements throughout the scientific community. rather than highlighting and critically assessing each of the studies that have used unreliable techniques and provided questionable interpretations, the purpose of the present paper is to (1) overview the common techniques and methodologies used to measure mo2,min and mo2,max in fishes, (2) highlight areas that require additional care and consideration by scientists, (3) provide some recommendations to ensure that future measurements of mo2 in fishes are necessarily rigorous and comparable between studies, (4) explore the relevance and usefulness of aerobic scope and toptas, and (5) call for caution when interpreting results of future studies so that the ocltt hypothesis is tested rather than assumed to be widely applicable. while this paper focuses on fishes, much of the information is relevant to all vertebrates (e.g. amphibians) and invertebrates (e.g. corals, crustaceans, molluscs) that obtain oxygen from aquatic environments.
data.question: What is the name of the project summarised?
data.text: this special issue of climatic change summarises the scientific outcome of the prudence project
data.question: Who was responsible for coordinating STARDEX?
data.text: coordinated by clare goodess at the university of east anglia
data.question: Who was responsible for coordinating MICE?
data.text: coordinated by jean palutikof, also at the university of east anglia
data.context: this special issue of climatic change summarises the scientific outcome of the prudence project. the papers encompass the final results from the six integrated work packages (wp) of the project, comprising the design of the model simulations and analyses of rcm behaviour (wp1), evaluation and intercomparison of simulated climate changes (wp2), specialised analyses of impacts on water resources (wp3) and on other sectors including agriculture, ecosystems, energy, and transport (wp4), investigation of extreme weather events (wp5) and implications of the results for policy (wp6). in addition, prudence joined with two other related ec-funded projects to form the prudence-stardex-mice cluster. stardex (statistical and regional dynamical downscaling of extremes for european regions; contract evk2-ct2001-0115), coordinated by clare goodess at the university of east anglia, was concerned with improving statistical downscaling methods for constructing scenarios of changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme events, while mice 9 9 (modelling the impact of climate extremes; contract evk2-ct2001-0018), coordinated by jean palutikof, also at the university of east anglia, made use of information from both dynamically and statistically downscaled methods to explore the potential impacts of extreme events in europe..
data.question: What is taken into account by the Eulerian formulation description of the domain of ice?
data.text: the domain of ice is described by a eulerian formulation that allows all changes in topology to be taken into account
data.question: In defining the volume of fluid function, what values are taken inside the glacier outside?
data.text: we define the volume of fluid function, taking the value '1' inside the glacier and '0' outside
data.question: What is contained in the large box that the function ph is defined in?
data.text: this function, denoted ph is defined in a large box which contains the entire glacier and its near environment
data.context: the domain of ice is described by a eulerian formulation that allows all changes in topology to be taken into account. following maronnier and others (2003) and jouvet and others (2008), we define the volume of fluid function, taking the value '1' inside the glacier and '0' outside. this function, denoted ph is defined in a large box which contains the entire glacier and its near environment. a local mass balance along the ice/air interface yields the transport equation, . ph uiph, i b ds, (8) where b is the mass-balance function and b ds is a source term acting on the ice/air interface.
data.question: What must be grounded in a collaboration between producers and users of climate information in a water management context?
data.text: collaboration between producers and users of climate information in a water management context must be grounded in an appreciation for the perspectives of those who work in water management, including their decision context and multiple stresses
data.question: What three factors are essential to collaboration?
data.text: three factors discussed below are essential to collaboration: leadership, resources, and integration skills
data.question: What's another term for effective systems?
data.text: effective systems--what we have termed knowledge- action systems
data.context: collaboration between producers and users of climate information in a water management context must be grounded in an appreciation for the perspectives of those who work in water management, including their decision context and multiple stresses. collaboration in effective systems--what we have termed knowledge- action systems--does not permit a particular tool or technology (e.g., enso forecasting) to drive the dialogue between scientists and decision makers. instead, communication among experts, policymakers, and lay audiences is guided by the ultimate outcomes all protagonists agree must be advanced: the reduction of risk from climate variability (cash and buizer 2005; sarewitz and pielke 2007). this brief examination, based in part on risa self-assessments, suggests that three factors discussed below are essential to collaboration: leadership, resources, and integration skills.
data.question: What are two objections arise on  interdecadal climate variability ?
data.text: two key questions arise for all interdecadal climate variability: is the variability self-excited or stochastically driven
data.question: In which model it reveals that all  interdecadal variability is driven by stochastic climate noise ?
data.text: with recent studies in more realistic models, especially in cgcms, it appears that almost all interdecadal variability is driven by stochastic climate noise
data.question: How red noise model describes that interdecadal variability is driven by stochastic climate noise ?
data.text: it appears that almost all interdecadal variability is driven by stochastic climate noise that is associated with internal atmospheric variability (rather than self-exciting). as such, a red noise model, which has no preferred oscillation time scale, is often used as a null hypothesis to test against whether an interdecadal variability mode is oscillatory. if an interdecadal mode is found to have spectral peaks significantly different from a red noise, this mode can be assumed to be of certain oscillatory nature
data.context: two key questions arise for all interdecadal climate variability: is the variability self-excited or stochastically driven and what determines the time scale of the variability? with recent studies in more realistic models, especially in cgcms, it appears that almost all interdecadal variability is driven by stochastic climate noise that is associated with internal atmospheric variability (rather than self-exciting). as such, a red noise model, which has no preferred oscillation time scale, is often used as a null hypothesis to test against whether an interdecadal variability mode is oscillatory. if an interdecadal mode is found to have spectral peaks significantly different from a red noise, this mode can be assumed to be of certain oscillatory nature. in this case, the default paradigm will be a stochastic climate model of a damped oscillator and the critical issue is then to understand the mechanisms that determine the oscillation time scale of the interdecadal mode. here, we provide a brief overview of various mechanisms. more details on these mechanisms will be provided later.
data.question: What have researchers identified and categorized?
data.text: psychological barriers
data.question: What have researchers listed at the individual level?
data.text: uncertainty, lack of knowledge, reluctance to lifestyle change
data.question: What have researchers listed at the social level?
data.text: lack of political action, social norms and expectation, and lack of enabling initiatives
data.context: researchers have begun to identify and categorize these proposed psychological barriers. several category systems exist (e.g., refs 15, 18, and 98), and the specific hypothesized barriers vary slightly among researchers. lorenzoni et al.98suggest two levels at which barriers are perceived. at the individual level, they include uncertainty, lack of knowledge, reluctance to lifestyle change, etc., and at the social level they include lack of political action, social norms and expectation, and lack of enabling initiatives. kollmuss and agyeman15suggest that some barriers are internal (i.e., psychological) and others are external (i.e., structural). gifford's exhaustive account of proposed psychological barriers organizes them into seven categories: limited cognition, ideologies, other people, sunk costs, discredence, perceived risks, and limited behavior.18
data.question: Describe Signal-to-noise?
data.text: signal-to-noise ratio for coupled model sst forecasts for the tropical pacific at different lead times
data.question: Why breakdown in predictability occur?
data.text: note the decreasing signal-to-noise ratio with increasing lead time which is associated with a breakdown in predictability (spring barrier) over this period. (e)-(h) august 1 initial condition forecasts at leads of (e) 3, (f) 4, (g) 5, and (h) 6 months. note that the signal-to-noise ratio remains high even with increasing lead time
data.context: signal-to-noise ratio for coupled model sst forecasts for the tropical pacific at different lead times. warmer colors indicate <none>33larger signal-to-noise ratios; cooler colors indicate smaller signal to noise ratios. (a)(d) february 1 initial condition forecasts at leads of (a) 3, (b) 4, (c) 5, and (d) 6 months. note the decreasing signal-to-noise ratio with increasing lead time which is associated with a breakdown in predictability (spring barrier) over this period. (e)-(h) august 1 initial condition forecasts at leads of (e) 3, (f) 4, (g) 5, and (h) 6 months. note that the signal-to-noise ratio remains high even with increasing lead time.
data.question: What is the most used mode of getting from one place to another for most people?
data.text: most trips are off -road by foot
data.question: What health effects does air transportation have?
data.text: beyond its eff ects on climate and aircraft noise, reducing air transportation is unlikely to bring important health co-benefi ts, with the possible exception of the role of aviation in the global spread of infectious diseases
data.question: Is there an alternative means of transport?
data.text: rail travel off ers a viable alternative
data.context: the transition to a low-carbon low-energy transportation system involving substantially increased levels of active transport has the potential to bring considerable health co-benefi ts, as outlined elsewhere in the series.53 road traffi c crashes account for around 1*2 million deaths each year,54 with ten times as many people seriously injured. urban air pollution, much of which is transport related, causes around 800 000 premature deaths a year.3,55 reductions in the volume and speed of traffi c, especially in cities, will mitigate climate eff ects, reduce injury rates, and improve air quality.54 because road danger is a strong disincentive to walking and cycling, safer streets could lead to a virtuous circle of increasing levels of active transport. this increase will have important consequences for physical activity and personal energy balance, and would aff ect rates of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.56 other co-benefi ts would include improved equity in access, reduced noise and congestion, greater energy security, and benefi ts arising from the alternative uses of the considerable resource costs of road transport. clearly, the decarbonisation of transport is not only essential to averting climate change, but has huge potential to improve public health. greenhouse-gas emissions from the transport sector can be reduced through a combination of trip substitution (eg, by telecommunications), improved technology and vehicle effi ciency, trip distance reduction, and a shift in modes of transport. on their own, technological developments will not be suffi cient because of predicted increases in motor vehicle sales and use. from a public-health perspective, modal shift off ers the greatest opportunity for benefi t. a shift to cycling, walking, and public transport also lowers energy use, which makes it easier to satisfy demands from non-fossil fuel sources such as biofuels. how achievable is this? much of the answer lies in the reconceptualisation and redesign of cities. half of the world's population now lives in cities. urban areas account for 78% of anthropogenic carbon emissions.9 the spatial design of cities is a key determinant of transport sustainability. high-density land use means shorter distances that can be covered readily by walking and cycling, and high-occupancy public transport. such measures need to be accompanied by policies that support walking and cycling, including legal priority, reallocation of street space and time, making trips more pleasant and attractive, and fi nancial incentives. cycling accounts for about a third of trips in some european cities57 but for less than 1% of trips in others. cycling also has considerable potential in low-income and middle-income cities where currently most journeys are by foot or public transport. financial incentives can include converting fi xed costs of motor vehicle use into distance-based charges that would send a more appropriate price signal and would discourage car use for short journeys. the expansion of car clubs as an alternative to car ownership, especially in urban areas, could contribute to reductions in unnecessary car use. although road building accounts for most transport-related international aid, the extent to which road construction benefi ts poor people remains open to question. most of the world's population will never own a car and local transport surveys show that road building fails to meet the transportation needs of poor people, for whom most trips are off -road by foot and over short distances, carrying small loads for subsistence needs.58 wheeled non-motorised modes such as bicycles and carts are substantially more energy effi cient than walking and headloading (ie, carrying items on one's head). increasing access to these methods of transport, combined with a substantial increase in the provision of foot and cycle infrastructure, would be a sustainable way to improve health and development. such transport can potentially reduce the large time burden of carrying water and fi rewood and hence free time for education, non-subsistence production, and other activities. beyond its eff ects on climate and aircraft noise, reducing air transportation is unlikely to bring important health co-benefi ts, with the possible exception of the role of aviation in the global spread of infectious diseases. substantial gains in the energy effi ciency of aviation are unlikely and, in any event, the growth in volume is predicted to far outweigh effi ciency gains in the medium term. aviation biofuels are under development but they would compete with other demands on bioenergy. current worldwide plans for expansion of aviation could well be unsustainable from a greenhouse-gas standpoint; effi cient, equitable, and eff ective methods of limiting the use of air travel will be needed. such methods would probably work best through economic incentives such as taxes, and by focusing initially on short-haul fl ights for which rail travel off ers a viable alternative.
data.question: How does leptospirosis enter the bloodstream?
data.text: the pathogen enters the bloodstream and after reaching the kidneys multiplies and is excreted in the urine
data.question: What is leptospirosis?
data.text: leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterial pathogen leptospira interrogans
data.context: leptospirosis leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterial pathogen leptospira interrogans and is transmitted in urine from animals to humans, either directly, when urine from an infected animal (including dogs, cats, cattle, rodents and wild animals) enters the body through a break in the skin, or indirectly, in contaminated water and soil (ingraham and ingraham, 1995; bharti et al. 2003). the pathogen enters the bloodstream and after reaching the kidneys multiplies and is excreted in the urine. the disease occurs worldwide in urban and rural areas, and in both north and south (chin, 2000), but there is a higher incidence of human infection in tropical regions compared with temperate (bharti, et al. 2003). there is often a lack of awareness of the disease,
data.question: What do points above the dotted line represent in Figure 5?
data.text: in fig. 5 points above the dotted line represent sites for which vs-lite produces simulations that are generally more stable than pc regression
data.question: What do points below the dotted line represent in Figure 5?
data.text: in fig. 5 points above the dotted line represent sites for which vs-lite produces simulations that are generally more stable than pc regression, and points below the dotted line represent sites where pc regression simulations are more stable
data.question: Which model allowed more of the site simulations to achieve a greater index of stability?
data.text: out of 317 site simulations, 224 have a greater index of stability when computed with the vs-lite model, rather than pc-regression
data.context: both vs-lite simulations produce a greater fraction of simulated network chronologies correlating significantly with observation at every p value tested between 0 and 0.1 than does pc-regression, shown in the left-hand panel of fig. 5 the right-hand panel shows the stability index is for vs-lite and pc regression simulations of the m08 network is show in fig. 5 points above the dotted line represent sites for which vs-lite produces simulations that are generally more stable than pc regression, and points below the dotted line represent sites where pc regression simulations are more stable. out of 317 site simulations, 224 have a greater index of stability when computed with the vs-lite model, rather than pc-regression. the left and right figures in the top panel of fig. 6 shows the spatial patterns associated with the first empirical orthogonal function in the observed and simulated data,
data.question: Who else along with bees need to adapt to changes in climate and flora?
data.text: not only bees, but beekeepers too, will need to adapt to changes in climate and flora
data.question: What does mean by "beekeepers too, will need to adapt to changes in climate and flora'?
data.text: his means that some regions that are now hostile to beekeeping will become of interest to beekeepers, whilst other foraging areas will have to be abandoned
data.question: What is a decisive factor in beekeepers' choices?
data.text: a decisive factor in beekeepers' choices will be the adaptiveness of honey plants to climate change
data.context: not only bees, but beekeepers too, will need to adapt to changes in climate and flora. this means that some regions that are now hostile to beekeeping will become of interest to beekeepers, whilst other foraging areas will have to be abandoned. a decisive factor in beekeepers' choices will be the adaptiveness of honey plants to climate change. beekeepers will also need to adapt their bees to climate change, abandoning local ecotypes or races in favour of better-adapted honey bees. this means that measures must be envisaged to conserve honey bee races and ecotypes to limit the loss of bee biodiversity. an appealing technique is sperm cryopreservation.
data.question: In which way did this Viconian understanding influence other historians' point of view?
data.text: it made its way into marx's famous utterance that "men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please" and into the title of the marxist archaeologist v. gordon childe's well-known book, man makes himself 
data.question: How can one find evidence of Croke's pioneering of Vico?
data.text: behind croce and his adaptations of hegel and hidden in croce's creative misreading of his predecessors stands the more distant and foundational figure of vico
data.question: In which way can one find Viconian thought in E. H. Carr's 1961 book, What Is History?
data.text: roce seems to have been a major source of this distinction in the second half of the twentieth century through his influence on "the lonely oxford historicist" collingwood who, in turn, deeply influenced e. h. carr's 1961 book, what is history? which is still perhaps one of the best-selling books on the historian's craft
data.context: this viconian understanding was to become a part of the historian's common sense in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. it made its way into marx's famous utterance that "men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please" and into the title of the marxist archaeologist v. gordon childe's well-known book, man makes himself .13croce seems to have been a major source of this distinction in the second half of the twentieth century through his influence on "the lonely oxford historicist" collingwood who, in turn, deeply influenced e. h. carr's 1961 book, what is history? which is still perhaps one of the best-selling books on the historian's craft.14croce's thoughts, one could say, unbeknown to his legatees and with unforeseeable modifications, have triumphed in our understanding of history in the postcolonial age. behind croce and his adaptations of hegel and hidden in croce's creative misreading of his predecessors stands the more distant and foundational figure of vico.15
data.question: Where can statistical methods used be found?
data.text: statistical methods are summarized here and described in detail in the supplementary online appendix
data.question: What models were used to example the relationships between non-cholera cases with rainfall and temperature?
data.text: generalized linear poisson regression models
data.question: How were the data for public holidays dealt with to avoid bias?
data.text: an indicator variable for public holidays was incorporated into the model to control bias in the event that holidays affected access to the hospital, as was suggested in a previous time-series study in the uk
data.context: statistical methods are summarized here and described in detail in the supplementary online appendix. we examined the relationship of the number of weekly non-cholera cases with rainfall and temperature using generalized linear poisson regression models allowing for overdispersion.7to account for the seasonality of non-cholera counts not directly due to the weather, fourier terms up to the sixth harmonic were introduced into the model. indicator variables for the years of the study were incorporated into the model to allow for long-term trends and other variations between years. an indicator variable for public holidays was incorporated into the model to control bias in the event that holidays affected access to the hospital, as was suggested in a previous time-series study in the uk.8to allow for the autocorrelations an autoregressive term at order one was incorporated into the models.9
data.question: Define flood?
data.text: among other aspects, the extent of the flood and the changes in the peak floods are analysed
data.question: Explain Procedure for selecting?
data.text: a procedure for selecting a sub-set of global climate models is also presented as all available climate models could not be used
data.question: Technical details of the CGE?
data.text: annexes provide additional information about using the crop models to test adaptation options and technical details of the cge
data.context: this study is organized into seven further chapters. chapter 2 sets the historical context of climate risks in bangladesh. past experience with floods, droughts, sea level rise and observed trends is reviewed. broader regional issues are also briefly discussed. chapter 3 reviews the predicted future changes in precipitation and temperature (both at the country level and at the gangesbrahmaputra-meghna [gbm] river basin level). chapter 4 presents an analysis on modelling the hydrology of future floods. this consists of both descriptions of a regional and national hydrologic models used and an analysis of the characteristics of the future floods both temporally and spatially. among other aspects, the extent of the flood and the changes in the peak floods are analysed. a procedure for selecting a sub-set of global climate models is also presented as all available climate models could not be used. chapter 5 describes the dynamic biophysical crop production models used. here, various impacts of different climate risks (floods, droughts and sea level rise) on agriculture yields, focusing on rice and wheat, are incorporated. chapter 6 describes a dynamic computable general equilibrium model used to evaluate the macro-economic and household welfare impacts of both climate variability and change-induced yield losses and gains. chapter 7 presents potential adaptation options for the agricultural sector including unit costs that are currently being piloted in the field. finally, in chapter 8, the study concludes with general recommendations. annexes provide additional information about using the crop models to test adaptation options and technical details of the cge.
data.question: What is thought to impact reproductive fitness in many endotherms?
data.text: nest or roost temperature troost) is thought to impact reproductive fitness in many endotherms
data.question: What is large enough to affect reproductive success?
data.text: naturally occurring variability in nest or roost microclimate is large enough to affect reproductive success
data.question: What is more strongly influenced by roost microclimate?
data.text: eptesicus fuscus is more strongly influenced by roost microclimate
data.context: nest or roost temperature troost) is thought to impact reproductive fitness in many endotherms but few studies have directly tested the hypothesis that naturally occurring variability in nest or roost microclimate is large enough to affect reproductive success. we conducted a field experiment to test whether roost selection by cavitydwelling, reproductive female big brown bats eptesicus fuscus is more strongly influenced by roost microclimate or a physical characteristic of roosts that facilitates social thermoregulation (i.e., cavity volume). we quantified spatial variability in troost within different-sized, unoccupied cavities and also recorded troost in occupied vs unoccupied roost trees. we used equations relating energy use and ambient temperature for big brown bats to calculate values of daily energy expenditure from troost data because energy is a currency that likely affects reproductive fitness. we found no difference between maximum and minimum troost, spatial variability in troost, or predicted energy expenditure in more-preferred vs less-preferred roosts. however, there was a significant difference between troost
data.question: What suggest our conclusions?
data.text: our results suggest that most of the climate model bias patterns are indeed correlated
data.question: What have in common climate models ?
data.text: in particular, climate models developed by the same institution have highly correlated biases
data.question: What is one standard supposition about climate models?
data.text: one standard assumption is that these climate models are random samples from a distribution of possible models centered around the true climate
data.context: a limited number of complex numerical models that simulate the earth's atmosphere, ocean and land processes are the primary tool to study how climate may change over the next century due to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. one standard assumption is that these climate models are random samples from a distribution of possible models centered around the true climate. this implies that agreement with observations and the predictive skill of climate models will improve as more models are added to an average of the models. in this paper, we present a statistical methodology to quantify whether climate models are indeed unbiased and whether and where model biases are correlated across models. we consider the simulated mean state and the simulated trend over the period 1970-1999 for northern hemisphere summer and winter. the key to the statistical analysis is a spatial model for the bias of each climate model and the use of kernel smoothing to estimate the correlations of biases across different climate models. the spatial model is particularly important to determine statistical significance of the estimated correlations under the hypothesis of independent climate models. our results suggest that most of the climate model bias patterns are indeed correlated. in particular, climate models developed by the same institution have highly correlated biases. also somewhat surprisingly we find evidence that the model skills for simulating the mean climate and simulating the
data.question: Summarize the most significant changes related to temperature? Â 
data.text: amongst the most notable changes related to temperature are increases in heat wave frequency in the south and east, and major increases in maximum temperatures nation wide, along with reductions in frost days. amongst changes related to rainfall are increases in dry spell frequency related to summer drying and increases in the annual wettest day amounts
data.question: PDA Description? Â 
data.text: the weather generator has been run for a control period corresponding to the baseline (1961-1990) and future projections to estimate the changes in key climate indices and to check that the changes are consistent with those from the climate model pdfs where possible. the method involves first running the wg for the control (i.e. fitted to observed statistics) 100 times with a random seed, thus generating an ensemble of 100 different time series of length 30 y
data.question: Explain the models of PDN? Â 
data.text: then the wg is run once for each of 1000 climate model output variants for a future projection. the variants are sampled randomly across the pdf. differences between climate indices calculated from this future ensemble and the baseline ensemble are then derived. this strategy is followed because the variability in the wg baseline is small relative to the variation in the future climate pdf obtained from the climate model outputs, more so for more distant futures. two types of analyses are presented here for the differences between the control and future projections. first, tables are presented of detailed measures for eight sites across the uk shown in figure 6. second, maps of 25 km grids are presented showing patterns of changes
data.context: amongst the most notable changes related to temperature are increases in heat wave frequency in the south and east, and major increases in maximum temperatures nation wide, along with reductions in frost days. amongst changes related to rainfall are increases in dry spell frequency related to summer drying and increases in the annual wettest day amounts. the weather generator has been run for a control period corresponding to the baseline (1961-1990) and future projections to estimate the changes in key climate indices and to check that the changes are consistent with those from the climate model pdfs where possible. the method involves first running the wg for the control (i.e. fitted to observed statistics) 100 times with a random seed, thus generating an ensemble of 100 different time series of length 30 yr. then the wg is run once for each of 1000 climate model output variants for a future projection. the variants are sampled randomly across the pdf. differences between climate indices calculated from this future ensemble and the baseline ensemble are then derived. this strategy is followed because the variability in the wg baseline is small relative to the variation in the future climate pdf obtained from the climate model outputs, more so for more distant futures. two types of analyses are presented here for the differences between the control and future projections. first, tables are presented of detailed measures for eight sites across the uk shown in figure 6. second, maps of 25 km grids are presented showing patterns of changes.
data.question: What is the main finding from the Review's assessment of the cost of mitigation7?
data.text: the main finding from the review's assessment of the cost of mitigation7 is that the cost through time of keeping ghg emissions to a plausible pathway to stabilisation of atmospheric concentrations at 550 ppm co2e - which would be sufficient to significantly reduce many of the risks of bau climate change (see appendix 1) - is 1% of global gdp through the end of this century
data.question: Where is explained that stabilisation is likely to be cheaper at higher concentrations than at lower concentrations?
data.text: s carefully explained in chapter 13, stabilisation is likely to be cheaper at higher concentrations than at lower concentrations
data.question: What have the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2006) and IPCC (2007a) reported since the publication of the Review, studies by Enkvist et al (2007)?
data.text: ince publication of the review, studies by enkvist et al (2007), the international energy agency (iea, 2006) and ipcc (2007a) have reported similar central estimates and ranges
data.context: the main finding from the review's assessment of the cost of mitigation7 is that the cost through time of keeping ghg emissions to a plausible pathway to stabilisation of atmospheric concentrations at 550 ppm co2e - which would be sufficient to significantly reduce many of the risks of bau climate change (see appendix 1) - is 1% of global gdp through the end of this century. as carefully explained in chapter 13, stabilisation is likely to be cheaper at higher concentrations than at lower concentrations. we are uncertain about how much mitigation techniques and technologies will cost in the future, when and where they will be used, and in what combination. thus we placed around our central estimate a range of +/-3 percentage points of gdp. since publication of the review, studies by enkvist et al (2007), the international energy agency (iea, 2006) and ipcc (2007a) have reported similar central estimates and ranges. these range, though large, are still much narrower than the range one has to consider for the cost of climate change.
data.question: What do people do when a gain vs. loss frame is combined with a now vs. future frame?
data.text: people discount future gains more than future losses
data.question: How may it be possible to motivate environmentally responsible behavior in people?
data.text: by tapping into people's desire to avoid future losses rather than realize future gains
data.question: How could campaigns encourage people to buy fuel-efficient vehicles?
data.text: could focus on how their use will avoid continuing and even increasing future losses in money to pay for gasoline instead of how such cars will save the consumer money
data.context: the negative feelings associated with losing $100 outweigh the positive feelings associated with gaining $100. thus people have a natural tendency to avoid losses rather than to seek gains.22 when a gain vs. loss frame is combined with a now vs. future frame, people discount future gains more than future losses.2\\x18 for example, people may be more likely to adopt environmentally responsible behavior and support costly emissions reduction efforts related to climate change if they believe their way of life is threatened and that inaction will result in even greater loss. they are less likely to adopt these measures if they focus on the current situation which they see as acceptable and discount future improvement of it. it may be possible to motivate environmentally responsible behavior by tapping into people's desire to avoid future losses rather than realize future gains. for instance, when communicators talk to homeowners, they could frame energy efficiency appliances as helping the homeowners to avoid losing money on higher energy bills in the future, instead of helping them save money in the future. campaigns to encourage people to buy fuel-efficient vehicles could focus on how their use will avoid continuing and even increasing future losses in money to pay for gasoline instead of how such cars will save the consumer money. to hold an audience's attention and encourage behavior change, communicators may want to present information in a way that makes the audience aware of potential current and future losses related to inaction on climate change instead of focusing on current and future gains. audiences may be more likely to make changes to their behavior if climate change information is framed as 'losing less now instead of losing more in the future'. for example, during hot summer months, a smaller reduction in daily energy use can prevent having to deal with larger and prolonged energy blackouts.
data.question: Which costs considerable in Europe?
data.text: the economic consequences (particularly the costs of mitigation) of the politics of climate change in europe are considerable
data.question: Explain wind penetration?
data.text: as the wind penetration rises, driven by the target, the system costs rise too, both to manage the intermittent loads and to provide back-up supplies
data.context: the economic consequences (particularly the costs of mitigation) of the politics of climate change in europe are considerable. the search for a consensus upon which the member states can agree is based upon inclusiveness. hence the package contains all the main policy instruments: permits markets and renewables quotas and energy efficiency targets and biofuels targets. the result is over-determination and higher costs. for example, if the renewables, energy efficiency, and biofuels targets are met, the role of the eu ets will be more marginal--and carbon prices may fall as the targets for these specific contributions are met. in reflecting this risk of a falling carbon price, the eu ets caps are to be set independently, but the implication is then that it is not the overarching 20 per cent target that is driving the collection of policies. then there are the costs of the different policy components. renewables, up until 2020 at least, means predominantly wind. it is likely to remain expensive relative to other options (which include the move from higher to less high carbon technologies, increases in thermal efficiencies, and a host of measures within the non-renewables category). as the wind penetration rises, driven by the target, the system costs rise too, both to manage the intermittent loads and to provide back-up supplies. these might change with new renewables storage technologies--batteries--but not over the time horizon of the target to 2020. in the meantime, the costs will need to be paid by customers and taxpayers, and there has been little consideration of the extent to which voters will support such policies as the costs are passed through, especially if other countries are not making comparable efforts. not surprisingly, investors are correct to expect politicians to review and reform intervention mechanisms, and hence the cost of capital is increased.31
data.question: What are the results representative of?
data.text: the results presented here are representative of just one model, and it remains to be seen whether other models exhibit feedback mechanisms of similar magnitude or even feedbacks with the same sign
data.question: What do Foster and Collins compare?
data.text: forster and collins48compare water vapour feedbacks associated with the mt. pinatubo volcanic eruption to compare modelled and measured humidities
data.question: What do these studies encompass?
data.text: these studies show a broad agreement in modelled and measured feedbacks
data.context: we must end this paper on several notes of caution. as referred to earlier there are a number of potentially important missing processes. the results presented here are representative of just one model, and it remains to be seen whether other models exhibit feedback mechanisms of similar magnitude or even feedbacks with the same sign. future water vapour concentrations are of prime importance for chemistry, but have many uncertainties. model water vapour feedbacks have been the subject of several studies which use seasonal variations to calculate the magnitudes of the feedback e.g. refs. 46 and 47). these studies show a broad agreement in modelled and measured feedbacks. forster and collins48compare water vapour feedbacks associated with the mt. pinatubo volcanic eruption to compare modelled and measured humidities. while the measured global feedback parameter was in the range of model results, differences between modeled and observed water vapour response in the ut were found. our model also lacks many potentially important processes, such as linkages between heterogeneous chemistry, wetland ch4, biomass burning, oceanic and soil emissions and climate. many other important aspects of the model, such as its simulation of enso behaviour, and its convection scheme are quite poorly understood. in addition, we have considered just a single future climate scenario.
data.question: At what temperature does resin melt?
data.text: resin melts at 40 8 c
data.question: What shoots apex sensitive?
data.text: resprouters or geophytes with shoot apex sensitive to heat or smoke respond to the butenolide chemical
data.question: How many of each families take place in Multiple Origins?
data.text: multiple origins: occurs in 16 different families (from nine orders) - one monocot, and 15 eudicot; likely to have evolved during the eocene
data.context: trait test resprouting serotiny physical dormancy post-fire flowering smoke-induced germination flammability design engineering dormant buds stimulated to sprout once foliage removed heat-resistant resin-sealed cones or fruits; resin melts at 40 8 c water-impervious seed or fruit coat that becomes water permeable (usually at the water gap only) in response to specific environmental cues resprouters or geophytes with shoot apex sensitive to heat or smoke respond to the butenolide chemical, karrikinolide, in smoke retention of scleromorphic leaves and bark and presence of flammable oils and resins heritability confirmed in eucalypts: widespread phenotypic plasticity confirmed in some genera of proteaceae; phenotypic plasticity widespread highly probable but untested; cultivated species remain hard seeded probable but untested; no variation within species known confirmed in many groups; cultivated species retain smoke reactivity confirmed in many groups; phenotypic plasticity in some traits; cultivated species retain trait natural selection increases fitness after any damage to canopy selective advantage in nutrient-limited environments selective advantage in response to highly seasonal environments or where episodic seedling recruitment favoured increases fitness after fire only if seedlings survive selective advantage after fire and where episodic seedling recruitment favoured selective advantage in nutrient-limited or herbivore-prone environments phylogeny multiple origins, some apparently pre-dating neogene fires, confirmed by molecular phylogenetic analyses multiple origins in conifers to flowering plants; probably post-dates onset of tertiary drying and might be an evolutionary response to low soil fertility multiple origins: occurs in 16 different families (from nine orders) - one monocot, and 15 eudicot; likely to have evolved during the eocene - miocene (55 - 38 mya) but predates widespread fire multiple origins in cycads to angiosperms; pyrogenic flowering might have evolved from post-drought growth-flush multiple origins among flowering plants and probably pre-dates onset of tertiary drying multiple origins in cycads to angiosperms; sclerophylly pre-dates onset of tertiary drying; terpenes, oils and resins deter herbivores restricted to fire-prone environments? no no no no no no conclusion exaptation exaptation exaptation possible adaptation if obligate; exaptation when facultative exaptation exaptation
data.question: What causes errors in linear age-depth models?
data.text: variations in sediment accumulation rate cause errors in linear age-depth models, so that a simple linear age-depth relationship is often not sufficiently accurate to yield meaningful results
data.question: How accurate is the A(17)age model?
data.text: the a(17)age model is estimated to be accurate to within +-9 kyr
data.context: age models assigned to paleoclimatic records strongly influence the inferences drawn about past climate behavior. variations in sediment accumulation rate cause errors in linear age-depth models, so that a simple linear age-depth relationship is often not sufficiently accurate to yield meaningful results. use of orbital tuning to remove these age model errors, however, suppresses evidence of nonlinearity at low frequencies in the system. an alternative to orbital tuning is to estimate sediment core age using spatial mean sediment accumulation rates, and in conjunction with an important compaction correction, this alternative is used at 21 core sites to construct a depth-derived age model spanning the last 780 kyr. the observed error in linear age-depth relationships is modeled as an autocorrelated stochastic process, and the a(17)age model is estimated to be accurate to within +-9 kyr. the depth-derived ages make no assumptions regarding orbital control, but agree with the orbitally tuned age models to within +-5 kyr, and thus within the error limits are consistent with one another. the remaining discrepancies, however, have important consequences. spectral analysis of eof1, using the a(17)age model, indicates significant spectral energy at combination tones of the 1/100 kyr and obliquity bands. there is also significant autobicoherence between each of these bands in eof1, all of which indicates a weakly nonlinear climatic response to obliquity forcing interacting with the quasi-100 kyr variability. these results may aid in differentiating between the various mechanisms proposed to explain glacial interglacial climate variability.
data.question: What impacts would the climate change have on crops?
data.text: changes in climate variability and in the frequency of extreme events may have substantial impacts on the prevalence and distribution of pests, weeds, and crop and livestock diseases
data.question: Can clinate change cause diseases?
data.text: for example, in the past, combinations of drought followed by high rainfall have led to widespread outbreaks of diseases such as rift valley fever and bluetongue in east africa and of african horse sickness in south africa (baylis and githeko, 2006
data.question: What changes could happen in the future due to climate change?
data.text: in general, the effects of future changes in climate variability on pests, weeds and diseases are not well understood (gornall et al., 2010
data.context: changes in climate variability and in the frequency of extreme events may have substantial impacts on the prevalence and distribution of pests, weeds, and crop and livestock diseases. for example, in the past, combinations of drought followed by high rainfall have led to widespread outbreaks of diseases such as rift valley fever and bluetongue in east africa and of african horse sickness in south africa (baylis and githeko, 2006). future increases in the frequency of extreme weather events could allow the expansion of rift valley fever northwards into europe, for example (martin et al., 2008). in general, the effects of future changes in climate variability on pests, weeds and diseases are not well understood (gornall et al., 2010).
data.question: How have the ACC and Southern Ocean MOC been affected by the recent poleward intensification of the westerlies brought about by ozone depletion?
data.text: thewesterlywindchangesareexpected to be accompanied by changes in the position and strength of the maximum zonal wind stress over the southern ocean
data.question: Explain seasons changes?.
data.text: the wind-stress changes in djf are in almost all cases larger in magnitude than the changes in other seasons
data.question: Explain CMIP5 models?
data.text: in the newer generation cmip5 models, which all included ozone depletion, the greatest strengthening trend in the wind stress is simulated
data.context: how have the acc and southern ocean moc been affected by the recent poleward intensification of the westerlies brought aboutbyozonedepletion?thewesterlywindchangesareexpected to be accompanied by changes in the position and strength of the maximum zonal wind stress over the southern ocean. figure10indicatesthatthisisindeedthecase.inbothatmospheric reanalyses and climate models, a statistically significant poleward shift and strengthening of the surface westerly wind stress is evident during djf 1979-2010. the wind-stress changes in djf are in almost all cases larger in magnitude than the changes in other seasons. (the latter changes are typically not even statistically significant.) the only exception to this occurs for the trend in windstress strength as simulated by the coupled atmosphere-ocean gcms that participated in the cmip3. in the cmip3 models, the greatest strengthening of the surface westerly wind stress during the 1979-2010 period occurs in the son season. we note, though, that only about half of the cmip3 models included stratospheric ozone depletion in their simulations. in the newer generation cmip5 models, which all included ozone depletion, the greatest strengthening trend in the wind stress is simulated
data.question: What are the four ingredients of SPARCC?
data.text: the four ingredients are fundamentally interdependent and interactive and require as inputs, knowledge of human activities and natural processes
data.question: Trends in atmospheric constituents and parameters associated with climate forcing are examples of?
data.text: trends in atmospheric constituents and parameters associated with climate forcing are examples of important inputs
data.question: CCMVal has de fi ned reference simulations for the past and for?
data.text: ccmval has de fi ned reference simulations for the past and for the future
data.context: the goal of the sparc ccmval activity is to improve understanding of ccms through process-oriented evaluation and to provide reliable projections of stratospheric ozone and its impact on climate. the model evaluation is based on a set of core processes relevant for stratospheric ozone centred around four main categories (radiation, dynamics, transport, and stratospheric chemistry and microphysics), with each process associated with one or more model diagnostics and with relevant data sets that can be used for the evaluation (eyring et al. 2005, see figure 1.2 ). the four ingredients are fundamentally interdependent and interactive and require as inputs, knowledge of human activities and natural processes. these inputs help quantitatively de fi ne processes in the atmosphere and expectations for future changes. trends in atmospheric constituents and parameters associated with climate forcing are examples of important inputs. the ccm output includes a wide array of parameters and diagnostics associated with the four different aspects. the distribution of stratospheric ozone is highlighted separately here because of the strong contemporary interest in halogen-based ozone depletion and the recovery of the ozone loss that has developed over recent decades. the comparisons of model diagnostics and other outputs with atmospheric observations and meteorological analyses are the key to process-oriented ccm evaluation. finally, the results of the comparisons can be used to provide feedback to the representation of processes in ccms in order to improve the models. in this way, the uncertainties in future changes in stratospheric ozone and other key model outputs can be reduced, and errors better quanti fi ed. to eliminate many of the uncertainties in the conclusions of earlier multi-ccm evaluations e.g. austin et al. 2003) that resulted from differences in anthropogenic and natural forcings as well as from the experimental set-up of individual models, ccmval has de fi ned reference simulations for the past and for the future. the simulations used
data.question: what was The Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum?
data.text: the palaeocene-eocene thermal maximum (petm), a geologically brief episode of global warming associated with the palaeocene-eocene boundary, has been studied extensively since its discovery in 1991
data.question: how is PETM characterized?
data.text: the petm is characterized by a globally quasi-uniform 5-8 8 c warming and large changes in ocean chemistry and biotic response
data.question: what is heating associated with?
data.text: the warming is associated with a negative carbon isotope excursion (cie), reflecting geologically rapid input of large amounts of isotopically light co2 and or ch4 into the exogenic (ocean-atmosphere) carbon pool
data.context: the palaeocene-eocene thermal maximum (petm), a geologically brief episode of global warming associated with the palaeocene-eocene boundary, has been studied extensively since its discovery in 1991. the petm is characterized by a globally quasi-uniform 5-8 8 c warming and large changes in ocean chemistry and biotic response. the warming is associated with a negative carbon isotope excursion (cie), reflecting geologically rapid input of large amounts of isotopically light co2 and or ch4 into the exogenic (ocean-atmosphere) carbon pool. the biotic response on land and in the oceans was heterogeneous in nature and severity, including radiations, extinctions and migrations. recently, several events that appear similar to the petm in nature, but of smaller magnitude, were identified to have occurred in the late palaeocene through early eocene, with their timing possibly modulated by orbital forcing. although debate continues on the carbon source, the mechanisms that caused the input, the mechanisms of carbon sequestration, and the duration and pacing of the event, the research carried out over the last 15 years has provided new constraints and spawned new research directions that will lead to improved understanding of petm carbon cycle and climate change.
data.question: Women faces what problems?
data.text: women are faced with a difficult set of dilemmas
data.question: How women took singleness positively?
data.text: to construct singleness very positively through the repertoires of choice and independence and self-development and achievement and then it becomes difficult to talk about any move out of the category
data.question: What is the positive strategy used by women?
data.text: the only positive strategy used by a small number of women interviewed was to develop a reflexive account and talk about the dilemmas per se rather than alternating between each side of them as experiential truths
data.context: singleness is a troubled category (difficult to align oneself with) and yet, in a double bind, the positive and idealized interpretative resources that are available seem to make other aspects of women's lives and expectations pathological. women are faced with a difficult set of dilemmas. either, they can choose to construct singleness very positively through the repertoires of choice and independence and self-development and achievement and then it becomes difficult to talk about any move out of the category. or, women can talk unashamedly about their desire for a relationship and risk being constructed as deficient and 'desperate', and marked by their failure to already have a man. there seem to be few satisfactory ways out of these dilemmas given the contemporary politics of relationships. the only positive strategy used by a small number of women interviewed was to develop a reflexive account and talk about the dilemmas per se rather than alternating between each side of them as experiential truths. there is clearly work here for feminism to do. a feminist psychology of singleness based on critical discursive psychology will we hope aid this political project through focusing attention firmly on the patterning of ideology, as we have attempted to do here, rather than the supposed dysfunction of single women.
data.question: What important costs that matter for this broader debate were excluded to keep the problem tractable?
data.text: important costs that matter for this broader debate were excluded to keep the problem tractable, including the costs of closing prevailing adaptation gaps, the cost of residual impacts and the cost of mitigation
data.question: What is likely to increase adaptation costs in reality?
data.text: in reality, adaptation planners will have to deal with considerable uncertainty about the likely extent and even direction of change at the local level. in some (rare) cases, this may justify a delay in adaptation until more information is available (thus reducing adaptation costs, but increasing residual impacts). in other cases, it will force planners to extend the scope of adaptations so that they can deal with a wider range of outcomes. this is likely to increase adaptation costs
data.question: What scope of estimates is deliberately narrow?
data.text: readers interested in the overall costs of climate change will also have to remember that the scope of adaptation estimates is deliberately narrow
data.context: finally, all cost estimates assume that future climate change impacts are known with certainty in reality, adaptation planners will have to deal with considerable uncertainty about the likely extent and even direction of change at the local level. in some (rare) cases, this may justify a delay in adaptation until more information is available (thus reducing adaptation costs, but increasing residual impacts). in other cases, it will force planners to extend the scope of adaptations so that they can deal with a wider range of outcomes. this is likely to increase adaptation costs. readers interested in the overall costs of climate change will also have to remember that the scope of adaptation estimates is deliberately narrow. important costs that matter for this broader debate were excluded to keep the problem tractable, including the costs of closing prevailing adaptation gaps, the cost of residual impacts and the cost of mitigation. many of these will be higher than the cost of adaptation. moreover, if the mitigation and development investments are not made, the cost of adaptation will be considerably higher.
data.question: What does the RCOF usually involve?
data.text: the rcof usually involves a 1-2-week pre-forum meeting in which national forecasts are constructed using primarily statistical regression-based approaches
data.question: How long does this forum typically last?
data.text: the forum itself is generally a two-day affair
data.question: How are consensus forecasts for seasonal rainfall total are expressed?
data.text: consensus forecasts for seasonal rainfall total are expressed as very coarse-scale maps of probabilities of rainfall falling within the dry, middle or wet terciles of the historic distribution
data.context: (buizer et al. 2000; ogallo et al. 2008). with backing from the world meteorological organization (wmo), and support from wmo global producing centers and other international climate centres (e. g. iri, uk met office, meteo-france), the rcofs bring national meteorological services (nms) and various users from a region together to develop, distribute and discuss potential applications of a consensus forecast of rainfall and sometimes other variables for the coming season. the rcof usually involves a 1-2-week pre-forum meeting in which national forecasts are constructed using primarily statistical regression-based approaches. the forecasters sometimes receive training in new forecasting methods, software or verification. the forum itself is generally a two-day affair, during which the rainfall of the previous season is reviewed and compared to its respective forecast; the impacts of the previous rainfall season are considered, and decisions made in response to the forecast are reviewed with participating stakeholders; recent climate conditions around the world are discussed, and the current forecast is presented. sectoral break-out groups discuss contingency planning, while media representatives discuss dissemination strategies and challenges. consensus forecasts for seasonal rainfall total are expressed as very coarse-scale maps of probabilities of rainfall falling within the dry, middle or wet terciles of the historic distribution (figure 3a). this format has changed little since the inception of the rcofs, although the basic climate forecasts from ghacof and presao have recently been supplemented by expected impacts of rainfall anomalies on, e. g. food
data.question: Damages are commonly modelled in IAMs as ?
data.text: losses to economic output
data.question: Others have multi-period effects on What?
data.text: the marginal productivity of capital or labour
data.context: damages are commonly modelled in iams as losses to economic output, or gross domestic product (gdp), and therefore losses to income (gdp per capita) or consumption, leaving the productive capacity of the economy (the capital stock) and the level of productivity undiminished for future use. for example, non-catastrophic damages in the dice-2007 model (nordhaus, 2007a) include impacts to agriculture, 'other vulnerable markets', coastal property from sea-level rise, health, time-use and 'human settlements and natural ecosystems', all of which are subtracted directly from total economic output. in reality, many of these categories are reductions to the capital stock and not directly to income, especially coastal property and human settlements damages. others have multi-period effects on the marginal productivity of capital or labour, that is, the ability of technology to transform capital and labour into income; damages to agricultural resources and health are good examples of longer-term changes to productivity. when damages are subtracted from output, the implication is that these are one time costs that are taken from current consumption and investment, with no effects on capital, production or consumption in the next period - an unrealistic assumption even for the richest countries, as attested by the ongoing struggle to rebuild new orleans infrastructure, still incomplete three years after hurricane katrina. fund (tol, 1999) is unusual among welfare optimizing iams in that it models damages as one-time reductions to both consumption and investment, where damages have lingering 'memory' effects determined by the rate of change of temperature increase.
data.question: What commonalities do schools with higher academic achievement share?
data.text: set high academic standards, stress commitment to students, exhibit effective leadership, and emphasize mastery goal orientations
data.question: What positive outcome can result from an appreciation for diversity?
data.text: an academic environment that is conducive to learning and promotes optimal achievement and motivation among students
data.question: Name two factors that are reportedly less consistently associated with academic outcomes.
data.text: institutional and safety factors
data.context: school climate has been extensively examined in relation to academic outcomes. the most consistent findings demonstrate the importance of academic and community dimensions in promoting academic achievement. schools that set high academic standards, stress commitment to students, exhibit effective leadership, and emphasize mastery goal orientations have students that demonstrate higher academic achievement. likewise, community features such as warm teacher-student relationships, frequent communication between parents and schools, and appreciation for diversity cultivate an academic environment that is conducive to learning and promotes optimal achievement and motivation among students. institutional and safety factors, on the other hand, seem to be less consistently associated with academic outcomes, with effects often disappearing when other school climate factors are controlled for. greater appreciation for how different dimensions of school climate interact to promote academic outcomes may shed more light on the role that institutional and safety factors play in shaping student achievement.
data.question: What is the role played by microorganisms?
data.text: the role played by microorganisms in sewage treatment depends on the process being used. in facultative ponds, algae have a fundamental function related to the production of oxygen by photosynthesis
data.question: How does the design of ponds optimise an adequate balance?
data.text: the design of ponds is done in such a way as to optimise the presence of algae in the liquid medium and to obtain an adequate balance between bacteria and algae. in anaerobic treatment systems, the conditions are favourable or even exclusive for the development of microorganisms functionally adapted to the absence of oxygen
data.question: What are efficient in the consumption of dispersed bacteria?
data.text: rotifers are efficient in the consumption of dispersed bacteria and small particles of organic matter
data.context: the role played by microorganisms in sewage treatment depends on the process being used. in facultative ponds, algae have a fundamental function related to the production of oxygen by photosynthesis. the design of ponds is done in such a way as to optimise the presence of algae in the liquid medium and to obtain an adequate balance between bacteria and algae. in anaerobic treatment systems, the conditions are favourable or even exclusive for the development of microorganisms functionally adapted to the absence of oxygen. in this case, the acidogenic and methanogenic organisms are essential. the microbial mass involved in the aerobic processes consists mainly of bacteria and protozoa. other organisms, such as fungi and rotifers, can also be found, but their importance is lower. the capacity of fungi to survive in reduced ph ranges and with little nitrogen makes them important in the treatment of certain industrial wastewaters. however, fungi with a filamentous structure can deteriorate the sludge settleability, thus reducing the efficiency of the process. rotifers are efficient in the consumption of dispersed bacteria and small particles of organic matter. their presence in the effluent indicates an efficient biological purification process (metcalf eddy, 1991). generally, it can be said that the species diversity of the various microorganisms in the biomass is low. table 2.15, in chapter 2, presents a summary of the main characteristics of the bacteria, protozoa and fungi. figure 7.4 presents a sequence of the relative predominance of the main microorganisms involved in aerobic sewage treatment. the ecological interactions in the microbial community cause the increase in the population of a group of microorganisms to be followed by the decline of another group, in view of the selective characteristics of the medium in transformation. immediately after the of sewage into the biological reactor, the remaining bod (organic microbiology and ecology of wastewater treatment 307
data.question: how many years ago earth's climate was shifted?
data.text: about 34 million years ago, earth ' s climate shifted
data.question: how Northern Hemisphere polar ice will be?
data.text: northern hemisphere polar ice is controversial
data.question: how was the temperature before the climate transition?
data.text: temperatures before the climate transition were ~20degc
data.context: about 34 million years ago, earth ' s climate shifted from a relatively ice-free world to one with glacial conditions on antarctica characterized by substantial ice sheets. how earth ' s temperature changed during this climate transition remains poorly understood, and evidence for northern hemisphere polar ice is controversial. here, we report proxy records of sea surface temperatures from multiple ocean localities and show that the high-latitude temperature decrease was substantial and heterogeneous. high-latitude (45 degrees to 70 degrees in both hemispheres) temperatures before the climate transition were ~20degc and cooled an average of ~5degc. our results, combined with ocean and ice-sheet model simulations and benthic oxygen isotope records, indicate that northern hemisphere glaciation was not required to accommodate the magnitude of continental ice growth during this time.
data.question: What evaluation of the hydropower and theromelectirc  power generation on country level shows ?
data.text: evaluation of the hydropower and thermoelectric power generation on county level shows small values of normalized bias (between -0.25 and +0.25) and normalized rmse (smaller than 0.25) for most countries worldwide
data.question: why BIAS and RMSE are slightly higher for countries in Africa ?
data.text: this is mainly because the interannual variability in simulated hydropower and thermoelectric power generation was slightly overestimated for some power plants and the number of plants over which the results are aggregated is low in most african countries
data.question: Which modelling framework shows a realistic representation of the observed conditions ?
data.text: the hydrologicalelectricity modelling framework shows a realistic representation of the observed conditions
data.context: evaluation of the hydropower and thermoelectric power generation on county level shows small values of normalized bias (between -0.25 and +0.25) and normalized rmse (smaller than 0.25) for most countries worldwide (fig s6). both the normalized bias and rmse are slightly higher for countries in africa. this is mainly because the interannual variability in simulated hydropower and thermoelectric power generation was slightly overestimated for some power plants and the number of plants over which the results are aggregated is low in most african countries (fig s7). however, for most countries worldwide the hydrologicalelectricity modelling framework shows a realistic representation of the observed conditions. in addition, a comparison of the annual trends in simulated hydropower and thermoelectric power potential for 1981-2010 correspond closely with the observed trends reported by eia20
data.question: Relationship between latitude and mean water temperature?
data.text: relationship between latitude and mean water temperature across 22 stream sites distributed on both hemispheres and six continents. table s1 location of study sites, site codes, latitude, longitude, elevation and average water temperature
data.question: What information does the magazine offer?
data.text: as a service to our authors and readers, this journal provides supporting information supplied by the authors. such materials are peer-reviewed and may be re-organized for online delivery, but are not copy-edited or typeset
data.question: What to do when faced with an information problem?
data.text: technical support issues arising from supporting information (other than missing files) should be addressed to the authors. editor, dag hessen manuscript received 19 october 2010 first decision made 17 november 2010 manuscript accepted 8 december 2010
data.context: supplementary results. figure s1 relationship between latitude and mean water temperature across 22 stream sites distributed on both hemispheres and six continents. table s1 location of study sites, site codes, latitude, longitude, elevation and average water temperature. as a service to our authors and readers, this journal provides supporting information supplied by the authors. such materials are peer-reviewed and may be re-organized for online delivery, but are not copy-edited or typeset. technical support issues arising from supporting information (other than missing files) should be addressed to the authors. editor, dag hessen manuscript received 19 october 2010 first decision made 17 november 2010 manuscript accepted 8 december 2010
data.question: What economic system requires fossil fuels?
data.text: capitalism, at this stage of its development, depends upon massive quantities of fossil fuel in order to continue to operate at the current scale of production, to say nothing of an increasing scale of production
data.question: Will food production require quantities of artificial fertilizer?
data.text: thus, a massive quantity of artificial fertilizer and oil - which contributes to the accumulation of co2 - is needed to sustain food production
data.question: Does the manufacture of artificial fertilizer contribute to the accumulation of CO2?
data.text: thus, a massive quantity of artificial fertilizer and oil - which contributes to the accumulation of co2 - is needed to sustain food production
data.context: capitalism, at this stage of its development, depends upon massive quantities of fossil fuel in order to continue to operate at the current scale of production, to say nothing of an increasing scale of production. thus, state market policies and carbon sequestration technologies are ploys to continue capitalist production as is, and they are unlikely to deal directly with global climate change. market policies are simply rhetoric, and sequestration technologies would have their own ecological concerns and are likely too large-scale to operate and too expensive to fund in the capitalist economic system.111the recovery of agricultural nutrients has proven to be insurmountable under capitalism for over a hundred years. thus, a massive quantity of artificial fertilizer and oil - which contributes to the accumulation of co2 - is needed to sustain food production. recovering carbon waste from the atmosphere will likely prove to be a much more difficult task. the social structure of the capitalist system sets limits and constraints on what mitigating actions will and can be taken.112all the while, the rift in the carbon cycle continues to deepen, as co2 continues
data.question: What triggers diseases to life and plants?
data.text: deposition of pathogenic and allergenic species can trigger human, animal and plant diseases
data.question: The origin of ice nucleation active microorganisms can be traced to what concept?
data.text: terrestrial ecosystems are the major source of ice nucleation active microorganisms
data.context: fig. 13. bioprecipitation cycle. terrestrial ecosystems are the major source of ice nucleation active microorganisms; precipitation and humidity can enhance bioparticle emissions (rain splash, active wet discharge, etc.); bioparticles serving as ice nuclei or giant cloud condensation nuclei (in/gccn) can in fl uence the evolution of clouds and precipitation, which provide water for growth of vegetation and for multiplication of microorganisms (a, b). deposition of pathogenic and allergenic species can trigger human, animal and plant diseases (a; huffman et al., 2013 ). ice nucleation activity of microorganisms is positively selected in various ecosystems, on frost damaged plants and with precipitation itself. (b) adapted from morris et al. (2014a) copyright 2013, with permission from john wiley and sons, inc. 358 j. frohlich-nowoisky et al. atmospheric research 182 (2016) 346 - 376
data.question: what did Hajer admit in his study ?
data.text: as hajer himself admits in his analysis of discourse and policy change in relation to the problem of acid rain, "as it stands the acid rain case reveals a paradox
data.question: what are the materiality of policy change  for analysis of policy issues ?
data.text: the materiality of policy change is particularly important for analysis of policy issues such as energy, which is dominated by a geographically-widespread, capital intensive, durable infrastructure, comprising a complex system of energy generation, transmission and distribution
data.question: why is The concept of socio-technical regimes relevant?
data.text: he concept of socio-technical regimes is relevant because of its emphasis on the interplay between human actors and technologies,iii and because of the notion that regimes become 'locked-in' to a particular technological trajectory over time, which shapes, and is shaped by, policy discourse
data.context: in relation to energy and climate change, we suggest that the focus on discourse as the key structuring force of policy problems underplays the material realities within which policy operates. as hajer himself admits in his analysis of discourse and policy change in relation to the problem of acid rain, "as it stands the acid rain case reveals a paradox. while acid rain 8 8 was in the end generally accepted as a programmatic issue that called for a change of policy strategies, the selected remedial measures failed to give a material form to the new reality. (hajer, 1995, emphasis added: 267). it is this moment of policy change the translation of discourse into material reality that we are particularly interested in in relation to uk energy and climate change policy, for it is at this point in the policy process that progress in mitigating climate change appears to have stalled. we suggest there may be a limit to the role of discourse as an agent of change. what is lacking from policy theories centred on discourse is consideration of how policy making takes place in the context of an existing material or physical infrastructure, which can exert significant influence on policy, structuring how problems are conceived and addressed. the materiality of policy change is particularly important for analysis of policy issues such as energy, which is dominated by a geographically-widespread, capital intensive, durable infrastructure, comprising a complex system of energy generation, transmission and distribution (graham and marvin, 2001; lovell, 2007a; smith et al., 2005). the existing physical infrastructure including, for example, power stations, distribution systems, buildings and meters, shapes the range of possible options for policy implementation. we need, then, to consider both the discursive and material dimensions of policy convergence, policy change and implementation. the concept of socio-technical regimes is relevant because of its emphasis on the interplay between human actors and technologies,iii and because of the notion that regimes become 'locked-in' to a particular technological trajectory over time, which shapes, and is shaped by, policy discourse (smith et al., 2005). we discuss in more detail below the ways in which materials and technologies also influence discourse because interests within the existing energy regime are able to structure the overall terms of policy debate.
data.question: why is Runoff a major component of the global water cycle?
data.text: as such, it plays an important role in the global climate system by affecting evapotranspiration and freshwater inputs to the oceans, which in turn affects the ocean thermohaline circulation. a model's runoff formulation helps control its soil moisture, which influences the latent heat flux between the land surface and the atmosphere
data.question: Why has the inclusion of Runoff in climate models been problematic?
data.text: runoff is conceptually difficult to represent in climate models. the environmental factors that control runoff, precipitation, soil moisture, and topography, often vary considerably on local scales. furthermore, data that can be used to validate runoff production are difficult to obtain
data.question: Which projects have summarized the implementation of run off schemes?
data.text: recent land model intercomparison projects bowling et al. 2003; boone et al. 2004] summarized various implementations of runoff schemes ranging from simple bucket models to more sophisticated topographybased runoff models
data.context: runoff is one of the major components of the global water cycle and accounts for about 40% of the precipitation on land. as such, it plays an important role in the global climate system by affecting evapotranspiration and freshwater inputs to the oceans, which in turn affects the ocean thermohaline circulation. a model's runoff formulation helps control its soil moisture, which influences the latent heat flux between the land surface and the atmosphere. however, its inclusion in climate models has been problematic. runoff is conceptually difficult to represent in climate models. the environmental factors that control runoff, precipitation, soil moisture, and topography, often vary considerably on local scales. furthermore, data that can be used to validate runoff production are difficult to obtain. streamflow data provide a proxy measurement for runoff integrated across watersheds; streamflow observations provide statistical constraints on the development of conceptual-statistical runoff models. the paucity of such statistical constraints and the plethora of conceptualizations for runoff schemes have led to a wide variety of implementations. recent land model intercomparison projects bowling et al. 2003; boone et al. 2004] summarized various implementations of runoff schemes ranging from simple bucket models to more sophisticated topographybased runoff models. the partitioning of precipitation
data.question: Are there definitive trends in aggregate precipitation?
data.text: there are no definitive trends in aggregate precipitation, although there is some evidence of more intense precipitation events
data.question: What trend is exhibited by some rivers?
data.text: some rivers are also exhibiting a trend towards a reduction in dependable flows in the dry season, which has implications both for water supply and energy generation (shakya 2003). glacier retreat also contributes significantly to streamflow variability in the spring and summer, while glacial lake outbursts which are becoming more likely with rising temperatures, are an additional source of flooding risk
data.question: How many models which best simulate current climate over Nepal were selected?
data.text: next, 7 of the 17 models which best simulate current climate over nepal were selected
data.context: there are no definitive trends in aggregate precipitation, although there is some evidence of more intense precipitation events. a somewhat clearer picture emerges in stream flow patterns in certain rivers where there has been an increase in the number of flood days. some rivers are also exhibiting a trend towards a reduction in dependable flows in the dry season, which has implications both for water supply and energy generation (shakya 2003). glacier retreat also contributes significantly to streamflow variability in the spring and summer, while glacial lake outbursts which are becoming more likely with rising temperatures, are an additional source of flooding risk. 3.2 climate projections changes in area averaged temperature and precipitation over nepal were assessed based upon over a dozen recent general circulation models (gcms) using a new version of magicc/scengen (wigley and mcginnis, draft). magicc/scengen is briefly described in box 1. first, results for nepal from 17 gcms developed since 1995 were examined. next, 7 of the 17 models which best simulate current climate over nepal were selected. the models were run with the ipcc b2 sres scenario (nakicenovic and swart 2000)3. the spread in temperature and precipitation projections of these 7 gcms for various years in the future provides an estimate of the degree of agreement across various models for particular projections. more consistent projections across various models will tend to have lower scores for the standard deviation relative to the mean.
data.question: To describe the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems?
data.text: impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems include shifts in forest boundaries by latitude and upward movement of tree lines to higher elevations
data.question: Claim changes in species composition and plant species?
data.text: hanges in species' composition and vegetation types; and an increase in net primary productivity (npp) (ramakrishna et al. 2003). in the eastern himalayas, forest vegetation will expand signi fi cantly; forest productivity will increase from 1-10%; and it is expected that forest fi res and pests such as the north american pinewood nematode
data.question: Describe climate change in forest ecosystems?
data.text: bursaphelenchus xylophilus will increase as dryness and warmth increase (rebetez and dobbertin 2004). the overall impact of climate change on the forest ecosystems can be negative (siddiqui et al. 1999
data.context: impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems include shifts in forest boundaries by latitude and upward movement of tree lines to higher elevations; changes in species' composition and vegetation types; and an increase in net primary productivity (npp) (ramakrishna et al. 2003). in the eastern himalayas, forest vegetation will expand signi fi cantly; forest productivity will increase from 1-10%; and it is expected that forest fi res and pests such as the north american pinewood nematode bursaphelenchus xylophilus will increase as dryness and warmth increase (rebetez and dobbertin 2004). the overall impact of climate change on the forest ecosystems can be negative (siddiqui et al. 1999).
data.question: Is there need to improve climate risk management?
data.text: there is real urgency to improve climate risk management, simply from the perspective of the bank's core mandate of poverty reduction, which risks being compromised by
data.question: I s there fear that significant amounts of staff time and financial resources may be allocated to climate change adaptation?
data.text: there is a legitimate fear that by pursuing unfcccrelated funding and thus following its strict guidelines, significant amounts of staff time and financial resources may be allocated to climate change adaptation in a way that serves to distort the development process by assigning a higher priority to climate risks than is justified in relation to other pressing needs
data.question: Do Task Managers at the Bank and perhaps in bilateral development assistance agencies  sometimes become hesitant about embracing the notion of climate change?
data.text: while the potential for grant funding could be attractive for bank clients, the concept of climate change by itself, and the focus on stand-alone climate change adaptation has caused skepticism and fostered the conclusion that climate change is a long-term problem that has no priority in current development work
data.context: the initial dominance of the convention perspective may be one reason why task managers at the bank and perhaps in bilateral development assistance agencies are sometimes hesitant about embracing the notion of climate change adaptation as enthusiastically or as urgently as we would suggest. while the potential for grant funding could be attractive for bank clients, the concept of climate change by itself, and the focus on stand-alone climate change adaptation has caused skepticism and fostered the conclusion that climate change is a long-term problem that has no priority in current development work. there is a legitimate fear that by pursuing unfcccrelated funding and thus following its strict guidelines, significant amounts of staff time and financial resources may be allocated to climate change adaptation in a way that serves to distort the development process by assigning a higher priority to climate risks than is justified in relation to other pressing needs. at the same time, there is real urgency to improve climate risk management, simply from the perspective of the bank's core mandate of poverty reduction, which risks being compromised by
data.question: what is one of the examples of decisions to be made at various points?
data.text: for example, whether to use formalin or alcohol as a preservative depends on whether biomass determination is important or not
data.question: what is another example of a decision to be made at several points?
data.text: similarly, many beaches have clear microhabitats such as runnels or macrophyte wrack lines that require special consideration during the design of a sampling programme
data.question: why are runnels problematic?
data.text: runnels are similarly problematic, because a sample level corresponding with a runnel will not reflect the general intertidal gradient as the benthos remain submerged at low tide
data.context: as with sampling programmes in any other environment, there are decisions to be made at various points. each has pros and cons. for example, whether to use formalin or alcohol as a preservative depends on whether biomass determination is important or not. similarly, many beaches have clear microhabitats such as runnels or macrophyte wrack lines that require special consideration during the design of a sampling programme. benthic fauna associated with wrack lines can be incorporated within the standard sampling design, but flying invertebrates have to be sampled separately or disregarded. runnels are similarly problematic, because a sample level corresponding with a runnel will not reflect the general intertidal gradient as the benthos remain submerged at low tide. these issues are largely peripheral to this discussion and must be carefully resolved on a case-by-case basis. recommendation 10 study-specific issues must be resolved on a casebycase basis, with due regard for compatibility with other studies.
data.question: There are techniques for quantifying threshold values of Random Forests?
data.text: to date, no techniques exist for quantifying threshold values of those variables acting to separate classes
data.question: What happens to the out of the bag sample after the randomly permuting?
data.text: the sample is then run down the appropriate tree
data.question: Which is the capacity of data point the computing systems would operate?
data.text: second, that our computing systems would operate on only 80,000 data points, approximately one-half of the total available
data.context: international journal of plant sciences breiman (2001) cautions that the random forests output tends to be mechanistically indecipherable. to date, no techniques exist for quantifying threshold values of those variables acting to separate classes. instead, the algorithm available in r produces two measures for evaluating the importance of independent variables, the mean decrease in accuracy and the mean decrease in the gini index of class purity. both rely on an iterative process of randomly permuting (noising up) a predictor in the out-of-bag sample. the sample is then run down the appropriate tree. importance is measured by the increase in error attributable to permuting. the process is repeated for all variables, trees, and forests. for the cases we considered, the two indices were so strongly related that the most important group of variables from one index ordinarily would include those from the other. although correlative models are not a desirable means of assessing mechanistic interactions, these indices, as described in the r documentation, are useful in assorting a large number of predictor variables or culling superfluous variables (breiman 2001). community profiles preliminary analyses showed, first, that out-of-bag errors were lowest when the number of observations within classes was reasonably balanced and, second, that our computing systems would operate on only 80,000 data points, approximately one-half of the total available. to meet these criteria, we designed a sample consisting of a 100% of the data points for the 14 smallest communities and b 25%-80% of the available points for the largest communities, with the proportional representation negatively related to the size of the community (table 2). the culling of ca. 50% of the observations addressed the limit of 80,000 and occurred at the expense of the largest communities. when compared to several other sampling schemes, this procedure was the best at reducing classification errors for the smallest communities while having little effect on classification errors for the largest. the mean decreases in accuracy and the gini index were used jointly to cull superfluous predictors. the final analyses used 12 predictors to build one forest with 100 trees.
data.question: How much does welfare decrease each year due to climate change?
data.text: welfare falls by $70 billion per year as a result of climate change
data.question: What is the growth rate range based on the case study in question?
data.text: 26 to $76 billion a year
data.question: What can we conclude about the impacts of climate change?
data.text: we conclude that the impacts of climate change on energy expenditures are quite sensitive to assumptions about future energy
data.context: the next row doubles the income per capita for residential customers relative to the base case. welfare falls by $70 billion per year as a result of climate change. in the last row, we see that what would happen to today's economy. the change in expenditures would be only $35 billion a year, about half of the effect seen in the base case. in general, the welfare effects are increasing in baseline energy expenditures. under current climate conditions, our base case expenditures are $253 billion annually while the baseline 24 24 expenditures when assuming greater population growth increase to $339 billion. for a 5 @ c warming, table viii shows similar percent change in expenditures across simulations. overall, we conclude that the impacts of climate change on energy expenditures are quite sensitive to assumptions about future energy. our base case simulation of the annual welfare loss associated with a 5 deg c increase in temperature for 2100 is approximately $57 billion. in contrast, our predictions that allow for different assumptions regarding changes in climate, prices, population growth, and income growth range from $26 to $76 billion a year.
data.question: What is a difficult challenge?
data.text: dealing consistently with risk and uncertainty across the ipcc reports is a difficult challenge
data.question: What are some practical issues mentioned?
data.text: huge practical difficulties arise from the panel's scale and interdisciplinary context, the complexity of the climate change issue and its political context
data.question: What do we argue should be used properly?
data.text: we argue that properly using the ipcc's guidance notes for lead authors for addressing uncertainty, adding a pedigree analysis for key findings, and particularly communicating the diverse nature of uncertainty to the users of the assessment would increase the quality of the assessment
data.context: dealing consistently with risk and uncertainty across the ipcc reports is a difficult challenge. huge practical difficulties arise from the panel's scale and interdisciplinary context, the complexity of the climate change issue and its political context. the key question of this paper is if the observed differences in the handling of uncertainties by the three ipcc working groups can be clarified. to address this question, the paper reviews a few key issues on the foundations of uncertainty analysis, and summarizes the history of the treatment of uncertainty by the ipcc. one of the key findings is that there is reason to agree to disagree: the fundamental differences between the issues covered by the ipcc's three interdisciplinary working groups, between the type of information available, and between the dominant paradigms of the practitioners, legitimately lead to different approaches. we argue that properly using the ipcc's guidance notes for lead authors for addressing uncertainty, adding a pedigree analysis for key findings, and particularly communicating the diverse nature of uncertainty to the users of the assessment would increase the quality of the assessment. this approach would provide information about the nature of the uncertainties in addition to their magnitude and the confidence assessors have in their findings.
data.question: Does the speed of wind increase when it is higher or lower to the ground?
data.text: the speed of the wind increases the higher it is off the ground
data.question: What happens when wind reaches 5 m/s?
data.text: wind becomes an annoyance at about 5 m/s, by causing clothes to flap and disturbance to the hair
data.question: Where does wind discomfort cause the most severe impact?
data.text: perhaps the potentially most severe impacts of wind discomfort occur in the outdoor spaces around high-rise buildings
data.context: the speed of the wind increases the higher it is off the ground, resulting in higher air pressure experienced on the surface of the building. <s121>* the higher the pressure at the top of the building the greater the difference in pressure between the top and the bottom of the building, increasing the speed of the wind between the apex and the base of the building. the increasing high-level air pressure causes accelerated air speeds on the surface of the building, significantly increasing air penetration into the building, and out on the leeward side of the building through openings and cracks. 19 this can substantially increase the heating or the cooling load of an exposed high building over the loads of a lowto medium-rise building, often requiring expensive systems of climate control to even maintain a comfortable indoor climate the higher up the building one goes, but perhaps the potentially most severe impacts of wind discomfort occur in the outdoor spaces around high-rise buildings. 28 many of us will experience such discomfort daily. in the city of london, for example, it is difficult not to notice the significantly increased wind speeds on an ordinary summer's day in say, threadneedle street, adjacent to a high-rise tower. wind becomes an annoyance at about 5 m/s, by causing clothes to flap and disturbance to the hair. at 10 m/s it becomes definitely disagreeable and dust and litter are picked up and by 20 m/s it is likely to be dangerous. in studies the building research establishment (bre) found that wind speeds of 5 m/s were exceeded less than 5% of the time in areas of low-rise developments but were exceeded over 20% of the time in areas with high-rise buildings. 29 with the increasingly deep low-pressure systems currently being associated with climate change and their associated increases in wind speeds, the ground-level turbulence and wind speeds in city streets may become increasingly less tolerable for the ordinary citizen in areas adjacent to tower blocks. more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: On which scenario the experiment is based on?
data.text: all experiments are based on the sres a1m scenario which has been computed by nies (national institute for environmental studies, japan) with the aim model (asian pacific integrated model) we choose the a1m scenario because it corresponds to rather optimistic beliefs about the future
data.question: What A1m is indeed ?
data.text: a1m is indeed the picture of a prosperous and generous world where economic growth is high with a considerable catch-up of developing countries, continuous structural change and rapid diffusion of more efficient technologies yield to decreasing ghgs emissions as soon as 2050
data.question: On which A1m is consistent?
data.text: a1m is thus consistent with beliefs such as " it is better to invest in r&d in the energy sector and/or research in climate change-related fields than to deep-cut fossil fuel emissions at once while alternative technologies are expensive and climate change consequences might prove ultimately benign " or " abatement opportunity cost is lower than that of fostering development in potential vulnerable regions 
data.context: a.1. baseline growth scenario and exogenous related data (income and population) all experiments are based on the sres a1m scenario which has been computed by nies (national institute for environmental studies, japan) with the aim model (asian pacific integrated model) we choose the a1m scenario because it corresponds to rather optimistic beliefs about the future. a1m is indeed the picture of a prosperous and generous world where economic growth is high with a considerable catch-up of developing countries, continuous structural change and rapid diffusion of more efficient technologies yield to decreasing ghgs emissions as soon as 2050. a1m is thus consistent with beliefs such as " it is better to invest in r&d in the energy sector and/or research in climate change-related fields than to deep-cut fossil fuel emissions at once while alternative technologies are expensive and climate change consequences might prove ultimately benign " or " abatement opportunity cost is lower than that of fostering development in potential vulnerable regions ". it is therefore relevant to examine how statements like " one should delay ghgs emissions reduction efforts " are to be revised when using a proper precautionary approach. a.2. specification of abatement cost function we use the following abatement cost function: 21 21
data.question: According to the MAXENT model how many classes of suitability are there?
data.text: to three classes of suitability loss (low, medium, high
data.question: What indicators were identified and quantified through interviews with the farming families?
data.text: sensitivity and adaptive capacity
data.question: What variance was applied using the LSD-Fisher test to compare the averages for each indicator by cluster?
data.text: then an analysis of variance (anova
data.context: for exposure, the relative decreases in climatic suitability according to the maxent model were divided into three classes of suitability loss (low, medium, high). for sensitivity and adaptive capacity, indicators were identified and quantified through interviews with the farming families. a cluster analysis was carried out for each indicator of sensitivity and adaptive capacity based on the score of each family using the ward method with euclidean distance. then an analysis of variance (anova) was applied using the lsd-fisher test to compare the averages for each indicator by cluster. the indicators in each cluster that obtained significantly different sample averages were classified in three levels on a scale of 0 to 1 (0-0.33 low, table 2. projected changes in overall suitability for coffee production and altitudinal range suitable for production in mesoamerica by 2050.
data.question: What percentage of the terrain is characterized by steep slopes in the Pidlisan domain?
data.text: the pidlisan domain has a mountainous terrain characterized by steep slopes (more than 50%) of high sedimentary mountains with deep ravines
data.question: What change in climatic conditions did the idigenous farmers in the Cordillera region observe?
data.text: indigenous farmers in the cordillera region in northern luzon, philippines, have observed changes in climatic conditions such as prolonged drought and excessive rains
data.question: What does the successful implementation of the lampisa system hinge on
data.text: the successful implementation of the lampisa system hinges on the power and dedication of community leaders (dap-ay elders and barangay officials) and compliance by the people with the laws governing the system
data.context: the pidlisan domain has a mountainous terrain characterized by steep slopes (more than 50%) of high sedimentary mountains with deep ravines. the majority of the residents engage in agriculture with rice farming as the main economic activity. indigenous farmers in the cordillera region in northern luzon, philippines, have observed changes in climatic conditions such as prolonged drought and excessive rains. in some instances these have resulted in severe crop damage, a situation that is further aggravated by deforestation. mrdc discuss the lampisa system of water distribution, under which people are nominated to take responsibility for the maintenance of the irrigation canals and the rice fields throughout the dry season. the primary task of these lampisa is to ensure that all rice fields receive a fair share of water at all times and to conduct regular inspection of the entire irrigation system. this will ensure that water flow is maintained, even in times of drought. the successful implementation of the lampisa system hinges on the power and dedication of community leaders (dap-ay elders and barangay officials) and compliance by the people with the laws governing the system. the lampisa system promotes communal use of water resources at a low cost. although the beneficiaries are obliged to pay for the services of the lampisa services, they do so based on a fair value (5% of the total volume of production).
data.question: what was the result of the lake test?
data.text: phytoplankton composition and biomass from control mesocosms in both experiments were not significantly different from those in the lake t -test for matched pairs, p 0.05
data.question: phytoplankton biomass increased with what?
data.text: phytoplankton biomass increased with nutrient levels
data.question: how was the situation in 1999?
data.text: in 1999, there was a significantly higher presence of non-heterocystous filamentous cyanobacteria in mesocosms without fish p 0.001
data.context: phytoplankton composition and biomass from control mesocosms in both experiments were not significantly different from those in the lake t -test for matched pairs, p 0.05). therefore, our experimental mesocosms appeared to reproduce reasonably well the natural lake conditions. the total planktonic algal biomass was significantly related to nutrients in both years (table 2). phytoplankton biomass increased with nutrient levels. a chlorophyll a threshold of 100 l g l) 1was attained around an added external nutrient concentration between 1 and 1.5 mg l) 1n and 0.1 and 0.15 mg l) 1p (fig. 1). turbid states in the experiments were well marked by this threshold. densities of planktivorous fish affected phytoplankton biomass to a lesser extent than its composition (table 2). in 1999, there was a significantly higher presence of non-heterocystous filamentous cyanobacteria in mesocosms without fish p 0.001;
data.question: Where was noted the link between climatic changes e migration?
data.text: this indirect link between climatic changes and migration was noted frequently in fieldwork, mostly related to unreliable harvests linked to changing rainfall patterns
data.question: What drylands area depends on?
data.text:  in dryland areas such as tlaxcala, which depends on rain-fed agriculture, the majority of interviewees complained of shifting rainfall periods, which increases uncertainty and causes a decline in crop yields and incomes
data.question: How theshifting rainfall periods affects areas such as dryland?
data.text: in dryland areas such as tlaxcala, which depends on rain-fed agriculture, the majority of interviewees complained of shifting rainfall periods, which increases uncertainty and causes a decline in crop yields and incomes
data.context: some studies have shown links between desertification and migration in mexico, 42 noting the impacts on agricultural livelihoods. in dryland areas such as tlaxcala, which depends on rain-fed agriculture, the majority of interviewees complained of shifting rainfall periods, which increases uncertainty and causes a decline in crop yields and incomes. the area of tlaxcala is projected to have a 10-20 percent decline in runoff in association with climate change. this indirect link between climatic changes and migration was noted frequently in fieldwork, mostly related to unreliable harvests linked to changing rainfall patterns. return migration, and seasonal migration as a livelihood diversification strategy have been documented in this area. as explained by two interviewees: "...when our harvest is bad, we have to rely on ourselves. many of us had to leave, to canada or the united states... the money i made there... was a big help for my family. without that income, it would have become extremely difficult." 43
data.question: From where, TraCE-YD adopted original meltwater discharge reconstruction ?
data.text: in trace-yd, we opened bering strait at 12.9ka (table 1) and adopted the original meltwater discharge reconstruction from st. lawrence river with a 14 m/kyr routing event between mackenzie river and st. lawrence river occurring between 12.2 and 12.0 ka [carlson et al., 2007] (fig. 24
data.question: State the major differences in TraCE-YD. ?
data.text: the major difference in trace-yd is the collapse of the amoc in the middle of the yd as the result of the routing through mackenzie river
data.question: Where is the sensitivity of AMOC to the meltwater discharge found larger than the Mackenzie River AMOC to the meltwater discharge ?
data.text: the sensitivity of amoc to the meltwater discharge in the mackenzie river is significantly larger than that in st. lawrence river, which results in further reduction and the collapse of amoc between 12.2 and 12.0 ka. the simulated greenland sat reaches -45
data.context: in trace-yd, we opened bering strait at 12.9ka (table 1) and adopted the original meltwater discharge reconstruction from st. lawrence river with a 14 m/kyr routing event between mackenzie river and st. lawrence river occurring between 12.2 and 12.0 ka [carlson et al., 2007] (fig. 24). compared with the previous open bering strait case, the major difference in trace-yd is the collapse of the amoc in the middle of the yd as the result of the routing through mackenzie river. the sensitivity of amoc to the meltwater discharge in the mackenzie river is significantly larger than that in st. lawrence river, which results in further reduction and the collapse of amoc between 12.2 and 12.0 ka. the simulated greenland sat reaches -45
data.question: What was the purpose of Study Two?
data.text: the purpose of study two was to further explore the validity and reliability of the climate caring scale by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis and examining the convergent validity of the measure
data.question: Was Caring Climate Scale supported?
data.text: caring climate scale was strongly supported suggesting that participants responded extremely consistently to the items
data.question: Was convergent validity supported?
data.text: convergent validity was partially supported
data.context: the purpose of study two was to further explore the validity and reliability of the climate caring scale by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis and examining the convergent validity of the measure. the cfa on the 14 item measure identified in study one revealed a reasonable fit. after removing one general item from the measure, the scale was found to demonstrate a good fit of the data. the maximum likelihood estimates suggested that each item in the measure was correctly assigned to the notion of a setting being perceived as caring. these findings further refined the measure and lend support to the conceptual viewpoint of the current study that the multiple characteristics of a caring climate (noddings, 1984, 1992, 1995) can be viewed as a single general notion of the construct. the internal reliability of the resultant 13 item caring climate scale was strongly supported suggesting that participants responded extremely consistently to the items. using structural equation modeling, convergent validity was partially supported, in line with predictions. the caring climate scale was positively and significantly associated with desire for future involvement in the camp but not with valuing the program. in line with previous research linking a sense of belonging 80 revista de psicologia del deporte. 2007. vol. 16, num. 1, pp. 67-84 newton, m., fry, m.,watson, d. et al. caring climate scale...
data.question: What is the difference between the two forms of adaptation?
data.text: it is important to distinguish between two forms of adaptation, as proposed in the third assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (mccarthy et al., 2001). anticipative adaptation (or proactive adaptation) focuses on lowering the costs of coping ex ante coping5 (or reactive adaptation), focuses on coping with the adverse impacts of climate change ex-post
data.question: What are the two types of adaptation?
data.text: anticipative adaptation (or proactive adaptation) focuses on lowering the costs of coping ex ante coping5 (or reactive adaptation), focuses on coping with the adverse impacts of climate change ex-post as noted by fankhauser et al. (1998
data.question: Which plan was adopted in reaction to the 2003 heat wave?
data.text: the french government prepared a "heat wave national action plan" that includes inter alia the creation of a national alert system, a strong effort for prevention and information, and a clearer division of tasks among public agencies (latest version, republique francaise, 2006). clearly, this plan was adopted in reaction to the 2003 heat wave (reactive adaptation ex post 
data.context: the distinction between proactive or anticipative adaptation ex ante and reactive adaptation or coping ex post it is important to distinguish between two forms of adaptation, as proposed in the third assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (mccarthy et al., 2001). anticipative adaptation (or proactive adaptation) focuses on lowering the costs of coping ex ante coping5 (or reactive adaptation), focuses on coping with the adverse impacts of climate change ex-post as noted by fankhauser et al. (1998), the distinction between anticipative and reactive adaptation is intuitively clear, but difficult to delineate with precision in a dynamic setting. for example, after the heat wave of august 2003, which is estimated to have caused in excess of 11,000 deaths over historical averages, the french government prepared a "heat wave national action plan" that includes inter alia the creation of a national alert system, a strong effort for prevention and information, and a clearer division of tasks among public agencies (latest version, republique francaise, 2006). clearly, this plan was adopted in reaction to the 2003 heat wave (reactive adaptation ex post ). but it has been adopted in anticipation of repeat events (proactive adaptation ex ante ). interestingly, the plan explicitly mentions climate change as a rationale. however, the distinction between anticipative and reactive adaptation is important from a policy point of view because the rationale for the two actions are very different. prevention uses resources now to prevent possible crisis in the future, while reactive adaptation uses resources to cope with events at the time they occur .6 the crux of the problem is that, in practice, behavioral changes and policy decisions are often easier to implement once a crisis has occurred than in anticipation of a crisis. but from an economic point of view, the often lower costs of preventive action (anticipative adaptation)7 are likely to dominate the higher costs of deferred action
data.question: How USA succeeded in securing powerful political allies in Congress?
data.text: this coordinated strategy by the fossil fuel industry in the usa succeeded in securing powerful political allies in congress
data.question: How USA opposed and reduced fossil fuel by 15 per cent?
data.text: in the absence of significant public awareness on climate, the usa opposed mandatory international ghg emission controls until 1996, and entered the kyoto negotiations in november 1997 advocating no more than a freeze on emissions at 1990 levels, while the european union was pushing for 15 per cent reduction
data.question: What is Kyoto Protocol ?
data.text: a simple explanation for the shift in industry position would point to the signing of the kyoto protocol in december 1997, committing the usa to 7 per cent reduction in emission levels, and growing scientific consensus since the ipcc's second assessment report in 1995
data.context: this coordinated strategy by the fossil fuel industry in the usa succeeded in securing powerful political allies in congress. in the absence of significant public awareness on climate, the usa opposed mandatory international ghg emission controls until 1996, and entered the kyoto negotiations in november 1997 advocating no more than a freeze on emissions at 1990 levels, while the european union was pushing for 15 per cent reduction. by mid-1999, however, a number of writers had noted an apparent sea change in industry's stance on climate, as companies began to accept the scientific basis for emission controls and to invest significant sums in low carbon technologies (nauss, 1999; newswire, 1999). a simple explanation for the shift in industry position would point to the signing of the kyoto protocol in december 1997, committing the usa to 7 per cent reduction in emission levels, and growing scientific consensus since the ipcc's second assessment report in 1995. nevertheless, no major scientific breakthroughs had occurred, the prospects for ratification of the protocol in the us senate were
data.question: Why would some people opt out?
data.text: even if the causes of migration are similar from one person to the next, people opt for different strategies in terms of destination and timing of migration
data.question: Why might people not be able to opt out anymore?
data.text:  in 20 or 30 years bangladesh may see mass movement of people from flood-prone areas, possibly to urban centers
data.question: Why climate change could become an issue for regional security?
data.text: given the political instability of the region, population movements associated with climate change could become an issue for regional security
data.context: even if the causes of migration are similar from one person to the next, people opt for different strategies in terms of destination and timing of migration. but there might be a moment when they will not be able to adapt any more. in 20 or 30 years bangladesh may see mass movement of people from flood-prone areas, possibly to urban centers. the current structures and organizations to help the victims of disasters will not be enough to cope with the increase of migration flows in the future. given the political instability of the region, population movements associated with climate change could become an issue for regional security. however, adaptation strategies could reduce the environmental vulnerability and increase the resilience of local populations. each-for research suggests that the population is already working to adapt to the new situation, mainly by leaving agriculture for other livelihoods such as shrimp farming.82 the worsening of the environmental situation in the ganges delta, however, could render migration as one of the most realistic options available for some bangladeshi people.
data.question: who can help to measure social impact of climate change ?
data.text: under some assumption the social impact of climate change can be estimated using just these reduced form results (as discussed below), and law enforcement or humanitarian organizations can use climate forecasts for planning purposes without understanding all the underlying mechanisms
data.question: what are the requirements to understand the mechanisms of linking conflict to climate ?
data.text:  however, many scientific questions and policy interventions do require an understanding of the mechanisms linking conflict to climate
data.question: what  literature indicates  on multiple forms of conflict ?
data.text: reduced form evidence in the literature indicates a causal effect of climatic events on multiple forms of conflict
data.context: reduced form evidence in the literature indicates a causal effect of climatic events on multiple forms of conflict (figure 6 ). as described by equation 5 this reduced form effect is the sum effect of all potential pathways. thus, taken alone, these reduced form effects say little about what mechanisms play a role in generating this response. understanding what mechanisms drive 19 observed patterns is not essential for all applications of these results: for example, under some assumption the social impact of climate change can be estimated using just these reduced form results (as discussed below), and law enforcement or humanitarian organizations can use climate forecasts for planning purposes without understanding all the underlying mechanisms. however, many scientific questions and policy interventions do require an understanding of the mechanisms linking conflict to climate. for instance, a more detailed understanding of the processes involved is necessary for implementing policies to reduce conflict risk in hot periods. here we present a simple framework to describe several mechanisms that researchers have highlighted, describe the evidence to date on hypothesized pathways, and conclude that studying mechanisms should be a central task for future research.
data.question: What do the gray bars indicate?
data.text: the gray bars indicate laws that were perceived as barriers to implementing adaptation
data.question: What do the black bars indicate?
data.text: the black bars indicate laws perceived as enabling adaptation
data.question: What were responses coded according to?
data.text: responses were coded according to environmental laws mentioned
data.context: note: the top graph (fig. 4a) is for nps respondents and the bottom (fig. 4b) is for usfs respondents. responses were coded according to environmental laws mentioned. the gray bars indicate laws that were perceived as barriers to implementing adaptation, while the black bars indicate laws perceived as enabling adaptation. there are no nps responses for the nfma because it applies only to the usfs. similarly, there are no usfs responses for the nps organic act because it applies only to the nps. key: caa-clean air act; cwa-clean water act; esa-endangered species act; erfo-emergency relief for federally-owned roads program; nepa-national environmental policy act; nhpanational historic preservation act; nfma-national forest management act.
data.question: What is the reason that the means might not be employed?
data.text: finally, the means might remain unemployed as it is difficult to align conflicting interest between upstream and downstream users of the river water in a contract. in this case there would be no coordination, although the necessary means are at hand
data.question: What did the authors learn when considering the actors and institutions in a precise way?
data.text: usage of the core concepts guides the analysis to be precise about the actor relations and institutions involved. this reveals a complex and broad set of adaptations and illustrates that we have to deal with whole bundles of adaptations and not just single ones. by dismantling these bundles along means-ends-chains, we can analyze potential barriers for each part of these chains
data.question: What body of water did the researchers study?
data.text: thus, if cooling water scarcity becomes indeed more severe in the future, the complexity of actor relations in the rhine catchment with multiple jurisdictions will make it difficult to come up with a coordinated effort. we thus draw a pessimistic conclusion for managing cooling water in the rhine catchment under climate change
data.context: second, there might be missing means as this adaptation has the same legitimacy problems as other frequent extra-ordinary exemptions. finally, the means might remain unemployed as it is difficult to align conflicting interest between upstream and downstream users of the river water in a contract. in this case there would be no coordination, although the necessary means are at hand. by analyzing the case study with our framework we can summarize some interesting conclusions. usage of the core concepts guides the analysis to be precise about the actor relations and institutions involved. this reveals a complex and broad set of adaptations and illustrates that we have to deal with whole bundles of adaptations and not just single ones. by dismantling these bundles along means-ends-chains, we can analyze potential barriers for each part of these chains. in our case, some of the proposed adaptations differ in the potential barrier types (e.g. unemployed means due to upstream-downstream conflicts), but some barrier types also re-appear (e.g. missing means due to legitimacy problems). all types appear somewhere, but for each adaptation the necessary means and the configuration of barriers are quite different. there is thus no simple solution (or facilitating adaptation) that resolves all barriers at the same time. thus, if cooling water scarcity becomes indeed more severe in the future, the complexity of actor relations in the rhine catchment with multiple jurisdictions will make it difficult to come up with a coordinated effort. we thus draw a pessimistic conclusion for managing cooling water in the rhine catchment under climate change.
data.question: where were three problems with the approach identified?
data.text: critique of ideology
data.question: what is simplistic and unrealistic?
data.text: the assumption that dominant groups can act purposef d y and in unison to shape popular culture and discourse
data.question: what seems elitist and paternalistic?
data.text: the idea that intellectuals can stand outside the ideological system and preach to others about their real interests
data.context: egan secured through ideological control of perceptions of interest (abercrombie et al., 1980). alvesson and deetz (1996) identifjr three problems with this 'critique of ideology' approach. first, it does not explain the conditions under which marginalized groups can evade the dominant ideology and obtain sufficient agency to engage in resistant behaviour. second, the idea that intellectuals can stand outside the ideological system and preach to others about their real interests appears elitist and patronizing. finally, the assumption that dominant groups can act purposef d y and in unison to shape popular culture and discourse is simplistic and unrealistic. clegg (1989), among others, has pointed out that,
data.question: What can be done to provide comfort from climate stress?
data.text: migrate away from regions
data.question: What should you do to take advantage of benefits in different areas?
data.text: migrate around the spaces in buildings and cities
data.question: How can you protect buildings from extreme weather?
data.text:  evolve their buildings and industries to provide and take advantage of a changing range of adaptive opportunities to ameliorate indoor and adjacent outdoor micro-climates
data.context: migrate away from regions under climate stress if it threatens their health and ability to remain safe and comfortable. <s121>* build social resilience extending the ecological niches occupied by that group. <s121>* become adept at managing their indoor, outdoor and underground micro-climates, and range of adaptive opportunities to provide affordable comfort at different times of day and year. <s121>* migrate around the spaces in buildings and cities to take advantage of the potential comfort benefits of different areas in their territory. <s121>* evolve their buildings and industries to provide and take advantage of a changing range of adaptive opportunities to ameliorate indoor and adjacent outdoor micro-climates to combat increasingly extreme weather. <s121>* develop conscious processes to rapidly and passively evolve their buildings in non-intuitive ways, replacing the traditional, too slow, intuitive evolution processes. <s121>* learn again to look at buildings as sources and sinks of energy, and the available yields of and the opportunities for movement of heat and coolth around buildings.
data.question: what is the first type of selection made during this survey?
data.text: this selection was made in three ways (i) a direct request to all oecd dac members to submit documentation of relevant national and sectoral strategies, as well as individual projects
data.question: What are the authors confident of this survey?
data.text: nevertheless, the authors feel confident that this limited set allows an identification of some common patterns and questions that might be relevant for development planning
data.question: How can the climate risk affecting development activities in Tanzania be measured?
data.text: the extent to which climate risks affect development activities in tanzania can be gauged by examining the sectoral composition of the total aid portfolio, which is analyzed here using the world
data.context: the following sections highlight the possible extent of climate risks to development investments in tanzania and examine to what extent current and future climate risks are factored in to development strategies and plans, as well as individual development projects 10. given the large quantity of strategies and projects, our analysis is limited to a selection. this selection was made in three ways (i) a direct request to all oecd dac members to submit documentation of relevant national and sectoral strategies, as well as individual projects (ii) a direct search for some of the most important documents (including for instance national development plan/prsp, submissions to the various un conventions, country and sector strategies from multilateral donors like the world bank and undp, and some of the larger projects in climate-sensitive sectors), and (iii) a pragmatic search (by availability) for further documentation that would be of interest to our analysis (mainly in development databases and on donors' external websites). hence, the analysis is not comprehensive, and its conclusions are not necessarily valid for a wider array of development strategies and activities. nevertheless, the authors feel confident that this limited set allows an identification of some common patterns and questions that might be relevant for development planning. 5.1 donor activities affected by climate risks this section explores the extent to which development activities in tanzania are affected by this section explores the extent to which development activities in tanzania are affected by climate risks, which gives an indication of the importance of climate considerations in development planning. the extent to which climate risks affect development activities in tanzania can be gauged by examining the sectoral composition of the total aid portfolio, which is analyzed here using the world
data.question: What era are Earth's temperatures comparable to today?
data.text: earth today, with global temperature having returned to at least the holocene maximum, is poised to experience strong amplifying polar feedbacks in response to even modest additional global mean warming
data.question: Why does it matter if sea levels rise?
data.text: civilization developed during a time of unusual sea level stability. much of the world's population and infrastructure is located near current sea level
data.question: Do we know how much effect melting ice sheets will have on sea levels?
data.text: ipcc projections did not include contributions from ice sheet melt, on the grounds that we do not understand ice sheet physics well enough. that is reasonable, but if ice sheets pose the danger of sea level rise far exceeding other mechanisms, then it deserves to be front and center in communication with policymakers
data.context: we conclude that pliocene temperatures probably were no more than 1-2degc warmer on global average than peak holocene temperature. and regardless of the precise temperatures in the pliocene, the extreme polar warmth and diminished ice sheets are consistent with the picture we painted above. earth today, with global temperature having returned to at least the holocene maximum, is poised to experience strong amplifying polar feedbacks in response to even modest additional global mean warming. 6. sea level sea level rise potentially sets a low limit on the dangerous level of global warming. sea level rise potentially sets a low limit on the dangerous level of global warming. civilization developed during a time of unusual sea level stability. much of the world's population and infrastructure is located near current sea level. earth's paleoclimate history shows that eventual sea level rise of many meters should be anticipated with the global warming of at least several degrees celsius that is expected under business-as-usual (bau) climate scenarios (ipcc, 2001, 2007; hansen et al., 2000, 2007). yet the danger of sea level rise has had little or no impact on global energy and climate policies. the explanation, at least in part, must be belief that ice sheets respond only slowly to climate change. thus the ipcc (2007) projection of about 29 cm (midrange 20-43 cm, full range 18-59 cm) sea level rise by the end of this century was more reassuring than threatening. ipcc projections did not include contributions from ice sheet melt, on the grounds that we do not understand ice sheet physics well enough. that is reasonable, but if ice sheets pose the danger of sea level rise far exceeding other mechanisms, then it deserves to be front and center in communication with policymakers. given the near impossibility of getting policymakers to consider far future effects, the practical question then becomes: how much can ice sheets contribute to sea level rise on the time scale of a century? rahmstorf (2007) made an important contribution to the sea level discussion by pointing out that even a linear relation between global temperature and the rate of sea level rise, calibrated 15
data.question: Write the quotation words in this paragraph ?
data.text: pollution permits" and "emissions trading
data.question: Expansion of IPCC ?
data.text: intergovernmental panel on climate change
data.question: What way effted the peoples by gases emission ?
data.text: across the world 80 million people are at severe risk of their homes and livelihoods being destroyed by flash flooding as sea levels rise, fed by melting icecaps, and extreme weather events become more frequent. although these weather changes will occur everywhere, poorer countries will have less ability to adapt. meanwhile the emissions of greenhouse gases, that are creating the problems, come overwhelmingly from the richer industrialized countries that do have the resources to adapt
data.context: to understand the impact of "pollution permits" and "emissions trading"1on the ecological crisis, the findings of the international scientific community must be noted. the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc), a un advisory body numbering 3,000 scientists, concluded in 2001 that "the present co2 concentration has not been exceeded during the past 420,000 years and likely not during the past 20 million years."2the clear and alarming consensus in the scientific community is that humankind is wreaking havoc on the atmosphere. across the world 80 million people are at severe risk of their homes and livelihoods being destroyed by flash flooding as sea levels rise, fed by melting icecaps, and extreme weather events become more frequent. although these weather changes will occur everywhere, poorer countries will have less ability to adapt. meanwhile the emissions of greenhouse gases, that are creating the problems, come overwhelmingly from the richer industrialized countries that do have the resources to adapt. for example the us and the eu, with only 10 percent of the world's population, are responsible for producing 45 percent of all emissions of carbon dioxide (co2), the principle greenhouse gas.3
data.question: What has the global financial crisis stimulated governments of industrialised countries to talk about?
data.text: the global fi nancial crisis has stimulated governments of industrialised countries to talk about the so-called green new deal, which brings about re-industrialisation based on low-carbon energy
data.question: What will The Copenhagen UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) conference address?
data.text: the copenhagen un framework convention on climate change (unfccc) conference in december, 2009 (cop 15) will address the shared vision of governments about new global warming and emissions targets for 2020 and 2050
data.question: What will the conference also address?
data.text: it will also address reform of the clean development mechanism, reducing emissions from deforestation, technology transfer, and adaptation
data.context: we call for a public health movement that frames the threat of climate change for humankind as a health issue. apart from a dedicated few, health professionals have come late to the climate change debate, but health concerns are crucial because they attract political attention. this report raises many challenging and urgent issues for politicians, civil servants, academics, health professionals, ngos, pressure groups, and local communities. the global fi nancial crisis has stimulated governments of industrialised countries to talk about the so-called green new deal, which brings about re-industrialisation based on low-carbon energy. ideas such as carbon capture in power stations, carbon taxes with 100% dividends for low-carbon users, and fourth generational nuclear power are on the highest political agendas. the copenhagen un framework convention on climate change (unfccc) conference in december, 2009 (cop 15) will address the shared vision of governments about new global warming and emissions targets for 2020 and 2050. it will also address reform of the clean development mechanism, reducing emissions from deforestation, technology transfer, and adaptation.
data.question: Did childhood infection rates get lower in the past half-century?
data.text: in regions of high endemicity and stability, particularly in sub-saharan africa, childhood infection rates have remained remarkably static over the past half-century
data.question: What you say is a major determinant in the forest cycle of yellow fever?
data.text: yellow fever and dengue. rainfall is a major determinant of transmission in the forest cycle of yellow fever
data.question: When is the peak transmission season for mosquitoes that breed in stored water?
data.text: thus, in areas where mosquitoes breed in stored water, their populations may be extremely high all year, yet peak transmission occurs in the rainy season
data.context: malaria. in regions of high endemicity and stability, particularly in sub-saharan africa, childhood infection rates have remained remarkably static over the past half-century. transmission rates are so high that even the colossal increases in anopheline populations that result from the of rice cultivation do not alter the indices of infection 185 ). in such circumstances it is unlikely that a warmer climate would have much effect on incidence. moreover, climate models suggest that the low latitudes are least likely to be affected by any global trend. farther from the equator, in zones of unstable malaria, the picture is less clear. transmission is more sensitive to climatic factors, so the impact of climate change could be significant. a long-term increase in average rainfall might promote high mosquito populations in areas that are currently arid but reduce them where drought malaria is now the norm. lower rainfall could suppress transmission in arid areas, as appears to have happened in recent years on the southern edge of the sahara 105 ), but promotes drought malaria in wetter ones. increased temperatures could facilitate transmission in humid areas but reduce it if associated with low humidity. such changes could alter the relative abundance of local mosquito species, and natural selection could modify the species themselves. climate change would induce other ecologic changes, which could lead to agricultural and economic change that might increase or decrease transmission potential. the plethora of factors involved is complex, and the overall impact on endemicity and stability is even harder to predict. higher temperatures would probably raise the maximum altitude for transmission and could bring the disease back to major cities such as quito, ecuador, and mexico city, mexico, where it has not been seen for many decades. in most such situations, stability would remain low, so control measures should be relatively effective. however, at lower altitudes, which are at the present limits of transmission, increased stability and prevalence might be more of a problem. other factors could have a crucial impact. the recent history of ae. albopictus demonstrates that modern transportation has greatly increased the mobility of many species. the of an anthropophilic mosquito to a new location could drastically alter transmission potential by altering stability. this has happened in the past--the worldwide distribution of ae. aegypti is perhaps the best example. climate change might affect the likelihood that such s would lead to disease transmission. yellow fever and dengue. rainfall is a major determinant of transmission in the forest cycle of yellow fever. climate models do not suggest major changes in equatorial regions of africa but indicate that rainfall might decrease toward the sahara. this could reduce the overall potential for enzootic activity, but the resultant reduction of immunity in the monkey population might exacerbate the rate of epizootic transmission during rainy episodes and enhance the likelihood of transfer of virus to the urban cycle. transmission would also be modified if climate change affected the monkey populations. transmission by peridomestic mosquitoes is often highly seasonal. the causes of this seasonality vary in different regions and in many cases are complex and poorly understood. thus, in areas where mosquitoes breed in stored water, their populations may be extremely high all year, yet peak transmission occurs in the rainy season. in many instances this probably occurs because it is also the hottest season and/or because the survival rate is greater at higher humidity. in other situations transmission may be enhanced during drought, when water storage becomes more important. however, the mere fact that transmission is seasonal does not imply that, for example, warmer seasons will produce higher rates of transmission. this is well illustrated by the record of dengue in puerto rico: there is no reason to suppose that climatic factors affect transmission rates of the four serotypes of this virus in different ways, but it is clear from figure 7 that the patterns of their incidence are not identical. immunologic history, expressed as the herd immunity, is presumably the dominant factor. moreover, a retrospective analysis of 33 years of monthly data on dhf incidence in bangkok, thailand, did not reveal any relationship between climate variables and the timing of epidemics 130 ).
data.question: What is one of the most well-understood reponses of plants to elevated atmospheric CO2?
data.text: one of the most rapid and well-understood responses of plants to elevated atmospheric co2 is a reduction in stomatal conductance (a measure of the width of leaf-surface pores that allow the exchange of co2 or h2o between the atmosphere and internal leaf) (14
data.question: What did Betts demonstrate?
data.text: betts et al. (133) demonstrated that the combined effect of increased leaf area and reduced conductance per leaf was a small net change in total canopy evapotranspiration
data.question: What do the adjustments lead to?
data.text: these adjustments lead to lower rates of water vapor loss by most plants as atmospheric co2 levels rise, which in turn causes an increase in sensible heat flux as less incident energy is used to evaporate water figure 1 
data.context: one of the most rapid and well-understood responses of plants to elevated atmospheric co2 is a reduction in stomatal conductance (a measure of the width of leaf-surface pores that allow the exchange of co2 or h2o between the atmosphere and internal leaf) (14). these adjustments lead to lower rates of water vapor loss by most plants as atmospheric co2 levels rise, which in turn causes an increase in sensible heat flux as less incident energy is used to evaporate water figure 1 ). sellers et al. (14) showed that surface warming of as much as 1*c in the tropics can result from the increased sensible heat flux associated with doubled atmospheric co2 levels. over timescales of years to decades, however, most species also exhibit greater leaf area in response to elevated co2, which increases the total surface area over which transpiration occurs. betts et al. (133) demonstrated that the combined effect of increased leaf area and reduced conductance per leaf was a small net change in total canopy evapotranspiration. as a result, the total shift in energy partitioning
data.question: How can flood damange costs be mitigated?
data.text: flood damage costs can be mitigated by measures aimed at preventing, avoiding or alleviating the physical and socio-economic impacts of flooding
data.question: What is mentioned in section 2?
data.text: as mentioned in section 2 (figure 2.1), we distinguish between ex ante and ex post coping mechanisms at individual and collective level
data.question: What interesting trend do we find when relating flood damage costs to the number of income sources?
data.text: when relating flood damage costs to the number of income sources, we find an interesting trend, where an increase in income sources seems to go hand in hand with lower average damage costs (figure 7
data.context: flood damage costs can be mitigated by measures aimed at preventing, avoiding or alleviating the physical and socio-economic impacts of flooding. as mentioned in section 2 (figure 2.1), we distinguish between ex ante and ex post coping mechanisms at individual and collective level. following the results presented at the end of the previous section, we start with the ex ante adaptation strategy of income diversification (e.g. few, 2003). this will be followed by a discussion of ex ante prevention measures at individual household level and we will end this section with a presentation of ex post coping mechanisms at community level. when relating flood damage costs to the number of income sources, we find an interesting trend, where an increase in income sources seems to go hand in hand with lower average damage costs (figure 7). the observed trend is furthermore statistically significant at the one percent level (kruskal-wallis
data.question: While the indicator approach is what?
data.text: valuable
data.question: CEEPA exists where?
data.text: africa
data.context: while the indicator approach is valuable for monitoring trends and exploring conceptual frameworks, indices are limited in their application by considerable subjectivity in the selection of variables and their relative weights, by the availability of data at various scales, and by the difficulty of testing or validating the different metrics. perhaps most importantly, the indicator approach often leads to a lack of correspondence between the conceptual definition of vulnerability and the metrics: pp 257. table 1 shows different indicators and the scales at which they could be used. identification of the types of indicators and attachment of the scale of analysis was done by the international food policy research institute (ifpri) and the center for environmental economics and policy in africa (ceepa) climate change research team. as shown in this table, level of education or literacy rate is a household characteristic (hhc) that can be analyzed at the household (hh) scale (by taking the education level of the head of a household), the district (d) scale (by taking the average of the education levels of the head of the household in the district), or the national (n) scale (by taking this average for the nation). similarly, soil conditions are biophysical (bp) characteristics that can be seen at different scales, starting from the household level to the national level. the references listed in the fourth column of table 1 are different studies that are based on different characteristics at different scales. 6 6 table 1. indicators or proxy variables used in vulnerability analysis
data.question: What is a primary goal of impacts and adaptation research?
data.text: a primary goal of impacts and adaptation research is to reduce vulnerability to climate change and, as such, there is a need for studies that focus on the regions and systems considered to be most vulnerable
data.question: Wich areas in Canada are affected?
data.text: in canada, this includes areas presently under water stress, such as the prairies, the interior of british columbia, the great lakes-st. lawrence basin and parts of atlantic canada, as well as regions where climate change impacts on water resources may have large ramifications for existing or planned activities
data.question: What will some studies have to address initially?
data.text: in some cases, studies may have to initially address fundamental knowledge gaps with respect to either processes or data
data.context: a primary goal of impacts and adaptation research is to reduce vulnerability to climate change and, as such, there is a need for studies that focus on the regions and systems considered to be most vulnerable. in canada, this includes areas presently under water stress, such as the prairies, the interior of british columbia, the great lakes-st. lawrence basin and parts of atlantic canada, as well as regions where climate change impacts on water resources may have large ramifications for existing or planned activities. in some cases, studies may have to initially address fundamental knowledge gaps with respect to either processes or data (e.g., the paucity of data on groundwater use in most areas) before meaningful analyses of adaptation options can be undertaken. needs identified within the recent literature cited in this chapter include the following:
data.question: Where did the case study take place?
data.text: in the case study for the netherlands
data.question: What are the physical and ecological ATPs driven by?
data.text: physical and ecological atps driven by climate change and sea level rise
data.question: What simulation studies where used to determine the sensitivity of different sectors and associated objectives to sea level rise and climate change?
data.text: for this purpose, we used the results of various simulation studies (hydrological, hydraulic, morphodynamic, ecological, and impact models) to determine the sensitivity of different sectors and associated objectives to sea level rise and climate change
data.context: in the case study for the netherlands, we focus on physical and ecological atps driven by climate change and sea level rise. for this purpose, we used the results of various simulation studies (hydrological, hydraulic, morphodynamic, ecological, and impact models) to determine the sensitivity of different sectors and associated objectives to sea level rise and climate change. to investigate morphological behavior of the coast on the large scale associated with climate change, a large-scale model of the netherlands coastal system was available, based on a combination of different model concepts.32-39sediment balance studies of the system were based on the national database for geological data and the geological mapping program of deltares/geological survey of the netherlands.40
data.question: What shift has there been in recent years?
data.text: in recent years, there has been a shift away from seeing scientific literacy as defined by knowledge of scientific 'facts', towards investigating the contextual meanings of science applied in everyday life
data.question: What do we draw from the perspective of individual learning?
data.text: from the perspective of individual learning, we draw on the literature pertaining to public understanding of science, and argue that carbon capability implies a situated understanding of carbon
data.question: Why is scientific information not useful here?
data.text: scientific information may not be useful to inform individual decision--making: 'while there may be no particular need for the public to engage at the deepest level of understanding, clearly there is a need for the public to better understand their individual contribution to climate change
data.context: from the perspective of individual learning, we draw on the literature pertaining to public understanding of science, and argue that carbon capability implies a situated understanding of carbon. in recent years, there has been a shift away from seeing scientific literacy as defined by knowledge of scientific 'facts', towards investigating the contextual meanings of science applied in everyday life. this broader, more socially--embedded definition of scientific literacy includes an understanding of the dynamic process of scientific knowledge construction (rather than science as a codified and stable body of knowledge) and of scientific uncertainty, as well as how day-- to--day decisions can be informed by scientific concepts and perspectives (e.g., claeson et al 1996, whitmarsh et al 2005). scientific knowledge (e.g., 'facts' about ghg emissions) is interpreted in diverse ways by different individuals -- according to their prior beliefs, knowledge, emotions, and situational factors. furthermore, scientific information may not be useful to inform individual decision--making: 'while there may be no particular need for the public to engage at the deepest level of understanding, clearly there is a need for the public to better understand their individual contribution to climate change. this is especially true for those participants that expressed
data.question: What are the risks of household coal use in China?
data.text: household coal use in china poses especially high health risks, particularly in those many areas where highly polluting, toxin-containing coals are used
data.question: How is the move of poor households to cleaner fuels?
data.text: the ability of poor households to move to cleaner fuels--eg, kerosene and liquifi ed petroleum gas--is being delayed and perhaps even denied to these populations
data.context: one of the major neglected challenges to public health is the lack of access to clean and reliable energy and energy services on the part of the nearly 2*4 billion people who depend on traditional biomass for cooking and the 1*6 billion that do not have access to electricity.2 lack of access to clean energy currently has major eff ects on public health through, in particular, the disease burden arising from exposure to high levels of indoor air pollution largely in low-income countries (attributable annual mortality of about 1*6 million). household coal use in china poses especially high health risks, particularly in those many areas where highly polluting, toxin-containing coals are used. historically, households have moved to cleaner fuels as economic development progresses, but this process would not by itself substantially reduce the global health risks for many decades. additionally, with what seems to be the inexorable rise in oil prices, the ability of poor households to move to cleaner fuels--eg, kerosene and liquifi ed petroleum gas--is being delayed and perhaps even denied to these populations. concerted intervention is needed. the eff ect of urban air pollution on health in cities with populations over 100 000, which is largely due to fossil fuel combustion, is also substantial (attributable annual mortality about 0*8 million).3the burden of outdoor air
data.question: When did Commissioner O/Connor make recommendations to ensure the safety of drinking water across Ontario?
data.text: in may 2002, commissioner o'connor drew up recommendations to ensure the safety of drinking water across ontario
data.question: What is required of the watershed management plan?
data.text: it will require a watershed management plan from conservation authorities (ca) and will more tightly regulate and charge for permits-to-take-water which are already compulsory for any water withdrawal in excess of 50,000 liters/d
data.question: When did the Low Water Response Plan first appear?
data.text: the ontario low water response plan appeared in 2001 (revised in 2002) as an interdepartmental initiative following a period of lower than average precipitation in 1998 and 1999
data.context: in may 2002, commissioner o'connor drew up recommendations to ensure the safety of drinking water across ontario in part ii of the report of the walkerton inquiry into the e-coli deadly outbreak, which affected this ontario village (o'connor, 2002). highlights of that process include nutrient management legislation and legislation enacting new measures to ensure the safety of drinking water systems in the province. reports pertaining to proposed legislation on 'watershed-based source protection planning' have been posted recently by the government of ontario on the environmental registry for public review and comment and the provincial legislature is expected to adopt the legislation in 2006 (government of ontario, 2003). it will require a watershed management plan from conservation authorities (ca) and will more tightly regulate and charge for permits-to-take-water which are already compulsory for any water withdrawal in excess of 50,000 liters/d. (about 14,000 us gal/d.). the ontario low water response plan appeared in 2001 (revised in 2002) as an interdepartmental initiative following a period of lower than average precipitation in 1998 and 1999.13the provincial plan defines physical and socio-economic characteristics of low water conditions. it also conceptualizes three distinct levels of
data.question: What observation does the Farmland Values rely on?
data.text: that the value of land in equilibrium should equal the discounted stream of future cash flows
data.question: When do farmers sell their land until?
data.text: the price falls to the point where it equals the discounted stream of future cash flows
data.question: What would happen if the price of farmland were below the discounted value of future cash flows?
data.text: arbitrageurs would buy the land and drive up the price until it is back in equilibrium
data.context: farmland values the ricardian approach to farmland valuation, as originally suggested in mendelsohn et al. (1994) relies on the observation that the value of land in equilibrium should equal the discounted stream of future cash flows. if the price of farmland were higher than the discounted stream of future profits, it would be better to sell the farmland and invest the proceeds in treasury bonds yielding a stream of interest payments. farmers will sell their land until the price falls to the point where it equals the discounted stream of future cash flows. on the other hand, if the price of farmland were below the discounted value of future cash flows, arbitrageurs would buy the land and drive up the price until it is back in equilibrium. in an efficient market the value of land is therefore directly related to the maximum attainable profit.13
data.question: Who will be impacted by a changing climate and increasing climate variability?
data.text: a changing climate and increasing climate variability are clearly going to have considerable impacts through a wide range of mechanisms on people whose livelihoods depend at least in part on livestock
data.question: What is the importance of livestocks?
data.text: particularly in pastoral and agropastoral systems, livestock are key assets held by poor people, providing multiple economic, social, and risk management functions. livestock are a crucial coping mechanism in variable environments, and as this variability increases they will become more important
data.question: What can be a key strategy to escape poverty?
data.text: other studies show that diversification of income sources through livestock farming can be a key strategy for escaping poverty
data.context: a changing climate and increasing climate variability are clearly going to have considerable impacts through a wide range of mechanisms on people whose livelihoods depend at least in part on livestock. some of the mechanisms have been outlined above. particularly in pastoral and agropastoral systems, livestock are key assets held by poor people, providing multiple economic, social, and risk management functions. livestock are a crucial coping mechanism in variable environments, and as this variability increases they will become more important. there is a growing body of literature on the role of livestock in providing pathways out of poverty for poor households. climate-induced shocks often result in negative coping strategies that deplete livestock assets (freeman et al., 2007). for many poor people the loss of livestock assets means collapsing into chronic poverty with long-term effects on their livelihoods or ability to climb up the poverty ladder. other studies show that diversification of income sources through livestock farming can be a key strategy for escaping poverty (krishna
data.question: Who notes that ignoring the issue of winners and losers can be problematic?
data.text: glantz further notes that ignoring the issue of winners and losers can be problematic as well, while scientists and policymakers formally discuss only losses associated with a global warming, others may perceive that there will be positive benefits as wel
data.question: What's the alternative?
data.text: an alternative: reconsidering climate and energy policies from a broader perspective on climate change effective global warming policy does not depend upon consensus on whether or not future climate changes will
data.question: What does that mean?
data.text: an approach that is more consistent with the realities of science and needs of decision makers would begin with a framing commensurate with these realities
data.context: glantz further notes that ignoring the issue of winners and losers can be problematic as well, while scientists and policymakers formally discuss only losses associated with a global warming, others may perceive that there will be positive benefits as well this could sharply reduce the credibility of the proponents for taking action, lessening the chances for any response, preventive, mitigative, or adaptive (1995, p. 44). not only does article 2 create a bias against adaptation the fccc forces claims to certainty which inevitably lead to a politicization of the science of climate change sarewitz, 2004 ). an approach that is more consistent with the realities of science and needs of decision makers would begin with a framing commensurate with these realities. under the fccc climate change is viewed as a single problem, when in fact it is many. 6. an alternative: reconsidering climate and energy policies from a broader perspective on climate change effective global warming policy does not depend upon consensus on whether or not future climate changes will
data.question: How have the biogeophysical climate impacts of human land cover change been investigated?
data.text: the biogeophysical climate impacts of human land cover change however, have been investigated by a wide range of general circulation modeling, regional climate modeling, and observational studies
data.question: What experiments have been performed to further contribute to the understanding of the possible climate impacts of anthropogenic land cover change and how were they done?
data.text: to further contribute to the understanding of the possible climate impacts of anthropogenic land cover change, we have performed a series of land cover change experiments with the community land model (clm) within the community climate system model (ccsm). to do this we have developed a new set of potential vegetation land surface parameters to represent land cover change in clm. the new parameters are consistent with the potential vegetation biome mapping of ramankutty and foley 1999], with the plant functional types and plant phenology consistent with the current day modis land surface parameters of lawrence and chase 2007
data.question: What were the findings of the experiments in relation to precipitation?
data.text: we found that land cover change in ccsm resulted in widespread regional warming of the near surface atmosphere, but with limited impact on near surface temperatures globally. the experiments also found changes in precipitation, with drier conditions regionally, but with limited impact on average global precipitation. analysis of the surface fluxes in the ccsm experiments found the current day warming was predominantly driven by changes in surface hydrology through reduced evapo-transpiration and latent heat flux, with the radiative forcing playing a secondary role. we show these finding are supported by a wide range of observational field studies, satellite studies, and regional and global climate modeling studies. 1. recently, pitman, et al. 2009] found a wide range of bio-geophysical climate impacts from historical land cover change when modeled in a suite of current global climate models (gcms) in the
data.context: recently, pitman, et al. 2009] found a wide range of bio-geophysical climate impacts from historical land cover change when modeled in a suite of current global climate models (gcms). the biogeophysical climate impacts of human land cover change however, have been investigated by a wide range of general circulation modeling, regional climate modeling, and observational studies. in this regard the ipcc 4th assessment report specifies radiative cooling of -0.2 w/m2 as the dominant global impact of human land cover change since 1750, but states this has a low to medium level of scientific understanding. to further contribute to the understanding of the possible climate impacts of anthropogenic land cover change, we have performed a series of land cover change experiments with the community land model (clm) within the community climate system model (ccsm). to do this we have developed a new set of potential vegetation land surface parameters to represent land cover change in clm. the new parameters are consistent with the potential vegetation biome mapping of ramankutty and foley 1999], with the plant functional types and plant phenology consistent with the current day modis land surface parameters of lawrence and chase 2007]. we found that land cover change in ccsm resulted in widespread regional warming of the near surface atmosphere, but with limited impact on near surface temperatures globally. the experiments also found changes in precipitation, with drier conditions regionally, but with limited impact on average global precipitation. analysis of the surface fluxes in the ccsm experiments found the current day warming was predominantly driven by changes in surface hydrology through reduced evapo-transpiration and latent heat flux, with the radiative forcing playing a secondary role. we show these finding are supported by a wide range of observational field studies, satellite studies, and regional and global climate modeling studies. 1. recently, pitman, et al. 2009] found a wide range of bio-geophysical climate impacts from historical land cover change when modeled in a suite of current global climate models (gcms) in the
data.question: Is there a clear epistemic community of accountants working on climate change?
data.text: there is as of yet no clear epistemic community of accountants working on climate change, with the possible exception of the early group of experts working on emissions trading financial accounting issues
data.question: In what sense is climate change not a distinctive problem for accountants?
data.text: climate change has been moulded to fit within existing accounting discourse and practices
data.question: Are accountants adapting their work to adress the issue of climate change?
data.text: there are signs that new accounting coalitions and alliances not solely focused on financial accounting may now be emerging, akin to prototype epistemic communities
data.context: we have explored how the problem of climate change has been moulded to fit within existing accounting discourse and practices, and in this sense climate change is not a distinctive problem: the new carbon economy represents 'business as usual' for accountants. further, we question to what extent the early actions taken by accounting organisations were strategic and deliberate, in the sense highlighted by governmentality perspectives, where discourse and practices are viewed as having a particular agenda, with knowing actors driving them. we suggest what occurred in stage one around the turn of the century maybe more akin to 'bricolage' - a more muddled and haphazard process. the significance of stage two (2005+), therefore, is the beginning of a more strategic engagement of the accounting profession with climate change, with signs of increasingly deliberate and careful positioning of accountancy skills and techniques as relevant. there is as of yet no clear epistemic community of accountants working on climate change, with the possible exception of the early group of experts working on emissions trading financial accounting issues (stage one), but whose wider policy influence was limited (casamento 2005; mackenzie 2008). but there are signs that new accounting coalitions and alliances not solely focused on financial accounting may now be emerging, akin to prototype epistemic communities. for example, the climate disclosure standards board - with its technical working group mostly comprising accountants - is in the process of developing an international voluntary carbon 32 32 reporting standard, and further unexpected coalitions and alliances may result, in what is a new policy 'space' for accountants generated by climate change.
data.question: What causes an increase in nutrient loading in drinking water sources?
data.text: likewise, extreme precipitation events and subsequent increases in runoff are key climate factors that increase nutrient loading in drinking water sources
data.question: What is the outcome of nutrient loading in drinking water sources?
data.text: are key climate factors that increase nutrient loading in drinking water sources, which in turn increases the likelihood of harmful cyanobacterial blooms that produce algal toxins
data.question: What contamination can be found in lakes and reservoirs that serve as sources of drinking water for between 30 million and 48 million Americans ?
data.text: lakes and reservoirs that serve as sources of drinking water for between 30 million and 48 million americans may be periodically contaminated by algal toxins
data.context: likewise, extreme precipitation events and subsequent increases in runoff are key climate factors that increase nutrient loading in drinking water sources, which in turn increases the likelihood of harmful cyanobacterial blooms that produce algal toxins.52 the u.s. environmental protection agency has established health advisories for two algal toxins (microcystins and cylindrospermopsin) in drinking water.53 lakes and reservoirs that serve as sources of drinking water for between 30 million and 48 million americans may be periodically contaminated by algal toxins.54 certain drinking water treatment processes can remove cyanobacterial toxins; however, efficacy of the treatment processes may vary from 60% to 99.9%. ineffective treatment could compromise water quality and may lead to severe treatment disruption or treatment plant shutdown.53, 54, 55, 56 such an event occurred in toledo, ohio, in august 2014, when nearly 500,000 residents of the state's fourth-largest city lost access to their drinking water after tests revealed the presence of toxins from a cyanobacterial bloom in lake erie near the water plant's intake.57
data.question: How does climate change affect fish contamination from metals?
data.text: new evidence suggests that warming may worsen the situation by enhancing the uptake of heavy metals by fish
data.question: In what ways can poor water quality impact fisheries?
data.text: by displacing fish populations, causing large fish kills or rendering fish unsafe for consumption
data.question: What's the reason supposedly behind elevated accumulation of lead and cadmium in Arctic char?
data.text: higher fish metabolic rates, induced by higher water temperatures, and longer ice-free seasons
data.context: climate change could also impact fisheries through exacerbating existing water quality problems (see 'water resources' chapter). for example, although fish contamination from metals has always been a concern in the arctic, new evidence suggests that warming may worsen the situation by enhancing the uptake of heavy metals by fish. elevated accumulations of cadmium and lead in arctic char have been attributed to higher fish metabolic rates, induced by higher water temperatures, and longer ice-free seasons (reference 85; see'human health and well-being' chapter). poor water quality can impact fisheries by displacing fish populations, causing large fish kills or rendering fish unsafe for consumption. a large number of studies show that climatic factors, including temperature and drought, are important controls on water acidity and a wide range of biological and geochemical processes. (75, 86, 87, 88, 89)for example, higher water temperatures have been shown to increase microbiological activity, which enhances the release of metals from the substrate to the water. (88)as fish tend to be well adapted to a certain range of environmental conditions, shifts in any of these factors could cause stress and higher mortality rates in certain fish species.
data.question: xpolity Description?
data.text: political institutions (xpolity). our indicator for democracy is based on the combined polity score from the polity iv dataset. polity assigns scores to democracy according to three components: competitiveness of executive recruitment (xrcomp), openness of executive recruitment (xropen), and competitiveness of participation (parcomp
data.question: Description of participation components?
data.text: since the competitiveness of participation component makes explicit reference to civil conflict (vreeland, 2008), we use the xpolity data by vreeland (2008), which excludes the participation dimension of the original polity iv data. we also check the robustness of our results using the original polity iv index (marshall jaggers, 2004
data.question: What is the political institutional relationship?
data.text: to capture the interaction effect between a country's political institutions and growth in the second equation, we introduce an interaction term between the two variables.12
data.context: political institutions (xpolity). our indicator for democracy is based on the combined polity score from the polity iv dataset. polity assigns scores to democracy according to three components: competitiveness of executive recruitment (xrcomp), openness of executive recruitment (xropen), and competitiveness of participation (parcomp). since the competitiveness of participation component makes explicit reference to civil conflict (vreeland, 2008), we use the xpolity data by vreeland (2008), which excludes the participation dimension of the original polity iv data. we also check the robustness of our results using the original polity iv index (marshall jaggers, 2004). to capture the interaction effect between a country's political institutions and growth in the second equation, we introduce an interaction term between the two variables.12
data.question: What issues were the subject of debates and conflict?
data.text: disputes were limited to specific debates (e.g. over the of 15 15 carbon tax or the contribution of nuclear power
data.question: What country/nation is this author writing about?
data.text: this emblematic environmental issue had effectively merged with and reorientated uk energy policy
data.question: What are the 2 fields or sectors whose interests/goals have converged?
data.text: out of this period of intense policy flux the energy policy sector emerged as a key terrain within which climate change ambitions would be pursued. equally, climate change became a central factor in the determination of energy policy
data.context: out of this period of intense policy flux the energy policy sector emerged as a key terrain within which climate change ambitions would be pursued. equally, climate change became a central factor in the determination of energy policy. this emblematic environmental issue had effectively merged with and reorientated uk energy policy, in a process surprisingly free of visible conflict. disputes were limited to specific debates (e.g. over the of 15 15 carbon tax or the contribution of nuclear power) rather than about the broader integration of energy and climate change policy. in what follows, we consider the storylines that have arisen from this convergence, before examining the resulting policy dynamics and their implications.
data.question: what is the difference between  weather and climate ?
data.text: the difference between weather and climate is basically a matter of time. weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time, whereas climate is the behavior of the atmosphere over a relatively long period of time
data.question: From where do you get the Daily weather data  at Stations ?
data.text: daily weather data at stations throughout the world are freely available from the us national oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa 2011a
data.question: Why does spatial and temporal coverage of weather stations vary ?
data.text: the spatial and temporal coverage of weather stations varies greatly across the globe, with higher spatial density and longer time series at stations in countries with historically higher incomes (e.g., the united states and the european union 15
data.context: as noted in the the difference between weather and climate is basically a matter of time. weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time, whereas climate is the behavior of the atmosphere over a relatively long period of time. since roughly 1850, weather outcomes have been measured and recorded through a global network of weather stations and, more recently, satellites. daily weather data at stations throughout the world are freely available from the us national oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa 2011a). additional raw station data (with varying degrees of spatial and temporal coverage and temporal resolution) can be found at noaa (2011b). however, these sources do not provide a complete record because many countries regard their weather data as proprietary and often charge high fees for such data (e.g., india), thus effectively limiting their availability. moreover, the spatial and temporal coverage of weather stations varies greatly across the globe, with higher spatial density and longer time series at stations in countries with historically higher incomes (e.g., the united states and the european union 15).
data.question: Why was Hierarchical linear modeling conducted (HLM)?
data.text: the data are hierarchical, with the stylists and customers nested in different stores
data.question: What are two big function of HLM?
data.text: hlm explicitly accounts for the nested nature of the data and can simultaneously estimate the impact of factors at different levels on individual-level outcomes while maintaining appropriate levels of analysis for the predictors
data.question: How is the theoretical model "multileveled"?
data.text: consisting of constructs spanning both the individual-employee level and store level of analysis
data.context: our theoretical model is multilevel in nature, consisting of constructs spanning both the individual-employee level and store level of analysis. in addition, the data are hierarchical, with the stylists and customers nested in different stores. therefore, we conducted hierarchical linear modeling (hlm) analyses to test the hypotheses. hlm explicitly accounts for the nested nature of the data and can simultaneously estimate the impact of factors at different levels on individual-level outcomes while maintaining appropriate levels of analysis for the predictors (bryk raudenbush, 1992). we grand-mean centered the level 1 predictors. this centering approach facilitates the interpretation of the hlm results, ensures that the level 1 effects are controlled for during testing of the incremental effects of the level 2 variables, and lessens multicollinearity in level 2 estimation by reducing the correlation between the level 2 intercept and slope estimates (hofmann gavin, 1998; raudenbush, 1989).
data.question: What year can the NAO impact on TAV be traced back to?
data.text: 1972
data.question: What did it point out?
data.text: who pointed out that increased cyclonic activity in the newfoundland area is related to abundant rainfall in the nordeste
data.question: What do the studies show?
data.text: show that the nao is correlated with a tripole pattern of sst anomalies over the north atlantic in boreal winter/spring
data.context: the notion that the nao can have an impact on tav can be traced back to at least namias (1972), who pointed out that increased cyclonic activity in the newfoundland area is related to abundant rainfall in the nordeste. studies that followed show that the nao is correlated with a tripole pattern of sst anomalies over the north atlantic in boreal winter/spring. this pattern of sst arises primarily from the oceanic response to month-to-month atmospheric fluctuations associated with the nao (e.g., seager et al. 2000). the southernmost lobe of the sst tripole reaches down into the subtropics/tropics of the north atlantic, potentially affecting the coupled variability in the deep tropics. there appears to be little dispute that the nao is one major source of external influence on tav and the former exerts its influence on the latter through modulating the intensity of the semipermanent subtropical
data.question: What was chosen for further stimulation of TraCE-21000?
data.text: trace-yd
data.question: What marks the transition of the last deglaciation into the Holocene?
data.text: the end of the yd cold period
data.context: c within the routing event, which is the coldest greenland sat simulation among all the yd sensitivity experiments we have performed so far. we therefore choose trace-yd for further simulation of trace-21000. 2.4.11 trace-21000 simulation of holocene the end of the yd cold period marks the transition of the last deglaciation into the holocene. one of the challenges in the holocene simulation is the different timings of the yd/holocene transition at different locations. in greenland, the transition occurred between 11.5 and 10.0ka in ~1,500 years. in cariaco basin of the tropical atlantic, the transition occurred within several hundred years at the end of yd [peterson et al., 2000]. the sea level records as well as the reconstruction of the north american ice sheet retreats indicate that more than 20 m sea level rise occurred after 10ka and the ice sheet melting ended after 7 ka. in trace-holocene, even though both amoc and greenland sat reconstructions show the holocene transition completed by 10ka, we opt to keep significant meltwater discharge in the northern hemisphere between 10 and 7 ka as suggested by the record of sea level rise [peltier, 2004; clark and mix,
data.question: How many tree ring chronologies of Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii from the International TreeRing Data Bank were used to study radial growth response to historical climate variability?
data.text: we used 179 tree ring chronologies of douglas-fir pseudotsuga menziesii (mirb.) franco] from the international treering data bank to study radial growth response to historical climate variability
data.question: That limits growth?
data.text: for the interior variety, low precipitation and high growing season temperatures limited growth
data.question: Southern populations are better adapted to what?
data.text: based on regional differences in the slope of the growth-climate relationship, we propose that southern populations are better adapted to drought conditions and could therefore contain valuable genotypes for reforestation under climate change
data.context: we used 179 tree ring chronologies of douglas-fir pseudotsuga menziesii (mirb.) franco] from the international treering data bank to study radial growth response to historical climate variability. for the coastal variety of douglas-fir, we found positive correlations of ring width with summer precipitation and temperature of the preceding winter, indicating that growth of coastal populations was limited by summer dryness and that photosynthesis in winter contributed to growth. for the interior variety, low precipitation and high growing season temperatures limited growth. based on these relationships, we chose a simple heat moisture index (growing season temperature divided by precipitation of the preceding winter and current growing season) to predict growth response for the interior variety. for 105 tree ring chronologies or 81% of the interior samples, we found significant linear correlations with this heat moisture index, and moving correlation functions showed that the response was stable over time (1901-1980). we proceeded to use those relationships to predict regional growth response under 18 climate change scenarios for the 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s with unexpected results: for comparable changes in heat moisture index, the most southern and outlying populations of douglas-fir in mexico showed the least reduction in productivity. moderate growth reductions were found in the southern united states, and strongly negative response in the central rocky mountains. growth reductions were further more pronounced for high than for low elevation populations. based on regional differences in the slope of the growth-climate relationship, we propose that southern populations are better adapted to drought conditions and could therefore contain valuable genotypes for reforestation under climate change. the results support the view that climate change may impact species not just at the trailing edges but throughout their range due to genetic adaptation of populations to local environments.
data.question: The UK Building Regulations are now focusing on what criteria?
data.text: summer overheating criteria
data.question: Who did an analysis on this study?
data.text: paul tuohy
data.question: What was the EPCs designed for?
data.text: was designed to be based on the absolute emissions and to give a better rating to the building design that achieves the lowest carbon emissions
data.context: in the uk a naturally ventilated office building will marginally fail the current building regulations emissions criteria, while an identical but air-conditioned design will pass. the uk building regulations now have increased their focus on summer overheating criteria but there are several methods of demonstrating compliance. an analysis of these methods was carried out by paul tuohy of strathclyde university in 2008 10 and he identified issues that could lead to a risk of unnecessary air conditioning being deemed to be a requirement, either through implementation of air conditioning in a building that does not require it or through the creation of a building that performs poorly and has to be subsequently air conditioned. key factors behind these risks are reviewed, including the use of the increasingly discredited fixed rather than adaptive comfort criteria and the lack of inclusion into the calculations of the impact of varying occupant behaviour in a building using, internal gains, fabric and climate. fortunately, the energy rating for energy performance certificates (epcs) was designed to be based on the absolute emissions and to give a better rating to the building design that achieves the lowest carbon emissions, so taking into account the way in which people use and adapt the buildings they occupy. the question has to be asked: why has this systemic favouring of air-conditioned buildings occurred? it would be too cynical to suggest that regulations have evolved simply to promote the interests of those who write them. the reality is that this situation has been a long time coming and its evolution involves a complex web of payers.
data.question: Describe  generalized downscaling and data generation method?
data.text: we describe a generalized downscaling and data generation method, that takes the outputs of a gcm that describe some future climatology, and allows the stochastic generation of daily weather data that are to some extent characteristic of this future climatology, that can then be used to drive any impacts model that requires daily (or otherwise aggregated) weather data
data.question: On what data climate models that were used for the IPCC's ?
data.text: this builds on previous methods, outlined and applied in thornton et al. (2006) which utilised the data set tyn sc 2.0 (mitchell et al., 2004) based on data from the climate models that were used for the ipcc's third assessment report (ipcc, 2001
data.question: In which report later generation of climate models are used?
data.text: we modify these methods to allow us to use a later generation of climate models that were utilised in the ipcc's fourth assessment report (ipcc, 2007
data.context: in this document, we describe a generalized downscaling and data generation method, that takes the outputs of a gcm that describe some future climatology, and allows the stochastic generation of daily weather data that are to some extent characteristic of this future climatology, that can then be used to drive any impacts model that requires daily (or otherwise aggregated) weather data. this builds on previous methods, outlined and applied in thornton et al. (2006) which utilised the data set tyn sc 2.0 (mitchell et al., 2004) based on data from the climate models that were used for the ipcc's third assessment report (ipcc, 2001). here, we modify these methods to allow us to use a later generation of climate models that were utilised in the ipcc's fourth assessment report (ipcc, 2007).
data.question: What are two sites?
data.text: the two sites examined are located on the opposing slopes (not more than 1000 m apart) of a single, narrow valley. one experimental site faces to the ne and the other to the sw. on both sites, european beech is the dominant species making up 90% of the total basal area (ba) of adult trees
data.question: What is the location?
data.text: the two sites examined are located on the opposing slopes (not more than 1000 m apart) of a single, narrow valley. one experimental site faces to the ne and the other to the sw. on both sites, european beech is the dominant species making up 90% of the total basal area (ba) of adult trees
data.question: What is a single narrow valley ?
data.text: the two sites examined are located on the opposing slopes (not more than 1000 m apart) of a single, narrow valley. one experimental site faces to the ne and the other to the sw. on both sites, european beech is the dominant species making up 90% of the total basal area (ba) of adult trees
data.context: tuttlingen-mohringen is located in southern germany, about 100 km south-sw from stuttgart in a low mountain range (schwabische alb) and is the site of a previous study (keitel et al 2003). the two sites examined are located on the opposing slopes (not more than 1000 m apart) of a single, narrow valley. one experimental site faces to the ne and the other to the sw. on both sites, european beech is the dominant species making up 90% of the total basal area (ba) of adult trees. the average age of the adult beech trees is 70- 80 years with a mean height of between 25 and 27 m (for a detailed site description, see gessler et al 2004a).
data.question: What are the possible consequences of energy imbalance ?
data.text: 22. 'ghost forcing' refers to the fact that it is not seen by other climate model components except indirectly through changes in sea ice. the flux is dependent on the ice state, only being applied if sea ice is present. melt water enters the ocean, conserving water, but energy is not conserved. energy imbalance could lead to unintended responses, irrespective of sea-ice loss. flux adjustment similar to ghost forcing, except an additional surface heat flux is applied to the ocean model23. the flux is independent of the sea-ice state, being added irrespective of whether ice is present or not; however, it is applied only in locations where sea-ice loss is desired. the forcing is seen by the ocean first and then communicated to the ice and atmosphere components. applying forcing to the ocean model could lead to responses irrespective of sea-ice loss. water is conserved but energy imbalance may drive unintended responses. nudging sea ice is constrained to a target value, which can be done in subtly different ways. in ref
data.question: What does Ghost forcing means ?
data.text: 22. 'ghost forcing' refers to the fact that it is not seen by other climate model components except indirectly through changes in sea ice. the flux is dependent on the ice state, only being applied if sea ice is present. melt water enters the ocean, conserving water, but energy is not conserved. energy imbalance could lead to unintended responses, irrespective of sea-ice loss. flux adjustment similar to ghost forcing, except an additional surface heat flux is applied to the ocean model
data.context: several approaches have been utilized to perturb the sea-ice component of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. although in each case the ultimate goal is to introduce a change in the sea ice, the precise approach differs, which may have implications for how the results are interpreted. albedo reduction by reducing the albedo of sea ice, absorbed solar radiation is increased thereby reducing the sea ice25 26. a lower albedo is maintained throughout the simulation to prevent sea-ice recovery. energy and water are conserved but the albedo may be unphysical. this approach yields an amplified seasonal cycle, as the sea-ice reduction is disproportionately in the sunlit portion of the year. ghost forcing an additional surface heat flux is added to the sea ice throughout the simulation15 20 22. 'ghost forcing' refers to the fact that it is not seen by other climate model components except indirectly through changes in sea ice. the flux is dependent on the ice state, only being applied if sea ice is present. melt water enters the ocean, conserving water, but energy is not conserved. energy imbalance could lead to unintended responses, irrespective of sea-ice loss. flux adjustment similar to ghost forcing, except an additional surface heat flux is applied to the ocean model23. the flux is independent of the sea-ice state, being added irrespective of whether ice is present or not; however, it is applied only in locations where sea-ice loss is desired. the forcing is seen by the ocean first and then communicated to the ice and atmosphere components. applying forcing to the ocean model could lead to responses irrespective of sea-ice loss. water is conserved but energy imbalance may drive unintended responses. nudging sea ice is constrained to a target value, which can be done in subtly different ways. in ref. 16, the nudging method calculates the difference between the existing sea-ice state and the target state at regular time intervals, and applies an adjustment. in this nudging approach sea ice is simply added or taken away (rather than through freezing or melting) and therefore, neither water nor energy is conserved. continual nudging increments could lead to unintended effects and to partially circumvent this, the deep ocean was constrained; however, this prevents any legitimate dynamical deep ocean response to sea-ice loss. in ref. 24, the nudging method calculates the heat flux required to grow or melt ice to reach the target state, and applies this additional flux to the sea ice. in this nudging approach water is conserved but energy is not. in both cases, the nudging is not seen by other model components, except indirectly through changes in sea ice. initial condition the initial sea-ice thickness is reduced, leading to enhanced summer melt77 78. energy and water are conserved. sea ice recovers to unperturbed values within a few years, making this approach unsuitable for examining the longterm effects of sea-ice loss. no freezing allowing sea-water to cool below freezing point inhibits sea-ice formation79. energy and water are conserved, but the prevention of freezing is unphysical. to date this approach has only been applied in a shallow 'slab' ocean model, which may yield an unrealistic response due to the lack of deep ocean circulation22.
data.question: When using gridded data sets of historical or future climate, it is important to recognize that?
data.text: in closing, we want to emphasize that when using gridded data sets of historical or future climate, it is important to recognize that both types of data sets are very different from observed weather
data.question: What is the cost of historical gridded data products coverage?
data.text: although historical gridded data products are very convenient because they often provide highly disaggregated weather for large geographic regions over long time periods, this increased coverage comes at a cost. that is, the birth and death of weather stations
data.question: When using GCM output as a counterfactual of future climate, the choice of model has significant implications for the sign and magnitude of the estimated impacts. True or false
data.text: when using gcm output as a counterfactual of future climate, the choice of model has significant implications for the sign and magnitude of the estimated impacts
data.context: this article has reviewed the most common gridded weather products and outlined five pitfalls when using them as regressors in econometric models. more specifically, we have emphasized that weather anomalies (deviations from normal) vary greatly between data sources and are highly correlated between weather measures and across space. researchers need to address these issues when constructing and using weather shocks. we have also discussed the basic features of gcms and examined issues related to spatial scale when using these models in the estimation of the economic impacts of climate change. in closing, we want to emphasize that when using gridded data sets of historical or future climate, it is important to recognize that both types of data sets are very different from observed weather. moreover, although historical gridded data products are very convenient because they often provide highly disaggregated weather for large geographic regions over long time periods, this increased coverage comes at a cost. that is, the birth and death of weather stations, the frequent occurrence of missing values, and the spatial correlation introduced by extrapolation algorithms all create potential biases in the estimated coefficients and standard errors if one uses these weather products as independent variables in econometric analyses. in addition, when using gcm output as a counterfactual of future climate, the choice of model has significant implications for the sign and magnitude of the estimated impacts. this means it is important to account for the location-specific biases of each model in order to avoid causing further biases in estimates of the economic impacts of climate change.
data.question: Why are we indebted to the MA/IMAGE 2.2 team?
data.text: we are indebted to the ma/image 2.2 team for the modeling effort behind the future land-cover projections and to detlef van vuuren for making the data available to us
data.question: Who are the people we have thanked, and their names?
data.text: we thank miguel araujo, kyle ashton, lauren buckley, josh hooker, jeremy kerr, russ lande, tien ming lee, andy purvis, jon-paul rodriguez, jorn scharlemann, chris thomas, detlef van vuuren, and several anonymous reviewers for feedback on the manuscript
data.question: Who made possible the compilation of breeding distributions of all bird species?
data.text: the compilation of breeding distributions of all bird species by wj would not have been possible without the many authors of primary and secondary sources, the help of students, publishing houses, and mentors providing moral and financial support
data.context: we are indebted to the ma/image 2.2 team for the modeling effort behind the future land-cover projections and to detlef van vuuren for making the data available to us. we thank miguel araujo, kyle ashton, lauren buckley, josh hooker, jeremy kerr, russ lande, tien ming lee, andy purvis, jon-paul rodriguez, jorn scharlemann, chris thomas, detlef van vuuren, and several anonymous reviewers for feedback on the manuscript. the compilation of breeding distributions of all bird species by wj would not have been possible without the many authors of primary and secondary sources, the help of students, publishing houses, and mentors providing moral and financial support. special thanks are due to jane gamble, hilary lease, terressa whitaker, josep del hoyo (lynx ediciones), andrew richford (academic press, elsevier), cathy kennedy (oup), chris perrins, robert ridgely, tzung-su ding, rob mccall, paul h. harvey, stuart pimm, and james h. brown.
data.question: what does the very sow rate indicate?
data.text: these very slow rates indicated that the frost boils had been in place for several millennia
data.question: What did Shur's study found?
data.text: shur (1988) found that the intermediate layer was less developed near the shore of the arctic ocean than in areas 100-200 km inland where the vegetation is more active
data.question: Which 2 spatial elements does the system consist of and what are they responsible for?
data.text: the system consists of two spatial elements frost boil and inter-boil area. each element consists of three components the ice lenses, which are responsible for heave, the soils and the biogeochemical cycles within them, and the vegetation
data.context: boothia peninsula (dyke and zoltai, 1980). these very slow rates indicated that the frost boils had been in place for several millennia. the intermediate zone (see figure 7) reflects periodic and directed changes in the thaw-layer thickness (shur, 1988). the permafrost table is aggrading partly because loess and organic matter continue to accumulate on the soil surface and partly because the thickness of the thaw layer is decreasing as the site becomes more vegetated (ping et al. 2002). soil heat flux is reduced due to the insulation effect of the vegetation layer (ping et al. 2002) (see figure 6b). studies in northern yakutia have shown that the vegetation mat also affects the intermediate layer. shur (1988) found that the intermediate layer was less developed near the shore of the arctic ocean than in areas 100-200 km inland where the vegetation is more active. our comparisons of the intermediate layer in arctic alaska show similar large differences in ice content and cryogenic structure. a conceptual model of frost-boil formation along a climate gradient based on our observations from alaska, some reconnaissance studies in canada, and information from the literature, we have formed a general hypothesis regarding climate-frost-boil interactions. a simple conceptual model of the frost-boil system on zonal sites is shown in figure 12. the system consists of two spatial elements frost boil and inter-boil area. each element consists of three components the ice lenses, which are responsible for heave, the soils and the biogeochemical cycles within them, and the vegetation. the large bold arrows in figure 12 indicate interactions between the frost boil and the inter-boil area, namely via gravity (the flow of water and material from the frost boil to the inter-frost boil) and by cryosuction (movement of water from the inter-boil area to the frost boil during winter). within each element, the thin arrows indicate interactions between the components. the interactions between the soil and the ice lenses are primarily related to the influence of soil texture on ice segregation and the organic soil horizons on the insulation properties of the soil, which reduce heat flux into and out of the soil. effects of the ice lenses on the soil include changes to soil structure and chemistry, soil aeration, mineralization, and sorting of soil particles. the interactions between the soil and the vegetation include supply of nutrition and water. vegetation effects on the soil are primarily related to the accumulation of organic material and nutrients. the interaction between the vegetation and the ice lenses is mainly the insulation effects that affect the active-layer thickness and the rate of freezing. finally, the ice lenses influence the vegetation through frost heave. the strength of the interactions between components of the system is controlled to large extent by the prevailing climate (figure 13). in the coldest parts of
data.question: What has been studied in Hong Kong as a representative sub-tropical climate of south China?
data.text: microbial keratitis has been studied in hong kong as a representative sub-tropical climate of south china
data.question: Cosmetic contact wear was responsible for what percentage of cases?
data.text: cosmetic wear of contact lenses was responsible for 26% of cases overall
data.question: What are the four listed risk factors for keratitis in CLW?
data.text: lack of hygiene, use of tap water for storing lenses, failure to airdry lens-storage cases or use of one-step hydrogen peroxide disinfectant were identified as risk factors for keratitis in clw
data.context: microbial keratitis has been studied in hong kong as a representative sub-tropical climate of south china. an 18-month investigation in 1997198 of 223 cases of ulcerative keratitis (presumed microbial) was conducted in the 2 million population of shatin and kowloon at the prince of wales and hong kong eye hospitals respectively with comprehensive microbiology. a case-control study was pursued at the same time between 45 contact-lens wearers (clw) developing microbial keratitis and 135 lens-wearing volunteers matched for age, sex, educational status and visual acuity. home water supplies were sampled for acanthamoeba. previous ocular surface disease and trauma (preventable by wearing goggles for grinding) were common predisposing causes while cosmetic wear of contact lenses was responsible for 26% of cases overall. pseudomonas aemginosa was the commonest bacterium isolated, from both clw and non-clw, with infection being acquired within the community. these 28 pseudomonads remained fully sensitive to the third-generation cephalosporins, aminoglycosides and quinolone antibiotics, which is very encouraging. fungi were isolated, predominantly fusarium sp., but less commonly than expected. a fungal/bacterial ratio was obtained of 1117, while in comparison, the expected ratio for a tropical climate ranges from 115 (singapore) to 112 (south india). acanthanzoeba was the second commonest microbe isolated from keratitis of clw. the domestic water environment of 8% of homes of both patients and controls wearing contact lenses was colonized with acanthanzoeba. lack of hygiene, use of tap water for storing lenses, failure to airdry lens-storage cases or use of one-step hydrogen peroxide disinfectant were identified as risk factors for keratitis in clw. the study results commend use of multipurpose solutions by clw in hong kong to achieve the lowest expected rates of infection.
data.question: What are the benefits of adjusting the effect of CLIMATE FRAUD and CARBON colonialism?
data.text: climate fraud and carbon colonialism 5 achieved 5 percent reduction in co2 emissions, half of their voluntary commitment of 10 percent reductions below 1990 levels. the scheme also earned them us $650 million in extra profits as most reductions were achieved through energy efficiency and reducing gas flaring
data.question: Tell us about the measurement of reported emissions?
data.text: they admitted that measuring reported emissions is "never 100 percent accurate."11however, there is no independent corroboration for these figures as the data was monitored internally by bp itself
data.question: In what sense have consulting firms such as Det Norske Veritas (DNV) taken the verification of emissions reductions?
data.text: lastly, consulting firms such as det norske veritas (dnv) have taken up the verification of emissions reductions. in 2002, for instance, dnv validated a eucalyptus plantation, a project funded by the world bank's new prototype carbon fund. the plantation is the target of local and international campaigns as monoculture eucalyptus causes severe problems for local peoples and the environment. while admitting in their report that they could not guarantee that the carbon would be permanently stored in the plantation, dnv nonetheless recommended the project to the clean development mechanism board
data.context: climate fraud and carbon colonialism 5 achieved 5 percent reduction in co2 emissions, half of their voluntary commitment of 10 percent reductions below 1990 levels. the scheme also earned them us $650 million in extra profits as most reductions were achieved through energy efficiency and reducing gas flaring. they admitted that measuring reported emissions is "never 100 percent accurate."11however, there is no independent corroboration for these figures as the data was monitored internally by bp itself. lastly, consulting firms such as det norske veritas (dnv) have taken up the verification of emissions reductions. in 2002, for instance, dnv validated a eucalyptus plantation, a project funded by the world bank's new prototype carbon fund. the plantation is the target of local and international campaigns as monoculture eucalyptus causes severe problems for local peoples and the environment. while admitting in their report that they could not guarantee that the carbon would be permanently stored in the plantation, dnv nonetheless recommended the project to the clean development mechanism board.12
data.question: Who has reviews this report?
data.text: this report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the nrc's report review committee
data.question: Who would be like to thank for their participation?
data.text: we wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in their review of this report: marcia baker, university of washington virginia burkett, u.s. geological survey william easterling, pennsylvania state university jay gulledge, pew center on global climate change prasad kasibhatla, duke university haroon khesghi, exxonmobil research and engineering company jeffrey t. kiehl, national center for atmospheric research/university corporation for atmospheric research corinne lequere, university of east anglia gerald r. north, texas a&m university matthias ruth, university of maryland
data.question: Who oversaw the report?
data.text: the review of this report was overseen by robert e. dickinson, the university of texas at austin, appointed by the division on earth and life studies, and george m. hornberger, vanderbilt university
data.context: this report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the nrc's report review committee. the purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. the review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. we wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in their review of this report: marcia baker, university of washington virginia burkett, u.s. geological survey william easterling, pennsylvania state university jay gulledge, pew center on global climate change prasad kasibhatla, duke university haroon khesghi, exxonmobil research and engineering company jeffrey t. kiehl, national center for atmospheric research/university corporation for atmospheric research corinne lequere, university of east anglia gerald r. north, texas a&m university matthias ruth, university of maryland although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. the review of this report was overseen by robert e. dickinson, the university of texas at austin, appointed by the division on earth and life studies, and george m. hornberger, vanderbilt university institute for
data.question: What regions currently respond to the Carbon Disclosure Proejct?
data.text: the carbon disclosure project, which originated in the uk with strong participation of uk institutional investors. while it has broadened over the years to include more investors from other regions as well, the analysis of response patterns shows that european firms have been most active in completing the questionnaires, although the gap with north american and particularly japanese firms has narrowed in recent years
data.question: Where did the Carbon Disclosure Project originate?
data.text: the carbon disclosure project, which originated in the uk with strong participation of uk institutional investors
data.context: in this paper we have examined the development of reporting mechanisms for greenhouse gases, based on a conceptual framework using theories of global governance, institutional theory, and commensuration to understand the role of carbon disclosure in the emerging climate regime. we paid specific attention to the carbon disclosure project, which originated in the uk with strong participation of uk institutional investors. while it has broadened over the years to include more investors from other regions as well, the analysis of response patterns shows that european firms have been most active in completing the questionnaires, although the gap with north american and particularly japanese firms has narrowed in recent years. cdp has clearly been very successful in terms of the numbers of reporters and backing from prominent investment banks and pension funds. in some ways, this reflects successful institutionalization and a process of global convergence. however, although response rates have been quite impressive, a closer look at the information however, although response rates have been quite impressive, a closer look at the information that is disclosed by those firms that answered the questionnaire sheds a different light on the apparent success of cdp. we have argued that commensuration is still lacking both on the level of carbon disclosure reporting that cdp promotes as well as the more detailed process of carbon accounting. as to the contents of firms' responses to the cdp, which can be seen as a form of civil regulation, it should be noted that the comprehensibility of carbon disclosures is still questionable. the frequent lack of disclosure of types and meaning of emissions data, and of reliability checks, means that it is very difficult to get insight into reported emissions, let alone firms' actual achievements. even experienced analysts of climate change and emissions data find it very hard to make sense of firm reporting as part of cdp (kiernan, 2008). a 2006 discussion paper that took some examples of responses to the cdp questions, from the perspective of a financial analyst/institutional investor, found several discrepancies and answers that seemed implausible, thus raising questions about
data.question: Solids will undergo stabilization when?
data.text: biological solids formed are present in the effluent in the same concentration as in the reactor. these solids are, ultimately, largely composed by organic matter and, if discharged into the receiving body, would undergo stabilisation similarly to the other forms of organic matter
data.question: The final settling unit results in a noticeable improvement in the area of final effluent quality due to?
data.text: the inclusion of a final settling unit results in a great improvement in the final effluent quality, thanks to the tendency presented by the bacteria responsible for the stabilisation of the organic matter to flocculate and settle
data.question: If substrate increases, then bacteria will?
data.text: f the substrate increases, the bacteria population growth rate will increase, according to monod kinetics, until a maximum limit given by u max
data.context: when analysing figure 9.10, it can be observed that the biological solids formed are present in the effluent in the same concentration as in the reactor. these solids are, ultimately, largely composed by organic matter and, if discharged into the receiving body, would undergo stabilisation similarly to the other forms of organic matter. therefore, even that the soluble bod may have undergone a substantial reduction in the reactor, the particulate bod represented by the biological solids in the effluent can be responsible for the deterioration in the quantity of the effluent. based on this concept, various treatment systems incorporate a settling unit after the reactor in order to retain the biological solids and avoid that they reach the receiving body in the same concentration as found in the reactor. a system with a settling unit is shown in figure 9.11. the inclusion of a final settling unit results in a great improvement in the final effluent quality, thanks to the tendency presented by the bacteria responsible for the stabilisation of the organic matter to flocculate and settle. thus, they have not just the property of removing bod with efficiency, but they can be also removed by simple solid-liquid separation operations, such as sedimentation. the capacity of a system in the removal of organic matter depends on the quantity of biomass present in the reactor. in the above system, the biomass concentration is limited by the quantity of substrate available in the influent: if the substrate increases, the bacteria population growth rate will increase, according to monod kinetics, until a maximum limit given by u max. hence, for a given substrate, the biomass concentration does not go above a certain maximum value.
data.question: How much more was the optimal carbon price for run 3 in 2015 versus the optimal carbon price for run 1?
data.text: the optimal carbon price for run 3 in 2015 is $36, which is slightly above run 1's $35 per ton c
data.question: True or false: the recalibrated run is similar to Run 2.
data.text: the recalibrated run looks nothing like run 2
data.question: Why is it that run 3 looks similar to run 1?
data.text: the reason is that run 3 maintains a structure with a high return to capital
data.context: run 3 looks very similar to run 1, the standard dice-2007 model optimal policy. the optimal carbon price for run 3 in 2015 is $36, which is slightly above run 1's $35 per ton c. the recalibrated run looks nothing like run 2, which reflects the review's assumptions. how can it be that run 3, with a near-zero time discount rate, looks so much like run 1? the reason is that run 3 maintains a structure with a high return to capital. this calibration removes, for the near term at least, the cost-benefit dilemmas as well as the savings and uncertainty problems discussed above.
data.question: What is the traditional response to the problem as presented by economists?
data.text: economists' traditional response to this problem is to offer weather insurance, and we now have a number of valuable studies which look at this potential solution
data.question: What are the main obstacles facing poor households?
data.text: poor households are often distrustful of such schemes. they are also hard-pressed to front the costs of even modest premiums, and, when disaster hits, they cannot afford to wait for the resulting payment
data.context: economists' traditional response to this problem is to offer weather insurance, and we now have a number of valuable studies which look at this potential solution. what is most surprising is the modest uptake of such insurance. poor households are often distrustful of such schemes. they are also hard-pressed to front the costs of even modest premiums, and, when disaster hits, they cannot afford to wait for the resulting payment. much can be done to improve the value of weather insurance schemes to low income households, however, these schemes also carry with them the potential to increase aggregate risk by encouraging excessive crop specialization. in the end, policy makers concerned about the impact of climate change on agriculture in the end, policy makers concerned about the impact of climate change on agriculture and poverty cannot wait for the academic community to resolve all the uncertainty that presently exists. as noted at the outset of this article, climate change is a "wicked problem", and wicked problems do not have clear-cut solutions. there is little to be gained by waiting another year or two before taking concrete steps to deal with this issue - particularly in countries where extreme climate events are already imposing severe burdens on the poor. fortunately, many of the policies that are good for economic development in general, also offer effective strategies for lessening the impact of climate change on the poor. such strategies include improvements in: (i) governance of common pool natural resources, (ii) transportation and communication infrastructure as well as international trade facilitation to lessen the severity of regional climate shocks, (iii) irrigation and/or improved water management to deal with extreme precipitation events, (iv) credit and insurance markets, (v) investment in adaptive agricultural research, (vi) human capital to increase alternative employment opportunities of the poor, and (vii) facilitation of migration to allow poor households to take full advantage of changes in the economic
data.question: If there are time gaps in data for more than one year,whether it will considered for population change?
data.text: if there are time gaps in the data of more than one year, we ignore the information contained in the population change over this gap, which in any case will be rather small
data.question: how uncertainties are evaluated?
data.text: uncertainties are evaluated by parametric bootstrapping
data.question: what does parametric bootstrapping  involves?
data.text: parametric bootstrapping (efron and tibshirani 1993) involving simulating the time series using the initial value of the data and the estimated parameters
data.context: the sum in eq. 9 is taken over those years for which the population size in the previous year is known. this means that if there are time gaps in the data of more than one year, we ignore the information contained in the population change over this gap, which in any case will be rather small. then, assuming known demographic variance, all other unknown parameters are estimated by numerical maximization of the log likelihood, and uncertainties are evaluated by parametric bootstrapping (efron and tibshirani 1993) involving simulating the time series using the initial value of the data and the estimated parameters.
data.question: What determines the capacity of decision makers?
data.text: a suite of technical, cognitive, institutional, and structural factors determine the capacity of decision makers
data.question: How should scientific assessments to support decision making be viewed?
data.text: fundamentally, as social processes embedded within particular institutional structures
data.question: What does this paragraph highlight?
data.text: long-understood truths of the decision sciences that no simple relationship exists between more information and better decisions
data.context: this highlights long-understood truths of the decision sciences that no simple relationship exists between more information and better decisions, information does not necessarily precede decision making, important basic questions are often raised in the course of making decisions, and 'reducing uncertainty' will likely have different meanings in the context of scientific understanding versus that of decision outcomes.70-73scientific assessments to support decision making should be viewed, fundamentally, as social processes embedded within particular institutional structures.69with climate predictions in particular, a suite of technical, cognitive, institutional, and structural factors determine the capacity of decision makers to make use of them. lemos and rood19
data.question: Why were GCMs made available?
data.text: these gcms were made available to the science community for independent evaluation in preparation for the fourth assessment report (ar4) of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc
data.question: Name the species that were affected in the past
data.text: species affected in the past include halibut in the gulf of alaska, sardine near japan, and various species along the oregon/california coast chen and hare 2006; zhang et al. 2004; peterson and schwing 2003
data.question: With what are major changes in species distribution and abundance in North Pacific marine ecosystems often correlated?
data.text: major changes in species distribution and abundance in north pacific marine ecosystems are often correlated with climatic shifts in the twentieth century
data.context: major changes in species distribution and abundance in north pacific marine ecosystems are often correlated with climatic shifts in the twentieth century. species affected in the past include halibut in the gulf of alaska, sardine near japan, and various species along the oregon/california coast chen and hare 2006; zhang et al. 2004; peterson and schwing 2003]. because these changes can affect the fishing industry, we have investigated possible future climate patterns in the north pacific based on the evaluation of 22 coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation models (gcms). these gcms were made available to the science community for independent evaluation in preparation for the fourth assessment report (ar4) of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc). this analysis of a reduced set of 10 models, which simulate the variability of twentieth-century north pacific sea surface temperatures (sst) reasonably well, finds that anthropogenic impacts on future north pacific climate will be as large as those of natural climate variability in 30-50 years under a midrange greenhouse gas emissions scenario. the spatial pattern of the future warming trend will be more uniform than the main pattern of climate variability from the twentieth century, suggesting that existing climate-ecosystem-fisheries relationships might not be robust long into the 21st century. according to the models, the north pacific climate system will likely enter into an unprecedented state with regard to nearsurface ocean temperatures sometime during the first half of the 21st century. in comparison with the ipcc third assessment report, both the spatial resolution and physics of gcms in ar4 have improved. for example, there is less or no reliance on prescribed ocean conditions, mobile sea ice, and improved parameterizations of clouds/ radiation and land/atmosphere fluxes (wwwpcmdi.llnl.gov/ipcc/info_for_analysts.php). we consider a middle-range ipcc greenhouse gas emissions scenario, a1b, and note that there are small differences between scenarios for the first half of the 21st century.
data.question: What studies have been reported since 1960s?
data.text: several studies report increasing winter precipitation, larger multiday rainfall totals, and higher contributions from intense daily events since the 1960s
data.question: What are the patterns  translated into increase winter?
data.text: others suggest strong regional gradients with larger winter increases in the north and west of the united kingdom, and at higher elevation sites
data.question: Which variation remains an open question?
data.text: whether or not recent variability in the nao is itself a manifestation of anthropogenic forcing remains an open question
data.context: historic changes in uk flood risk have been reviewed elsewhere [see wilby et al. 2008]. several studies report increasing winter precipitation, larger multiday rainfall totals, and higher contributions from intense daily events since the 1960s. others suggest strong regional gradients with larger winter increases in the north and west of the united kingdom, and at higher elevation sites. these patterns translate into increased winter mean runoff, especially in the upland areas of western england and wales. one explanation is that the changes were forced by a strongly positive phase of the north atlantic oscillation (nao) between the 1960s and 1990s. this displaced storm tracks northward and strengthened westerly moisture advection from the atlantic over northwest europe haylock and goodess 2004]. whether or not recent variability in the nao is itself a manifestation of anthropogenic forcing remains an open question hegerl et al. 2007]. however, extensive flooding in england during summer 2007 prompted increases to budgets for flood risk management. so the question now arises as to when and where to prioritize future investment in flood defense assets? although attribution of changes in precipitation or flood risk is not yet possible at regional scales, techniques are being developed for detection of trends in these indices at river basin scales, and for estimating the time taken for specified anthropogenic climate change signals to emerge from climate variability. this paper described a method for estimating detection times for changes in seasonal precipitation extremes projected by the european union prudence rcm ensemble. we showed that for selected uk regions and extreme precipitation indices, climate figure 3. (continued)
data.question: What is the key issue with water management of the future?
data.text: the key issue with the management of water in the future is not only that climate change predictions are uncertain but also that the climate will be unstable and unpredictable on the basis of long-term historical data
data.question: What will improved data collection and modelling provide?
data.text: improved data collection and modelling will provide useful ways to guide decision making, but the nature of decision making under climate change will be fundamentally diff erent
data.question: Why will observation and modelling be needed?
data.text: observation and modelling are needed to provide baseline scientifi c input for planning and managing water resources and infrastructure. furthermore, policy makers are faced with the issue that water scarcity indexes currently only include surface water
data.context: at present, water resource and infrastructure management have been based on data for a stable climate.71 no assessment exists on how eff ective currently recommended interventions (from hygiene promotion to infrastructure) will be in a diff erent climate. the key issue with the management of water in the future is not only that climate change predictions are uncertain but also that the climate will be unstable and unpredictable on the basis of long-term historical data. water-resource managers and policy makers need to shift from risk-based approaches based on historical climate and hydrological data to decision making in an uncertain setting. improved data collection and modelling will provide useful ways to guide decision making, but the nature of decision making under climate change will be fundamentally diff erent. the quality and availability of data and climate models are variable worldwide. this variability poses substantial challenges in understanding regional climate systems to improve climate and hydrological modelling. improved observation and modelling of climate and hydrology are a challenge, especially for developing regions including africa, asia, and south america. observation and modelling are needed to provide baseline scientifi c input for planning and managing water resources and infrastructure. furthermore, policy makers are faced with the issue that water scarcity indexes currently only include surface water. many populations rely on ground and stored water resources, which are not currently taken into consideration.104
data.question: What were the inputs necessary to run the models?
data.text: the inputs necessary to run the models were daily total solar radiation, daily minimum and maximum temperature, and daily precipitation
data.question: What was the source of the input data obtained?
data.text: we obtained such input data from the usda agricultural extension officers near each simulation site
data.question: What did small CVs indicate?
data.text: specifically, small cvs indicated stable year-to-year production
data.context: the inputs necessary to run the models were daily total solar radiation, daily minimum and maximum temperature, and daily precipitation. the crop models computed, in daily time-steps, plant phenological development from planting to harvest; photosynthesis and plant growth; carbon allocation to plant organs, including grain or fruit; and soil water and nitrogen movement. additional inputs necessary to run the crop models at each site were soil type (depth, bulk density, and composition), plant characteristics (cultivar type, phase-specific development rates) and crop management (planting date, sowing depth, row space, irrigation, and fertilization type and schedules). we obtained such input data from the usda agricultural extension officers near each simulation site. rainfed and irrigated crop production were simulated at each site. irrigation was model-prescribed and computed as the amount of water necessary to re-fill the soil profile to a 30 cm depth, applied after 50% depletion of field capacity. fertilizer applications were simulated to be non-limiting for plant growth. finally, simulations were run sequentially, i.e. soil moisture at planting was computed each year by the model, as a function of previous weather, rather than prescribed as a fixed percentage of soil moisture. 3. simulations under current climate model simulations of crop yield agreed within 20-25% with usda reported yield across the us states (fig. 3). percent model error (root mean square error of simulated vs observed yield, divided by mean observed yield) was 15-25% across all crops. coefficients of variation (cv) of yield, defined as the ratio of standard deviation over the mean, were computed over the entire time-series available at each site. the cv represented a measure of farmer's risk. specifically, small cvs indicated stable year-to-year production, while high cvs denoted high interannual variability of yield. cvs computed for observed yields were 10-15% for irrigated production and 20-30% for rainfed production. simulated cvs were higher, specifically 10-30% under irrigated conditions and 30-50% for rainfed production. finally, simulated yields were biased towards higher values than observed. both higher simulated cvs and positive model bias were a direct result of the assumed optimal crop growing conditions with respect to nitrogen, soil quality, and pest-weed interactions. as previously discussed, such assumptions resulted in higher yields and in larger climate sensitivity of the simulated crops compared to observed. next we present simulation results for each crop.
data.question: What are the factors that explain most of the climate variability over the past several thousand years?
data.text: these include changes in the earth's orbit, changes in solar output, sunspot cycles, volcanic eruptions, and fluctuations in greenhouse gases and aerosols
data.question: Over the past two million years, what has the Earth's climate has alternated between?
data.text: over the past two million years, the earth's climate has alternated between ice ages and warm, interglacial periods
data.question: Have the natural climate drivers alone been able to account for the climatic changes observed over the 20th century?
data.text: these natural drivers alone, however, are unable to account for the increase in temperature and accompanying suite of climatic changes observed over the 20thcentury (figure 1
data.context: climate is naturally variable, and has changed greatly over the history of the earth. over the past two million years, the earth's climate has alternated between ice ages and warm, interglacial periods. on shorter time scales, too, climate changes continuously. for example, over the last 10 000 years, most parts of canada have experienced climate conditions that, at different times, were warmer, cooler, wetter and drier than experienced at present. indeed, with respect to climate, the only constant is that of continuous change. there are a number of factors that drive climate variability. these include changes in the earth's orbit, changes in solar output, sunspot cycles, volcanic eruptions, and fluctuations in greenhouse gases and aerosols. these factors operate over a range of time scales but, when considered together, effectively explain most of the climate variability over the past several thousand years. these natural drivers alone, however, are unable to account for the increase in temperature and accompanying suite of climatic changes observed over the 20thcentury (figure 1).
data.question: Why developing countries are generally considered most vulnerable to the effects of climate change?
data.text: largely because of their often limited capacity to adapt (thomas and twyman, 2005
data.question: Why is there a need for a better understanding of the likely impacts of climate change on the vulnerability of the resource poor?
data.text: enhanced understanding is needed of the likely impacts of climate change on the vulnerability of the resource-poor, so that resilience to current climate variability as well as to the risks associated with longer-term climate change can be gauged, and appropriate actions set in place to increase or restore resilience where this is threatened
data.question: Why is scenario building and analysis an increasingly important method?
data.text: one approach to making sense of the interactions of broad development drivers, with the added burdens of climate change, is scenario building and analysis (mea, 2005; ilri-fao, 2006). such work is very difficult, given that the future is relatively unknown, but it is increasingly important as one method to evaluate how farming systems may evolve in the future, sometimes very rapidly
data.context: the challenges for development are already considerable, and there is now general concern that climate change and increasing climate variability will compound these challenges. developing countries are generally considered most vulnerable to the effects of climate change than more developed countries, largely because of their often limited capacity to adapt (thomas and twyman, 2005). it is still the case that there is only limited knowledge about the interactions of climate with other drivers of change in agricultural systems and on broader development trends. one approach to making sense of the interactions of broad development drivers, with the added burdens of climate change, is scenario building and analysis (mea, 2005; ilri-fao, 2006). such work is very difficult, given that the future is relatively unknown, but it is increasingly important as one method to evaluate how farming systems may evolve in the future, sometimes very rapidly. part of this work necessarily involves trying to understand the likely impacts of climate change on vulnerable people through its effects in and on other sectors. these include impacts on water resources and other ecosystems goods and services, and human health and nutrition, for example. enhanced understanding is needed of the likely impacts of climate change on the vulnerability of the resource-poor, so that resilience to current climate variability as well as to the risks associated with longer-term climate change can be gauged, and appropriate actions set in place to increase or restore resilience where this is threatened.
data.question: WHAT IS AN EXAMPLE O F how to determine sustainable practice
data.text: monitoring the weight of livestock
data.question: WHAT IS AN EXAMPLE OF evidence of management tools?
data.text: ownership and regulation of grazing, legal sanctions for malpractice
data.question: WHAT ARE EXAMPLES OF sustainable exploitation
data.text: duck eggs and pilot whales
data.context: a consideration of case studies of faroese and early icelandic use of marine mammal, bird, woodland, and grazing resources argues for fl exibility and innovation and signifi cant degrees of sustainable management within landscapes fi t for purpose. we have examples of how to determine sustainable practice (monitoring the weight of livestock), evidence of management tools (ownership and regulation of grazing, legal sanctions for malpractice), examples of sustainable exploitation (duck eggs and pilot whales), and examples of corrective measures taken to conserve declining resources (woodlands for charcoal production). but in addition we do have examples of overexploitation and extinction (the icelandic walrus and great auk) and we have evidence of major environmental issues (extensive soil erosion) and a history marked by repeated examples of population decline and hardship. so why did people "get it wrong"?
data.question: What are the major impacts of climate change on livestock and human diseases?
data.text: the major impacts of climate change on livestock and human diseases have been on diseases that are vectorborne
data.question: What can influence an expansion of vectors during wetter years?
data.text: changes in rainfall pattern can also influence an expansion of vectors during wetter years
data.question: How id the Rift Valley Fever virus transmitted?
data.text: rift valley fever virus, which is transmitted by a wide variety of biting insects
data.context: the major impacts of climate change on livestock and human diseases have been on diseases that are vectorborne. increasing temperatures have supported the expansion of vector populations into cooler areas, either into higher altitude systems (for example, malaria and livestock tick-borne diseases) or into more temperate zones (for example, the current outbreak of bluetongue disease in northern europe). changes in rainfall pattern can also influence an expansion of vectors during wetter years. this may lead to large outbreaks of disease, such as those seen in east africa due to rift valley fever virus, which is transmitted by a wide variety of biting insects.
data.question: How much rainfall do semi-arid and arid lands of Kenya receive?
data.text: most of the semi-arid and arid lands of kenya receive less that 700 mm of rainfall per year
data.question: How is ENSO exemplified?
data.text: enso is exemplified by extensive warming of the normally cold waters of the central and eastern pacific ocean and a cooling in the western pacific ocean (rasmusson carpenter, 1982
data.question: Where are the most dramatic manifestation of these shifts in rainfall patterns being seen?
data.text: in africa, the most dramatic manifestation of these shifts in rainfall patterns is illustrated by above-normal rainfall over a large area of equatorial eastern african, particularly semiarid areas of kenya, somali, and ethiopia and droughts over a large area of southern africa (nicholson entekhabi, 1986; diaz kiladis, 1993
data.context: most of the semi-arid and arid lands of kenya receive less that 700 mm of rainfall per year. periodic widespread and heavy rainfall leads to extensive and widespread flooding. abovenormal rainfall in east africa is now known to be teleconnected to the el nino/southern oscillation (enso) phenomenon, the dominant climatic mechanism that drives global interannual climatic variability (ropelewski halpert, 1987). enso is exemplified by extensive warming of the normally cold waters of the central and eastern pacific ocean and a cooling in the western pacific ocean (rasmusson carpenter, 1982). el nino (en) is the term used to describe this periodic warming. the inhabitants of the peruvian coast noticed the appearance of this phenomena around christmas time, hence the name "el nino", in reference to the christ-child (enfield, 1993). the southern oscillation (so) is the atmospheric counterpart to el nino. the so describes the large-scale atmospheric seesaw pattern between the western and eastern pacific basins that drives the wind systems and ultimately precipitation patterns (diaz kiladis, 1993). given the sheer size of the pacific ocean basin, the dramatic change in the thermal east-west gradient of the sea surface temperatures results in the displacement and shifts in the normal zonal atmosphere-ocean circulation patterns (the so-called "walker circulation" or so) in the global tropics. sometimes the effects of these atmospheric circulation shifts extend into the subtropical northern hemisphere. these changes in the tropical ocean-atmosphere moisture energetics leads to anomalous climatic conditions, in particular dramatic shifts in precipitation patterns. regions that are typically dry receive above-normal rainfall (eastern pacific), and those that are typically wet (indonesian basin) experience drought conditions during el nino. in africa, the most dramatic manifestation of these shifts in rainfall patterns is illustrated by above-normal rainfall over a large area of equatorial eastern african, particularly semiarid areas of kenya, somali, and ethiopia and droughts over a large area of southern africa (nicholson entekhabi, 1986; diaz kiladis, 1993). the rainfall over east africa at times persists for several months, as was observed during the 1997-1998 enso warm event, and results in extensive flooding over most of east africa (bell halpert, 1998). flooding of dryland dambo areas leads to the emergence of a large number of mosquitoes that transmit various types of diseases, including rvf.
data.question: List one interpretation of asset-return puzzles
data.text: one interpretation of the asset-return puzzles, which could also have some relevance for the economics of climate change, is the idea that investors are disproportionately afraid of rare disasters
data.question: What to do about global warming depends overwhelmingly on the imposed interest rate. True or false
data.text: if the conclusion from the last section - that what to do about global warming depends overwhelmingly on the imposed interest rate - is seen as disappointing, then a second conclusion is likely to seem downright unnerving
data.question: With this interpretation of the puzzles, people are willing to pay high premiums for relatively safe stores of value that might represent (dash)  against out-of-sample or newly-evolved rare disasters.6
data.text: with this interpretation of the puzzles, people are willing to pay high premiums for relatively safe stores of value that might represent "catastrophe insurance" against out-of-sample or newly-evolved rare disasters.6
data.context: if the conclusion from the last section - that what to do about global warming depends overwhelmingly on the imposed interest rate - is seen as disappointing, then a second conclusion is likely to seem downright unnerving. as noted, the choice of appropriate discount rate is itself extraordinarily sensitive to seemingly-arcane modeling details like the value of the climate-change investment beta and how the asset-return puzzles are resolved. one interpretation of the asset-return puzzles, which could also have some relevance for the economics of climate change, is the idea that investors are disproportionately afraid of rare disasters. these rare disasters are not fully re++ected in the available data samples that, being limited, are naturally de...cient in coverage. besides, even if we had an in...nite time series of past observations, they are of restricted relevance in an evolving world whose features are always changing and whose past never fully repeats itself. with this interpretation of the puzzles, people are willing to pay high premiums for relatively safe stores of value that might represent "catastrophe insurance" against out-of-sample or newly-evolved rare disasters.6
data.question: what is cunningham?
data.text: cunningham presents the outcomes of 12 case studies in the nicaraguan caribbean, representing the ecological areas of the coast, plains, wet tropics and agricultural frontier - places where the miskitu sumumayangna mestizos and garifunas people live. increases in the strength of winds and frequency of storms have modified local ecosystems, representing a challenge due to the dependence on water and food supply, the rise in diarrheal diseases and cardiovascular ailments, and the increase in flooding in coastal communities
data.question: what is the loss of forest areas?
data.text: the loss of forest areas not only results in loss of biodiversity, but also has a significant impact on ways of life of indigenous peoples, including agriculture, community forestry and hunting
data.question: what are the variety of traditional practices?
data.text: the examination of changes in a variety of traditional practices has identified adaptability measures in the communities of the autonomous regions, these include: delimitation and ownership of territories (such as forming and strengthening the structures of territorial governments, and the creation of alliances); improvement of social control mechanisms and environmental resources; and cultural revitalization (i.e. implementation of measures to strengthen identity, culture and values, such as reinforcement of the role of elders, recovery of traditional foods, and strengthening of traditional medicine
data.context: cunningham presents the outcomes of 12 case studies in the nicaraguan caribbean, representing the ecological areas of the coast, plains, wet tropics and agricultural frontier - places where the miskitu sumumayangna mestizos and garifunas people live. increases in the strength of winds and frequency of storms have modified local ecosystems, representing a challenge due to the dependence on water and food supply, the rise in diarrheal diseases and cardiovascular ailments, and the increase in flooding in coastal communities. the loss of forest areas not only results in loss of biodiversity, but also has a significant impact on ways of life of indigenous peoples, including agriculture, community forestry and hunting. the examination of changes in a variety of traditional practices has identified adaptability measures in the communities of the autonomous regions, these include: delimitation and ownership of territories (such as forming and strengthening the structures of territorial governments, and the creation of alliances); improvement of social control mechanisms and environmental resources; and cultural revitalization (i.e. implementation of measures to strengthen identity, culture and values, such as reinforcement of the role of elders, recovery of traditional foods, and strengthening of traditional medicine).
data.question: What can effectively correct both the emissions externality and the knowledge appropriability problem?
data.text: no single instrument--either emissions pricing or r&d incentives--can effectively correct both the emissions externality and the knowledge appropriability problem
data.question: Can R & D incentives correct the appropriability problem?
data.text: the appropriability problem implies that r&d incentives will be suboptimal, even under pigouvian emissions pricing
data.question: What would generate efficiency losses from excessive short-term abatement and would not differentiate incentives across technologies that might face very different market impediments?
data.text: one response would simply be to set emissions prices at a level higher than warranted by the climate externality
data.context: the appropriability problem implies that r&d incentives will be suboptimal, even under pigouvian emissions pricing. one response would simply be to set emissions prices at a level higher than warranted by the climate externality. however, this would generate efficiency losses from excessive short-term abatement and would not differentiate incentives across technologies that might face very different market impediments. in fact, no single instrument--either emissions pricing or r&d incentives--can effectively correct both the emissions externality and the knowledge appropriability problem: using one instrument alone may involve considerably higher costs than employing two complementary instruments (fischer and newell 2008; goulder and schneider 1999).27
data.question: What is one of the problems that the government faces regarding the carbon price?
data.text: one real problem this poses to the government is how to do the calculations to ensure that they are universally consistent across departments
data.question: What were the UK ministers instructed related to the carbon costs?
data.text: uk ministers were instructed to factor the shadow carbon costs into their financial calculations for any new plans, policies and investment decisions on transport, construction, housing, energy and planning
data.question: Does the implementation of the shadow carbon costs were effective?
data.text: the theory that the carbon price will act against projects for new roads and power stations does not seem to have been effective, as the uk government subsequently gave permission for a new generation of coal-fired power stations
data.context: uk ministers were instructed to factor the shadow carbon costs into their financial calculations for any new plans, policies and investment decisions on transport, construction, housing, energy and planning. to do this they will use the shadow price for carbon, which represents the cost to society of the environmental damage done by carbon. the starting price for carbon in 2007 was put at ps 5.50 a tonne and it is predicted to rise annually to a price of around ps 59.60 a tonne in 2050. however, the theory that the carbon price will act against projects for new roads and power stations does not seem to have been effective, as the uk government subsequently gave permission for a new generation of coal-fired power stations. one real problem this poses to the government is how to do the calculations to ensure that they are universally consistent across departments.
data.question: What modified version was use for this study?
data.text: in this study, we used a modified version of the national center for atmospheric research (ncar) community land model version 2.0 (clm2.0
data.question: In what depth does the CLM2.0 computes soil temperature and soil water content in 10 soil layers?
data.text: clm2.0 computes soil temperature and soil water content in 10 soil layers to a depth of 3.43 m
data.question: Where can a detailed description of the model water and energy transfer processes within the soil and the vegetation canopy can be found at?
data.text: a detailed description of the model water and energy transfer processes within the soil and the vegetation canopy can be found in oleson et al
data.context: in this study, we used a modified version of the national center for atmospheric research (ncar) community land model version 2.0 (clm2.0), in which a simple topmodel-based runoff scheme niu et al. 2005] and a modified frozen soil scheme niu and yang 2006a] were implemented in the standard clm2.0 bonan et al. 2002]. clm2.0 computes soil temperature and soil water content in 10 soil layers to a depth of 3.43 m. a detailed description of the model water and energy transfer processes within the soil and the vegetation canopy can be found in oleson et al. [2004]. the modified frozen soil scheme introduced supercooled soil water by implementing a freezing-point depression equation and relaxed the dependence of the hydraulic properties on soil ice content by incorporating a concept of a fractional impermeable area, which enhanced the permeability of frozen ground niu and yang 2006a]. 2.1. a simple topmodel-based runoff scheme the simple topmodel-based runoff model used here parameterizes both its surface runoff and base flow (groundwater discharge) as exponential functions of the water table depth. it defines the saturated hydraulic conductivity, ksat, as a function of soil texture (as most other lsms do). this definition is different from that of
data.question: What percentage of global land area do indigenous people occupy?
data.text: indigenous peoples live in all regions of the world and own, occupy or use up to 22% of the global land area, which in turn harbours 80% of the world's biological diversity (undp, 2011: 54
data.question: Twenty-two percent of global land area makes up what percent of the world's biological diversity?
data.text: indigenous peoples live in all regions of the world and own, occupy or use up to 22% of the global land area, which in turn harbours 80% of the world's biological diversity (undp, 2011: 54
data.question: How many indigenous people are estimated to exist in the world?
data.text: they are estimated to number some 370 million people, and represent the greater part of the world's cultural diversity (unpfii, n.d.), including the major share of the world's almost 7000 languages (harrison, 2007
data.context: indigenous peoples live in all regions of the world and own, occupy or use up to 22% of the global land area, which in turn harbours 80% of the world's biological diversity (undp, 2011: 54). they are estimated to number some 370 million people, and represent the greater part of the world's cultural diversity (unpfii, n.d.), including the major share of the world's almost 7000 languages (harrison, 2007). in view of the enormous cultural diversity of indigenous peoples, their diverse histories of contact and interaction with other societies, and the broad spectrum of political contexts in which they live, establishing a universally accepted definition of 'indigenous peoples' has never been a simple matter. most operational definitions, however, converge around a set of core criteria that generally include: 29
data.question: what should society do first when dealing with abrupt climate change?
data.text: examine in some detail the nature of abrupt climate change and the different ways in which it has been defined and perceived by different traditions in science and different groups in society
data.question: who was responsible for the abrupt term regarding climate change?
data.text: the palaeoclimate community
data.question: Is the notion of signal reversal in climate trends likely to be more important for policy purposes or for change purposes?
data.text: probably more important for policy purposes than abrupt climate change per se
data.context: abrupt climate change: can society cope? 2003 particular considering the role of the thc. however, in order to do this, we have to first ss 2) examine in some detail the nature of abrupt climate change and the different ways in which it has been defined and perceived by different traditions in science and different groups in society. the notion of sign-reversal in climate trends is probably more important for policy purposes than abrupt climate change per se, especially since 'abrupt' as used by the palaeoclimate community has different meanings to 'abrupt' as used in more popular discourse. we also have to look backwards in time, and to other geographical regions, to find analogues ss 3) that may help us understand better the sensitivity of societies, present and future, to abrupt climate change. we then use ss 4) the example of the 'collapse' of the thc to explore how the implications for society of such an event have previously been conceptualized or examined. these have been based either largely on speculation, or considered only from economic and ecological perspectives. we therefore make some observations ss 5) about the implications of such an abrupt change from a more social and behavioural science perspective. the paper concludes ss 6) this largely qualitative exploration of the implications of abrupt climate change for society, and the methods for analysing them, by examining the implications for future research and policy formation.
data.question: What is the MarkSim algorithm?
data.text: the basic algorithm of marksim is a daily rainfall simulator that uses a third-order markov process to predict the occurrence of a rain day
data.question: What is third-order model?
data.text: a third-order model was shown to be necessary for tropical climates, whereas a lower-order model may suffice for temperate climates (jones and thornton, 1993
data.question: Efficiency of MarkSim algorithm?
data.text: the crux to the efficiency of marksim in simulating the actual variance of rainfall observed both in the tropical and temperate regions is its innovative use of resampling of the markov process parameters
data.context: the basic algorithm of marksim is a daily rainfall simulator that uses a third-order markov process to predict the occurrence of a rain day. a third-order model was shown to be necessary for tropical climates, whereas a lower-order model may suffice for temperate climates (jones and thornton, 1993). the crux to the efficiency of marksim in simulating the actual variance of rainfall observed both in the tropical and temperate regions is its innovative use of resampling of the markov process parameters. to do this we need the 12 monthly baseline transfer probabilities (i.e., the probability of a wet day following three consecutive dry days), the probability coefficients related to the effect of each of the three previous days, and the correlation matrix of the 12 baseline probabilities.
data.question: To avoid the criticism of false optimism, POB tends to emphasize what type of optimism?
data.text: to avoid the criticism of false optimism, pob tends to emphasize realistic optimism
data.question: Seligman (1998) did find that optimism was significantly and positively related to the performance of what type of profession?
data.text: seligman (1998) did find that optimism was significantly and positively related to the performance of insurance sales agents
data.question: What three factors did the study by Youssef and Luthans (2007) found employees' optimism related to?
data.text: the study by youssef and luthans (2007) found employees' optimism related to their performance, satisfaction, and happiness
data.context: the theoretical foundation for optimism as a pob strength is largely drawn from the discussions of positive psychologist martin seligman (1998). specifically, he defines optimism as making an internal, relatively stable, and global attribution regarding positive events such as goal achievement, and an external, relatively unstable, and specific cause for negative events like a failed attempt at reaching a goal. to avoid the criticism of false optimism, pob tends to emphasize realistic optimism (luthans, 2002b; luthans, youssef et al., 2007; schneider, 2001). in other words, optimism is not based on an unchecked process that has no realistic assessment. this realistic optimism as a state (as opposed to a dispositional trait), includes an objective assessment of what one can accomplish in a specific situation, given the available resources at that time, and therefore can vary (see peterson, 2000). similar to the other positive psychological capacities, empirical research on optimism in the workplace is just emerging. seligman (1998) did find that optimism was significantly and positively related to the performance of insurance sales agents. in addition, in the study of the chinese factory workers mentioned previously by luthans et al. (2005), optimism was also found to have a significant relationship with rated performance. the study by youssef and luthans (2007) found employees' optimism related to their performance, satisfaction, and happiness.
data.question: Dissolved oxygen has traditionally been used for what purpose?
data.text: dissolved oxygen has been traditionally used for the determination of the degree of pollution and self purification in water bodies
data.question: In what water is a poor environment ?
data.text: water is an environment poor of oxygen
data.question: What is the oxygen concentration in the water?
data.text: only 9 mg/l
data.context: dissolved oxygen has been traditionally used for the determination of the degree of pollution and self purification in water bodies. its measurement is simple and its level can be expressed in quantifiable concentrations, allowing mathematical modelling. water is an environment poor of oxygen, by virtue of its low solubility. while in the air its concentration is in the order of 270 mg/l, in water, at normal conditions of temperature and pressure, its concentration is reduced approximately to only 9 mg/l. in this way, any large consumption brings substantial impacts in the do level in the liquid mass. 86 to wastewater characteristics, treatment and disposal
data.question: What was Barnston prior to arriving at the IRI at the end of June 2000?
data.text: prior to arriving at the iri at the end of june 2000, barnston was an operational seasonal climate forecaster and developmental researcher in empirical prediction methodology at the climate prediction center of noaa for 17 years
data.question: When was Barnston the Editor of the Experimental Long Lead Forecast Bulletin?
data.text: he was editor of the experimental long lead forecast bulletin from 1992-97
data.question: What did Barnston ensure with his forecast staff?
data.text: with his forecast staff, barnston ensures the production of a range of iri forecast products issued on a monthly basis for the globe, including forecasts of sea surface temperatures, outlooks for seasonal precipitation and temperature anomalies, and extreme event forecasts
data.context: prior to arriving at the iri at the end of june 2000, barnston was an operational seasonal climate forecaster and developmental researcher in empirical prediction methodology at the climate prediction center of noaa for 17 years. he was editor of the experimental long lead forecast bulletin from 1992-97. with his forecast staff, barnston ensures the production of a range of iri forecast products issued on a monthly basis for the globe, including forecasts of sea surface temperatures, outlooks for seasonal precipitation and temperature anomalies, and extreme event forecasts. his goal is the continual improvement of the iri's forecast operation, including the generation of new versions of the forecasts tailored to specific user groups.
data.question: What is a primary cause of amphibian population declines?
data.text: batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
data.question: Is amphibian exposure to B. dendrobatidis spatially heterogeneous or homogeneous?
data.text: spatially heterogeneous
data.context: the aetiological agent of amphibian chytridiomycosis batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a primary cause of amphibian population declines. current surveillance is based on the detection of b. dendrobatidis in its host but in vitro work suggests infective stages may survive in the abiotic environment for at least 3 mo. we describe here a surveillance system using filtration and quantitative pcr that can detect b. dendrobatidis in small (<1 l) volumes of water. after assessing the analytical sensitivity of the protocol for both water and sediment samples in the laboratory, we analyzed environmental samples from the sierra de guadarrama mountain range in spain at locations associated with chytrid-related die-offs and at other sites across spain. b. dendrobatidis was detected in samples from 64% of the ponds in the sierra de guadarrama and at 2 sites outside this region, showing that levels of amphibian exposure to b. dendrobatidis are spatially heterogeneous. in experimental microcosms, we detected b. dendrobatidis for up to 12 wk, though we found no evidence for an overall increase in biomass. our results emphasise the need to further investigate the life cycle of b. dendrobatidis to more completely understand the epidemiology of this emerging pathogen. key words
data.question: What do the thin black lines represent?
data.text: spread in the warm minus the cold sst di ff erences
data.question: What do the colour shading show?
data.text: mean sst di ff erence between the warmest 15 year period and the subsequent cold 15 year period
data.question: Where do the observations come from?
data.text: kaplan et al
data.context: fig. 4. (left) colour shading shows mean sst di ff erence between the warmest 15 year period and the subsequent cold 15 year period in the models (see table 2). thin black lines show spread in the warm minus the cold sst di ff erences represented by the standard deviation of the model responses. (right) observed sst di ff erence (*c) between a warm 15 year period (1941-55) and the subsequent cold 15 year period (1967-81). thin black lines indicate the variability, given by the year to year standard deviation in of the observed time series. gray areas have too few observations to make the analysis. observations are from kaplan et al. (1998).
data.question: What are the Global SST products and how they work?
data.text: global sst products have been reconstructed using a variety of sst measurements such as infrared sensors by satellite, thermistors by buoy, and bucket sampling, engine-intake and hull sensors by ships. for example, hadisst1 blends satellite ssts to ship and buoy observations, but ersst v3b uses only the in situ sources
data.question: How the SST products captured the modes of the climate variability
data.text: both sst reconstructions successfully capture major modes of climate variability with a wide range of spatiotemporal scales, indicating that observational errors between different measuring methods are not a serious problem for climate variabilities of large amplitudes 1 8 c or more
data.question: What were reported of Kent and Taylor in 2006?
data.text: kent and taylor (2006) report that the engineintake sst is more common in the pacific than in the atlantic and it suffers from large time-varying biases before 1990s
data.context: global sst products have been reconstructed using a variety of sst measurements such as infrared sensors by satellite, thermistors by buoy, and bucket sampling, engine-intake and hull sensors by ships. for example, hadisst1 blends satellite ssts to ship and buoy observations, but ersst v3b uses only the in situ sources. both sst reconstructions successfully capture major modes of climate variability with a wide range of spatiotemporal scales, indicating that observational errors between different measuring methods are not a serious problem for climate variabilities of large amplitudes 1 8 c or more). on the other hand, this may not be the case for detection of recent sst warming patterns with spatial variations of 0.5 8 c or less, a magnitude on par with time-varying biases and errors with regional variations. kent and taylor (2006) report that the engineintake sst is more common in the pacific than in the atlantic and it suffers from large time-varying biases before 1990s.
data.question: How can we account for the impact of climate change on vineyard vines planted now?
data.text: varietal selection and management may need to account for these impacts
data.question: In agro-forestry, what is likely to be more productive due to the CO2 fertilisation effects of climate change?
data.text: regarding agro-forestry, the productivity of exotic softwood and native hardwood plantations is likely to be increased by co2 fertilisation effects, although the amount of increase is limited by various acclimation processes and environmental feedbacks through nutrient cycling
data.context: most climate models forecast warmer conditions with the implication that dairy and beef cattle will experience even greater heat stress, causing greater mortality and limitations on productivity. howden and turnpenny (1997) advocate further selection of cattle lines with greater thermoregulatory control, but they point out that this could be difficult because it may not be consistent with high production potential (finch et al. 1982, 1984). mcinnes et al. (2003) have commented on possible impacts of climate change scenarios on australia's viticultural regions. warmer, drier conditions particularly in winter and spring are likely to accelerate phenological development, causing earlier ripening and possible reductions in quality. however, in cooler climates such as the mornington peninsula in victoria, and in tasmania, warming may allow new varieties to be grown. in all viticulture regions there will be greater competition for increasingly limited supplies of irrigation water. as vineyards have a life of 30 years or more, vines planted now are likely to experience climate change, so varietal selection and management may need to account for these impacts. regarding agro-forestry, the productivity of exotic softwood and native hardwood plantations is likely to be increased by co2 fertilisation effects, although the amount of increase is limited by various acclimation processes and environmental feedbacks through nutrient cycling. where trees are not water-limited, warming may expand the growing season in southern australia, but increased fire hazard and pests may negate some gains. much uncertainty remains surrounding the likely impacts of climate change on plantation and agro-forestry (pittock 2003a).
data.question: Where is the Peterson and Krantz differentialfrost-heave (DFH) model most appropriated for?
data.text: the peterson and krantz differentialfrost-heave (dfh) model is appropriate for finegrained sediments in northern alaska
data.question: What is the Peterson and Krantz differentialfrost-heave (DFH) model based in?
data.text: the model is based on differential frost-heave processes and predicts order of magnitude heave and spacing of frost boils and can account for the circular motion of soils within frost boils
data.question: What is the most thorough analysis of the relationship between ecosystems and frost boils to date?
data.text: the most thorough analysis of the relationship between ecosystems and frost boils to date is that of nadezhda matveyeva (chernov and matveyeva, 1997; matveyeva, 1998
data.context: discussion the relationship of vegetation to patterned-ground morphology one of the most intriguing aspects of frost boils is their regular pattern (figure 1). models of self-organization of frost boils have been presented for sorted forms (kessler et al. 2001; kessler and werner, 2003), and non-sorted forms (peterson and krantz, 2003; peterson et al. 2003). the peterson and krantz differentialfrost-heave (dfh) model is appropriate for finegrained sediments in northern alaska. the model is based on differential frost-heave processes and predicts order of magnitude heave and spacing of frost boils and can account for the circular motion of soils within frost boils. it is an inception model that describes initiation of frost boils in homogeneous soils. the most thorough analysis of the relationship between ecosystems and frost boils to date is that of nadezhda matveyeva (chernov and matveyeva, 1997; matveyeva, 1998). she described the trends of horizontal and vertical structure of the vegetation in frost boil systems, and developed a concept of succession associated with frost boils occurring on the taimyr peninsula. similar relationships with respect to bioclimate zonation have been verified in north america (gould et al. 2003). the major elements of matveyeva's zonal scheme are summarized in figure 10. the names of matveyeva's subzones have been modified to show relationships to the circumpolar arctic vegetation map (cavm team, 2003). in subzone a, the coldest regions of the extreme high arctic (in the sense of polunin (1951)), nearly barren, small non-sorted polygons approximately 20 cm in diameter form due to desiccation and/or seasonal frost cracking (figure 10). small mosses and lichens fill some of the cracks. in subzone b, some of the cracks widen, possibly due to preferential thermal cracking at these sites,
data.question: Which are all the factors of consideration for climate change adaptations?
data.text: quantification of various thresholds, such as labour, household agricultural assets, knowledge, money, and skills that determine the smallholder farmers' adaptive capacity to climate change
data.question: What are the basis of adaptation strategies?
data.text: the adaptation strategies should, therefore, be considered in terms of the farmers' location, livelihood systems, and ecological setting so as to make them socially, economically, and ecologically sustainable
data.context: since there is no universal way to adapt to any challenges, let alone climate change, adaptation strategies need to be context-specific. this necessitates quantification of various thresholds, such as labour, household agricultural assets, knowledge, money, and skills that determine the smallholder farmers' adaptive capacity to climate change. specific programmes and projects can then be implemented to address them so as to enhance the farmers' adaptive capacity to the current and future climate changes. the sustainability of adaptation strategies has to be prioritized. the adaptation strategies should, therefore, be considered in terms of the farmers' location, livelihood systems, and ecological setting so as to make them socially, economically, and ecologically sustainable.
data.question: Write about the general summary of the OFP?
data.text: we present a general summary of the ofp and refer to briegleb et al. [2010] for further details of the equations and their derivations as well as our particular model implementation and model time stepping
data.question: Define about the new variables?
data.text: in addition, we only define new variables and refer to section 2 and table 1 for the definitions of the others
data.question: What are the two parts consists of OFP?
data.text: the ofp consists of two parts: (1) calculation of the overflow properties based on the evolving ocean model state, and (2) ogcm modifications of the model boundary conditions, equations, and bottom topography
data.context: in this appendix, we present a general summary of the ofp and refer to briegleb et al. [2010] for further details of the equations and their derivations as well as our particular model implementation and model time stepping. in addition, we only define new variables and refer to section 2 and table 1 for the definitions of the others. the ofp consists of two parts: (1) calculation of the overflow properties based on the evolving ocean model state, and (2) ogcm modifications of the model boundary conditions, equations, and bottom topography. a1. calculation of the overflow properties the overflows are driven by the density difference at the sill depth between a nordic sea source, rs, and the
data.question: How was the Younger Dryas abrupt climate change was first identified?
data.text: the younger dryas abrupt climate change was first identified in pollen records in northern europe and is named after a cold tolerant plant that reestablished itself during this time
data.question: Where did mountain glaciers reform?
data.text: throughout europe mountain glaciers advanced, as in scandinavia and the alps, or they reformed, as in the british isles (see references in denton et al. (2005
data.question: What is required to have glacial advances?
data.text: glacial advances require adequate snow in winter and cool enough summers for accumulation to exceed ablation
data.context: the younger dryas abrupt climate change was first identified in pollen records in northern europe and is named after a cold tolerant plant that reestablished itself during this time. throughout europe mountain glaciers advanced, as in scandinavia and the alps, or they reformed, as in the british isles (see references in denton et al. (2005)). glacial advances require adequate snow in winter and cool enough summers for accumulation to exceed ablation. in north america the record is mixed. shuman et al. (2002) show that across eastern north america vegetation changed dramatically at the beginning and end of the younger dryas but that these cannot simply be accounted for by a cooling, in part because summers may have been warmer as a
data.question: What are the three elements?
data.text: the three elements: attitudinal change, behavioural change and institutional change describe the processes through which institutions may need to pass to adapt to increased weather variability that can be expected with future climate change
data.question: What do most respondents recognize about vulnerability?
data.text: most respondents recognised that vulnerability stemmed from either existing social causes such as poverty (contributing to sub-standard housing and the spread of disease) or from geographical factors
data.question: What changes are the Cayman Islands' Government making?
data.text: changes are on-going in the cayman islands' government response to tropical storm risk
data.context: racken in sweden. where formal institutional management does not occur, informal group action sometimes emerges to fill the void. evidence suggests that informal groups tend to emerge when there are: a small core group with shared values; a supportive external/policy environment; potentially equally distributed damages from non-participation in the group, for a summary of the literature on the emergence of collective action, see ostrom (1990) all these factors were present in the informal group that coalesced into the national hurricane committee in the cayman islands. changes are on-going in the cayman islands' government response to tropical storm risk. it is clear however, that there has been a rise in levels of individual cognition and there has been a collective group response in the form of the national hurricane committee. this in turn has contributed to a variety of institutional changes: in the legislation that exists, in the organisational structures that operate and in the individual behaviour of the agents who operate within the departments. what does this tell us about the ability of an institution to adapt to climate change? the three elements: attitudinal change, behavioural change and institutional change describe the processes through which institutions may need to pass to adapt to increased weather variability that can be expected with future climate change. 6. adapting to climate change while the ipcc (2001) states with high confidence that small low lying islands will be exposed to environmental hazards as a result of climate change, attributing current changes in environmental hazards and risks to climate change is premature as the science of climate change is not yet capable of doing this on a regional scale. waiting for climate science to confirm that short-term weather changes are attributable to long-term climatic change will reduce the time available and the set of options available to respond. the alternative is to accept what climate science currently tells us, that climate change will have impacts as predicted for small island states ipcc, 2001 ), and rely on persuasion to convince individuals to change their attitudes towards it, as a first step towards changing behaviour. 6.1. persuasion: information and knowledge about climate change in the cayman islands study, the majority of government agencies suggested that there is inadequate information available about the global consequences of climate change as well as the localised impacts in the cayman islands, see table 1 two clear causes appear to have led to this situation in the cayman islands. first are the mixed messages from the media. second is poor communication of the complex nature of climate change from climate scientists. the specific causes of the mixed messages and the lack of clarity about climate science were speculated upon by various government agents. many factors were perceived to be the cause, such as proximity to the us and hence a bias from us media as well as the difficult nature of climate science. several of those who did have access to information about climate change expressed confusion about the mixed messages that they were receiving. respondents commented that scientists did not seem to agree that climate change was happening, or what the likely impacts might be. further confusion arose in the understanding of the apparently conflicting information being presented about the impacts of climate change. 6.2. resilience: perceptions of vulnerability to climate change despite limited access to information, many respondents felt that some groups in the cayman islands could potentially be quite vulnerable to some climate change impacts. most respondents recognised that vulnerability stemmed from either existing social causes such as poverty (contributing to sub-standard housing and the spread of disease) or from geographical factors. most recognised that the geographically vulnerable are those who live in the coastal zone or low-lying flood-prone areas. most respondents believed that efforts should be made to assist those most likely to suffer the impacts of climate change in many countries climate change is often not considered an immediate or significant threat, o'connor et al., 1999 lazo et al., 2000 ), the same is true in the cayman islands. despite the awareness of vulnerability there was little recognition of the need to implement climate change response measures with any urgency. respondents provided a number of reasons for the low prioritisation of climate change risk, although broadly they can be grouped into reasons associated with lack of knowledge about climate change and climate change impacts, and a perception that prioritising climate change would mean de-prioritising other issues--the latter probably stemming from the former. table 2 shows in more detail the reasons government agents gave for not prioritising climate change. clearly, the fact that climate change is perceived as a low probability event; there is a lack of clear consistent information about climate change (refer back to table 1 ), and there is a general perception of local resilience to climate change impacts table 2 hinders placing climate change on the national agenda.
data.question: Change Factors are obtained from?
data.text: change factors are obtained from the ukcp09 probabilistic projections on a calendar month basis and are multiplicative for rainfall statistics and temperature variance and additive for other climate variables
data.question: For rainfall?
data.text: for rainfall, these are taken directly as ratios for the mean m ), variance var and skewness s of daily rainfall, a logit transformation for proportion of dry days pdry and fisher z for lag-one autocorrelation l1ac to ensure linearity across the range of values 0:1 for pdry and -1:1 for l1ac
data.question: The researches conducted to ?
data.text: these transformations ensure that the perturbed values stay within the known physical bounds
data.context: change factors are obtained from the ukcp09 probabilistic projections on a calendar month basis and are multiplicative for rainfall statistics and temperature variance and additive for other climate variables. for rainfall, these are taken directly as ratios for the mean m ), variance var and skewness s of daily rainfall, a logit transformation for proportion of dry days pdry and fisher z for lag-one autocorrelation l1ac to ensure linearity across the range of values 0:1 for pdry and -1:1 for l1ac these transformations ensure that the perturbed values stay within the known physical bounds. the following equations are used to apply the calculated change fields
data.question: What common elements do most theoretical models have?
data.text: numerous theoretical models, including many used for integrated assessment policy analysis, have elements that describe climatic influence on economies (nordhaus 1993, stern 2006, tol 2002) but are generally not based on empirically derived relationships
data.question: What is needed for theoretical models to perform?
data.text: although much innovation is needed if these theoretical models are to perform as well as analogous models in other scientific fields
data.question: What does Incorporation of empirical parameter estimate?
data.text: incorporation of empirical parameter estimates into process models (houser et al. 2015, lobell et al. 2013) and integrated assessment models (kopp et al. 2013, moore diaz 2015) demonstrates promise
data.context: numerous theoretical models, including many used for integrated assessment policy analysis, have elements that describe climatic influence on economies (nordhaus 1993, stern 2006, tol 2002) but are generally not based on empirically derived relationships. incorporation of empirical parameter estimates into process models (houser et al. 2015, lobell et al. 2013) and integrated assessment models (kopp et al. 2013, moore diaz 2015) demonstrates promise, although much innovation is needed if these theoretical models are to perform as well as analogous models in other scientific fields. for example, it is unknown if empirical calibration improves the out-of-sample forecast performance of these models or if all model parameters are even theoretically estimable using existing techniques.
data.question: When do school climate perceptions decline?
data.text: a smattering of studies have found that school climate perceptions decline during middle and high school (way et al. 2007 wang and dishion 2011 
data.question: Will measuring school climate at one point in time be sufficient to explain patterns of student academic and developmental outcomes?
data.text: these studies suggest that school climate perceptions can evolve, and therefore, measuring school climate at one point in time may not be sufficient to explain patterns of student academic and developmental outcomes
data.question: Will school climate perceptions remain stable after a single measurement?
data.text: it is, therefore, unlikely that school climate perceptions will remain stable after a single measurement
data.context: school processes are dynamic and change continually. a smattering of studies have found that school climate perceptions decline during middle and high school (way et al. 2007 wang and dishion 2011 ). these studies suggest that school climate perceptions can evolve, and therefore, measuring school climate at one point in time may not be sufficient to explain patterns of student academic and developmental outcomes. however, most studies rely primarily on cross-sectional data and rarely address the developmental complexity of impermanent perceptions of school climate (wang et al. 2010 ). indeed, only 30 of studies examine aspects of school climate at two or more time points. moreover, extant research typically treats students ' perceptions of school climate as static, baseline predictors of student outcome variables rather than as dynamic processes that change over time (way et al. 2007 ). shifts in any dimension of school climate, such as teacher support or peer support, are likely to have implications for student adjustment. examining school climate longitudinally elucidates how school climate affects student outcomes over the course of schooling, and how school climate changes as a result of new program or system implementation. planned and unexpected events and interruptions occur on a regular basis. it is, therefore, unlikely that school climate perceptions will remain stable after a single measurement. thus, longitudinal studies are needed to conceptualize school climate as a dynamic rather than a static construct.
data.question: How are exact dates obtained from trees?
data.text: to establish exact dates, a living tree is cored, and the known years are matched with tree-ring records obtained from nonliving trees (stahle and cleaveland, 1992
data.question: What can the regression model estimate from tree-ring widths?
data.text: a regression model can be developed to estimate annual streamflow from tree-ring widths
data.question: What useful information do historical documents sometimes contain?
data.text: historical documents, such as newspaper articles, diaries, and letters, sometimes contain useful information about notable climate events such as floods or prolonged droughts
data.context: to establish exact dates, a living tree is cored, and the known years are matched with tree-ring records obtained from nonliving trees (stahle and cleaveland, 1992). overlapping chronologies from different sets of trees can sometimes be used to extend the record back in time. in this way, tree rings can provide hundreds, and in some cases more than a thousand, years of tree-ring chronologies. a statistical model describing the correlation between the instrumental record climate or streamflow record and the tree-ring chronologies can be developed using overlapping periods. for example, a regression model can be developed to estimate annual streamflow from tree-ring widths. this model is then applied to the preinstrumental record to estimate annual streamflow over the length of the tree-ring records. ideally, tree-ring chronologies should be developed for sites in all of the major runoff-producing areas of a river basin, because this is likely to maximize the fit of the regression model (meko and others, 199\\x04). principal components analysis and canonical correlation analysis are sometimes used, particularly when multiple tree-ring sites and (or) multiple hydroclimatic records are used (loaiciga and others, 1993). the uncertainty in the reconstructed record can be estimated by the standard error of prediction. however, if the tree-ring chronology for the extended period includes values that were not observed in the calibration period, extrapolation of the regression model into this range of values will introduce additional uncertainty into the reconstructed time series. another source of uncertainty that may affect the time series is the number of trees available to create different periods of the tree chronology. the number of trees typically decreases toward the beginning of a chronology, increasing the uncertainty in that part of the reconstructed record (meko and others, 199\\x04). cook and others (2007) and stahle and others (2007) describe the use of tree-ring chronologies to reconstruct approximately 1,000 years of drought history over most of north america. they used tree rings to reconstruct the palmer drought severity index (pdsi), an index calculated from instrumental records of precipitation and temperature as a measure of available soil moisture. their analysis shows that past "megadroughts" eclipse those in much of the instrumental record in terms of duration and severity. this is consistent with woodhouse and overpeck's (1998) analysis, which used historical documents, archaeological remains, lake sediments, and geomorphic data in addition to tree rings, to reconstruct 2,000 years of drought history in the central united states. eolian sediments (dunes), lake sediments, riverine cave sediments, and ocean sediments can also be used as proxies to reconstruct hydroclimatic information. while they do not allow the accuracy and resolution that is possible with tree-ring reconstructions, different inferences may be drawn from different proxies, giving a more complete picture of past drought events (woodhouse, 2004). climate information for periods prior to the instrumental record can be reconstructed using historical information and proxy data from tree rings, sediment, and other sources. these reconstructed time series are generally less precise than the instrumental record, with varying uncertainties and time resolution, depending on the technique used; however, they can provide useful information on the range of variability that has been seen at a particular location. paleorecords can provide a much better record of variability than is typically available from the instrumental record. for some variables, paleoclimate reconstructions have been estimated millions of years into the past. generally, the further back in time reconstructions are attempted, the less accurate they are. water managers have varying planning horizons, but they are generally less than 30-40 years, and the large variations that may have occurred over the past millions of years have limited relevance. water managers are primarily interested in scenarios that are consistent with current climate and natural variability. holocene records (from approximately the last 10,000 years) provide a greater range of variability than observed in the instrumental record, as well as different sequencing of events, and they allow for reasonable estimates of uncertainty that can be incorporated into subsequent sensitivity analysis. historical documents, such as newspaper articles, diaries, and letters, sometimes contain useful information about notable climate events such as floods or prolonged droughts. in some cases, regular records of meteorological conditions can be found. for example, both thomas jefferson and james madison kept meteorological diaries in the late eighteenth century (druckenbrod and others, 2003). these historical records can be used to supplement the other techniques described below.
data.question: What test was the children's receptive vocabulary assessed with?
data.text: children's receptive vocabulary was assessed with the peabody picture vocabulary test-iii
data.question: What is the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III?
data.text: in the test, the child is shown four pictures and is asked to match to the corresponding picture a word that the interviewer says aloud
data.context: children's receptive vocabulary because existing literature has demonstrated a strong correlation between children's receptive vocabulary skills and their performance on tests of social understanding (e.g. cutting dunn, 1999; de rosnay harris, 2002), children's receptive vocabulary was assessed with the peabody picture vocabulary test-iii (ppvt; dunn dunn, 1997). this test is a widely used measure of receptive vocabulary. in the test, the child is shown four pictures and is asked to match to the corresponding picture a word that the interviewer says aloud. the ppvt-iii has good internal consistency reliability (cronbach a  1/4  92 to .98) and correlates highly (.80 to .90) with intelligence tests. children's standard scores were used in analyses, and are normed on a scale with a mean of 100. scores ranged from 68 to 117 m  1/4  93 14, sd  1/4  10 58).
data.question: What does the e-folding time scale provide? provides an integrated measure of variability across all time scales
data.text: emphasize that the e - folding time scale provides an integrated measure of variability on all time scales
data.question: What shows Baldwin and Dunkerton? Shows a single Stratospheric Sudden Warming (SSW) event can lead to anomalies in 2-3 month timescales
data.text: a single stratospheric sudden warming (ssw) event can lead to anomalies on 2 - 3 month time
data.question: What are the dynamics of these events? Itâ€™s more of an intra-seasonal character
data.text: while the dynamics of such events are more intraseasonal in character, particularly their swift onset
data.context: keeley et al. [2009] emphasize that the e - folding time scale provides an integrated measure of variability on all time scales, and can be strongly influenced by variability on interannual time scales. as shown by baldwin and dunkerton [2001], a single stratospheric sudden warming (ssw) event can lead to anomalies on 2 - 3 month time scales. while the dynamics of such events are more intraseasonal in character, particularly their swift onset, their impact will strongly influence the seasonal mean signal, and so could be interpreted as interannual variability. particular care, then, must be taken in interpreting the annular mode e - folding time scales and the influence of the stratosphere. from a dynamical perspective, one could argue that ssws (or final warmings in the sh) are a source of intraseasonal variability of the figure 11. the annular mode e - folding time scale in (left) the lower stratosphere and (right) the midtroposphere as a function of season for the individual ccms: (top) nh and (bottom) sh.
data.question: The tendency of highresolution models to show too much heavy rain has also been seen in?
data.text: this tendency of highresolution models to show too much heavy rain has also been seen in the context of short-range weather forecasting (lean et al. 2008) and may be explained by convection still being underresolved (see section 4
data.question: How the Coarserresolution climate models are known?
data.text: coarserresolution climate models are known to underestimate the intensity of heavy rain, so an increase in heavy rain amount represents an improvement
data.question: Why is the some of the discrepancy?
data.text: although some of the discrepancy is likely to be due to underestimation by radar, the tendency for too much heavy rain in the 1.5-km rcm is also seen on the daily time scale compared to rain gauge data (not shown
data.context: rcm than the 12-km rcm. this reflects the fact that heavy rain is more intense in the 1.5-km rcm. coarserresolution climate models are known to underestimate the intensity of heavy rain, so an increase in heavy rain amount represents an improvement. however, there is some suggestion that there may be somewhat too much heavy rain in the 1.5-km rcm (apparent for both model data periods assessed here). although some of the discrepancy is likely to be due to underestimation by radar, the tendency for too much heavy rain in the 1.5-km rcm is also seen on the daily time scale compared to rain gauge data (not shown). this tendency of highresolution models to show too much heavy rain has also been seen in the context of short-range weather forecasting (lean et al. 2008) and may be explained by convection still being underresolved (see section 4).
data.question: What is the evidence for wild animals becoming adapted to live in cities outlined in David Baron's book The Beast in the Garden?
data.text: he cites cases of bears moving into new jersey suburbs, raccoons in los angeles, and in the uk the urban fox is a common occurrence
data.question: Why are wild animals adapting to live in cities?
data.text: the animals are drawn to feed off rubbish bins, a particular problem in the usa where, because of urban sprawl, the suburbs are moving into what was wilderness
data.question: Why have wild animal numbers risen?
data.text: animal numbers have risen owing to restrictive laws in some states on the hunting and trapping of a range of larger animals, for instance lynx, bobcats, bears, beavers, foxes, wolves and cougars
data.context: animals are very ingenious, and even as one ecological niche closes, another may open up. the significance of a range of factors may influence how animals behave in a changing climate. already we have the phenomenon of wild animals becoming adapted to live in cities, as was clearly outlined in david baron's book the beast in the garden 30 he cites cases of bears moving into new jersey suburbs, raccoons in los angeles, and in the uk the urban fox is a common occurrence. the animals are drawn to feed off rubbish bins, a particular problem in the usa where, because of urban sprawl, the suburbs are moving into what was wilderness. animal numbers have risen owing to restrictive laws in some states on the hunting and trapping of a range of larger animals, for instance lynx, bobcats, bears, beavers, foxes, wolves and cougars. there are black bears in the suburbs of boston for the first time in 200 years and in new jersey they have multiplied to over an estimated 3300. in december 2003 new jersey authorized its first bear hunt in 33 years. coyotes are multiplying too, and their cheek was demonstrated when one ran into the federal building in seattle, through reception and into the lift! they routinely eat cats and dogs. in florida the alligator population is growing at an unprecedented rate, helped by people more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: How is this book organized?
data.text: this book is organized into parts, each of which have multiple chapters
data.question: How are the contents of each part written?
data.text: the contents of each part are written so that they can largely be read independently
data.question: How does Chapter 1 begin?
data.text: chapter 1 starts the book with an to ocean climate models
data.context: this book is organized into parts, each of which have multiple chapters. it is assumed that the book will not be read cover-to-cover. consequently, the contents of each part are written so that they can largely be read independently. chapters likewise aim for such independence, though less so. this organizational style allows the book to be useful for those reading it in a more or less arbitrary manner, so long as some of the basics are appreciated. it is hoped that this approach enhances the book's readability, accessibility, and utility as both a monograph and reference to students and researchers. chapter 1 starts the book with an to ocean climate models. it is here that we are exposed to some reasons why ocean models are of primary importance for climate science. this chapter also helps to motivate the more fundamental, and by necessity mathematical, development presented in subsequent chapters. part 1 begins the main part of the book by focusing on the equations describing stratified fluid dynamics on a rotating sphere. chapter 2 introduces some physical ideas underlying a continuum description of the ocean fluid. it also highlights common approximations made in ocean climate models. chapters 3 and 4 derive the hydrodynamical equations of the ocean fluid. chapter 5 presents aspects of ocean energetics and thermo-hydrodynamics. chapter 6 presents some mathematical results applicable to a generalized vertical coordinate description of the ocean. this chapter also highlights some deficiencies inherent in the different model classes now in use for simulating the ocean. the equations described in part 1 offer a precise mathematical description of a particular realization of the ocean fluid. to make use of this description requires an infinite level of knowledge about the ocean's state, i.e., the positions and velocities of each fluid parcel, and full information about forces acting on the parcels. in practice, we are always faced with less than infinite information in both space and time. hence, it is necessary to derive alternative equations via a coarse-graining procedure. that is, we need to determine approximate, averaged, or mean field equations for the coarsened ocean fluid. part 2 presents three chapters illustrating various issues with averaged descriptions of the ocean. chapter 7 begins with a general discussion of subgrid scale processes, with a focus on those contributing to dianeutral transport. such transport is spread non-uniformly throughout the world ocean, with most occurring in regions near ocean boundaries. dianeutral transport plays an important role in affecting the ocean's stratification and vertical distribution of tracers, and this chapter provides an to some of the issues. chapter 8 is the first of
data.question: What does not not always represent the uncertainty associated with variable selection and the influence of the range in future climate projections and emissions scenarios?
data.text: common approaches to modelling future species distributions in applied ecological studies do not always represent the uncertainty associated with variable selection and the influence of the range in future climate projections and emissions scenarios
data.question: What could ignoring the uncertainty associated with modelling future distributions may lead to?
data.text: ignoring the uncertainty associated with modelling future distributions may lead to over-confidence in single maps of future distributions, with consequences for conservation planning
data.question: What can biological knowledge of the species help with?
data.text: biological knowledge of the species can help in choosing variables amenable to ecological interpretation
data.context: common approaches to modelling future species distributions in applied ecological studies do not always represent the uncertainty associated with variable selection and the influence of the range in future climate projections and emissions scenarios. using two species as case studies, we have shown that these uncertainties can affect the results of sdms. ignoring the uncertainty associated with modelling future distributions may lead to over-confidence in single maps of future distributions, with consequences for conservation planning. the literature review revealed that both choice of variables and representation of future climate, by using a range of gcms, are frequently opportunistic for sdms in applied ecological studies. using all available bioclimatic variables, instead of a tailored selection, increases the possibility of over-fitting species distribution models, and may lead to an overestimate of range reduction and the likelihood of a forecasted extinction under climate change 16 ]. the importance of variable selection in determining the output of sdm depends on the characteristics of the species modelled. for example, variable selection may be less important for long-lived sedentary plant species such as the king billy pine but can be very important for mobile species with specific biological characteristics or requirements, such as the ptunarra brown butterfly. for the butterfly, inclusion of different variables in the model led to widely divergent projected futures for end-of-century, ranging from close to no locations with a suitable climate 61 to maintenance of the current range. biological knowledge of the species can help in choosing variables amenable to ecological interpretation. ideally, modellers, species experts and conservation practitioners should work as a team to build the sdm, interpret results and consider conservation management responses. however, such interdisciplinary exercises are uncommon and often little is known of the species' biology and ecology as they relate to climatic factors. in these cases, a range of statistical diagnostics can provide some guidance as to relative model performance, but there is no objective method for identifying the 'best' sdm when projecting into the future. statistical methods of model selection alone are not sufficient to accept or reject a model, as different performance indices (e.g. auc, aic, bic) can give conflicting rankings 62 ]. furthermore, statistical models are a measure of internal model performance, not a measure of ecological validity. the accuracy with which the current distribution is represented by a sdm is an important consideration. however, an accurate fit with current distributions does not guarantee that the prediction of future potential distribution will be accurate. the underlying statistical relationship between the climatic variables and the distribution of the species may change due to, for example, nonlinear functional responses of the species or indirect impacts such as an altered fire regime. considering the extent to which a sdm is attempting to project into novel climatic conditions is also an important consideration in model evaluation. predicted potential distribution maps with large areas in which one or more
data.question: What field uses recent developments in Statistics to clarify the nature of probabilistic model-based inferences about actual climate?
data.text: the field of computer experiments
data.question: The doubling of what level could raise the global mean temperature by at least 2 degrees C?
data.text: atmospheric co2
data.question: In order to satisfy the policymaker, what must climate scientists directly link to to the climate system to make theirs comparable to those of other scientists with other models?
data.text: climate scientists must link their particular climate model to the climate system
data.context: a simple question will help to motivate this paper: what is the probability that a doubling of atmospheric co2 from pre-industrial levels will raise the global mean temperature by at least 2*c this seems to be a well-posed question (subject to technical clarifications which need not concern us here), and certainly a topical one. it is the kind of question a policymaker might ask a climate scientist. there are two aspects of this question that ought to be highlighted. first, the question asks explicitly for a probability; second, it asks about the behaviour of the climate itself. so it is necessary to establish exactly what is meant by 'probability' in this context, and it is also necessary to understand that answers which focus on the response of this or that climate model are inadequate. in order to satisfy the policymaker, climate scientists must link their particular climate model to the climate system, so that their predictive statements about quantities such as future temperature address the needs of policymakers, and are directly comparable to those of other scientists with other models. this paper clarifies the nature of probabilistic model-based inferences about actual climate, using recent developments in statistics, notably the field of computer experiments. it provides a framework for such inferences, clarifying the role of the climate model, and the purpose of the ensemble of climate model evaluations. in a nutshell, it illustrates 'thinking probabilistically' about climate models and about the climate itself. therefore even if its detailed prescriptions seem to climate scientists to be inappropriate (although there is no evidence from current practice that they should be), the general approach should serve as a template for all model-based probabilistic inference for climate.
data.question: What are proportions of observations?
data.text: proportion of marine observations consistent with climate change predictions using observations from both singleand multi-species studies (all, black, n 1,323) and multi-species studies alone (red, n 1,151). a - c mean and standard error of responses by taxonomic or functional group a ), latitudinal zone b and response type show significantly higher consistency than expected from random as determined by binomial tests for each estimate against 0.5 (dashed line at 50% consistency
data.question: What are proportions of observations?
data.text: proportion of marine observations consistent with climate change predictions using observations from both singleand multi-species studies (all, black, n 1,323) and multi-species studies alone (red, n 1,151). a - c mean and standard error of responses by taxonomic or functional group a ), latitudinal zone b and response type show significantly higher consistency than expected from random as determined by binomial tests for each estimate against 0.5 (dashed line at 50% consistency
data.question: What are proportions of observations?
data.text: proportion of marine observations consistent with climate change predictions using observations from both singleand multi-species studies (all, black, n 1,323) and multi-species studies alone (red, n 1,151). a - c mean and standard error of responses by taxonomic or functional group a ), latitudinal zone b and response type show significantly higher consistency than expected from random as determined by binomial tests for each estimate against 0.5 (dashed line at 50% consistency
data.context: proportion of marine observations consistent with climate change predictions using observations from both singleand multi-species studies (all, black, n 1,323) and multi-species studies alone (red, n 1,151). a - c mean and standard error of responses by taxonomic or functional group a ), latitudinal zone b and response type show significantly higher consistency than expected from random as determined by binomial tests for each estimate against 0.5 (dashed line at 50% consistency; c ). the solid line is the mean across all observations. significance of results is listed next to labels (***, p 0 001;**, p 0 01;*, p 0 05). sample sizes are listed to the right of each row.
data.question: In which year Organized fire protection in Canada began?
data.text: in the early 1900s
data.question: What are the reasons for forest fires across the country?
data.text: the expanding use of canadian forests for both industrial and recreational purposes resulted in large increases in both the number and impact of forest fires across the country
data.question: Which country receives huge revenues from the global export of its natural resources?
data.text: russia
data.context: organized fire protection in canada began in the early 1900s after a number of disastrous fire seasons with substantial loss of life and property associated with increasing settlement of forested areas. by the mid1930s, fire protection was a provincial/territorial responsibility across all of canada. in spite of growing protection organizations, the expanding use of canadian forests for both industrial and recreational purposes resulted in large increases in both the number and impact of forest fires across the country. fire protection capability expanded and modernized over the ensuing decades, and canada has evolved into a recognized world leader in many aspects of fire management, assisted in no small way by a close connection to a growing forest fire science capacity, particularly within the federal forestry department. nevertheless, despite major progress in predicting, detecting, and controlling fires, canadian fire management agencies recognize quite clearly that there are physical and economic limits to further control fire and have come to realize that increasing fire suppression expenditures lead to decreasing marginal returns in terms of escaped fires or area burned. in addition, there are a number of emerging pressures that are expected to, in the very near future, greatly influence fire management practices in canada. these include climate change, an expanding wildland-urban interface, declining forest health and productivity, competition for the forest land base, growing public awareness and expectations, and a declining forest fire management infrastructure and capability. russian forestry evolved from german models and always included a strong program of fire protection. recognition that protection of the vast russian boreal zone would require an aircraft-based reconnaissance and suppression capacity led to the beginning of a formal aerial protection program in the early 1930s (stocks conard, 2000). this program expanded dramatically after world war ii as surplus aircraft and demobilized military paratroopers became available. avialsookhrana, the federal forest protection service, began using helicopters extensively in the 1970s. by the early 1990s, russia had created the largest firefighting system in the world, and this system was largely successful in reducing area burned, particularly around settlements. however, large fires were still commonplace and vast areas of the russian taiga burned almost annually. following the collapse of the soviet system in 1991, fire control budgets were severely reduced, and fire protection in russia has become largely ineffective. as a result, severe fire seasons with very large areas burned have become commonplace in russia, particularly in siberia, over the past 15 years. despite the fact that russia currently receives huge revenues from the global export of its natural resources, none of this is being used in improving forest protection. in addition, forest exploitation is rampant, further exacerbating an already critical fire problem (goldammer, 2006).
data.question: Which type of ice cools the earth, sea or glacier?
data.text: both sea and glacier ice cool the earth
data.question: What type of ice cover is extremely important to the global?
data.text: the winter sea ice cover is extremely important to the global
data.question: What increases the rate the sea level rises?
data.text: the warming of greenland and the arctic is already increasing the rate of sea level rises
data.context: at very high northern latitudes, in and around the arctic sea, ice loss will be dramatic, although in the southern oceans around antarctica that rate of ice loss will be slower. the maximum melt of the greenland ice sheet has increased on average by 16% from 1979 to 2002. the melting in the winter of 2002/03 was unprecedented, in a year when the sea ice in the arctic was at its lowest level ever recorded. the warming of greenland and the arctic is already increasing the rate of sea level rises, mainly owing to the dynamic response of the large ice sheet rather than just the melting of the ice. for every degree increase in mean annual temperature near greenland, the rate of sea level rises increases by about 10%. 6 monitoring has shown that currently the oceans are rising by around 5 cm every 10 years. both sea and glacier ice cool the earth, reflecting back into space about 80% of the springtime and 40 - 50% of summertime sunshine. the winter sea ice cover is extremely important to the global
data.question: What did scientists during the colonial adopt from indigenous peoples?
data.text: they adopted from indigenous peoples entire classification schemes that order and interpret ecological systems according to an indigenous logic
data.question: In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was the primary mission of the scientific disciplines of ethnobotany and ethnozoology to understand traditional knowledge systems?
data.text: their primary mission, however, was not to understand these other knowledge systems per se but rather to glean from them information for the development of colonial science
data.question: What did the newly established scientific disciplines of ethnobotany and ethnozoology thrived on?
data.text: the newly established scientific disciplines of ethnobotany and ethnozoology thrived on an influx of new knowledge from traditional knowledge holders across the globe
data.context: traditional knowledge is as ancient as humankind, and it is in traditional knowledge that the origins of science are rooted. in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with european colonial expansion, the newly established scientific disciplines of ethnobotany and ethnozoology thrived on an influx of new knowledge from traditional knowledge holders across the globe. their primary mission, however, was not to understand these other knowledge systems per se but rather to glean from them information for the development of colonial science. their efforts focused on compiling lists of 'useful' plants and animals unknown to european science. however, scientists during the colonial period did not limit their reliance on local experts to the simple identification of species of interest. they adopted from indigenous peoples entire classification schemes that order and interpret ecological systems according to an indigenous logic. in this manner, western taxonomic knowledge and practice were significantly transformed by their encounter with traditional systems of knowledge and meaning. for example, european understandings of asian botany 'ironically, depended upon a set of
data.question: why is it sometimes said that the conventional hydrocarbon peak disastrous for environmental disaster?
data.text: this is motivated by the established fact that unconventional fossil fuels have much larger emission footprints
data.question: what is the condition for the peak of conventional hydrocarbons to be disastrous for the environment?
data.text: this is only valid if, and only if, unconventional hydrocarbon production becomes a major part of the future energy system
data.question: what notes were made by Smil in 2000 and Bezdek and Wendling in 2002?
data.text: smil (2000) and bezdek and wendling (2002) pinpoint that long range energy forecasters have made many inaccurate projections, mostly as overestimations
data.context: sometimes it is claimed that peaking of conventional hydrocarbons would be disastrous for the environment disaster. this is motivated by the established fact that unconventional fossil fuels have much larger emission footprints (brandt and farrell, 2007). however, this is only valid if, and only if, unconventional hydrocarbon production becomes a major part of the future energy system. once again, vast unconventional resources do not " automagically " imply high production rates as future exploitation is dependent on more factors than just geological occurrences. the ipcc scenarios also seriously underestimate technical challenges associated with building a new energy system according to several experts in the field. pielke et al. (2008) showed that two thirds of all energy efficiency improvements are already built into the scenarios, as they are assuming spontaneous technological change and decarbonisation. in addition, they also demonstrated that the assumed rate of decarbonisation in 35 of the scenarios agreed poorly with reality in 2000-2010, as the rapid growth of the chinese and indian economies actually had increased the global carbon and energy intensities. smil (2008) also pointed out how the scenarios ignored several key facts about global energy and its future, more specifically the jevons paradox (jevons, 1856) which has implied that for the last 150 years all energy efficiency improvements have actually been translated into higher energy use. finally, smil (2000) and bezdek and wendling (2002) pinpoint that long range energy forecasters have made many inaccurate projections, mostly as overestimations. the smooth energy transition assumptions built into sres (2000) are debateable or even questionable. such idealized substitution mechanisms are likely to oversimplify the complexity of energy transitions, in particular when supply of the dominant energy source (i.e. oil) is declining. 18
data.question: What are tropical forests exposed to?
data.text: tropical forests are exposed to different factors of climate change and variability, as well as other drivers such as land use change or pollution that exacerbate the impacts of climate change (see figure 1
data.question: What does sensitivity mean in the context of climate change?
data.text: sensitivity refers to the degree to which a system will respond to a change in climate, either positively or negatively
data.question: Will habitat fragmentation exacerbate the conservation threat brought about by climate change?
data.text: additional threats will emerge as the climate continues to change, especially as it interacts with other stresses such as habitat fragmentation (mccarty 2001; brook et al. 2008
data.context: the effects of a changing climate on ecological systems have already been observed at various levels of ecological organisation from organisms to ecosystems. observations include changes in structure and functioning, carbon and nitrogen cycling, species distributions, population size, timing of reproduction or migration, and length of growing season (corlett and lafrankie 1998; gitay et al. 2002; root et al. 2003; clark 2007). these studies suggest that global change may be a current and future conservation threat, and emphasise the need for considering climate change in conservation, management or restoration of tropical forests. additional threats will emerge as the climate continues to change, especially as it interacts with other stresses such as habitat fragmentation (mccarty 2001; brook et al. 2008). potential impacts the potential impacts of climate change on tropical forests are a function of exposure and sensitivity (see definitions of these concepts in appendix, figure 7). tropical forests are exposed to different factors of climate change and variability, as well as other drivers such as land use change or pollution that exacerbate the impacts of climate change (see figure 1). sensitivity refers to the degree to which a system will respond to a change in climate, either positively or negatively. among the parameters of sensitivity are changes in disturbance regimes that are affected by climate and land use practices (murdiyarso and lebel 2007). for example, el nino-induced droughts have increased the incidence of fire in humid tropical forests (barlow and peres 2004).
data.question: What other gross features is GEMs able to capture other than the global monsoon precipitation?
data.text: the gems are also able to capture the gross features of the global monsoon precipitation and westerly domains
data.question: During what years were there a significant decrease of NHMI trends?
data.text: the significant decreasing nhmi trend during 1951-85 and 1951-99 occurs mainly in the models with volcanic aerosols
data.question: How many coupled global climate models were simulated during the second half of the 21st century?
data.text: the global monsoon climate variability during the second half of the twentieth century simulated by 21 coupled global climate models (cgcms
data.context: department of meteorology, school of ocean and earth science and technology, university of hawaii at manoa, honolulu, hawaii (manuscript received 15 may 2007, in final form 13 march 2008) the global monsoon climate variability during the second half of the twentieth century simulated by 21 coupled global climate models (cgcms) that participated in the world climate research programme's coupled model intercomparison project phase 3 (cmip3) is evaluated. emphasis was placed on climatology, multidecadal trend, and the response of the global monsoon precipitation to volcanic aerosols. the impact of the atmospheric model's horizontal resolution on the group ensemble mean (gem; obtained from the three resolution groups) simulations of global monsoon climate is also examined. the cmip3 cgcms' multimodel ensemble simulates a reasonably realistic climatology of the global monsoon precipitation and circulation. the gems are also able to capture the gross features of the global monsoon precipitation and westerly domains. however, the spreading among the rainfall gems is large, particularly at the windward side of narrow mountains (e.g., the western coast of india, the philippines, mexico, and the steep slope of the tibetan plateau). main common biases in modeling rainfall climatology include a northeastward shift of the intertropical convergence zone (itcz) in the tropical north pacific and a southward migration of the north atlantic itcz during boreal winter. the trend in the northern hemisphere land monsoon index (nhmi) detected in the cmip3 models is generally consistent with the observations, albeit with much weaker magnitude. the significant decreasing nhmi trend during 1951-85 and 1951-99 occurs mainly in the models with volcanic aerosols (vol models). this volcanic signal is detectable by comparison of the forced and free runs. it is estimated that from about one-quarter to one-third of the drying trend in the northern hemisphere land monsoon precipitation over the latter half of the twentieth century was likely due to the effects of the external volcanic forcings. on the other hand, the significant increasing trend in the global ocean monsoon index (gomi) during 1980-99 appears chiefly in those models that are free of volcanic aerosols (no-vol models). the exclusion of the volcanic aerosols is significant in simulating the positive gomi trend against the internal variability of each model. these results suggest the climatic importance of the volcanic forcings in the global monsoon precipitation variability.
data.question: What might future temperature riseses have?
data.text: future temperature rises might have an especially strong eff ect in tropical regions because crops grown there are less resilient to changes in climate than those grown in non-tropical regions
data.question: What is the key task?
data.text: the key task, attuned to local culture and economy, is to fi nd ways of lessening adverse health risks from changes in food yield, quality, and accessibility
data.question: What can agricultural mismanagement result in?
data.text: agricultural mismanagement can also result in salination and water-logging of soils, and in land degradation and soil erosion
data.context: the technological challenge in this area is to ensure food security mainly by environmentally friendly ways of increasing food availability. future temperature rises might have an especially strong eff ect in tropical regions because crops grown there are less resilient to changes in climate than those grown in non-tropical regions. a major technological challenge is to develop new crops to withstand higher temperatures.65 the key task, attuned to local culture and economy, is to fi nd ways of lessening adverse health risks from changes in food yield, quality, and accessibility. although industrialised and intensive agricultural production has helped to boost food output, it has also undermined the integrity of ecosystems by, for example, impairing nutrient cycling in soils, overusing pesticides, and disrupting natural pollination. such sustained high agricultural output has also depended on fossil fuel use to generate fertilisers. agricultural mismanagement can also result in salination and water-logging of soils, and in land degradation and soil erosion.132,133
data.question: what is the purpose of undertaking agricultural adaptation
data.text: the purpose of undertaking agricultural adaptation is to effectively manage potential climate risks over the coming decades as climate changes
data.question: how can Adaptation research undertaken help?
data.text: adaptation research undertaken now can help inform decisions by farmers, agrobusiness, and policy makers with implications over a range of timeframes from short-term tactical to long-term strategic
data.question: what is the significant benefit from adaptation research ?
data.text: a significant benefit from adaptation research may be to understand how short-term response strategies may link to long-term options to ensure that, at a minimum, management and/or policy decisions implemented over the next one to three decades do not undermine the ability to cope with potentially larger impacts later in the century
data.context: the purpose of undertaking agricultural adaptation is to effectively manage potential climate risks over the coming decades as climate changes. adaptation research undertaken now can help inform decisions by farmers, agrobusiness, and policy makers with implications over a range of timeframes from short-term tactical to long-term strategic (1). however, it is particularly important to align the scales (spatial, temporal, and sectoral) and reliability of the information with the scale and nature of the decision. for example, short-term climate adaptation by farmers may be accomplished by taking into account local climate trends if there is a strong correspondence between these trends and projected climate changes, or it may be via climate forecasting at scales from daily to interannual. however, farmers may find limited utility in long-term projections of climate, given the high uncertainties at the finer spatial and temporal scales at which their decisions are made (11). in contrast, the general trends at larger time and spatial scales able to be more reliably projected with current climate models may be quite useful for input into policy and investment analyses, provided potentially critical factors are incorporated such as changes in climate extremes (12). a significant benefit from adaptation research may be to understand how short-term response strategies may link to long-term options to ensure that, at a minimum, management and/or policy decisions implemented over the next one to three decades do not undermine the ability to cope with potentially larger impacts later in the century. in the sections below, we try to identify other key benefits from an increased focus on climate change adaptation.
data.question: why now is the good time to investin right technologies abou energy?
data.text: we are entering a new era in which fossil fuel and nuclear energy will become increasingly unaffordable, and in which the burgeoning renewable energy industries will begin to dominate the energy generation markets
data.question: what are the forecasts regarding global energy demand?
data.text: in the annual publication of the international energy agency's world energy outlook46 in november 2008 it was predicted that global energy demand will increase by 45% by 2030 and oil prices will rise to 200 a barrel by then
data.question: what are the forecasts on current energy demand?
data.text: we have to rapidly implement the step changes needed to create a new twenty-first century paradigm of deeply passive buildings that can be run largely on renewable energy supplies, because in settlements around the world the lights are already going out. some say we are, even now, at the threshold of a new age of dark cities. we are certainly approaching the beginning of the end of the fossil fuel age
data.context: in the transition from the fossil fuel age to whatever comes after it, energy prices will rise and the hardest hit buildings will be those built in the last half century when energy was abundant and the size of a building and its energy profligacy were a sign of its success. the era of big is beautiful has already passed, and as we saw in chapter 12, the smart money is already moving out of tall buildings and out of the hearts of dense cities. you cannot occupy a tall building when the power fails. you cannot power a tall building on solar energy, but you can power a robust, well-designed, sensibly sized building using renewable energy in britain. similarly, you cannot run a hvac system in a thin, tight-skinned building in a hot country from pvs. you can run ceiling fans from pvs in well-designed, naturally ventilated passive buildings in the same climate. we are entering a new era in which fossil fuel and nuclear energy will become increasingly unaffordable, and in which the burgeoning renewable energy industries will begin to dominate the energy generation markets. this is a good time to invest in the right technologies. in the annual publication of the international energy agency's world energy outlook46 in november 2008 it was predicted that global energy demand will increase by 45% by 2030 and oil prices will rise to 200 a barrel by then. they claim that the july 2008 surge in prices to just shy of 150 has highlighted the ultimately finite nature of oil and gas reserves. they called for an energy revolution and a ' major decarbonization ' of global fuel sources as the world confronts tighter supplies caused by shrinking investments. it adds, ' the need to address climate change will require a massive switch to high-efficiency, low carbon energy technologies ' more important than technologies are buildings. we have to rapidly implement the step changes needed to create a new twenty-first century paradigm of deeply passive buildings that can be run largely on renewable energy supplies, because in settlements around the world the lights are already going out. some say we are, even now, at the threshold of a new age of dark cities. we are certainly approaching the beginning of the end of the fossil fuel age.
data.question: How many articles are there on the "Up in Smoke" report?
data.text: in 2004/05, two articles look at the 'up in smoke' report
data.question: If other reports have been written, how well have they been received?
data.text: four seem to be written fairly arbitrarily by establishment figures, and two more cover other ngo reports
data.question: How many articles were written in total?
data.text: six articles published in the peak of 2000/01
data.context: turning to potential catastrophe the picture is not quite so tidy. of the six articles published in the peak of 2000/01, only two report on the findings of the ipcc, whilst three others stem from various reports by ngos and insurance experts. in 2004/05, two articles look at the 'up in smoke' report (simms et al., 2004), four seem to be written fairly arbitrarily by establishment figures, and two more cover other ngo reports. in 2006/07, the ipcc and stern reports receive under half the coverage, with the rest based on other reports and the announcements of establishment figures, notably rt. hon. margaret beckett mp, then british foreign secretary. graph 5.2 peaks and troughs in coverage of the two major discourses graph 5.2 peaks and troughs in coverage of the two major discourses (offset in places for clarity)
data.question: What is the FVS used for?
data.text: fvs is used to support an array of management issues spanning silviculture prescriptions, fuels management, insect and disease impacts, and wildlife habitat management
data.question: What kind of model is this modification called Climate-FVS?
data.text: fvs is an individual-tree, semi-distance-independent growth model
data.question: What is the focus of this paper?
data.text: in this paper, we describe adjustments to the predictors in fvs to take into account the effects of climate on mortality, growth, and regeneration
data.context: (fvs, crookston and dixon, 2005; dixon, 2008; stage, 1973 ), were developed for use in a static climate. because many component functions describing stand dynamics are dependent on climate, growth models in general are incapable of reflecting impacts of climate change. in this paper, we describe adjustments to the predictors in fvs to take into account the effects of climate on mortality, growth, and regeneration. the modified model, called climate-fvs, is used to simulate impacts of climate change on three climatically diverse landscapes. fvs is an individual-tree, semi-distance-independent growth model. inputs include an inventory of site conditions and a set of measurements on a sample of trees (e.g., tree size, species, crown ratio, recent growth and mortality rates). outputs include summaries of tree volume, species distributions, and growth and mortality rates that are often customized for specific user needs. the fire and fuels extension of fvs (ffe-fvs, rebain et al., 2009; reinhardt and crookston, 2003 outputs many indicators including a report on carbon loads used herein. fvs is used to support an array of management issues spanning silviculture prescriptions, fuels management, insect and disease impacts, and wildlife habitat management. spatial scales range from a single stand to thousands of stands. the temporal scale has traditionally been about 200 years (400 years maximum), but here we limit ourselves to ~ 100 years, the period covered the gcm used for simulations.
data.question: What studies are being influenced by recent research on the effects of climate change?
data.text: as interest in the effects of climate change has increased over the past two decades, the number of studies on responses of mammals and birds to a generally warming climate has grown steadily
data.question: Has the focus of this study been on changes in the environment or on the characteristics of the organism?
data.text: as with other organisms, most studies have employed a correlative approach, which focuses on changes in the environment and not on specific characteristics of the organisms of interest (kearney and porter 2009; buckley et al. 2010
data.question: What factor leads to an animal's habitat change?
data.text: these models assume that a species' multidimensional niche space is fixed and that the subset of climatic conditions an organism currently occupies is an accurate predictor of its range under future climates, i.e., an organism will shift its range to find suitable habitat as climate changes
data.context: as interest in the effects of climate change has increased over the past two decades, the number of studies on responses of mammals and birds to a generally warming climate has grown steadily. as with other organisms, most studies have employed a correlative approach, which focuses on changes in the environment and not on specific characteristics of the organisms of interest (kearney and porter 2009; buckley et al. 2010). these models assume that a species' multidimensional niche space is fixed and that the subset of climatic conditions an organism currently occupies is an accurate predictor of its range under future climates, i.e., an organism will shift its range to find suitable habitat as climate changes. for example, many studies have used
data.question: The relationship between simulated precipitation and deforestation shows what?
data.text: shows an accelerating decrease of rainfall for increasing deforestation for both classes of land use conversions
data.question: The reduction in precipitation in this region is more evident when deforestation exceeds how many percent of the original forest cover?
data.text: 40% of the original forest cover
data.question: The reduction in precipitation can create what kind of conditions?
data.text: favorable
data.context: this paper assesses the climate impacts of converting the amazon rainforest into pastures or soybean croplands using simulated land cover maps from a businessas-usual scenario of future deforestation. the results for eastern amazonia show increase in surface temperature and decrease in evapotranspiration and precipitation. the precipitation change after deforestation over eastern amazonia is associated with increase in albedo and reduction of evapotranspiration associated with the lower surface aerodynamic roughness, the lower leaf area, and the shallower rooting depth of pasture and soybean cropland compared with forest. the relationship between simulated precipitation and deforestation shows an accelerating decrease of rainfall for increasing deforestation for both classes of land use conversions. the reduction in precipitation in this region is more evident when deforestation exceeds 40% of the original forest cover, and this reduction in precipitation occurs mainly during the dry season. when we analyze the average change in precipitation for the entire amazon (not presented here) we find the same tendency: reduction in precipitation in dry season of about 16% for the case of replacing the entire forest by pasture, and 24% for replacing by soybean. the reduction in precipitation can create favorable conditions to potentially alter the structure of the forests, and lead to a process of savannization, as suggested by some studies [e.g., nobre et al. 1991; oyama and nobre 2003; hutyra et al. 2005]. the ecosystems of amazonia are subjected to various, but interconnected, environmental driving forces at the regional and global scales. continuing trends of pasture and soybean cropland expansion over amazon rainforests may have important consequences for the sustainability of the region's remaining natural vegetation. acknowledgments. we thank gordon and betty moore foundation and lba.
data.question: How many unique lineages of parasites were detected?
data.text: a total of 48 unique lineages of parasites (including the four genera) was detected
data.question: Which two lineages were distributed along the entire gradient?
data.text: only a few lineages of two well-represented families (petroicidae and pachycephalidae) were distributed along the entire gradient
data.question: Which genus exhibited the highest number of lineages?
data.text: haemoprotueus was the genus exhibiting the highest number of lineages (30
data.context: a total of 48 unique lineages of parasites (including the four genera) was detected. haemoprotueus was the genus exhibiting the highest number of lineages (30). trypanosoma and leucocytozoon presented 7 and 6 haplotypes respectively. finally, for plasmodium only 5 unique lineages were detected (malavi lineage names and genbank accession numbers are listed in table s3). we found that the four genera were generalist, strictly speaking, as most of the lineages were found in more than one host species. however, most of the haemoproteus lineages were partially specific to host family. analysis of parasite lineages along the elevation gradient showed that most of the lineages were present only in certain elevation sites. this was probably due to the observed high lineage diversity and the specific trends of host distribution along the gradient. only a few lineages of two well-represented families (petroicidae and pachycephalidae) were distributed along the entire gradient. nevertheless, due to the great diversity of lineages found, sample sizes of each of these well-distributed lineages are not large enough to determine significant trends of distribution in relation to elevation, temperature or rainfall.
data.question: What are the challenges facing Pacific island nations?
data.text: e]xisting and increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases seem likely to result in increases in mean and extreme air and ocean temperatures, rising sea levels, changes in precipitation patterns, and increasing intensity of extreme events
data.question: How are the changes expected to impact the livelihoods of Pacific Island peoples?
data.text: by altering fish stocks, increasing coral bleaching, facilitating saline contamination of freshwater, increasing risk of diseases, and hindering agricultural productivity
data.question: Mention other consequences of climate change that impact the livelihoods of small island peoples?
data.text: invasion of alien species; loss of coastal land and infrastructure due to erosion, tidal surges and increase in frequency and severity of cyclones; destruction of coral reefs and marine ecosystems from warming and acidifying oceans; decrease in food security due to the loss of food sources - such as fisheries due to coral bleaching, livestock and agricultural crops from extreme temperatures, changes in the seasons and severity of rainfall; loss of drinkable water through changes in precipitation, sea-level rise and inundation by sea water; and increase in infectious diseases, including dengue fever, malaria, cholera and diarrheal outbreaks
data.context: post-ipcc ar4 literature has highlighted the particular set of shared vulnerabilities of small islands, while acknowledging the existence of considerable differences between individual island contexts both at the regional and global scale. summarizing the challenges facing pacific island nations, mortreux and barnett (2009) note that '[e]xisting and increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases seem likely to result in increases in mean and extreme air and ocean temperatures, rising sea levels, changes in precipitation patterns, and increasing intensity of extreme events.' these changes are expected to impact the livelihoods and cultures of pacific island peoples in important ways, for instance, by altering fish stocks, increasing coral bleaching, facilitating saline contamination of freshwater, increasing risk of diseases, and hindering agricultural productivity (mortreux and barnett, 2009: 105). other consequences of climate change that impact the livelihoods of small island peoples, include: invasion of alien species; loss of coastal land and infrastructure due to erosion, tidal surges and increase in frequency and severity of cyclones; destruction of coral reefs and marine ecosystems from warming and acidifying oceans; decrease in food security due to the loss of food sources - such as fisheries due to coral bleaching, livestock and agricultural crops from extreme temperatures, changes in the seasons and severity of rainfall; loss of drinkable water through changes in precipitation, sea-level rise and inundation by sea water; and increase in infectious diseases, including dengue fever, malaria, cholera and diarrheal outbreaks (galloway mclean, 2010).
data.question: What is the most effective weapon against plummeting performance standards in modern buildings?
data.text: the genius of the epbd was that it requires an actual measurement of the real energy use and co 2 emissions of a building
data.context: the energy efficiency of the dwelling. <s121>* the carbon emissions figure. <s121>* the cost of lighting, heating and hot water per annum. <s121>* recommendations on ways to improve the home's energy efficiency. the genius of the epbd was that it requires an actual measurement of the real energy use and co 2 emissions of a building, and this simple requirement for performance to be demonstrated may well be the most effective weapon against plummeting performance standards in modern buildings. it is also an instrument that will have a huge effect on the money markets as companies whose business includes the ownership and management of portfolios of buildings will be able to see the actual worth of their building investments. we are entering an age when a buyer, given the choice of three buildings, being an a or a c or a g for roughly the same price (the modern prestige buildings in table 11.2 were all considerably more expensive than their market competitors at their time of build) will inevitably choose the a from now onwards. the problem is for building owners, who will touch the fs and gs? this is exacerbated by the current requirement for the same tax to be paid on empty buildings as on those that are occupied. where the growing number of buildings, usually 1960s ' and 1970s ' office buildings, were once left empty, stark evidence of the malaise of ' dead building syndrome ' many are now being demolished; or at least they were, but this in itself is an expensive business and a drain on already troubled budgets.
data.question: How can the scientifical community reshape current debate?
data.text: a critical first step in reshaping the current debate is to highlight the pervasive consequences of the narrow definition of ''climate change'' used under the fccc and considering how policy might be more effective if designed under the more appropriate definition used by the ipcc
data.question: In which way is uncertainty fueling public debate?
data.text: it seems clear that inherent limitations in accurately predicting the future climate and attributing specific climate events to human emissions of greenhouse gases will for the foreseeable future remain uncertain enough to fuel continued publicdebate sarewitz etal., 2000 
data.question: Why would a reframe of policy be useful?
data.text: with a reframed policy that decouples climate policy and energy policy, the community of scientists, advocates, and diplomats might find the surprising result that they will not only see multiple paths to reduce human and environmental vulnerability to climate but also create a more effective possibilities to achieving in practice a goal of greenhouse gas reductions
data.context: it seems clear that inherent limitations in accurately predicting the future climate and attributing specific climate events to human emissions of greenhouse gases will for the foreseeable future remain uncertain enough to fuel continued publicdebate sarewitz etal., 2000 ). and even ifuncertainties about the future were to be reduced, as glantz has noted there is no reason to believe that would make the politics any easier. on the one hand, this suggests that scientists will continue to benefit from the intractable status quo as each side of the debate demands greater certainty pielke and sarewitz, 2003 ). but on the other hand, more research could very easily lead to greater uncertainties and thus there exists a real possibility that the scientific community could suffer a backlash of public criticism that not only affects their role in the climate issue, but also public support for science more generally crichton, 2004 ). climate science offers the promise of great benefits to humanity; it is incumbent upon the scientific community to reshape the current debate in ways that enhance the contributions of research to worthwhile objectives. a critical first step in reshaping the current debate is to highlight the pervasive consequences of the narrow definition of ''climate change'' used under the fccc and considering how policy might be more effective if designed under the more appropriate definition used by the ipcc. with a reframed policy that decouples climate policy and energy policy, the community of scientists, advocates, and diplomats might find the surprising result that they will not only see multiple paths to reduce human and environmental vulnerability to climate but also create a more effective possibilities to achieving in practice a goal of greenhouse gas reductions. references
data.question: How did undergraduate perceptions of racial climate compare to White students?
data.text: undergraduate perceptions of racial climate varied by subscale, but as predicted, students of color reported more negative experiences with racism than white students
data.question: Did post hoc tests suggested differences among African American, Latino, and Asian American students?
data.text: post hoc tests suggested no significant differences among african american, latino, and asian american students
data.question: Which race was predicted to report more negative perceptions of general campus, racial, and academic climate?
data.text: african americans and latinos, were predicted to report more negative perceptions of general campus, racial, and academic climate than white students
data.context: racial differences in the perception of climate racial minority students, most notably african americans and latinos, were predicted to report more negative perceptions of general campus, racial, and academic climate than white students. all differences were tested using one-way analysis of variance. general campus climate. for undergraduates, students of color perceived a more negative gcc than white students (see table 2). post hoc tests suggested no significant differences among african american, latino, and asian american students. the perceptions of these students did, however, differ from white students. for graduate students, all groups reported similar perceptions of the general climate except african american students, who reported more negative perceptions of the gcc than all of the other groups (see table 2). racial climate. undergraduate perceptions of racial climate varied by subscale, but as predicted, students of color reported more negative experiences with racism than white students. as shown in table 2, african american students reported more negative
data.question: How can climate warming affect 'survival' in a way?
data.text: all insects and their natural enemies have species-specific thermal characteristics and thresholds, such as rates of development, activity and critical temperatures for mobility and flight. in a predator-prey interaction, if the predator can develop at a lower temperature than its prey or remain active when the prey have become mobile, it is more likely to be successful than if it is thermally less competitive
data.question: How can that impact in the natural world?
data.text: on the balance between different trophic levels
data.question: What does the new system allow to happen?
data.text: assessment of walking speed at different temperatures, variation in chill coma temperature across a population and even the critical temperature at which there is the last movement in an appendage
data.context: the concept of 'survival in a changing world' could be viewed in terms of the ways in which climate, and particularly temperature, can impact directly on organisms with potentially lethal outcomes - but climate warming may affect 'survival' in other ways. as an example, all insects and their natural enemies have species-specific thermal characteristics and thresholds, such as rates of development, activity and critical temperatures for mobility and flight. in a predator-prey interaction, if the predator can develop at a lower temperature than its prey or remain active when the prey have become mobile, it is more likely to be successful than if it is thermally less competitive. in the natural world, such thresholds will clearly impact on the balance between different trophic levels but where organisms are being selected for a specific purpose, for example, biological control, then knowledge of any differences between the control agent and the intended target would be valuable information in the selection process. various methods have been used to assess activity thresholds of insects such as chill coma but all of these involve direct observation by eye, and some require regular disturbance of the organism to test for the 'righting response' - the ability of an individual when placed on a surface on its dorsum to 'turn over' to its normal walking position (klok and chown, 1997). a new system has recently been developed in which multiple specimens are placed in a small temperature-controlled arena (constructed in aluminium) and their behaviour continuously monitored by video capture recording. this system allows assessment of walking speed at different temperatures, variation in chill coma temperature across a population and even the critical temperature at which there is the last movement in an appendage
data.question: What does this review provide?
data.text: this review provides an overview of foundational climate and culture studies in anthropology
data.question: What caused the roles of anthropology to expand to global contexts?
data.text: with the advent of climate change, anthropology's roles have expanded to engage local to global contexts
data.question: What type of anthropology research approach does the author stands for?
data.text: i argue for one mode that anthropologists should pursue--the development of critical collaborative, multisited ethnography, which i term "climate ethnography
data.context: this review provides an overview of foundational climate and culture studies in anthropology; it then tracks developments in this area to date to include anthropological engagements with contemporary global climate change. although early climate and culture studies were mainly founded in archaeology and environmental anthropology, with the advent of climate change, anthropology's roles have expanded to engage local to global contexts. considering both the unprecedented urgency and the new level of reflexivity that climate change ushers in, anthropologists need to adopt cross-scale, multistakeholder, and interdisciplinary approaches in research and practice. i argue for one mode that anthropologists should pursue--the development of critical collaborative, multisited ethnography, which i term "climate ethnography."
data.question: are there studies that talk about modern climate change and biodiversity?
data.text: many studies have explored effects of modern climate change on biodiversity and several major reviews have been published
data.question: are there several research fields on climate change?
data.text: the most well studied effects of climate change can be grouped into a number of active fields of research
data.question: why do these impacts occur on climate change?
data.text: these impacts of climate change also occur in the context of global ecosystems already highly modified by land use change
data.context: many studies have explored effects of modern climate change on biodiversity and several major reviews have been published.10-13the most well studied effects of climate change can be grouped into a number of active fields of research, which we briefly summarize in table 1. each of the phenomena described in table 1 can reasonably be expected to increase in frequency or magnitude with the extent of climate change. with no sign of respite in the rise of global co2 emissions, mean global temperatures, and frequency of extreme events could rise dramatically.48these impacts of climate change also occur in the context of global ecosystems already highly modified by land use change.
data.question: Explain the development of the FSI process?
data.text: first organizing framework on the nature of fsa development (figure 1) looks at this process at a corporate level. however, this does not mean that developing fsas to adapt to climate change merely occurs at mne headquarters and is implemented uniformly throughout the global organization. as stated in the the role that climate change plays in mne strategy is determined by a broad conglomerate of factors involving governmental as well as societal and market forces, working at different geographical levels
data.question: What  the Climate change thus adds new dimensions mean for MNE?
data.text: climate change thus adds new dimensions to what regionalization or globalization in terms of production and/or sales might mean for an mne and its network, regarding possible spillovers of such concerns to other (core) activities and other locations, and how organizational responses are coordinated and controlled (cf. rugman verbeke, 2004). climate change creates a geographically dispersed and moving target; while it may form a threat in one location, it can be an opportunity in another
data.question: How is operating MNE in the process of the clime change?
data.text: learning from climate change does not merely mean that mnes need dynamic capabilities to cope with technological change; constantly rejuvenating fsas by being responsive to a wide range of climate change-relevant csas is what gives them an edge vis-a-vis competitors. for example, mnes operating outside their home regions, upstream and/or downstream, may have difficulty in accommodating host-country concerns and approaches on climate change appropriately, often referred to as liability of foreignness (zaheer, 1995
data.context: the preceding, first organizing framework on the nature of fsa development (figure 1) looks at this process at a corporate level. however, this does not mean that developing fsas to adapt to climate change merely occurs at mne headquarters and is implemented uniformly throughout the global organization. as stated in the the role that climate change plays in mne strategy is determined by a broad conglomerate of factors involving governmental as well as societal and market forces, working at different geographical levels. there may well be particular geographical factors that are conducive to a climate-induced change in fsas, but this also means that it benefits the mne at a specific location only. in other words, mnes not only have the option to develop or change fsas internally, but can also optimize their fsa-csa configurations by taking specific conditions of home and host countries into account, such that csas form the starting point for fsa development (rugman verbeke, 1992). climate change thus adds new dimensions to what regionalization or globalization in terms of production and/or sales might mean for an mne and its network, regarding possible spillovers of such concerns to other (core) activities and other locations, and how organizational responses are coordinated and controlled (cf. rugman verbeke, 2004). climate change creates a geographically dispersed and moving target; while it may form a threat in one location, it can be an opportunity in another. regardless of whether regional or local characteristics are seen as a potential advantage or disadvantage, liability or risk, geographical differences are something to be faced by mnes and those firms that excel in doing this, are the ones most likely to develop climate-induced fsas. hence, learning from climate change does not merely mean that mnes need dynamic capabilities to cope with technological change; constantly rejuvenating fsas by being responsive to a wide range of climate change-relevant csas is what gives them an edge vis-a-vis competitors. for example, mnes operating outside their home regions, upstream and/or downstream, may have difficulty in accommodating host-country concerns and approaches on climate change appropriately, often referred to as liability of foreignness (zaheer, 1995). if the cost of dealing with host-country concerns becomes so high that it forms a serious threat, an mne may choose to retire an fsa it once possessed in the host market or transfer it to another
data.question: What are the main challenges facing climate simulations of the past millenium?
data.text: climate simulations of the past millennium are burdened by model limitations and uncertainties in the external forcing, and therefore their output must be considered with care
data.question: What methods can be considered theoretically free from such drawbacks?
data.text: other methods that estimate past temperatures with physical, as opposed to statistical, methods e e.g., borehole temperature profiles 16 or regression methods that address retention of the information of the low-frequency variability contained in the proxy indicators 25 ), may be in theory free from this specific caveat
data.question: Is detailed testing of reconstruction methods in simulated climates important in the reconstruction process?
data.text: our results indicate that a detailed testing of these reconstruction methods in simulated climates should be an essential part in the reconstruction process and may help in the design of better reconstruction methods
data.context: climate simulations of the past millennium are burdened by model limitations and uncertainties in the external forcing, and therefore their output must be considered with care. however, they provide a surrogate climate realistic enough to conclude that the use of the regression methods considered here, which exploit short-term cross-correlations to reconstruct past climates, suffer from marked losses of centennial and multidecadal variations. this conclusion probably applies to most other regression-based methods. other methods that estimate past temperatures with physical, as opposed to statistical, methods e e.g., borehole temperature profiles 16 or regression methods that address retention of the information of the low-frequency variability contained in the proxy indicators 25 ), may be in theory free from this specific caveat. our results indicate that a detailed testing of these reconstruction methods in simulated climates should be an essential part in the reconstruction process and may help in the design of better reconstruction methods.
data.question: What is the spring Daphnia abundance?
data.text: existing evidence suggests that the spring daphnia abundance is determined by the hatching rates of diapausing eggs and/or by the fecundity rates of the overwintering populations sommer et al., 1986 
data.question: Explain about population fecundity?
data.text: while the population fecundity is directly related to the algal food quantity and quality as well as to the spring temperature rise, the former strategy is primarily controlled by the photoperiod gyllstrom, 2004; vandekerkhove et al., 2005 
data.question: The different stimuli associated with the hatching temperatures?
data.text: the importance of the incubation and hatching temperatures, the storage period length, and the maternal effects have also been acknowledged schwartz and hebert, 1987; de meester et al., 1998 
data.context: existing evidence suggests that the spring daphnia abundance is determined by the hatching rates of diapausing eggs and/or by the fecundity rates of the overwintering populations sommer et al., 1986 ). while the population fecundity is directly related to the algal food quantity and quality as well as to the spring temperature rise, the former strategy is primarily controlled by the photoperiod gyllstrom, 2004; vandekerkhove et al., 2005 ); although the importance of the incubation and hatching temperatures, the storage period length, and the maternal effects have also been acknowledged schwartz and hebert, 1987; de meester et al., 1998 ). because of the different stimuli associated with the
data.question: Do fewer or more women than men believe science and technology will solve environmental problems without our having to change our lifestyles?
data.text: women also seem more prepared for behavioural changes than men, as "fewer women than men believe that science and technology will solve environmental problems without our having to change our lifestyles
data.question: Do children play a role in reducing the risk of disasters?
data.text: yet research carried out in el salvador and new orleans revealed numerous cases where children and youth have taken actions to prevent future disasters within their communities, including by promoting changes in local government policies (see box below) (mitchell et. al. forthcoming 2008
data.context: framework convention on climate change (unfccc cop 13) argue, women need to be involved in these negotiations and consulted on their priorities (see for example women's gender cc 2007). ultimately, neglecting to incorporate a gender-sensitive approach to international climate change negotiations means that the decisions and actions taken cannot reflect the needs, capabilities, priorities and concerns of all stakeholders and cannot therefore be effective in either reducing greenhouse emissions, or upholding principles of gender equitable sustainable development (dennison, 2003). as the box below illustrates, women may in some cases be more likely than men to support or accept progressive and significant climate change mitigation and adaptation policies - so there is also a very strategic rationale for their greater involvement in policy and decision-making processes. women's risk perception and policy formulation - a northern perspective women and men perceive risks differently, including in relation to climate change. women are more sensitive to risks and less likely to perceive governmental policies and measures taken to deal with climate change as sufficient. women also seem more prepared for behavioural changes than men, as "fewer women than men believe that science and technology will solve environmental problems without our having to change our lifestyles. they also rate more highly the influence that each individual has on climate protection". this points to a higher likelihood that women would support more drastic policies and measures on climate change - in other words, they would be the most "natural allies" of those promoting progressive and significant climate change mitigation and adaptation policies (see hemmati, m., 2005). as noted above, recent research by the institute of development studies and plan international has also pointed to the marginalisation of children's voices in household, community and national decision-making relating to climate change, particularly in disaster risk reduction (drr) (mitchell etc al. forthcoming 2008). children are assumed to have no role to play in reducing the risk of disasters. yet research carried out in el salvador and new orleans revealed numerous cases where children and youth have taken actions to prevent future disasters within their communities, including by promoting changes in local government policies (see box below) (mitchell et. al. forthcoming 2008). this kind of participatory research is hugely valuable in terms of challenging stereotypes about children as passive victims and developing a more nuanced picture of children's own perceptions of risk, and the actions needed to reduce these risks. replicating this kind of participatory research with groups of women would be illuminating, since, as noted above, women's perceptions, strategies and priorities are often given little visibility in decision-making (see the recommendations section below).
data.question: What are more comprehensive data sets likely to include?
data.text: comprehensive data sets are more likely to include stations in remote, or otherwise 'difficult' locations that challenge the interpolation system when omitted, but help produce the best spatial climate data set when present
data.question: How may climate data sets be evaluated?
data.text: climate data sets may be independently evaluated by assessing their consistency with other spatial elements, such as stream flow, vegetation patterns, and related climate elements (e.g. snow pack), or observations not available at the time of interpolation (daly et al ., 2002; milewska et al ., 2005; simpson et al ., 2005
data.question: What did the full PRISM model in Scenario 3 predict?
data.text: the full prism model in scenario 3 predicted the high-elevation stations reasonably well, with only a slight negative bias
data.context: in contrast, the full prism model in scenario 3 predicted the high-elevation stations reasonably well, with only a slight negative bias. ironically, the above example illustrates a general tendency for interpolation analyses that use comprehensive station data to report greater cross-validation errors than studies that use relatively little data. however, the comprehensive error estimates are clearly more realistic. comprehensive data sets are more likely to include stations in remote, or otherwise 'difficult' locations that challenge the interpolation system when omitted, but help produce the best spatial climate data set when present. in addition, no one measure or estimation method gives a complete picture of interpolation error. the best methods are those that provide maximum independence from the model and data used to produce the spatial climate data set (station data suffer from significant errors, as well, but cannot be discussed in any detail here). climate data sets may be independently evaluated by assessing their consistency with other spatial elements, such as stream flow, vegetation patterns, and related climate elements (e.g. snow pack), or observations not available at the time of interpolation (daly et al ., 2002; milewska et al ., 2005; simpson et al ., 2005).
data.question: What is obsereved in Regionally significant climate phenomena ?
data.text: regionally significant climate phenomena such as the arctic oscillation (e.g., siberia),[120]indian ocean dipole (iod), indonesia,[121]atlantic multidecadal oscillation (e.g., boston mountains),[122]and pacific decadal oscillation (e.g., alaska)[123]have also been identified to affect fire occurrence (figure 6
data.question: What is the synergistic impact?
data.text:  the synergistic impact of the large-scale and regional climatic phenomena can enhance fires, leading to exceptionally intensive biomass burning such as the 1997/1998 indonesia fires, attributed to the combined strength of the el nino and the iod.[121]observed interregional differences in fire patterns can also be attributed to changes in land use and population density, driven by humans
data.question: Explain  synergistic impact with example?
data.text: for example, a strongly nonlinear link between drought and fire emissions is demonstrated by comparing the fire carbon emissions in indonesia during the moderate 2006 el ni~no that are 30 times greater than those during the 2000 la ni~na. this is due to a direct anthropogenic influence
data.context: regionally significant climate phenomena such as the arctic oscillation (e.g., siberia),[120]indian ocean dipole (iod), indonesia,[121]atlantic multidecadal oscillation (e.g., boston mountains),[122]and pacific decadal oscillation (e.g., alaska)[123]have also been identified to affect fire occurrence (figure 6). the synergistic impact of the large-scale and regional climatic phenomena can enhance fires, leading to exceptionally intensive biomass burning such as the 1997/1998 indonesia fires, attributed to the combined strength of the el nino and the iod.[121]observed interregional differences in fire patterns can also be attributed to changes in land use and population density, driven by humans. for example, a strongly nonlinear link between drought and fire emissions is demonstrated by comparing the fire carbon emissions in indonesia during the moderate 2006 el ni~no that are 30 times greater than those during the 2000 la ni~na. this is due to a direct anthropogenic influence
data.question: Does civics instruction have an impact on the political engagement of adolescents?
data.text: analysis of data from cived, a major study of civic education conducted in 1999, finds that an open classroom climate has a positive impact on adolescents' civic knowledge and appreciation of political conflict, even upon controlling for numerous individual, classroom, school, and district characteristics
data.question: If so, how?
data.text: furthermore, an open classroom environment fosters young people's intention to be an informed voter
data.question: Can it be stopped?
data.text: results further show that exposure to an open classroom climate at school can partially compensate for the disadvantages of young people with low socioeconomic status
data.context: does civics instruction have an impact on the political engagement of adolescents? if so, how? analysis of data from cived, a major study of civic education conducted in 1999, finds that an open classroom climate has a positive impact on adolescents' civic knowledge and appreciation of political conflict, even upon controlling for numerous individual, classroom, school, and district characteristics. furthermore, an open classroom environment fosters young people's intention to be an informed voter. results further show that exposure to an open classroom climate at school can partially compensate for the disadvantages of young people with low socioeconomic status. keywords civic engagement  civic education  political socialization this paper asks whether schools have an impact on the likelihood that young people will develop into active, informed citizens. and, if so, does civic education at school compensate for the disadvantages of young people with low socioeconomic status? while once a booming area of research in political science (greenstein 1965 easton and dennis 1969 hess and torney 1967 jennings and niemi 1974 ), the study of young people had until recently fallen largely by the wayside. there is currently a revival of interest in the topic, but political scientists' inattention to the
data.question: How does global warming increase drought conditions?
data.text: increased heating leads to greater evaporation and thus surface drying, thereby increasing intensity and duration of drought
data.question: How does global warming produce heavier rain storms?
data.text: the water-holding capacity of air increases by about 7% per 1*c warming, which leads to increased water vapor in the atmosphere, and this probably provides the biggest influence on precipitation. storms, whether individual thunderstorms, extratropical rain or snow storms, or tropical cyclones and hurricanes, supplied by increased moisture, produce more intense precipitation events that are widely observed to be occurring, even in places where total precipitation is decreasing
data.question: What is one example of how global warming leads to increased flooding?
data.text: since more precipitation occurs as rain instead of snow with warming, and snow melts earlier, there is increased runoff and risk of flooding in early spring, but increased risk of drought in deep summer, especially over continental areas
data.context: there is a direct influence of global warming on changes in precipitation and heavy rains. increased heating leads to greater evaporation and thus surface drying, thereby increasing intensity and duration of drought. however, the water-holding capacity of air increases by about 7% per 1*c warming, which leads to increased water vapor in the atmosphere, and this probably provides the biggest influence on precipitation. storms, whether individual thunderstorms, extratropical rain or snow storms, or tropical cyclones and hurricanes, supplied by increased moisture, produce more intense precipitation events that are widely observed to be occurring, even in places where total precipitation is decreasing. in turn, this increases the risk of flooding. patterns of where it rains also have been observed to change, with dry areas becoming drier (generally throughout the subtropics) and wet areas becoming wetter, especially in mid to high latitudes. this pattern is simulated by climate models and is projected to continue into the future. since more precipitation occurs as rain instead of snow with warming, and snow melts earlier, there is increased runoff and risk of flooding in early spring, but increased risk of drought in deep summer, especially over continental areas.
data.question: How much of all organic carbon lies in peatlands?
data.text: peatlands contain approximately one-third of all soil organic carbon (soc
data.question: What has warming showed to alter?
data.text: we further show that warming altered the regulatory role of sphagnum -polyphenols on microbial community structure with a potential inhibition of top-predators
data.question: What do structural equation models show?
data.text: using structural equation modelling, we show that changes in the microbial food-web affected the relationships between plants, soil water chemistry and microbial communities
data.context: peatlands contain approximately one-third of all soil organic carbon (soc). warming can alter aboveand belowground linkages that regulate soil organic carbon dynamics and cbalance in peatlands. here we examine the multi-year impact of in-situ experimental warming on the microbial food web, vegetation, and their feedbacks with soil chemistry. we provide evidence of both positive and negative impacts of warming on specific microbial functional groups, leading to destabilisation of the microbial food web. we found that warming involved a strong reduction (70%) of the biomass of top-predators (testate amoebae). such a loss caused a shortening of microbial food chains, which in turn stimulated microbial activity, leading to slight increases in levels of nutrients and labile c in water. we further show that warming altered the regulatory role of sphagnum -polyphenols on microbial community structure with a potential inhibition of top-predators. in addition, we found that abundance of sphagnum decreased, whereas that of vascular plant increased with warming. using structural equation modelling, we show that changes in the microbial food-web affected the relationships between plants, soil water chemistry and microbial communities. these results suggest that warming will destabilize c and nutrient recycling of peatlands via changes in aboveand belowground linkages, and therefore, the microbial food web associated with mosses will feedback positively to global warming by destabilizing the carbon cycle. in addition, our findings add another crucial new contributor to the list of mechanisms by which mosses, as ecosystem engineers, tightly regulate peatland functioning.
data.question: What is it listed in Table 1?
data.text: the dataset of experiments analyzed in this study includes 19 aogcm simulations collected and archived at the program for climate model diagnosis and intercomparison (pcmdi
data.question: How is evaporation obtained?
data.text: evaporation is obtained by calculating the latent heat flux divided by the latent heat of vaporization by ignoring fusion and sublimation
data.question: What gives the bicubic spline interpolation?
data.text: the bicubic spline interpolation gives accurate values at the original grids and a smoothly varying field between them on a two-dimensional plane because the spline requires continuity to the second-order derivative at the grids
data.context: the dataset of experiments analyzed in this study includes 19 aogcm simulations collected and archived at the program for climate model diagnosis and intercomparison (pcmdi), as listed in table 1. variables analyzed include the monthly mean precipitation, evaporation, and runoff of the 20c3m and sres a1b experiments. evaporation is obtained by calculating the latent heat flux divided by the latent heat of vaporization by ignoring fusion and sublimation. the 20c3m experiment has been simulated by aogcm with natural (e.g., volcanoes and solar) and anthropogenic (e.g., greenhouse gases, ozone, and aerosols) forcing in the twentieth century. the sres a1b experiment has been calculated with projected external forcing by the sres a1b scenario from the end of the 20c3m simulation to 2100. all simulated results are converted to a common 2.5deg by 2.5deg grid by a bicubic spline interpolation scheme. the bicubic spline interpolation gives accurate values at the original grids and a smoothly varying field between them on a two-dimensional plane because the spline requires continuity to the second-order derivative at the grids.
data.question: What are some things that may allow audiences to fully absorb climate science information?
data.text: in order for climate science information to be fully absorbed by audiences, it must be actively communicated with appropriate language, metaphor, and analogy; combined with narrative storytelling; made vivid through visual imagery and experiential scenarios; balanced with scientific information; and delivered by trusted messengers in group settings
data.question: What are two key audiences that the guide aims to assist in communication?
data.text: the general public and decision makers from government and business
data.question: The best way to get people to understand scientific literature is by doing what?
data.text: combines laboratory and field research with real-world examples
data.context: many people can recite at least a few things they could do to help mitigate global climate change, but are not. why not? somehow, and despite a lot of media attention following the release of an inconvenient truth messages about climate change and what people need to do to help prevent it seem to have fallen on deaf ears. there are many theories about why awareness of climate change does not inspire the kind of behavior changes it should. addressing all of them goes beyond the scope of this guide. what this guide does provide are principles derived from the social sciences concerning how to communicate effectively about a topic that is complex, confusing, uncertain, sometimes overwhelming, and often emotionally and politically loaded. cred research shows that, in order for climate science information to be fully absorbed by audiences, it must be actively communicated with appropriate language, metaphor, and analogy; combined with narrative storytelling; made vivid through visual imagery and experiential scenarios; balanced with scientific information; and delivered by trusted messengers in group settings. this guide combines laboratory and field research with real-world examples. it blends information from the broad spectrum of disciplines that cred encompasses: psychology, anthropology, economics, history, environmental science and policy, and climate science. intended for anyone who communicates about climate change, from scientists, journalists, educators, clerics, and political aides to concerned citizens, the guide's purpose is to assist communicators in reaching two key audiences--the general public and decision makers from government and business--more effectively. the principles found in this guide should help make climate change presentations and discussions more effective.
data.question: Why are adaptations to climate change almost never measured?
data.text: notably, the costs of adaptations are almost never measured because they are usually not observed
data.question: If measured, how are these adaptations measured?
data.text: moreover, most measurements are partial equilibrium responses, whereas general equilibrium responses to climate, such as factor reallocations across space or time, are a form of adaptation thought to be important but about which little is known
data.question: What is adaptation to climate change thought to be?
data.text: adaptation to climate is thought to be economically important
data.context: as discussed above, adaptation to climate is thought to be economically important, but it has only been characterized in a limited number of cases. notably, the costs of adaptations are almost never measured because they are usually not observed. moreover, most measurements are partial equilibrium responses, whereas general equilibrium responses to climate, such as factor reallocations across space or time, are a form of adaptation thought to be important but about which little is known. further, general equilibrium changes will result in changing prices, and knowing these adjustments is important for valuing quantity effects that are already understood. however, only a small number of studies have begun exploring these effects (colmer 2016, costinot et al. 2016, roberts schlenker 2013).
data.question: Which position sees climate change as beneficial for development?
data.text: the first position
data.context: five general positions regarding climate change and international development can be identified from within the broad spectrum of discourses present in the uk quality press. the first position views climate change as beneficial for development, a position which all the other positions oppose. the second position affirms that climate change is a low development priority and it will be better to deal with it as it occurs. a third position suggests that the key to preventing serious consequences for development is mitigation, though the conforming discourses differ in their understanding of which countries should take action and who is to blame for stalled negotiations. next comes a set of crisis narratives that insist climate change will have disastrous impacts on development, but differ in how those consequences are represented and the appropriate solutions suggested. a final position holds that tackling climate change is an opportunity to achieve clean and sustainable development for the poor. the positions and associated discourse are outlined in table 3.1. table 3.1 five positions and associated discourses regarding climate change table 3.1 five positions and associated discourses regarding climate change and development in the quality newspapers climate change will be beneficial other development issues should be tackled first mitigation is the key a crisis, climate change must be tackled urgently overcoming climate change can help the poor optimism rationalism ethical mitigation disaster strikes opportunity selfself- righteous mitigation potential catastrophe crisis crisis the various discourses are described below. each discourse is introduced through the various discourses are described below. each discourse is introduced through a brief outline of the basic storyline, which is then followed by a list of some key 14 quotes, often taken from article headlines, and a summary of the discourse components.
data.question: What constraints do women face?
data.text: women therefore face particular constraints in their capacity to adapt to existing and predicted impacts of climate change
data.question: What are many women already adapting to?
data.text: many women are already adapting to the changing climate and are clear about their needs and priorities
data.question: What adaptations have women described?
data.text: the women who took part in the research described various adaptation strategies such as changing cultivation to flood and drought resistant crops, or to crops that can be harvested before the flood season, or varieties of rice that will grow high enough to remain above the water when the floods come (ibid
data.context: women therefore face particular constraints in their capacity to adapt to existing and predicted impacts of climate change. yet many women are already adapting to the changing climate and are clear about their needs and priorities. a recent participatory research project by actionaid and ids, mentioned above, clearly shows that women in rural communities in the ganga river basin in bangladesh, india and nepal are adapting their practices in order to secure their livelihoods in the face of changes in the frequency, intensity and duration of floods the women who took part in the research described various adaptation strategies such as changing cultivation to flood and drought resistant crops, or to crops that can be harvested before the flood season, or varieties of rice that will grow high enough to remain above the water when the floods come (ibid). for example, one woman said: "as we never know when the rain will come, we had to change. i started to change the way i prepare the seedbed so that we don't lose all our crops. i am also using different crops depending on the situation" (mitchell et al 2007: 6)
data.question: What have studies of climate change in regards to coastal regions not considered?
data.text: studies of climate change impacts on coastal regions to date have generally not considered the interacting global and more localized environmental changes in an integrative fashion, nor have they fully accounted for the existing state of environmental degradation and human vulnerability
data.question: What makes different approaches and methodologies difficult to integrate?
data.text: studies have taken either a global or megaregional focus (112-114) or a smaller-scale and local focus
data.question: What might climate disruptions and shifts in species abundance and distribution do?
data.text: further degrade ecosystems and the services they provide, undermining locally viable, sustainable economies and posing significant challenges to human health, well-being, and security
data.context: the combined impacts of slr, changing coastal storm regimes, ocean acidification, saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers, air and water quality degradation, and changing interactions between upland and downstream regions will add to the stresses confronting coastal ecosystems and human population centers figure 1 ). climate disruptions, shifts in species abundance and distribution, as well as direct and indirect impacts on the economic resource base of coastal regions will in many instances further degrade ecosystems and the services they provide, undermining locally viable, sustainable economies and posing significant challenges to human health, well-being, and security (11, 22, 107-109). studies of climate change impacts on coastal regions to date have generally not considered the interacting global and more localized environmental changes in an integrative fashion, nor have they fully accounted for the existing state of environmental degradation and human vulnerability (23, 110). most existing studies instead have focused on individual impacts (e.g., slr, acidification, storms, or saline intrusion in groundwater) rather than the sum of interacting climate change-driven stressors (for an interesting exception, see reference 73). different assumptions about climate scenarios, demographic changes, and economic development produce ranges of projected impacts that are insufficient for smaller-scale coastal planning or decision making (111). moreover, studies have taken either a global or megaregional focus (112-114) or a smaller-scale and local focus (115-118). different approaches and methodologies make such assessments difficult to integrate. although these limitations are easily explained by data limitations, methodological and computational challenges, and knowledge gaps, existing impact assessments possibly underestimate the actual severity
data.question: What does theory suggest can determine the probability of disease-caused extinction?
data.text: theory suggests that the ecology and density-dependence of transmission dynamics can determine the probability of disease-caused extinction
data.question: In hibernating bats infected with Geomyces destructans, were the disease impacts on solitary species lower or higher than socially gregarious species?
data.text: in hibernating bats infected with geomyces destructans that impacts of disease on solitary species were lower in smaller populations, whereas in socially gregarious species declines were equally severe in populations spanning four orders of magnitude
data.question: What reduced the likelihood of extinction as gregarious species of bats declined from disease?
data.text: however, as these gregarious species declined, we observed decreases in social group size that reduced the likelihood of extinction
data.context: disease has caused striking declines in wildlife and threatens numerous species with extinction. theory suggests that the ecology and density-dependence of transmission dynamics can determine the probability of disease-caused extinction, but few empirical studies have simultaneously examined multiple factors influencing disease impact. we show, in hibernating bats infected with geomyces destructans that impacts of disease on solitary species were lower in smaller populations, whereas in socially gregarious species declines were equally severe in populations spanning four orders of magnitude. however, as these gregarious species declined, we observed decreases in social group size that reduced the likelihood of extinction. in addition, disease impacts in these species increased with humidity and temperature such that the coldest and driest roosts provided initial refuge from disease. these results expand our theoretical framework and provide an empirical basis for determining which host species are likely to be driven extinct while management action is still possible. keywords adaptive management, climate change, conservation, density-dependent transmission, disease ecology, emerging infectious disease, endangered species, frequency-dependent transmission, geomyces destructans myotis, white-nose syndrome.
data.question: What is required to mitigate climate change in the long term?
data.text: received 13 october 2011 accepted for publication 25 january 2012 published 16 february 2012 online at stacks.iop.org/erl/7/014019 a transition from the global system of coal-based electricity generation to low-greenhouse-gas-emission energy technologies is required to mitigate climate change in the long term
data.question: Which sources can provide substantial climate benefits in the second half of this century?
data.text: conservation, wind, solar, nuclear power, and possibly carbon capture and storage appear to be able to achieve substantial climate benefits in the second half of this century
data.question: Which system can do little diminish the climate impacts in the first half of this century?
data.text: we show that rapid deployment of low-emission energy systems can do little to diminish the climate impacts in the first half of this century
data.context: received 13 october 2011 accepted for publication 25 january 2012 published 16 february 2012 online at stacks.iop.org/erl/7/014019 a transition from the global system of coal-based electricity generation to low-greenhouse-gas-emission energy technologies is required to mitigate climate change in the long term. the use of current infrastructure to build this new low-emission system necessitates additional emissions of greenhouse gases, and the coal-based infrastructure will continue to emit substantial amounts of greenhouse gases as it is phased out. furthermore, ocean thermal inertia delays the climate benefits of emissions reductions. by constructing a quantitative model of energy system transitions that includes life-cycle emissions and the central physics of greenhouse warming, we estimate the global warming expected to occur as a result of build-outs of new energy technologies ranging from 100 gwe to 10 twe in size and 1-100 yr in duration. we show that rapid deployment of low-emission energy systems can do little to diminish the climate impacts in the first half of this century. conservation, wind, solar, nuclear power, and possibly carbon capture and storage appear to be able to achieve substantial climate benefits in the second half of this century; however, natural gas cannot. keywords: climate change, bulk electricity supply, central-station greenhouse gas emissions, electricity, climate s online supplementary data available from stacks.iop.org/erl/7/014019/mmedia
data.question: How much is CH4 is reduced at present?
data.text: ch4 reduced to approximately 15% of the present - day inventory
data.question: How much years it took for  CH4 to come to a stead y state?
data.text: he build up to a steady state hydrate inventory took several million years davie and buffett 2001
data.question: what is Archer's suggestion about hydrates?
data.text: archer [2007] suggests that most hydrates are well insulated from the earth ' s surface so that their decomposition will take place on time scales of millennia or longer
data.context: ch4 reduced to approximately 15% of the present - day inventory. unfortunately, their calculated change is a steady state solution and does not reveal the time scale over which the transition could occur. the build up to a steady state hydrate inventory took several million years davie and buffett 2001]; its destabilization due to warming may be relatively rapid dickens 2003]. however, this may still be slow compared to the time scale of anthropogenic global warming. archer [2007] suggests that most hydrates are well insulated from the earth ' s surface so that their decomposition will take place on time scales of millennia or longer. the heat conduction in a solid, such as ocean sediments, is proportional to thermal conductivity which has values of 0.65 - 1.2 w m- 1k- 1
data.question: How did you assess the impact of climate change on functional diversity?
data.text: to assess the potential impact of climate change on functional diversity, we plotted the variation between future and current simpson's diversity index
data.question: What was the projected change to functional diversity in France?
data.text: the expansion of evergreen species in central france compensated by a shift of deciduous species resulted in a net increase in functional diversity by providing an increase in the evenness of diversity
data.question: Why did the Mediterranean region show a negative correlation in diversity?
data.text: their decrease was likely due to increasing drought
data.context: to assess the potential impact of climate change on functional diversity, we plotted the variation between future and current simpson's diversity index (fig. 3). the severity of the change is much greater without migration. assuming no migration, the loss of deciduous species (figs 1 2) in mountain areas and on the atlantic coast, in addition to the loss of richness among coniferous species in scandinavia, made functional diversity higher in these two areas. this was realized by providing a greater evenness between deciduous and evergreen trees in southern europe, and between deciduous and coniferous trees in northern europe. assuming unlimited migration, the expansion of evergreen species in central france compensated by a shift of deciduous species resulted in a net increase in functional diversity by providing an increase in the evenness of diversity in these areas currently dominated by deciduous broadleaved trees. central western europe was predicted to have a decrease of functional diversity because of a decrease in species richness of both deciduous and coniferous functional types. relationships between variation in the index of diversity and variation in species richness, assuming unlimited dispersal, according to the biogeographical region showed that functional diversity was not systematically, nor always positively, related to species diversity (fig. 4 and table 1). the mediterranean, central atlantic coast and lusitanian regions showed a negative correlation (increase in functional diversity but decrease in species richness). in the case of the mediterranean and lusitanian regions, the trend reflected a decrease in both broadleaved deciduous and mediterranean coniferous. their decrease was likely due to increasing drought, which should lead to more open vegetation and thereby more shrubs (gritti
data.question: How do you calculate posterior probability distributions for climate?
data.text: first derive posterior probability weightings for the parameter vectors by applying an lgm constraint and subsequently apply these weightings to the precalibrated distributions
data.question: To determine the calculate posterior probability distributions for climate, what type of calibration model should be used?
data.text: simulator (genie-1) output
data.question: What does the calculation of climate sensitivity include?
data.text: including a sensitivity analysis to the structural error assumptions
data.context: in order to calculate posterior probability distributions for climate, we first derive posterior probability weightings for the parameter vectors by applying an lgm constraint and subsequently apply these weightings to the precalibrated distributions of figure 5; note this calibration is performed upon the simulator (genie-1) output, not the emulated output. this section describes the analytical approach, including a discussion of the base case (section 7, assumption a7) structural error assumptions applied. the calculation of climate sensitivity, including a sensitivity analysis to the structural error assumptions is performed in section 7. the approach follows rougier (2007) throughout. we denote the true climate state by the vector y measurements of climate by the vector z and model estimates of the climate by the vector g(
data.question: What is the process to extend the composite record as far back in time as possible using proxy series of different length?
data.text: the shortest proxy series were removed from the data matrix, and the remaining series were again normalised to the extended common period before averaging
data.question: What are the period ranges used for calibration and verification?
data.text: calibration (using ordinary least squares forward regression) was made over the 1925-1979 screening period, while verification was undertaken over the 1897-1924 period (plus 1871-1896 for longer nests
data.question: What does rescaling of the data achieves?
data.text: the rescaling of the data removes artificial changes in the variance of the final time series, owing to the weakening in explained variance (related to the decreasing number of proxy series), while retaining potential real changes in variance that may represent a response to actual changes in climatic variability
data.context: northern hemisphere temperatures (esper et al ., 2002; d'arrigo et al ., 2006c; wilson et al ., 2007). the 20 records retained for analysis had their sign adjusted so that they correlated positively with nino3.4 ssts. to derive the cpr reconstructions, for both the coa and tel datasets, the proxy time series were normalised over their respective periods common to all series (1897-1981 for coa and 1885-1979 for tel) and then averaged to formulate a nested composite mean. to extend the composite record as far back in time as possible using proxy series of different length, the shortest proxy series were removed from the data matrix, and the remaining series were again normalised to the extended common period before averaging. this process is undertaken iteratively until the final longest proxy record remains. nests were also developed for the post-1981 (1979 for tel) period, as the number of available series also declines forward in time (table 1), allowing reconstruction extension to 1998 for both regional reconstructions. for each nested series, calibration (using ordinary least squares forward regression) was made over the 1925-1979 screening period, while verification was undertaken over the 1897-1924 period (plus 1871-1896 for longer nests). to derive the final reconstruction time series, the mean and variance of each nested series were adjusted to that of the shortest (most replicated) nested reconstruction and the relevant sections spliced together. the rescaling of the data removes artificial changes in the variance of the final time series, owing to the weakening in explained variance (related to the decreasing number of proxy series), while retaining potential real changes in variance that may represent a response to actual changes in climatic variability.
data.question: Como se desenvolver um segundo mal-entendido? se paralelo em paralelo com o das analogias mal aplicadas de outras alternativas de
data.text: a second misunderstanding has developed in parallel with that of the misapplied analogies from other treaty situations
data.question: O que Ã© tao compartilhado e Ã© um equivoco? Diz respeito Ã  visÃ£o popular da ciÃªncia projetada por usuÃ¡rios de informaÃ§Ã£o cientÃ­fica
data.text: in its way, it is as profound and as widely shared a 'mis - framing' and it concerns the popular view of science as projected by users of scientific information
data.question: Traduzir do: PortuguÃªs 143/5000 O que o cientista especialista faz com o conhecimento? Errama conhecimento nas cabeÃ§as ignorantes e passivas do pÃºblico e em seus representantes
data.text: the expert scientist pours knowledge into the ignorant and passive heads of the public and their representatives
data.context: c: c: misunderstanding the nature of the science of earth systems a second misunderstanding has developed in parallel with that of the misapplied analogies from other treaty situations. in its way, it is as profound and as widely shared a 'mis - framing' and it concerns the popular view of science as projected by users of scientific information and by those producers of primary science on climate issues who have chosen also to act as advocates and activists. they employ a 'deficit model' of science. the expert scientist pours knowledge into the ignorant and passive heads of the public and their representatives. their deficit is remedied. they trust the expert's superior knowledge and qualifications and the scientist then leverages that power to instruct further the ignorant public and to delineate the correct actions to remedy the situation which the expert has described. hulme documents the special role of this sort that was played by the met office's "dangerous climate change" conference of 2005, held at the behest of prime minister blair's office ahead of the gleneagles g - 8 summit, and the associated role of the then chief scientific adviser to hm government.34the same model was endlessly repeated in the pre 17thnovember 2009 assertions of the unimpeachability of the international panel on climate change (ipcc), usually citing percentages of agreement or numbers of scientists agreeing. journalists placed implicit and in retrospect excessive trust in such deficit - model statements. their sense of betrayal, to be detected among many observers of the climate debate after the 17thnovember watershed, perhaps explains the ferocity with which the climate science community is being investigated by the media now. in fact, there is another sort of insight about the popular model of science that is important. this is the way in which the role of value judgements can be unhelpfully obscured. in his 2007 book on science policy, roger pielke jr presents the issue in the following way. he notes that the prediction of an imminent tornado is judged to be a sufficient basis for action without reference to other criteria. it is solely an issue of trust in the authoritativeness of the source. this trust results not because values are not present, but rather simply because the value issues are not in dispute no one wants to die because of being in the path of a tornado that everyone agrees is heading in their direction. in contrast, a person's position on the question of abortion may be informed by medical expert knowledge, but it is well understood that religious and other views may play a greater a role in how people think about the issue. the consequence of the misunderstanding of science by the 'deficit' model, pielke suggests, is that climate change policy, which with its multiple framings is more similar to peoples' views on abortion, has been commonly presented as if it were akin to the value - consensus context of the tornado prediction. in turn, this error has led to the common and flawed assumption that the solutions to climate change should be 'science driven' as if a shared understanding of science will lead to a political consensus.35rather, as we have
data.question: How should the intrinsic factors that cause mortality be simulated?
data.text: the intrinsic factors that cause the mortality should be explicitly simulated and not lumped into one stochastic function
data.question: How could intrinsic mortality be lumped into?
data.text: intrinsic mortality could be lumped into growth-dependent mortality unless its independent simulation improves the predictive power of the model
data.question: What may need to happen to gap model time steps?
data.text: gap model time steps may need to be shortened to days or weeks to account for short-term phenomena, such as frost damage or blow down, that directly affect tree mortality
data.context: the intrinsic factors that cause the mortality should be explicitly simulated and not lumped into one stochastic function. those factors that influence intrinsic mortality, such as fine-scale disturbances and senescence, can be simulated as separate processes when that science matures. gap model time steps may need to be shortened to days or weeks to account for short-term phenomena, such as frost damage or blow down, that directly affect tree mortality. meanwhile, the general tree characteristics used in the computation of intrinsic mortality, such as age and height, should be replaced with more suitable variables that correlate closely with those factors that influence old tree mortality, such as diameter or biomass. intrinsic mortality could be lumped into growth-dependent mortality unless its independent simulation improves the predictive power of the model. 5.2. growth-dependent mortality
data.question: What is inextricably linked with climate?
data.text: water resources are inextricably linked with climate
data.question: What conflicts will intensify as water resources stresses become acute?
data.text: as water resources stresses become acute in future as a result of a combination of climate impacts and escalating human demand, there will be intensifying conflicts between human and environmental demands on water resources
data.question: What is one way to minimize the risk?
data.text: one way to minimize this risk is to make the economy more diversified
data.context: water resources are inextricably linked with climate, so the prospect of global climate change has serious implications for water resources. as water resources stresses become acute in future as a result of a combination of climate impacts and escalating human demand, there will be intensifying conflicts between human and environmental demands on water resources. therefore there is a need to minimize the sensitivity to climate change. one way to minimize this risk is to make the economy more diversified, and agricultural technology should optimize water usage through efficient irrigation and crop development. moreover, research activities should be intensified in this area in order to explore the impact of climate change on various sectors including water resource by including recent findings in this area.
data.question: Are most of Africa's groundwater resources being exploited?
data.text: less than 4% of africa's groundwater resources are currently exploited
data.question: How can the climate change threat to water resources be reduced?
data.text: although climate change threatens accessibility to water resources in general, the magnitude of this threat could be reduced with the development and availability of appropriate technology to exploit groundwater resources
data.question: To what extent are ecological sanitation systems and low or no flow toilets important?
data.text: ecological sanitation systems and low or no fl ow toilets that do not require water to dispose human waste safely are likely to be of increasing importance in delivering good public health outcomes under water-scarce conditions
data.context: less than 4% of africa's groundwater resources are currently exploited. although climate change threatens accessibility to water resources in general, the magnitude of this threat could be reduced with the development and availability of appropriate technology to exploit groundwater resources. approaches to provide access to safe drinking water and sanitation have conventionally followed either large-scale, centralised infrastructure systems or small-scale, locally aff ordable, and maintainable technologies. resilience to climate change might require new approaches that provide the universal public health benefi ts of large infrastructure systems while avoiding high water consumption at a cost that is aff ordable for all. water and sanitation systems need to be appropriate to local geography, culture, knowledge, and resources, and able to withstand high intensity rainfalls and drought conditions, and keep wastage of clean water to a minimum. ecological sanitation systems and low or no fl ow toilets that do not require water to dispose human waste safely are likely to be of increasing importance in delivering good public health outcomes under water-scarce conditions. systems for safely storing and treating water and technologies for using alternative supplies of water, such as waste-water recycling and desalination, are also likely to be important, although the development and implementation of these systems might undermine climate change mitigation eff orts if they result in increased carbon emissions. urban drainage systems, which incorporate principles of sustainable design (such as rainwater harvesting), will provide resilience to high rainfall events while removing standing water that can become contaminated, and act as habitat for vectors such as mosquitoes. water and sanitation technologies, which can be easily deployed during emergency situations, such as fl oods or hurricanes, will be increasingly important. water-conserving technologies, which deliver good public health outcomes but consume little water, will need to be implemented greatly in households and settlements. design and management of water and sanitation infrastructure need to account for resilience to droughts and fl oods, and changing annual average rainfall. for example, the ipcc has compiled data for technological adaptations that have already been implemented in areas of africa aimed at promoting climate resilience in rain-based farming systems for drought stress. these adaptations include: water harvesting systems, dam building, water conservation and agricultural practices, drip irrigation, and development of drought resistant crops.1 these observed adaptations should be spread across diff erent regions, nationally coordinated and locally implemented.
data.question: Which years rank amongst the 12 hottest years on record?
data.text: eleven of the last 12 years (1995 - 2006
data.question: Said by whom and when did global warming become a real weapon of mass destruction?
data.text: in july 2003 sir john houghton
data.question: Who is Sir John Houghton?
data.text: former chairman of the ipcc
data.context: the battle, on many fronts, is growing more and more heated as the climate warms. the world is hotter now than it has been at any time in the past 2000 years. eleven of the last 12 years (1995 - 2006) rank amongst the 12 hottest years on record, with temperatures in the arctic increasing at over twice the average global rate over the past 100 years. 31 the increase in the impact of climate change on the economy is well reflected in the magnitude and related costs for extreme climate events - up to 80% of all payouts by value - to the international insurance industry. 32 the year 2003 proved to be a warning year. in july 2003 sir john houghton, former chairman of the ipcc, informed the british public, in an article in the guardian newspaper, that global warming was now a real weapon of mass destruction, 33 wielded by man himself:
data.question: are greenhouse gas concentrations affecting our oceans ecosystem?
data.text: rapidly rising greenhouse gas concentrations are driving ocean systems toward conditions not seen for millions of years, with an associated risk of fundamental and irreversible ecological transformation
data.question: Is the MArine ecosystem important for our planet?
data.text: marine ecosystems are centrally important to the biology of the planet
data.question: is the climate changes altering our oceans?
data.text: climate change is clearly and fundamentally altering ocean ecosystems. further change will continue to create enormous challenges and costs for societies worldwide, particularly those in developing countries
data.context: marine ecosystems are centrally important to the biology of the planet, yet a comprehensive understanding of how anthropogenic climate change is affecting them has been poorly developed. recent studies indicate that rapidly rising greenhouse gas concentrations are driving ocean systems toward conditions not seen for millions of years, with an associated risk of fundamental and irreversible ecological transformation. the impacts of anthropogenic climate change so far include decreased ocean productivity, altered food web dynamics, reduced abundance of habitat-forming species, shifting species distributions, and a greater incidence of disease. although there is considerable uncertainty about the spatial and temporal details, climate change is clearly and fundamentally altering ocean ecosystems. further change will continue to create enormous challenges and costs for societies worldwide, particularly those in developing countries.
data.question: Why is increased fuel load expected?
data.text: increased fuel load is expected under higher co2 levels because of increased plant growth
data.question: What will increase fuel dryness?
data.text: increased temperatures will increase fuel dryness and reduce relative humidity
data.question: What does the Macarthur Index incorporate to predict fire danger?
data.text: the macarthur index incorporates climatic parameters such as air temperature, relative humidity and days since rain and fuel load, to predict fire danger
data.context: changes in fire regimes are highly likely in the future. increased fuel load is expected under higher co2 levels because of increased plant growth, particularly if reductions in wood and litter nitrogen concentrations reduce decomposition rates (howden et al 1999d). increased temperatures will increase fuel dryness and reduce relative humidity, and this will be exacerbated in those regions where rainfall decreases (howden et al 1999d). beer and williams (1995) used the macarthur forest fire danger index and csiro (1992) climate scenarios to predict changes in future fire incidence. the macarthur index incorporates climatic parameters such as air temperature, relative humidity and days since rain and fuel load, to predict fire danger. the models indicate an increase in fire danger over much of australia. more quantitative modelling by williams et al (2001) confirmed this general result, indicating an increase in the number of days of very high and extreme fire danger. predicted impacts for specific ecosystems
data.question: What happens if the oxygen levels are not sufficient?
data.text: if the oxygenation capacity in these volumes is not sufficient, the organic overload could even lead to anaerobic conditions
data.question: What plays an important role in the case of transients?
data.text: however, the consideration of the volume of the unit plays an important role in the case of transients
data.question: Is the efficiency of a single complete-mix reactor is higher than that of Reaction kinetics and reactor hydraulics 363?
data.text: the efficiency of a single complete-mix reactor is lower than that of reaction kinetics and reactor hydraulics 363 a system in series or a plug flow
data.context: overload of biodegradable substances as already seen, for first-order reactions, the efficiency of a single complete-mix reactor is lower than that of reaction kinetics and reactor hydraulics 363 a system in series or a plug flow. however, the consideration of the volume of the unit plays an important role in the case of transients. in the first cell of a system in series or in the head of a plug-flow reactor, due to the lower volume involved, the effect of the overload can be more deleterious. in aerobic systems, if the oxygenation capacity in these volumes is not sufficient, the organic overload could even lead to anaerobic conditions.
data.question: What percentage of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were contributed in 2008 by food systems?
data.text: food systems contribute 19%-29% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions, releasing 9,800-16,900 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (mtco2e) in 2008
data.question: What is expected to be temporally variable and profoundly influenced by socioeconomic conditions?
data.text: he impacts of global climate change on food systems are expected to be widespread, complex, geographically and temporally variable, and profoundly influenced by socioeconomic conditions
data.question: Why are low-income producers and consumers of food more vulnerable to climate change?
data.text: low-income producers and consumers of food will be more vulnerable to climate change owing to their comparatively limited ability to invest in adaptive institutions and technologies under increasing climatic risks
data.context: food systems contribute 19%-29% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions, releasing 9,800-16,900 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (mtco2e) in 2008. agricultural production, including indirect emissions associated with land-cover change, contributes 80%-86% of total food system emissions, with significant regional variation. the impacts of global climate change on food systems are expected to be widespread, complex, geographically and temporally variable, and profoundly influenced by socioeconomic conditions. historical statistical studies and integrated assessment models provide evidence that climate change will affect agricultural yields and earnings, food prices, reliability of delivery, food quality, and, notably, food safety. low-income producers and consumers of food will be more vulnerable to climate change owing to their comparatively limited ability to invest in adaptive institutions and technologies under increasing climatic risks. some synergies among food security, adaptation, and mitigation are feasible. but promising interventions, such as agricultural intensification or reductions in waste, will require careful management to distribute costs and benefits effectively.
data.question: What has been incluided in the Working Group III's report?
data.text: working group iii included an extended framing section to provide full transparency over the concepts and methods used throughout the report, highlighting their underlying value judgments. this includes an improved treatment of risks and risk perception, uncertainties, ethical questions as well as sustainable development
data.question: What is the exploration of the solution space for climate change mitigation?
data.text: the exploration of the solution space for climate change mitigation starts from a new set of baseline and mitigation scenarios. the entire scenario set for the first time provides fully consistent information on radiative forcing and temperature in broad agreement with the information provided in the working group i contribution to the ar5
data.question: What has been requested by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change?
data.text: the united nations framework convention on climate change requested the ipcc to provide relevant scientific evidence for reviewing the 2 degc
data.context: during the process of scoping and approving the outline of the working group iii contribution to the ar5, the ipcc focused on those aspects of the current understanding of the science of climate change mitigation that were judged to be most relevant to policymakers. working group iii included an extended framing section to provide full transparency over the concepts and methods used throughout the report, highlighting their underlying value judgments. this includes an improved treatment of risks and risk perception, uncertainties, ethical questions as well as sustainable development. the exploration of the solution space for climate change mitigation starts from a new set of baseline and mitigation scenarios. the entire scenario set for the first time provides fully consistent information on radiative forcing and temperature in broad agreement with the information provided in the working group i contribution to the ar5. the united nations framework convention on climate change requested the ipcc to provide relevant scientific evidence for reviewing the 2 degc
data.question: Is it correct to say that in low-energy housing niches, dramatic reductions in energy consumption have been achieved?
data.text: in contrast, research examining the response of the uk housing sector to climate change identifies low energy housing niches as more consensual sites of innovation and learning (lovell, 2007a; 2007b; smith, 2004). in low energy housing niches dramatic decreases in energy consumption have been achieved, and a number of new low carbon technologies and construction methods have been experimented with (brecsu, 1996; 2003). low energy housing niches in the uk have largely been developed by entrepreneurial individuals with strong green values working in non-governmental organisations (lovell, 2004
data.question: How important is the location of the niches?
data.text: it is suggested that it is the location of these niches outside mainstream government policy and 24 24 operations - beyond the typical boundaries of a policy domain that accounts for their relatively harmonious development; they have been initiated by new actors (green architects, community groups, self-builders) operating relatively independently of the incumbent energy regime (see also seyfang and smith, 2006). but whilst these niches are not a product of government policy, a number of them are now intimately bound up with low-energy housing policy in the uk
data.question: Why are low-energy homes on the government agenda?
data.text: for example, niches such as the bedzed development in south london and the hockerton housing development in the east midlands have become a key part of government policy discourse about mitigating climate change, and as such have had an influence on government policy (lovell, 2007b). the example of low energy housing suggests there is potential for niches to act as sites of radical policy and technology learning in the absence of a high degree of conflict
data.context: in contrast, research examining the response of the uk housing sector to climate change identifies low energy housing niches as more consensual sites of innovation and learning (lovell, 2007a; 2007b; smith, 2004). in low energy housing niches dramatic decreases in energy consumption have been achieved, and a number of new low carbon technologies and construction methods have been experimented with (brecsu, 1996; 2003). low energy housing niches in the uk have largely been developed by entrepreneurial individuals with strong green values working in non-governmental organisations (lovell, 2004). it is suggested that it is the location of these niches outside mainstream government policy and 24 24 operations - beyond the typical boundaries of a policy domain that accounts for their relatively harmonious development; they have been initiated by new actors (green architects, community groups, self-builders) operating relatively independently of the incumbent energy regime (see also seyfang and smith, 2006). but whilst these niches are not a product of government policy, a number of them are now intimately bound up with low-energy housing policy in the uk. for example, niches such as the bedzed development in south london and the hockerton housing development in the east midlands have become a key part of government policy discourse about mitigating climate change, and as such have had an influence on government policy (lovell, 2007b). the example of low energy housing suggests there is potential for niches to act as sites of radical policy and technology learning in the absence of a high degree of conflict.
data.question: What is social welfare?
data.text: how convincing is the how convincing is the review's argument for its social welfare function, consumption elasticity, and time discount rate
data.question: What is in social welfare analysis by the magazine?
data.text: to begin with, there is a major issue concerning the views that are embodied in the social welfare function adopted by the review the review takes the lofty vantage point of the world social planner, perhaps stoking the dying embers of the british empire, in determining the way the world should combat the dangers of global warming
data.context: how convincing is the how convincing is the review's argument for its social welfare function, consumption elasticity, and time discount rate? to begin with, there is a major issue concerning the views that are embodied in the social welfare function adopted by the review the review takes the lofty vantage point of the world social planner, perhaps stoking the dying embers of the british empire, in determining the way the world should combat the dangers of global warming. 14 14 the world, according to government house utilitarianism,17 should use the combination of time discounting and consumption elasticity that the review's authors find persuasive from their ethical vantage point.
data.question: What is the good news?
data.text: the good news is that mental models are not static-- people will update them by correcting misinformation, inserting new building blocks, and/or making new connections with existing knowledge
data.question: What should be the first change information?
data.text: communicators should first do their best to discover what climate change misconceptions the audience may have in its mental models
data.question: How  Communicators can disconnect the erroneous climate change information?
data.text: communicators can then disconnect the erroneous climate change information from other parts of the model and replace it with new facts. the example on page 5 explores a common misconception that climate change communicators run into and how to counter it
data.context: the good news is that mental models are not static-- people will update them by correcting misinformation, inserting new building blocks, and/or making new connections with existing knowledge. but for a presentation of new climate change information to succeed, communicators should first do their best to discover what climate change misconceptions the audience may have in its mental models. communicators can then disconnect the erroneous climate change information from other parts of the model and replace it with new facts. the example on page 5 explores a common misconception that climate change communicators run into and how to counter it.
data.question: What impact could global climate change have on our planet's biodiversity?
data.text: climate change will lead to changes in the distribution of plants on earth. furthermore, some species respond better to higher co2 concentration than others and may, therefore, displace other plants. this will cause a decrease in biodiversity
data.question: Will countries that don't contribute as much as others to climate change still be affected?
data.text: globalclimatechangemaycauseextremeweatherpatterns(hurricanes, floods, droughts, etc.), which may disproportionately affect peripheral nations, despite their minor carbon contribution. global warming will lead to a rise in sea levels, threatening many islands as well as some densely populated, low-lying countries, such as bangladesh, with severe floods
data.question: Should humans be concerned about the effects of global climate change?
data.text: all of this highlights how new constraints will be placed on life and its development. vitousek warns that the changes that are forced on the world will not be smooth, as humans continue to "alter the structure and function of earth as a system
data.context: globalclimatechangemaycauseextremeweatherpatterns(hurricanes, floods, droughts, etc.), which may disproportionately affect peripheral nations, despite their minor carbon contribution. global warming will lead to a rise in sea levels, threatening many islands as well as some densely populated, low-lying countries, such as bangladesh, with severe floods. co2 "will be responsible for more than half of the anticipated global warming over the next century."129climate change will lead to changes in the distribution of plants on earth. furthermore, some species respond better to higher co2 concentration than others and may, therefore, displace other plants. this will cause a decrease in biodiversity. already there is concern that high-mountain ecosystems are experiencing higher temperatures, causing changes in the types of plants and animals that exist there, as plants from lower elevations move up the mountains.130all of this highlights how new constraints will be placed on life and its development. vitousek warns that the changes that are forced on the world will not be smooth, as humans continue to "alter the structure and function of earth as a system."131
data.question: What are some commonly used measures of heat exposure?
data.text: maximum temperature and mean temperature are commonly used measures of heat exposure
data.question: Dessai (2002) modeled the relationship between maximum temperature and excess deaths in which city?
data.text: dessai (2002) modeled the relationship between maximum temperature and excess deaths in lisbon
data.question: What did Knowlton et al. (2007) use to project the impacts of climate change on summer mortality?
data.text: knowlton et al. (2007) projected the impacts of climate change on summer mortality using modeled daily mean temperatures for new york city
data.context: maximum temperature and mean temperature are commonly used measures of heat exposure. for example, dessai (2002) modeled the relationship between maximum temperature and excess deaths in lisbon during the summer months in 1980-1998 and then applied different climate and population change scenarios to the model to assess potential impacts on mortality in the 2020s and 2050s (dessai 2003). knowlton et al. (2007) projected the impacts of climate change on summer mortality using modeled daily mean temperatures for new york city. martens (1998) reviewed the literature on the relationship between mean temperature and mortality and derived a pooled estimate of the effect of temperature on mortality using meta-analysis.
data.question: On what date did regular monitoring start?
data.text: in loch leven regular monitoring began in 1968
data.question: What situation was the lake in when the regular monitoring started?
data.text: in loch leven regular monitoring began in 1968 when the lake was already strongly enriched
data.context: in loch leven regular monitoring began in 1968 when the lake was already strongly enriched. the core data (bennion et al ., 2012) show a full history of eutrophication beginning in the first part of the 19th century when a. ambigua (grunow) simonsen, s.parvus/minutulus, s. hantzschii grunow 11 11 and c. pseudostelligera began to replace aulacoseira subarctica, tabellaria flocculosa (roth) kutzing and oligotrophic cyclotella taxa that characterised the pre-eutrophication flora. at white lough the preeutrophication plankton flora was characterised by cyclotella ocellata pantocsek a diatom typical of nutrient-poor water (anderson et al. 2012). the start of nutrient monitoring for piburger see in 1974 also postdates considerably the onset of nutrient enrichment that dates to about 1920, as indicated by the rapid increase in cyclotella pseudostelligera in the sediment record. prior to this time the lake was characterised by a diatom flora dominated almost completely by benthic taxa, an indication of oligotrophic conditions. the increase in the abundance of planktonic diatoms relative to benthic taxa is commonly observed in the sediment cores of lakes undergoing eutrophication (battarbee et al. 2001) and this shift is seen in all the sites described in the papers in this special section.
data.question: What may influence estimates concerning the velocity of climate change?
data.text: in addition to potential errors in estimates of dispersal velocities, our estimates of the velocity of climate change may also be in fl uenced by assumptions and uncertainties
data.question: Why do the bioclimatic model projections in this study also contain uncertainty?
data.text: the bioclimatic model projections in our study also contain uncertainty because they are based only on climatic variables and derived from one type of bioclimatic model
data.question: Why do bioclimatic model projections contain inherent uncertainty?
data.text: additionally, bioclimatic model projections contain inherent uncertainty due to their dependence on output from uncertain climate models (23
data.context: in addition to potential errors in estimates of dispersal velocities, our estimates of the velocity of climate change may also be in fl uenced by assumptions and uncertainties. most notably, we used bioclimatic model projections to delineate future suitable climate, and so, we inherently incorporated some of the assumptions and uncertainties of bioclimatic modeling. these assumptions have been extensively reviewed elsewhere (10, 23) and can cause overor underestimates in our results. for example, false assumptions of climatic intolerance due to modeling only the realized niche, and therefore ignoring species interactions and other nonclimatic determinants of range boundaries, may increase the projected distance a species needs to travel to suitable climate and cause overestimates of the percentages of species unable to track climate change (e.g., our results in southern florida). in addition, correlative models have inherent uncertainties associated with their inability to project the suitability of novel climates and to account for evolution. also, range expansions may occur from small populations that are already closer to regions of future suitable climate, but that are absent from our projections due to the coarse resolution of range maps (7). conversely, the assumption that the climate throughout a species distribution is suf fi cient for persistence of all populations of that species will lead to underestimates of percentages of mammals unable to reach suitable climate because current distributions may not exist in equilibrium with current climate or species may be locally adapted to speci fi c climates within their distributions. the bioclimatic model projections in our study also contain uncertainty because they are based only on climatic variables and derived from one type of bioclimatic model. incorporating vegetation or soil types as predictor variables or using alternate bioclimatic models would likely result in different projections of species distributions and possibly in greater or lesser velocities of climate change (24, 25). additionally, bioclimatic model projections contain inherent uncertainty due to their dependence on output from uncertain climate models (23). however, the patterns produced by our models are geographically and taxonomically very similar across the 10 climate-change scenarios used in our models si appendix ). therefore, our geographic and taxonomic assessment of the ability of mammals to keep pace with climate change is somewhat insensitive to differences in climate model output.
data.question: How phloem sap was collected?
data.text: the phloem sap was collected at about 0900 h central european time (cet) at breast height of six adult beech trees per site according to the method described by pate arthur (1998) for eucalyptus globulus and by gessler et al (2001) for european beech
data.question: what is the length and depth of  bark cut?
data.text: the bark was cut on a length of c 5 cm to the depth of the wood at about 15% to the horizontal, using a single-sided razor blade
data.question: What is the prerequisite for comparison of the different phloem samples?
data.text: additionally, gessler et al (2004b) showed that the isotopic composition of the phloem samples is not affected by the sampling technique, which is a prerequisite for the comparison of the different phloem samples
data.context: the phloem sap was collected at about 0900 h central european time (cet) at breast height of six adult beech trees per site according to the method described by pate arthur (1998) for eucalyptus globulus and by gessler et al (2001) for european beech. the bark was cut on a length of c 5 cm to the depth of the wood at about 15% to the horizontal, using a single-sided razor blade. the 'bleeding' phloem sap was either collected immediately with a pasteur pipette after the incision was made or not at all. because no bled phloem sap could be obtained at the sites at the mdl, a modified phloem exudation technique as described by gessler et al (2004b) was applied. small pieces of bark [( c 150 mg fresh weight (fw)] with a diameter of about 1.0 cm were collected from the stem at breast height using a corer, and washed with double-demineralized water. subsequently, the bark pieces were placed in 6 ml vials containing 2 ml double-demineralized water and left for 5 h. previous studies (schneider et al 1996) with beech and spruce showed that contamination of phloem exudates with cellular constituents using the exudation technique can be neglected under the experimental conditions applied. additionally, gessler et al (2004b) showed that the isotopic composition of the phloem samples is not affected by the sampling technique, which is a prerequisite for the comparison of the different phloem samples.
data.question: How are annual meaned defined?
data.text: all annual means are defined as the 12-month mean from june to the following may
data.question: From when is the analysis period?
data.text: the analysis period is basically from june 1950 to may 2009
data.question: How are all trends calculated?
data.text: all trends are calculated using only well-sampled grid boxes where the temporal mean data (annual, seasonal or monthly means) are available for more than 75% of the analysis period, to reduce sampling errors
data.context: we estimate long-term trends and their statistical significance with the sen median slope (sen 1968) and the mann-kendall test (kendall 1975), respectively, both of which are nonparametric methods less affected by outliers sometimes contained in observations. if the linear trend and student's t test are applied for the same data, our conclusions do not change. to capture a full cycle of enso with a peak typically in december, all annual means are defined as the 12-month mean from june to the following may. the analysis period is basically from june 1950 to may 2009, except for subsurface temperature that starts in 1963 and land precipitation that ends in 2008. all trends are calculated using only well-sampled grid boxes where the temporal mean data (annual, seasonal or monthly means) are available for more than 75% of the analysis period, to reduce sampling errors. to improve the readability of the icoads maps, weighted spatial smoothing (5 points in longitude and 3 points in latitude) is applied for trend patterns after computing their significance.
data.question: How are classical features of climate change recognized ?
data.text: classical features of the climate change simulations are recognized: a stronger warming over continents (where evaporation is limited by the water availability) than over oceans, a stronger warming at the (more continental) northern hemisphere than in the south, and in high than in low latitudes in the northern hemisphere due to both local albedo feedbacks and dynamical reasons (alexeev et al. 2005 ). the simulations show also, in a rather consistent way, a weak warming in the southern mid-latitudes
data.question: How does rainfall vary across the globe ?
data.text: regarding rainfall, some aspects appear to be robust as well, such as the global increase of rainfall in the itcz/ spcz region, and a relative drying at around 30-40 degrees latitude in both hemispheres, also a rather robust feature of cmip3 projections (held and soden 2006 ). however, the structure in the itcz region is very different in the two models. the ipsl-cm5b version tends to predict a larger increase in rainfall (or less drying) over semiarid regions like south europa, west africa, india or in the southern part of the usa
data.question: What are the advancements of the LMDZ model ?
data.text: the team that develops the lmdz model in particular. a version of the model, lmdz5b, with new parameterizations has been developed, which is used for cmip5
data.context: classical features of the climate change simulations are recognized: a stronger warming over continents (where evaporation is limited by the water availability) than over oceans, a stronger warming at the (more continental) northern hemisphere than in the south, and in high than in low latitudes in the northern hemisphere due to both local albedo feedbacks and dynamical reasons (alexeev et al. 2005 ). the simulations show also, in a rather consistent way, a weak warming in the southern mid-latitudes. the signature of the two simulations is quite different in other regions, for instance in the north atlantic, where the difference could come from the quite different thermohaline circulation in the two models. regarding rainfall, some aspects appear to be robust as well, such as the global increase of rainfall in the itcz/ spcz region, and a relative drying at around 30-40 degrees latitude in both hemispheres, also a rather robust feature of cmip3 projections (held and soden 2006 ). however, the structure in the itcz region is very different in the two models. the ipsl-cm5b version tends to predict a larger increase in rainfall (or less drying) over semiarid regions like south europa, west africa, india or in the southern part of the usa. patterns over tropical forest (amazonia, central africa, indonesia) are also strongly modified from one model to the other. 5 conclusions the present paper is an outcome of 15 years of research on clouds and convection parameterization in the community in general, and in the team that develops the lmdz model in particular. a version of the model, lmdz5b, with new parameterizations has been developed, which is used for cmip5. important improvements in the climate simulations arise from the improvement of the physical parameterizations. 1. the low-levels cloud coverage is better represented in the new version as well as the thermodynamic and diurnal cycle of the boundary layer. additional evaluation by comparison with continuous in-situ observations in the paris area is presented by cheruy et al. (submitted). 2. the improvement of the boundary layer parameterization results in a better representation of the sw crf
data.question: What is meant by infrastructure protection?
data.text: infrastructure protection recommends consideration of several significant options, including, for example, the of user pay fees for those occupying areas at risk from flooding
data.question: What are the New norms of federal legal context?
data.text: the federal legal context involves one further set of considerations, which may come to influence governmental responses to climate change impacts on water management. new norms or environmental values including bio-diversity, precaution, prevention, sustainability, and ecosystem management have appeared in federal legislation during the past decade or so
data.question: Precautionary principle offered by supreme court is?
data.text: the provincial legal frameworks for water and drought management the authority of local governments to act in environmental matters was reinforced by the supreme court of canada hudson v. spraytech, racal trucking) by offering some recognition to the precautionary principle and enhancing the status and autonomy of municipal governments in implementing the mandates conferred upon them under provincial legislation
data.context: infrastructure protection recommends consideration of several significant options, including, for example, the of user pay fees for those occupying areas at risk from flooding. the federal legal context involves one further set of considerations, which may come to influence governmental responses to climate change impacts on water management. new norms or environmental values including bio-diversity, precaution, prevention, sustainability, and ecosystem management have appeared in federal legislation during the past decade or so. the most recent of these is the precautionary principle. 2.3.3. the provincial legal frameworks for water and drought management the authority of local governments to act in environmental matters was reinforced by the supreme court of canada hudson v. spraytech, racal trucking) by offering some recognition to the precautionary principle and enhancing the status and autonomy of municipal governments in implementing the mandates conferred upon them under provincial legislation.11
data.question: What type of schools are better able to support student psychological needs and promote optimal development in academic domains?
data.text: schools characterized by high-quality interpersonal relationships, communication, cohesiveness, and belongingness between students and teachers are better able to support student psychological needs and promote optimal development in academic domains
data.question: What type of secondary schools have higher percentages of academically successful students?
data.text: unsurprisingly, secondary schools with higher quality community climate (assessed as collective focus on goals, communication, cohesiveness, morale, adaptation to stress, and effective problem-solving) have higher percentages of academically successful students compared to schools with lower quality community climate (macneil et al. 2009 
data.question: What is the importance of Strong parent-community-school partnerships?
data.text: strong parent-community-school partnerships, for example, are essential for promoting positive student achievement, although some evidence suggests that associations are stronger for elementary school children than for middle school children (hill 2009 sheldon 2003 sheldon and epstein 2005 
data.context: schools characterized by high-quality interpersonal relationships, communication, cohesiveness, and belongingness between students and teachers are better able to support student psychological needs and promote optimal development in academic domains. unsurprisingly, secondary schools with higher quality community climate (assessed as collective focus on goals, communication, cohesiveness, morale, adaptation to stress, and effective problem-solving) have higher percentages of academically successful students compared to schools with lower quality community climate (macneil et al. 2009 ). positive teacherstudent relationships are also linked to higher standardized test scores (esposito 1999 hoy and hannum 1997 ), gpa (wang and holcombe 2010 and students ' motivation to learn (patrick et al. 2007 ryan and patrick 2001 ), while less teacher respect for students and less student belongingness are associated (retrospectively) with school dropout (worrell and hale 2001 ). the benefits of community school climate features extend beyond the parameters of the school environment itself. strong parent-community-school partnerships, for example, are essential for promoting positive student achievement, although some evidence suggests that associations are stronger for elementary school children than for middle school children (hill 2009 sheldon 2003 sheldon and epstein 2005 ). finally, student perceptions of cultural awareness, diversity, and racial equality also affect student achievement. a large sample of high school students indicates that those who perceive greater racial fairness and experience less racial discrimination have higher gpas (mattison and aber 2007 wang and huguley 2012 ).
data.question: Production of the natural gas estimated by whom?
data.text: the middle point in production is estimated by campbell to come at around 2020
data.question: When UK got pipeline for natural gas from Belgium?
data.text: in november 2003 the first flow of gas into the uk via the gas interconnector pipe from belgium occurred
data.context: reserves of natural gas are far more abundant than those of oil but it is a far more mobile substance, which means it leaks from its traps. more of it is recoverable from reserves than oil, around 75%, and its depletion profile gives a constant supply over a long period before coming to an abrupt end, when production plummets and prices soar. it is also much more difficult to model gas depletion, because its profile is dictated more by market forces than by the immutable physics of the reservoir. the middle point in production is estimated by campbell to come at around 2020. the usa, and in the not too distant future, canada, are facing chronic gas shortfalls. europe faces the same general future but has the advantage of being ably to tap, by pipeline, into the reserves of the middle east, the former soviet union and north africa, politics permitting. britain no longer has enough gas supply left to meet its own total demands. in november 2003 the first flow of gas into the uk via the gas interconnector pipe from belgium occurred, accompanied more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: Where did the Agreement Dimension on Public Support for Global Climate Change Cooperation took place?
data.text: france, germany, the united kingdom, and the united states
data.question: What are the estimates of the effect stated by the presented text?
data.text: this plot shows estimates of the effect of randomly assigned agreement features on the probability of supporting an agreement
data.question: What are the sociodemographic covariates reported?
data.text: income, age, gender, education
data.context: fig. s7 effect of agreement dimensions on public support for global climate change cooperation in france, germany, the united kingdom, and the united states with and without control variables. this plot shows estimates of the effect of randomly assigned agreement features on the probability of supporting an agreement. estimates are based on the regression of agreement support on dummy variables for values of the agreement dimensions with standard errors clustered by respondent. the model with control variables includes the following sociodemographic covariates (coefficients not reported): income, age, gender, education. the bars indicate 95% confidence intervals and the points without bars indicate the reference category for a given agreement dimension.
data.question: Where are the half-mile forest strip ranges?
data.text: between the plantation belt and the forest reserve
data.question: What does the southern and eastern slopes provide?
data.text: timber and firewood
data.question: What percentage of forest was changed into cypress and pine plantations since the 1950's?
data.text: about 12
data.context: *southern and eastern slope: half-mile forest strip ranges between the plantation belt and the forest reserve; provides timber and firewood (mostly pines, cypress and eucalyptus) *meadows reach far into the montane forest, especially along the rivers *forest strip grades into natural montane forest, which should be excluded as "forest reserve" from any usage. nevertheless, since the 1950s about 12% of the forest was changed into cypress and pine plantations *northern, north eastern and western slope: large forest plantations *honey collectors also frequent the montane forest zone *special type of land use: shamba (taungay) system practices (allowing local farmers to inter-crop annual agricultural crops - mainly potatoes, carrots and cabbage - with tree seedlings in forest plantation areas until the third year of tree growth. by the third year, the young tree canopy casts too much shade for the normal growth of agricultural crops. at this point farmers move out and are allocated another plot, if available) montane forest 1000 1000
data.question: What is a safe climate?
data.text: safety climate and the theory of planned behaviour 2 the present study is concerned with the human factors that contribute to violations in the present study is concerned with the human factors that contribute to violations in aviation maintenance. much of our previous research in this area has been based on safety climate surveys and the analysis of relations among core dimensions of climate
data.question: What is the usefulness of Ajjan's Planned Conduct Theory (DPP)?
data.text: in this study, we tap into mainstream psychological theory to help clarify the mechanisms underlying the links between climate and behaviour. specifically,we demonstrate the usefulness of ajzen's theory of planned behaviour (tpb) to understanding violation behaviours in aircraft maintenance. a questionnaire was administered to 308 aircraft maintenance workers. constructs measured by the survey included perceptions of management attitudes to safety, own attitudes to violations, intention to violate, group norms, workplace pressures, and violations
data.question: Explain a model based on dub?
data.text: a model based on the tpb illustrated hypothetical connections among these variables. path analyses using amos 4.01 suggested some theoretically justifiable modifications to the model. fit statistics of the revised model were excellent and r-squared values for all endogenous variables were encouraging. the model highlighted the importance of management attitudes and group norms as direct and indirect predictors of violation behaviour. we conclude that the tpb is suitable for the analysis of this type of safety behaviour but that to be truly useful it should be extended to incorporate management attitudes. safety climate and the theory of planned behaviour 3 safety climate and the theory of planned behaviour: towards the prediction of unsafe behaviour
data.context: safety climate and the theory of planned behaviour 2 the present study is concerned with the human factors that contribute to violations in the present study is concerned with the human factors that contribute to violations in aviation maintenance. much of our previous research in this area has been based on safety climate surveys and the analysis of relations among core dimensions of climate. in this study, we tap into mainstream psychological theory to help clarify the mechanisms underlying the links between climate and behaviour. specifically,we demonstrate the usefulness of ajzen's theory of planned behaviour (tpb) to understanding violation behaviours in aircraft maintenance. a questionnaire was administered to 308 aircraft maintenance workers. constructs measured by the survey included perceptions of management attitudes to safety, own attitudes to violations, intention to violate, group norms, workplace pressures, and violations. a model based on the tpb illustrated hypothetical connections among these variables. path analyses using amos 4.01 suggested some theoretically justifiable modifications to the model. fit statistics of the revised model were excellent and r-squared values for all endogenous variables were encouraging. the model highlighted the importance of management attitudes and group norms as direct and indirect predictors of violation behaviour. we conclude that the tpb is suitable for the analysis of this type of safety behaviour but that to be truly useful it should be extended to incorporate management attitudes. safety climate and the theory of planned behaviour 3 safety climate and the theory of planned behaviour: towards the prediction of unsafe behaviour
data.question: What does the literature suggest happen for adaptation to occur?
data.text: the learning literature suggests that for adaptation to occur, a sensitive organisation needs to receive and understand signals about a change in the condition they face
data.question: Which company experienced severe flood damage to one of its new developments in the winter 2000/2001?
data.text: company a had experienced severe flood damage to one of its new developments in the winter 2000/2001
data.question: Housing companies were expected to 'develop an intuitive understanding' of changes through what means?
data.text: there was also an expectation that housing companies would 'develop an intuitive understanding' of changes through monitoring market signals such as changing customer expectations and by listening to regulators (interviewee in company c
data.context: the learning literature suggests that for adaptation to occur, a sensitive organisation needs to receive and understand signals about a change in the condition they face. while most interviewees were aware that the global climate is expected to change, direct signals of climate change experienced in businesses activities and performance were rare and tended to be hard to interpret. an interviewee of company f, for example, reported subtle changes in their waste-water business due to what he referred to as 'weather change', but he was unsure whether these could be attributed to climate change. company a had experienced severe flood damage to one of its new developments in the winter 2000/2001. this was taken as a signal of higher risks of riverine flooding in the future, but little further assessment was done of the causes of this possible trend. other house builders reported a decreasing number of frost days bringing fewer work stoppages during winter and increasing attention to the risk of skin cancer due to outside working. overall, direct signals of climate change were both routine (the continuous monitoring of water resources by water companies) and ad hoc (flooding of a site under development by company a). in the housing sector these signals were usually perceived as being specific, rather than being interpreted as indications of a wider phenomenon of climate change. little or no interpretive work was done to understand better the causes of these signals or impacts. this appeared to be due to the complexity of evidence and the absence of organisational capabilities to make sense of and learn from such data. there was also an expectation that housing companies would 'develop an intuitive understanding' of changes through monitoring market signals such as changing customer expectations and by listening to regulators (interviewee in company c). in the water companies, by contrast, we found significant capacity to recognise and interpret climate-related sensitivities.
data.question: What is the most important lesson learned from this paper?
data.text: that adaptation is closely interlinked with focal development areas such as infrastructure, agriculture and health
data.question: What could potentially make highways less vulnerable to climate change?
data.text: if adaptation measures, in terms of drainage systems, stronger foundations and bridges and alternative routes, were taken into consideration
data.question: What are the costs of malaria net distribution and information programmes measured against?
data.text: avoided treatment costs and reduced sickness and mortality
data.context: conclusions the most important lesson learned from this paper is that adaptation is closely interlinked with focal development areas such as infrastructure, agriculture and health, and there is a large potential for integrating climate adaptation measures into already existing and on-going projects and planning efforts. in the case examples examined, integrating climate change adaptation could be done with a low cost. climate change mainstreaming has been addressed in a pragmatic way in the paper using a short list of sustainable development indicators to evaluate economic, social, and environmental dimensions of climate change adaptation. the approach is stepwise and starts with modelling of climate conditions, variability and change, which subsequently are linked to development policies and indicators. this is followed by an identification of adaptation measures and assessment of these compared with unmitigated climate change impacts. the methodological approach is further illustrated in relation to three case studies from mozambique and tanzania. the mozambique example is related to infrastructure planning where existing and future highways can be damaged by increasing magnitude and intensity of floods. the damages will increase maintenance costs and can cause temporary disruptions on the roads. the highways could potentially be less vulnerable to climate change if adaptation measures, in terms of drainage systems, stronger foundations and bridges and alternative routes, were taken into consideration. based on experiences from previous flooding events in 2002 in mozambique and internationally available data on adaptation measures, it is shown that there could be significant benefits associated with more climate safe road design. rain water harvesting for agricultural irrigation have been considered as a case example for tanzania, based on the expectation that agriculture in many parts of the country will need increased irrigation with climate change. the development impacts of enhanced rainwater harvesting capacity for rice paddy production are considered based on a previous study from the dodoma region of tanzania. climate change was not taken into consideration in this study however, an extrapolation of the cost and benefit results of enhanced irrigation measures in this case suggest that the rainwater harvesting systems are very effective in supporting crop yields and economic performance. increased malaria protection in tanzania through increased distribution of bed nets has been considered as an adaptation measure against an expected increase of the incidence of malaria associated with climate change. the costs of malaria net distribution and information programmes are measured against avoided treatment costs and reduced sickness and mortality, and it is concluded that almost 4000 lives could be saved and 800.000 cases could be averted annually by distributing 800,000 additional net to cover the whole population in tanzania. such a program is considered to be very economic attractive and the net benefits were assessed to be 300,000 usd per year. despite the potential large benefits of mainstreaming climate adaptation into malaria programmes, it should be noted that malaria protection planning in a climate context is as complex as in general malaria planning and there is no easy solutions in establishing not only knowledge but also utilization of interventions such as itns. the approach in this way illustrates how sustainable development indicators and climate change can be linked, and quantitative information is provided about key linkages and impacts. a number of broader social impacts could be covered in more detail than it has been possible in the current case examples, and this could potentially further strengthen the argument that climate change adaptation measures could be important measures in reducing the vulnerability of the poor. this is the case because climate risks could be reduced for a relatively low cost in the examples, and because not coping with these could further enhance vulnerabilities in terms of poor health conditions for woman and children, weak infrastructure and flooding risks, and crop losses due to high variability of precipitation.
data.question: What are the responses of health threats through changing patterns of disease due to insect-borne infections?
data.text: various responses are possible--such as vector control, promotion of mosquito nets, new vaccines, or rapid and eff ective diagnosis and treatment
data.question: What will lead to adverse health effects in many ways?
data.text: climate change
data.question: What can be done in the case of malnutrition due to food shortages?
data.text: public health and medical approaches can provide, at best, only temporary relief, and a sustainable solution can only be found in measures that match food supply to need and ensure economic entitlements in the most vulnerable groups
data.context: climate change will lead to adverse health eff ects in many ways. if we are about to take eff ective action to keep health eff ects of climate change to a minimum, we need to understand the consequences of climate change on health and the possibilities for change or adaptation. in the case, for example, of health threats through changing patterns of disease due to insect-borne infections, various responses are possible--such as vector control, promotion of mosquito nets, new vaccines, or rapid and eff ective diagnosis and treatment. by contrast, in the case of malnutrition due to food shortages, public health and medical approaches can provide, at best, only temporary relief, and a sustainable solution can only be found in measures that match food supply to need and ensure economic entitlements in the most vulnerable groups.27
data.question: What is the topography of the study area?
data.text: the topography along the gradient is generally flat and uniform with low-elevation hills and rock outcrops
data.question: What is the climate of this area in the winter?
data.text: the climate of the region is dominated by dry polar and moderate polar air masses during the winter
data.question: What is the climate of this area in the summer?
data.text: and by moist maritime and moist tropical air masses during the summer
data.context: our study area is located at the quebec-ontario border along a latitudinal gradient ranging south from petawawa (approximately 46 1 n) to radisson (approximately 54 1 n) in the north (fig. 1), including the southern laurentians, the abitibi plains, the james bay area, and the radisson plains (eswg, 1996). the topography along the gradient is generally flat and uniform with low-elevation hills and rock outcrops (300-400m a.s.l.). the climate of the region is dominated by dry polar and moderate polar air masses during the winter, and by moist maritime and moist tropical air masses during the summer (fig. 1). dry moderate air masses also often occur after an air mass has been advected far from its
data.question: The Board of which place is collecting water in the Kui village, in the Nir watershed?
data.text: management directorate of uttarakhand is water harvesting in village kui in nir microwatershed
data.question: How many families were there in the village where there was a pipeline with a small and irregular flow, 1 km below the house?
data.text: the village, with 31 households, had only a pipeline with scanty and irregular flow, 1 km below the habitation
data.question: How many tanks were built, with residents being responsible for purchasing collection tubes?
data.text: twenty-eight roof harvesting tanks were constructed, with the villagers being responsible for the purchase of collection pipes
data.context: management directorate of uttarakhand is water harvesting in village kui in nir microwatershed. the village, with 31 households, had only a pipeline with scanty and irregular flow, 1 km below the habitation. twenty-eight roof harvesting tanks were constructed, with the villagers being responsible for the purchase of collection pipes. there was a positive impact on agriculture, hygiene, and women's daily burden. while earlier the villagers grew few vegetables (potato, garlic, coriander) in the rainy season in their homestead to meet their household needs, they could now grow onion, green pea, and carrot, and increase the production of potato, garlic, and coriander, making a profit of rs 587-1030 per household. hygiene too improved with availability of water allowing regular bathing, washing of clothes and of animals. time spent by women on collecting water also reduced considerably watershed management directorate uttaranchal, 2004 ).
data.question: What do the questions asked in the paragraph help reorient the literature around?
data.text: these questions help reorient the literature around bridging capacity gaps across cities of different sizes and levels of development as a prerequisite to institutionalizing synergistic, effective, and equitable urban adaptation policies
data.question: Why is it important to answer the questions asked in the paragraph?
data.text: this is particularly important for poorly resourced cities trying to emulate early adopters, as many are weakly positioned to operationalize broad social justice objectives in their adaptation plans in the absence of dedicated financial resources, internal capacities for agenda coordination, and supportive intergovernmental policy mandates
data.question: Who often argue that "all adaptation is local" due to the geographic specificity of climate impacts and vulnerabilities, and local government's control over land use planning and development?
data.text: scaling adaptation justice through multilevel and multi-scalar governance academic literature, policies, guidance documents, and networks often argue that "all adaptation is local" due to the geographic specificity of climate impacts and vulnerabilities, and local government's control over land use planning and development7, 67
data.context: identifying ways to expand adaptation to most of the world's municipalities is sorely needed, including by reconsidering the scale and level at which adaptation planning is conducted and leveraging new transnational networks to facilitate institution building and capacity diffusion among cities of all sizes66. * what tools (such as big data, open data, and crowd-sourcing), planning scales (such communities, regions, states), or modes of engagement (such as transnational municipal networks reflecting the diversity of cities and urban conditions) enable a broader range of municipalities worldwide to take steps to adapt to climate impacts? * what lessons learned from climate adaptation advances of early adopters are relevant to small and medium cities that are rapidly growing or have limited financial and institutional capacity, given that climate impacts, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity are contextually specific? these questions help reorient the literature around bridging capacity gaps across cities these questions help reorient the literature around bridging capacity gaps across cities of different sizes and levels of development as a prerequisite to institutionalizing synergistic, effective, and equitable urban adaptation policies. this is particularly important for poorly resourced cities trying to emulate early adopters, as many are weakly positioned to operationalize broad social justice objectives in their adaptation plans in the absence of dedicated financial resources, internal capacities for agenda coordination, and supportive intergovernmental policy mandates61. scaling adaptation justice through multilevel and multi-scalar governance academic literature, policies, guidance documents, and networks often argue that "all adaptation is local" due to the geographic specificity of climate impacts and vulnerabilities, and local government's control over land use planning and development7, 67. a recent review found nearly 130 academic and grey documents adopting this heuristic, with 59% endorsing the concept and only 8% critiquing it6. however, this local framing overlooks the multilevel and
data.question: What is the goal we persued?
data.text: the goal we pursued was to try to find out a state with a different balance between the atlantic water masses, closer to the "classical" lgm
data.question: What did we conclude from the model data?
data.text: we conclude by stating that "deep waters are not formed with the correct temperature and salinity" in the model
data.question: What do sensitivity experiments look at?
data.text: the sensitivity experiments are designed to look at the sensitivity of the overturning to various model settings
data.context: egu one of the states could provide a lgm closer to the data, it would not be a "lgm" in the strict sense and therefore could be use only as an indication of the processes at work. even so, it is worthwhile to compare to the data, and we added a paragraph in this sense to the revised version of the paper. the goal we pursued was to try to find out a state with a different balance between the atlantic water masses, closer to the "classical" lgm. the result is that the model doesn't present any state coherent with such picture close by in the parameter space. specific response to a. paul g1 (pursued). the differences in the deep water characteristics between the model and as inferred from the pore water data by adkins et al. (2002) should not be disregarded. we agree that more emphasis should be put on the fact that we do not simulate correctly the "water masses properties" (temperature and salinity) when compared to pore water data. a paragraph has been added in the revised version of the manuscript to outline possible explanation for this discrepancies, which may lie in the resolution of the model (and thus in the small scale processes accompanying the formation of sea-ice). we conclude by stating that "deep waters are not formed with the correct temperature and salinity" in the model. the conclusion of the data-model comparison for the atlantic water masses now states that "although the characteristics of the deep water masses we obtain are substantially different from data inferences (northern sourced being too warm and southern sourced being not saline enough) the circulation pattern is not inconsistent with evidence from the proxy data". g2 we do agree that a total thc shutdown would be required to obtain a (totally) different surface climate. however, we think it is good to state it there, as that might no be obvious to all readers. the sensitivity experiments are designed to look at the sensitivity of the overturning to various model settings. s892
data.question: Though the exact number is uncertain, what is the total biomass of phytoplankton in the world's oceans estimated to be?
data.text: although the amount of phytoplankton in the world's oceans is uncertain, their total biomass is estimated to be between 0.5-2.4 billion mg c (table 1
data.context: as singlecelled organisms present in the oceans' water column, phytoplankton provide 70% of the oxygen we breathe and are a crucial source of food to marine fauna. although the amount of phytoplankton in the world's oceans is uncertain, their total biomass is estimated to be between 0.5-2.4 billion mg c (table 1 and webtable 2; buitenhuis et al. 2013). most phytoplankton are short lived or consumed by highertrophic- level organisms, giving them a rapid turnover. thus, carbon remains stored in their biomass only for hours to weeks, unlike carbon sequestered in mangrove wood, which can last for decades. however, a small yet important fraction of carbon in phytoplankton (0.1% or 0.5-2.4 million mg c yr-1) will sink and become sequestered longterm in seafloor sediments (figure 3a; falkowski 2012). the size of the world's phytoplankton carbon pool is considered to be relatively stable (with seasonal variations), but changing ocean temperatures and circulation patterns may lead to shifts in phytoplankton species extent and community composition, which may alter carbon fluxes (lam et al 2011; committee on geoengineering climate 2015). despite representing a globally relevant carbon sink, phytoplankton are not well suited for climate mitigation policies because their sequestration capacity cannot be manipulated without geoengineering (about which the scientific community has articulated major concerns; committee on geoengineering climate 2015), issues of jurisdiction on the high seas remain a challenge, and
data.question: whether direct comparison between countries or sectors is possible?
data.text: since these studies employ different approaches, make different assumptions and operate on varying scales, direct comparisons between countries or sectors is not possible
data.question: what does the climate change economic impact involves?
data.text: in general, assessing the economic impacts of climate change involves estimating the value of direct and indirect market and nonmarket impacts, the costs of implementing adaptation options and the benefits gained as a result of the adaptation
data.question: write some examples of impacts on market goods?
data.text: some examples of impacts on market goods include changes in food, forestry and fisheries products, the water supply and insurance costs
data.context: there have been several attempts to estimate the potential costs of climate change on various economic sectors at the national level in both the united states and canada see table 4). since these studies employ different approaches, make different assumptions and operate on varying scales, direct comparisons between countries or sectors is not possible. these numbers do, however, illustrate the magnitude and ranges of study results. in general, assessing the economic impacts of climate change involves estimating the value of direct and indirect market and nonmarket impacts, the costs of implementing adaptation options and the benefits gained as a result of the adaptation. in this case, direct impacts refer to those that occur in the region itself, whereas indirect impacts are those that result from the impacts of climate change on systems and sectors in other regions. market goods and services have well-established ownership and are sold for payment, whereas nonmarket goods and services are not traded and are not subject to well-defined property rights.(46)some examples of impacts on market goods include changes in food, forestry and fisheries products, the water supply and insurance costs. impacts on nonmarket entities include changes in ecosystems, loss of human life, impacts on cultures and changes in political stability.(46)it should also be noted that impacts on nonmarket services often have consequences for market goods and services.
data.question: True or False: The atlantic record displays an increase in benthic foraminiferal.
data.text: the atlantic record displays a decrease in benthic foraminiferal mg/ca between 150 and 200 meters composite depth (mcd), followed by an interval of elevated mg/ca between 200 and 250 mcd
data.question: Describe the general trend of increasing benthic foraminiferal with sediment depth.
data.text: results odp sites 926 (cr) and 806 (ojp) both display a general trend of increasing benthic foraminiferal mg/ca with sediment depth figs. 3 and 4
data.question: What features are observed in the PaciC/c?
data.text: the atlantic record displays a decrease in benthic foraminiferal mg/ca between 150 and 200 meters composite depth (mcd), followed by an interval of elevated mg/ca between 200 and 250 mcd. these features are not observed in the pacic/c record at either the same burial depth or age
data.context: assuming little or no change in seawater mg/ ca, the temperature estimates calculated here should be accurate to within  1++c (2 s.e.) 3. results odp sites 926 (cr) and 806 (ojp) both display a general trend of increasing benthic foraminiferal mg/ca with sediment depth figs. 3 and 4 ). the atlantic record displays a decrease in benthic foraminiferal mg/ca between 150 and 200 meters composite depth (mcd), followed by an interval of elevated mg/ca between 200 and 250 mcd. these features are not observed in the pacic/c record at either the same burial depth or age. in the atlantic core, the mg/ca of c. mundulus is more similar to o. umbonatus than c. wuellerstorc/ whereas the reverse is true for c. mundulus in the pacic/c core. this is possibly
data.question: What is the expected outcome if the mean bias of the prediction goes down?
data.text: it is expected that if the mean bias of the prediction is to go down, it will also have a positive impact on the anomaly correlations
data.question: Does the average of predicted anomoly over N cases need to be zero?
data.text: average of predicted anomaly over n cases need not be zero
data.question: How many winters are in the 1950-1994 period?
data.text: 45 jfm winters for the1950-1994 period
data.context: although the possible impact of different multimodel ensemble prediction techniques on the temporal anomaly correlation is not obvious, it is expected that if the mean bias of the prediction is to go down, it will also have a positive impact on the anomaly correlations (see appendix a). one thing to note is that in the definition of temporal anomaly correlation, average of predicted anomaly over n cases need not be zero. this is true for the predicted anomalies defined with respect to the observed mean state. in the above expressions, the summation is over the number of prediction-observation pairs. this, in our case, is over 45 jfm winters for the1950-1994 period. further, since our focus is on the seasonal prediction skill over the pna region, the spatial domain for our analysis corresponds to the region extending from 150  e-60  w and 20  n-70  n, and all area averages are defined as the latitudinally cosine weighted means. 3.4. cross validation design in all the comparative skill evaluations, a cross validation approach is used. within the cross validation approach, the weights are calculated using the data of all years except for the target year. using this approach,
data.question: How can the extent of climate risks be gauged in Nepal?
data.text: by examining the sectoral composition of the total aid portfolio
data.question: What could clearly be affected by climate change?
data.text: development activities in water resources, as well as sectors such as agriculture, and health
data.context: com/env/epoc/dcd/dac(2003)1/final 23 23 5.1 donor activities affected by climate risks the extent to which climate risks affect development activities in nepal can be partially gauged by examining the sectoral composition of the total aid portfolio. development activities in water resources, as well as sectors such as agriculture, and health could clearly be affected by climate change as well as current climate variability. at the other end of the spectrum, development activities relating to education, gender equality, and governance reform are much less directly affected by climatic circumstances. in principle, the sectoral selection should include all development activities that might be designed differently depending on whether or not climate risks are taken into account. therefore, the label "affected by climate risks" has two dimensions. it includes projects that are at risk themselves, such as an investment that could be destroyed by flooding. but it also includes projects that affect the vulnerability of other natural or human systems. for instance, new roads might be fully weatherproof from an engineering standpoint (even for climatic conditions in the far future), but they might also trigger new settlements in high-risk areas, or it might have a negative effect on the resilience of the natural environment, thus exposing the area to increased climate risks. these considerations should be taken into account in project design and implementation. hence, these projects are also affected by climate risks.
data.question: What is the dispersion capacity of Saxifraga cuneifolia?
data.text: saxifraga cuneifolia has low dispersal abilities
data.question: What is the distribution range of Saxifraga cuneifolia?
data.text: distribution mainly restricted between 1500 and 2000 m
data.question: what is the maximum size reached in the French mountain forests?
data.text: reaching down to 300 m in french mountain forests
data.context: although saxifraga cuneifolia has low dispersal abilities (barochory) and a distribution mainly restricted between 1500 and 2000 m, it also occurs sporadically in the lowlands, reaching down to 300 m in french mountain forests (rameau et al. 1993). thus, saxifraga cuneifolia might represent a species strongly limited by competitors from below (fig. 2c). additionally, rubus fructicosu s, and to a lesser extent clinopodium vulgare and quercus pubescens seedlings, are highly reactive to canopy opening, i.e. positively influenced by disturbance. while we do not intend to validate our conceptual model with these examples, we note that these five downslope shifting species have a series of traits making them likely to respond to climate change in a way outlined by our model. however, a much more thorough empirical testing of this model is clearly needed.
data.question: What do we mean by the term evolution?
data.text: evolution: any genetic-based change in a population that is inherited from one generation to the next. it is said to be adaptive when driven by selection
data.question: What does the term Acclimation mean?
data.text: acclimation: the altering of physiological, behavioural, or morphological characteristics through phenotypic plasticity to better suit an environment
data.question: What is meant by genetic variation?
data.text: genetic variation: the presence in a population of more than one allele at a locus
data.context: evolution: any genetic-based change in a population that is inherited from one generation to the next. it is said to be adaptive when driven by selection. genetic adaptation: the process by which a population evolves towards a phenotype that best suits the present environmental conditions. selection: the non-random differential survival or reproduction of individuals with different phenotypes. genetic variation: the presence in a population of more than one allele at a locus. alleles are alternative forms of the same gene, while a locus is a specific site in the genome containing one or more genes. acclimation: the altering of physiological, behavioural, or morphological characteristics through phenotypic plasticity to better suit an environment. phenotypic plasticity: the capacity of individual genotypes to produce different phenotypes when exposed to different environmental conditions. developmental plasticity: irreversible phenotypic plasticity resulting from environmental cues experienced during development. transgenerational plasticity: phenotypic plasticity resulting from environmental cues experienced during the parental, or previous, generations. it can occur via epigenetic inheritance or through the transmission of nutrition, proteins, hormones or other bioactive materials from parents to their offspring. quantitative genetics: the study of the selection, inheritance and evolution of continuously varying traits that are determined by multiple genes. experimental evolution: the use of controlled experiments to study evolution. populations are exposed to new environmental conditions for many generations to observe if they adapt genetically to those conditions. evolutionary rescue: the recovery of populations, through genetic adaptation, from demographic effects caused by environmental change that would otherwise cause extinction.
data.question: What requires a better assessment of the health effects of extreme weather events? requires improved modeling of its pace and spatial distribution
data.text: better assessment of the health eff ects of extreme climatic events requires improved modelling of their pace and spatial
data.question: What will adaptation and mitigation require? will require a new approach to the management of extreme events
data.text: also, adaptation and mitigation will require a new approach to management of extreme events
data.question: What is expected of such challenges? Such challenges are likely to be successfully met only where disaster risk reduction is actively incorporated as a major social and economic development activity
data.text: such challenges are only likely to be met successfully where disaster risk reduction is actively incorporated as a mainstream activity of social and economic development
data.context: better assessment of the health eff ects of extreme climatic events requires improved modelling of their pace and spatial distribution and more thorough and sophisticated models of the demographic, social, and economic trends that increase human vulnerability to hazards. also, adaptation and mitigation will require a new approach to management of extreme events, focusing on improved early warning, eff ective contingency planning, identifi cation of the most vulnerable and exposed communities, and, in some cases, permanent resettle ment. such challenges are only likely to be met successfully where disaster risk reduction is actively incorporated as a mainstream activity of social and economic development.108
data.question: What does the most prominent international responses to climate change focus on?
data.text: mitigation (reducing the accumulation of greenhouse gases
data.question: What appendix does the report include?
data.text: climate scenarios, concepts, and international policies and funds
data.context: the most prominent international responses to climate change focus on mitigation (reducing the accumulation of greenhouse gases) rather than adaptation (reducing the vulnerability of society and ecosystems). however, with climate change now inevitable, adaptation is gaining importance in the policy arena, and is an integral part of ongoing negotiations towards an international framework. this report presents the case for adaptation for tropical forests (reducing the impacts of climate change on forests and their ecosystem services) and tropical forests for adaptation (using forests to help local people and society in general to adapt to inevitable changes). policies in the forest, climate change and other sectors need to address these issues and be integrated with each other--such a cross-sectoral approach is essential if the benefits derived in one area are not to be lost or counteracted in another. moreover, the institutions involved in policy development and implementation need themselves to be flexible and able to learn in the context of dynamic human and environmental systems. and all this needs to be done at all levels from the local community to the national government and international institutions. the report includes an appendix covering climate scenarios, concepts, and international policies and funds.
data.question: On what factors the vulnerability of rural farm households is determined?
data.text: the vulnerability of rural farm households is largely determined by variety of factors that include social, economic, and natural factors. households living in different agro ecological location exhibit vulnerability to different types of hazards
data.question: How to determine households' susceptibility to the risks?
data.text: the effect of location in terms of agro ecology also determines households' susceptibility to the risks; where people living in the highland areas are relatively much vulnerable to risks of climate change as compared to lowlanders, in the context of the study area
data.question: What are the social factors?
data.text: social factors like low level of literacy or lack of awareness on hazard related issues have been another exacerbating factor in the districts for vulnerability
data.context: the vulnerability of rural farm households is largely determined by variety of factors that include social, economic, and natural factors. households living in different agro ecological location exhibit vulnerability to different types of hazards. the effect of location in terms of agro ecology also determines households' susceptibility to the risks; where people living in the highland areas are relatively much vulnerable to risks of climate change as compared to lowlanders, in the context of the study area. this basically emanates from the topography of farmlands, frequency of natural shocks, low experience of people to adopt to climate change impacts, degradation of farmlands to erosion and more. social factors like low level of literacy or lack of awareness on hazard related issues have been another exacerbating factor in the districts for vulnerability. on the other hand, households living in the lowland areas were vulnerable to drought, disease outbreaks and alien weeds. however, when comparison is made between three agro-ecological zones in the study area, lowland was not vulnerable because of better experience of operating agricultural activities under stressful conditions, relatively bigger size of farm land with optimal number of farm plots, better access to credit, moderate slope of farm lands, better fertility level of farmlands, better adaptation to changing climatic conditions and relatively access to early warning information. the resilience levels of farm households living in the same area differ based on certain socio-economic and natural factors attributable to lives and livelihood of the farmers. the capacity to bounce back during and after climate change induced shocks depends on a number of households' characteristics, institutional arrangements, social networks, economic capacity and natural setting. maintaining productive assets from deterioration during shocks, accessing to irrigation, investing on farmland, improving the fertility level of farms through usage of organic processes, having preparedness, diversifying income sources and participating in local institutions are some of the households' action that can build their resilience to climate change impacts. organizational responses from government and development actors through creation of access to market, access to farm loans, improving educational level, and increased access to early warning information can be considered as an intervention to build the resilience of community in the study area.
data.question: How many glacial lakes in Bhutan?
data.text: 9000
data.question: When were the Dig Tsho in Nepal considered as textbook case studies of GOLF?
data.text: 1994
data.context: in the face of global warming, most himalayan glaciers have been retreating at a rate that ranges from a few metres to several tens of metres per year, resulting in an increase in the number and size of glacial lakes and a concomitant increase in the threat of glacial lake outburst floods (glofs). such climate changes have ultimate effects on the life and property of the mountain people living downstream. while the effect of human activity on global climate is still being hotly debated, the retreat of glaciers in the himalaya is compelling evidence of the need for action on climate change. approximately 15,000 glaciers (covering an area of 33,340 sq.km), and 9000 glacial lakes throughout bhutan, nepal and pakistan, as well as selected river basins in china and india were documented in a baseline study conducted earlier by icimod, unep, and the asia pacific network for global change research (apn). twenty-one glof events have adversely affected nepalese territory in the recent past and to date over 200 potentially dangerous glacial lakes have been documented across the himalayan region. these facts underline the urgent need to enhance scientific knowledge of glacier environments by continuously monitoring glaciers and glacial lakes, carrying out vulnerability assessments, implementing mitigation and adaptation mechanisms, and developing a glacial lake outburst flood (glof) early warning system. regional co-operation to develop a coordinated strategy to deal with trans-boundary issues related to the impacts which can occur as a result of climate change is also required. this publication focuses on the effects of climate change on glaciers and glacial lakes in two hotspots of glacial activity in the himalaya: the dudh koshi sub-basin of nepal and the pho chu sub-basin of bhutan. both these basins have witnessed devastating glof events in the recent past. the glofs at dig tsho in 1985 (nepal) and luggye tso in 1994 (bhutan) are considered 'textbook' case studies of glof events and have drawn the attention of researchers world-wide. a multi-media cd-rom is being prepared as a companion to this book and will be helpful in raising awareness about the sensitivity of climate change to policyand decision-makers, the concerned scientific community, and the general public. these materials will be helpful in designing mitigation measures to help safeguard human lives and valuable infrastructure in hazardous river valleys. while this and other activities are helping to raise awareness of the risks posed by glofs, it will also be essential to replicate these studies and to continue to extend them systematically to include other high-risk areas in the himalaya. the scientific modelling approaches and the empirical methods discussed here are both needed first steps that will be valuable in refining and scaling up this type of investigation to other himalayan hot-spots. what is needed now is urgent action by the international community to help develop even better scientific understanding of the consequences of global climate change and to take the corrective and precautionary measures before it is too late. samjwal ratna bajracharya pradeep kumar mool basanta raj shrestha x
data.question: What have energy experts debated for decades or longer?
data.text: b: ensuring that the best is not the enemy of the good in a complex world for for decades and longer, energy experts have debated the potential for efficiency gains to reduce overall energy use, and more recently its potential role in decarbonising economic activity
data.question: What has been the primary factor responsible for the decarbonisation of the global economy since at least 1980?
data.text: since at least 1980, reductions in the energy intensity of gross domestic product (gdp) have been the primary factor responsible for the decarbonisation of the global economy
data.question: What have continued to rise despite the consistent and longstanding decline in the energy intensity of the global economy?
data.text: however, both energy use and carbon emissions have continued to rise despite the consistent and longstanding decline in the energy intensity of the global economy
data.context: b: ensuring that the best is not the enemy of the good in a complex world for for decades and longer, energy experts have debated the potential for efficiency gains to reduce overall energy use, and more recently its potential role in decarbonising economic activity. since at least 1980, reductions in the energy intensity of gross domestic product (gdp) have been the primary factor responsible for the decarbonisation of the global economy. however, both energy use and carbon emissions have continued to rise despite the consistent and longstanding decline in the energy intensity of the global economy. as such, we believe that continued and even accelerated rates of
data.question: How many conclusions are to be drawn?
data.text: there are two broad conclusions to be drawn
data.question: What did the recent rise in coverage seems to involve ?
data.text: first, the recent rise in coverage seems to involve an increasing sense of impending catastrophe regarding the impacts that climate change will have on development
data.question: Where does the best evidence lie?
data.text: so the best evidence lies in changes to the composition of discourses and in the volume of articles published
data.context: what do the results suggest about media perceptions of climate change and international development? there are two broad conclusions to be drawn. first, the recent rise in coverage seems to involve an increasing sense of impending catastrophe regarding the impacts that climate change will have on development. such a tone was apparent in articles from the late 1990s (e.g. 'world facing plague of disasters', mccarthy, independent, 24.6.99), so the best evidence lies in changes to the composition of discourses and in the volume of articles published. all the discourses other than rationalism and optimism show some degree of concern about the impacts of climate change and demand urgent action to reduce them. the most extreme of these positions, the three crisis discourses, dominate coverage in the guardian and independent and represent virtually all the large increase in coverage in 2006/07. meanwhile optimism and rationalism disappear from coverage in the times and the telegraph in 2006/07, having dominated before, to be replaced by the mitigation discourses and potential catastrophe
data.question: What was the size of the sliver that was cut from the edge of the disc?
data.text: a sliver in the axialradial plane, about 6-mm-long (axially) and 3-mm-wide (tangentially),was cut from the edge of the disc,producing a piece of sapwood with the radial plane exposed on one side and the other side rounded
data.question: What type of events were recorded in this case?
data.text: acoustic events were recorded by placing the radial plane flush against an acoustic sensor
data.question: How were the acoustic sensor and the sample held together in order for measurements to be taken?
data.text: the acoustic sensor and sample were then held together with a clamp, an initial mass measurement was taken,and then the assembly was connected to the data logger and acoustically isolated from ambient noise
data.context: for determination of sapwood vulnerability to embolism,we cut 2-mm-thick discs from the distal end of the section of the 12-mm-diameter core used to determine moisture release and capacitance (described earlier). a sliver in the axialradial plane, about 6-mm-long (axially) and 3-mm-wide (tangentially),was cut from the edge of the disc,producing a piece of sapwood with the radial plane exposed on one side and the other side rounded.we then vacuum infiltrated the samples overnight in the perfusion solution (described above).acoustic events were recorded by placing the radial plane flush against an acoustic sensor (r15 a physical acoustics corporation, princeton junction, nj, usa) connected to an ultrasonic acoustic emission (uae)-specific data logger (either pocket ae or usb ae node; physical acoustics corporation). the acoustic sensor and sample were then held together with a clamp, an initial mass measurement was taken,and then the assembly was connected to the data logger and acoustically isolated from ambient noise.
data.question: What are the systems that facilitate adaptive management in response to the climate change?
data.text: several water-management or system-development options might be considered to facilitate adaptive management in response to a changing climate, including operational changes, demand management, and infrastructure changes
data.question: What kind of integrated water-management strategies there is?
data.text: integrated water-management strategies include capturing social and individual risk perception, reshaping planning processes, coordinating land and water resources management, recognizing water-quantity and waterquality linkages, increasing conjunctive use of surface water and ground water, improving techniques to manage demand and conserve water, protecting and restoring natural systems, and learning through adaptive management experiments, including consideration of climate change
data.question: What kind of collaboration an effective adaptation to climate change will require?
data.text: effective adaptation to climate change will require collaboration and coordination among federal, state, regional, and local agencies
data.context: several water-management or system-development options might be considered to facilitate adaptive management in response to a changing climate, including operational changes, demand management, and infrastructure changes. climate change may translate into changed design and operational assumptions for determining resource supplies, system demands, system performance requirements, and operational constraints. adaptations to climate change would make better use of existing water resources through integrated water resources management. integrated water-management strategies include capturing social and individual risk perception, reshaping planning processes, coordinating land and water resources management, recognizing water-quantity and waterquality linkages, increasing conjunctive use of surface water and ground water, improving techniques to manage demand and conserve water, protecting and restoring natural systems, and learning through adaptive management experiments, including consideration of climate change. operating plans could build in flexibility to adapt to potential climate conditions. management of existing, longlived infrastructure includes up-to-date maintenance, rehabilitation, and upgrades to ensure flexibility to a wide range of potential climate variability. strategies for adaptation involve both water-supply and water-demand management. most measures to reduce water demand are implemented at the local level or by individual producers and households. local and state governments make decisions on land use that affect their community's susceptibility to drought and floods. therefore, effective adaptation to climate change will require collaboration and coordination among federal, state, regional, and local agencies. the strategy options available for consideration will vary from system to system, as will the preference among these options. * 5 responding to climate change: adaptation options 31
data.question: How does the technology work?
data.text: to generate consistent temperature time series for application of our dai metrics, and to explore the probabilistic range for future temperature change implied by uncertainty in climate sensitivity, we use the radiative forcing time series for the sc, rc, and os profiles for 500and 600-ppm co2e stabilization levels to force a simple two-box climate model
data.question: Who created this technology?
data.text: this model was originally developed by schneider and thompson (28) and modified by nordhaus (29) for use in the dynamic integrated climate and economy model
data.question: What do you do with the model?
data.text: we modify the nordhaus version to reduce the time step from 10 years to 1.++ owing to the many model-dependent assumptions inherent in the use of such highly simplified models, we emphasize that our quantitative results using this simple model are not intended to be taken literally, but we do suggest that the probabilistic framework and methods be taken seriously: they produce relative trends and general conclusions that better represent a risk-management approach than estimates made without probabilistic representation of outcomes
data.context: to generate consistent temperature time series for application of our dai metrics, and to explore the probabilistic range for future temperature change implied by uncertainty in climate sensitivity, we use the radiative forcing time series for the sc, rc, and os profiles for 500and 600-ppm co2e stabilization levels to force a simple two-box climate model. this model was originally developed by schneider and thompson (28) and modified by nordhaus (29) for use in the dynamic integrated climate and economy model. we modify the nordhaus version to reduce the time step from 10 years to 1.++ owing to the many model-dependent assumptions inherent in the use of such highly simplified models, we emphasize that our quantitative results using this simple model are not intended to be taken literally, but we do suggest that the probabilistic framework and methods be taken seriously: they produce relative trends and general conclusions that better represent a risk-management approach than estimates made without probabilistic representation of outcomes. the demonstrated application of threshold metrics for dai to emissions pathways extends the risk-management framework presented in ref. 12, introducing a method for assessing the probability of dai for future climate profiles produced by other climate models and stakeholder metrics.
data.question: To what is a reduction in the diversity of the species due?
data.text: a reduction in the diversity of the species is due to the fact that the pollution is selective for the species
data.question: To what the stages of ecological succession can be associated with?
data.text: the stages of ecological succession can be associated with physically identifiable zones in the river
data.question: How many main zones are there?
data.text: there are four main zones
data.context: high number of individuals in each species a reduction in the diversity of the species is due to the fact that the pollution is selective for the species: only those that adapt to the new environmental conditions survive and, further, proliferate (resulting in a high number of individuals in these few species). the other species do not resist to the new environmental conditions and perish (leading to a reduction in the total number of species). because self-purification is a process that develops with time, and considering the dimension of the river as predominantly longitudinal, the stages of ecological succession can be associated with physically identifiable zones in the river. there are four main zones:
data.question: What method will be used to dwonscale precipitation?
data.text: to downscale precipitation, the method developed by widmann et al. (2003), referred to as the "local scaling," will be used
data.question: What method will be used for temperature?
data.text: a similar, local, method will be used for temperature
data.question: What are the things you are considering for your current study?
data.text: for this study, we consider only temperature and precipitation, which are the essential parameters for simulating the effects of climate change on hydrology
data.context: ii. data and methods a. downscaling method typical global climate models are run with grid resolution of approximately 2.5 degrees (~300  km), while regional climate impacts studies often require resolutions of 0.125 degrees (~15  km) or finer. furthermore, publicly available archives are typically monthly-mean fields. thus, regionalizing the simulations requires spatial downscaling and temporal disagregation. downscaling both accounts for subgridscale processes not included in the global simulation and disaggregates the gridcells to the required resolution. for this study, we consider only temperature and precipitation, which are the essential parameters for simulating the effects of climate change on hydrology. for both parameters, the large-scale simulated values from the global models will be the predictors for the downscaling. to downscale precipitation, the method developed by widmann et al. (2003), referred to as the "local scaling," will be used. a similar, local, method will be used for temperature. the downscaling applies to monthly means. temporal disagregation is performed following a modified version of the method in wood et
data.question: What is the main impact that climate change has on species?
data.text: for many species, the primary impact of climate change may be mediated through effects on synchrony with that species' food and habitat resources. more crucial than any absolute change in timing of a single species is the potential disruption of coordination in timing between the life cycles of predators and their prey, herbivorous insects and their host plants, parasitoids and their host insects, and insect pollinators with flowering plants (harrington et al. 1999, visser both 2005
data.question: How species differs?
data.text: species differ in their physiological tolerances, life-history strategies, probabilities of population extinctions and colonizations, and dispersal abilities. these individualistic traits likely underlie the high variability in strength of climate response across wild species, even among those subjected to similar climatic trends (parmesan yohe 2003
data.question: Which was the rise in temperature at Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in Colorado?
data.text: one example, inouye et al. (2000) reported results of monitoring between 1975 and 1999 at rocky mountain biological laboratory in colorado, where there has been a 1.4degc rise in local temperature
data.context: species differ in their physiological tolerances, life-history strategies, probabilities of population extinctions and colonizations, and dispersal abilities. these individualistic traits likely underlie the high variability in strength of climate response across wild species, even among those subjected to similar climatic trends (parmesan yohe 2003). for many species, the primary impact of climate change may be mediated through effects on synchrony with that species' food and habitat resources. more crucial than any absolute change in timing of a single species is the potential disruption of coordination in timing between the life cycles of predators and their prey, herbivorous insects and their host plants, parasitoids and their host insects, and insect pollinators with flowering plants (harrington et al. 1999, visser both 2005). in britain, the butterflyanthocharis cardamines has accurately tracked phenological shifts of its host plant, even when bud formation came two to three weeks early (sparks yates 1997). however, this may be the exception rather than the rule. visser both (2005) reviewed the literature and found only 11 species' interactions in which sufficient information existed to address the question of altered synchrony. nine of these were predator-prey interactions, and two were insect-host plant interactions. in spite of small sample size, an important trend emerged from this review: in the majority of cases (7 of 11), interacting species responded differently enough to climate warming that they are more out of synchrony now than at the start of the studies. in many cases, evidence for negative fitness consequences of the increasing asynchrony has been either observed directly or predicted from associated studies (visser both 2005). in one example, inouye et al. (2000) reported results of monitoring between 1975 and 1999 at rocky mountain biological laboratory in colorado, where there has been a 1.4degc rise in local temperature. the annual date ofsnowmelt and plant flowering did
data.question: How many people died in France during a 2003 torrential rainstorm?
data.text: this was shown in december 2003 when five people died in a torrential rainstorm with 90 mph winds in the south of france in a region that had suffered catastrophic floods the winter before
data.question: How many people were evacuated from their homes?
data.text: some 8000 people were evacuated from their homes, and roads and railway lines were closed
data.context: people in ordinary buildings can also be very vulnerable to storms. this was shown in december 2003 when five people died in a torrential rainstorm with 90 mph winds in the south of france in a region that had suffered catastrophic floods the winter before. one elderly man was found drowned in his basement flat while others were killed as their cars were washed off roads. some 8000 people were evacuated from their homes, and roads and railway lines were closed. flood waters caused two buildings to collapse in marseille, where 47 people were evacuated to a local sports centre. in lyon 200 people spent the night in a gymnasium after their train was cancelled. asn, the national nuclear authority, closed four rh o ne valley nuclear reactors because of the storm, as a precaution, showing again, as during the drought of august 2003, the vulnerability of this technology to extreme weather events. floods also disabled a water purification plant in the haute-loire region, leaving 4000 without drinking water. 9 these events give a taste of the range of impacts that can accrue from a bad storm. a detailed report on the causes of the event, requested by president chirac, cited global warming as a cause. chirac ordered that solutions to the problem of flooding be found that would reduce the scale of the impacts in future years.
data.question: Why a range of different modelling methods has been used?
data.text: a range of different modelling methods has been used to investigate the potential impacts of temperature and rainfall change on australian vegetation
data.question: Has included the additional impact of elevated CO2?
data.text: the additional impact of elevated co2 has not been included in these exercises, although most authors acknowledge its potential importance
data.question: The magnitude of this effect is highly dependent, however, on what?
data.text: the magnitude of this effect is, however, highly dependent on water and nutrient availability and under conditions of limiting nutrients such as n or p, enhanced growth at elevated co2may not occur at all
data.context: a range of different modelling methods has been used to investigate the potential impacts of temperature and rainfall change on australian vegetation. in general, the additional impact of elevated co2 has not been included in these exercises, although most authors acknowledge its potential importance. controlled experiments have consistently shown that under optimal growing conditions, plant growth is enhanced by elevated co2: known as the 'co2 fertilization effect'. the magnitude of this effect is, however, highly dependent on water and nutrient availability and under conditions of limiting nutrients such as n or p, enhanced growth at elevated co2may not occur at all. as much of australia's vegetation is subject to nutrient and/or water limitation, considerable uncertainty remains as to the magnitude of co2 fertilization on this continent. a further difficulty for predicting the
data.question: What is important to remember about data from Twitter streams?
data.text: it is important to remember that data from twitter streams only contain a slice of the collective action space
data.question: What is the criteria of the slice of Twitter data stream change?
data.text: what the slice looks like may change as other elements in the evolving environment interact with the users and managers of the stream
data.question: Who organized the Wave march?
data.text: the wave march was organized by stop climate chaos coalition (sccc), a tight coalition supported by organizations such as christian aid, tearfund, oxfam, greenpeace, world wildlife fund, and the catholic agency for overseas development
data.context: changing organizational dynamics over time as we shift the analytical focus in these directions, it is important to remember that data from twitter streams only contain a slice of the collective action space, and that what the slice looks like may change as other elements in the evolving environment interact with the users and managers of the stream. depending on where one cuts into a twitter stream, then, one may find different actors and different kinds of activity going on, from rallying in the midst of a demonstration, to debriefing and planning for next events at later stages. in these ways, some streams may operate as relatively long-running epistemic communities, rich with information and analysis, whereas others may serve as brief beacons of information and logistics contributing to the orchestration of a particular action within a bounded time frame. we discuss these three points individually in the following sections, illustrating our argument with reference to hashtags in two climate change marches. both marches were part of a family of national and transnational protests leading up to the cop15 conference, and both in their own way exemplify complex protest spaces. the first constituted a single coalitioncentered protest space leading up to a march held in london and glasgow 1 week before the cop15, on december 5, 2009. the wave march was organized by stop climate chaos coalition (sccc), a tight coalition supported by organizations such as christian aid, tearfund, oxfam, greenpeace, world wildlife fund, and the catholic agency for overseas development. part of the complexity of this case involves the balance of communication between the organizations and potential demonstrators as the coalition and
data.question: What does Dryzek's paper assess?
data.text: this paper demonstrates that this approach to discourse analysis can be usefully adopted for more specific topics such as climate change and development in the media
data.question: How does Dryzek research differ from the IPPR research?
data.text: this research differs from the ippr research, not only in focussing on climate change and development discourses, rather than just climate change discourses, but also in pinning down their content more precisely by using the discourse analysis approach of dryzek (2005
data.question: What will we further understand from the research?
data.text: understanding and discourses in other spheres of public life
data.context: this research differs from the ippr research, not only in focussing on climate change and development discourses, rather than just climate change discourses, but also in pinning down their content more precisely by using the discourse analysis approach of dryzek (2005). dryzek assessed the broad sweep of environmental discourses, classifying them in terms of: the basic entities constructed, assumptions about natural relationships, agents and their motives, and rhetorical devices. this paper demonstrates that this approach to discourse analysis can be usefully adopted for more specific topics such as climate change and development in the media. it is the contention of this research that the approach enables a more nuanced understanding of the portrayal of the issue within the media, and gives a less subjective basis from which to investigate the influences on that portrayal, and understand how it might affect understanding and discourses in other spheres of public life.
data.question: What can be seen from Table 3 and Fig. 8?
data.text: it can be seen that the performance of all budyko-type equations in simulating the mean annual runoff has been obviously improved due to the of the covariates for w specifically, with no covariate introduced, i.e. the parameter w treated as a constant, the nse of each budyko-type equation varies from 0.78 to 0.84, while with the explanatory variables introduced as the covariates of w the nses for all budyko-type equations reach up to 0.99
data.question: What can we understand according to the values of AIC or RMSE?
data.text: the wang-tang equation has the best quality of fitting effect, followed by the equations of zhang, fu and turc-pike, respectively
data.question: What the comparison between different periods indicate?
data.text: indicates that a constant parameter in the budyko-type equation is not able to capture the catchment properties in different periods
data.context: besides the model selection criterion of aic, root-mean-square error (rmse), relative error (re) of the volumetric fit between the observed mean annual runoff and the simulated, and nash- sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (nse; nash and sutcliffe, 1970 are also used to assess the performance of the four budyko-type equations in simulating the mean annual runoff. from table 3 and fig. 8 it can be seen that the performance of all budyko-type equations in simulating the mean annual runoff has been obviously improved due to the of the covariates for w specifically, with no covariate introduced, i.e. the parameter w treated as a constant, the nse of each budyko-type equation varies from 0.78 to 0.84, while with the explanatory variables introduced as the covariates of w the nses for all budyko-type equations reach up to 0.99. in addition, according to the values of aic or rmse, the wang-tang equation has the best quality of fitting effect, followed by the equations of zhang, fu and turc-pike, respectively. as shown in fig. 8 with the parameter treated as a constant, each of the four budyko-type equations has a poor performance in simulating the mean annual runoff in both early phase and late phase of the observed period. particularly, in the period of 1960s and early 1970s, the simulated mean annual runoffs are smaller than those observed, while in the period of 1990s and 2000s, the opposite is the case. this finding indicates that a constant parameter in the budyko-type equation is not able to capture the catchment properties in different periods. 4.4. assessing the impacts of climate change and human activities on runoff based on the relationship between the parameter w in each budyko-type equation and the explanatory variables, i.e. eq. (25) the decomposition method and the sensitivity method are
data.question: The situation at Ba'ja shows what?
data.text: that we are best advised to remain cautious in all interpretations
data.question: ince here the rubble slide phenomenon shows
data.text: different facets
data.question: The temporal sequence of these events remains to be what?
data.text: established and represents a major challenge due to the lack of organic materials suitable for radiometric dating
data.context: the situation at ba'ja shows that we are best advised to remain cautious in all interpretations, since here the rubble slide phenomenon shows different facets. at ba'ja, the rubble layers probably represent earthquake related debris. earthquake damage might even stem from two separate events that occurred towards the end of occupation at the site. at a later stage, the site then experienced a thick flow (up to 1.5m in thickness) of coarse rubble and gravel with interdigitated fine gravels, all transported by water. it appears that these water-borne sediments did not result from slope collapse, but were caused by flash flooding down the narrow gorge gebel and kinzel 2007.32 ). the temporal sequence of these events remains to be established and represents a major challenge due to the lack of organic materials suitable for radiometric dating.
data.question: What measurment was taken from the grid cells?
data.text: grid cells were then weighted by the spatial distribution of burned area within each region to compute region-specific annual mean forcing (fig. 3
data.question: What was quantified in the calculations?
data.text: we quantified the surface shortwave forcing (ssf) due to albedo changes during the first 11 years after fire for each region using monthly albedo trajectories and solar insolation
data.question: What data  was gathered from CRU-NCEP re-analysis?
data.text: we computed mean hourly diurnal cycles of solar insolation for every month at 0.5deg using cru-ncep reanalysis data35 from 2000 2010
data.context: surface shortwave forcing we quantified the surface shortwave forcing (ssf) due to albedo changes during the first 11 years after fire for each region using monthly albedo trajectories and solar insolation. for each region, albedo trajectories were computed as above for every month of the year using fires between 2001 and 2005. we computed mean hourly diurnal cycles of solar insolation for every month at 0.5deg using cru-ncep reanalysis data35 from 2000 2010. for every 0.5deg grid cell in every month during years 1 11 after a fire, solar absorption was calculated by multiplying the mean insolation with its region-specific absorptivity (1 albedo). we derived the ssf by subtracting the pre-fire from the post-fire value, and monthly values were then averaged to create an annual mean forcing. grid cells were then weighted by the spatial distribution of burned area within each region to compute region-specific annual mean forcing (fig. 3). ssf trajectories and their uncertainties were quantified in a similar manner to spring albedo (above). we calculated uncertainties for decade-total ssf using the same bootstrap technique on separate ssf trajectories from each fire year.
data.question: What is the position of project developers? They are well positioned to invest in renewable energy technologies
data.text: project developers are well placed to invest in renewable energy technologies across and within countries
data.question: How do project developers benefit? Benefit from a competitive advantage compared to other actors
data.text: this is largely because they benefit from a competitive advantage compared with other actors
data.question: How is the integration of investors? It is a diversified family with elements of private and state ownership
data.text: however, as a diverse family of investors with elements of private and state-ownership, their investment approaches differ across geographies and technologies and are impacted by a range of technology
data.context: project developers are well placed to invest in renewable energy technologies across and within countries. this is largely because they benefit from a competitive advantage compared with other actors. they are well integrated in the country and sector, and have experienced staff with the expertise to successfully manage complex projects while maximizing returns. however, as a diverse family of investors with elements of private and state-ownership, their investment approaches differ across geographies and technologies and are impacted by a range of technology, financial, and policy risks. typically, they are at the frontline of national energy system transformations and are greatly affected by policy changes, but at the same time face major financing challenges associated with restricted balance sheets following economic recession.45
data.question: What has increased interest in resolving climate-fire relationships in the US?
data.text: increased wildfire activity (e.g. number of starts, area burned, fire behaviour) across the western united states in recent decades has heightened interest in resolving climate-fire relationships
data.question: What variables were considered?
data.text: fire-specific biophysical variables including fire danger and water balance metrics were considered in addition to standard climate variables of monthly temperature, precipitation and drought indices to explicitly determine their optimal capacity to explain interannual variability in area burned
data.question: Why is considering biophysical variables important?
data.text: collectively, climate-fire relationships viewed through the lens of biophysical variables provide a more direct link to fuel flammability and wildfire activity than standard climate variables, thereby narrowing the gap in incorporating top-down climatic factors between empirical and process-based fire models
data.context: increased wildfire activity (e.g. number of starts, area burned, fire behaviour) across the western united states in recent decades has heightened interest in resolving climate-fire relationships. macroscale climate-fire relationships were examined in forested and non-forested lands for eight geographic area coordination centers in the western united states, using area burned derived from the monitoring trends in burn severity dataset (1984-2010). fire-specific biophysical variables including fire danger and water balance metrics were considered in addition to standard climate variables of monthly temperature, precipitation and drought indices to explicitly determine their optimal capacity to explain interannual variability in area burned. biophysical variables tied to the depletion of fuel and soil moisture and prolonged periods of elevated fire-danger had stronger correlations to area burned than standard variables antecedent to or during the fire season, particularly in forested systems. antecedent climate-fire relationships exhibited inter-region commonality with area burned in forested lands correlated with winter snow water equivalent and emergent drought in late spring. area burned in non-forested lands correlated with moisture availability in the growing season preceding the fire year. despite differences in the role of antecedent climate in preconditioning fuels, synchronous regional fire activity in forested and non-forested lands suggests that atmospheric conditions during the fire season unify fire activity and can compound or supersede antecedent climatic stressors. collectively, climate-fire relationships viewed through the lens of biophysical variables provide a more direct link to fuel flammability and wildfire activity than standard climate variables, thereby narrowing the gap in incorporating top-down climatic factors between empirical and process-based fire models. additional keywords: fire danger, management, modelling. received 1 august 2012, accepted 15 april 2013,
data.question: When do dead zones occur?
data.text: many dead zones occur seasonally when summer temperatures reach critical levels
data.question: What is linked to earlier hypoxia?
data.text: earlier stratification is linked to earlier hypoxia
data.question: What is predicted to happen due to increased temperatures and climate change?
data.text: extend the duration of seasonal hypoxia in the areas of the baltic, approximately doubling the hypoxic season by the end of the century
data.context: many dead zones occur seasonally when summer temperatures reach critical levels that induce the development of hypoxia. the earlier arrival of summer air temperatures is linked to stratification, earlier onset of hypoxia, and greater dead zone area, as observed in the black sea (ukrainskii popov, 2009). long-term climate warming can extend the period of summertime stratification (coma et al. 2009), and earlier stratification is linked to earlier hypoxia (murphy et al. 2011). for example, increased temperatures and changes in seasonality associated with climate change are predicted to extend the duration of seasonal hypoxia in the areas of the baltic, approximately doubling the hypoxic season by the end of the century (neumann et al. 2012).
data.question: What is summarized in Figure 6?
data.text: the impact of the leading reofs on surface meteorology is summarized in figure 6 in terms of an explained variance based on a linear regression that uses the first ten 250hpa v-wind reofs as predictors
data.question: Based on what approach are shaded values significant at the 5% (10%) level for surface temperature (precipitation) ?
data.text: shaded values are significant at the 5% (10%) level for surface temperature (precipitation) based on the monte carlo approach (see section 2
data.question: In the case of surface temperature, how many per cent of the monthly mean subseasonal variance is explained by the REOFs?
data.text: in the case of surface temperature, the reofs explain more than 60% of the monthly mean subseasonal variance over parts of northern europe, russia, and the western united states. in the case of precipitation, the explained variance is somewhat nosier and lower, although there are substantial regions in the north atlantic, europe, russian, southern eurasia, the north pacific, and the us and canada where the explained variance exceeds 30
data.context: the impact of the leading reofs on surface meteorology is summarized in figure 6 in terms of an explained variance based on a linear regression that uses the first ten 250hpa v-wind reofs as predictors. shaded values are significant at the 5% (10%) level for surface temperature (precipitation) based on the monte carlo approach (see section 2). in the case of surface temperature, the reofs explain more than 60% of the monthly mean subseasonal variance over parts of northern europe, russia, and the western united states. in the case of precipitation, the explained variance is somewhat nosier and lower, although there are substantial regions in the north atlantic, europe, russian, southern eurasia, the north pacific, and the us and canada where the explained variance exceeds 30%.
data.question: What are the names of the micro algae that populate the upper lit layers of the ocean?
data.text: elodie martinez, david antoine, fabrizio d ' ortenzio, bernard gentili phytoplankton
data.question: What do the microalgae affect?
data.text: affect oceanic and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels through photosynthetic carbon fixation
data.question: What do the findings provide?
data.text: our findings provide a context for the interpretation of contemporary changes in global phytoplankton and should improve predictions of their future evolution with climate change
data.context: elodie martinez, david antoine, fabrizio d ' ortenzio, bernard gentili phytoplankton -- the microalgae that populate the upper lit layers of the ocean -- fuel the oceanic food web and affect oceanic and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels through photosynthetic carbon fixation. here, we show that multidecadal changes in global phytoplankton abundances are related to basin-scale oscillations of the physical ocean, specifically the pacific decadal oscillation and the atlantic multidecadal oscillation. this relationship is revealed in ~20 years of satellite observations of chlorophyll and sea surface temperature. interaction between the main pycnocline and the upper ocean seasonal mixed layer is one mechanism behind this correlation. our findings provide a context for the interpretation of contemporary changes in global phytoplankton and should improve predictions of their future evolution with climate change.
data.question: What has garnered a great del of attention?
data.text: the so-called "ricardian" approach to analysis of climate impacts and adaptation in agriculture (r. mendelsohn, nordhaus, and shaw 1994; r. mendelsohn 2009) has garnered a great deal of attention in the literature, and it contrasts sharply with the biophysical models discussed above
data.question: What is the first core idea behind the work?
data.text: the first is that we can learn something about climate impacts and adaptation by looking at cross-section data and observing the long run equilibrium returns to agriculture in the context of differing climatic circumstances, while controlling for other factors
data.question: What is the second key idea?
data.text: the second key idea is that these long run effects should be capitalized in the value of land, so that the dependent variable is not yields, but instead is land rents
data.context: the so-called "ricardian" approach to analysis of climate impacts and adaptation in agriculture (r. mendelsohn, nordhaus, and shaw 1994; r. mendelsohn 2009) has garnered a great deal of attention in the literature, and it contrasts sharply with the biophysical models discussed above. there are two core ideas behind this work. the first is that we can learn something about climate impacts and adaptation by looking at cross-section data and observing the long run equilibrium returns to agriculture in the context of differing climatic circumstances, while controlling for other factors. the second key idea is that these long run effects should be capitalized in the value of land, so that the dependent variable is not yields, but instead is land rents. adaptation is implicit in this approach, and includes changes in the mix of agricultural activities, as well as changes in variable inputs and investments. it ignores the time path of adjustment to climate change, focusing solely on the new long run equilibrium. some of the insights into the distributional impacts of climate change offered by this ricardian approach have been discussed above. the final approach to modeling climate impacts and agricultural adaptation listed in table 1 is nick-named toa-md (claessens et al. 2012; j. m antle et al. 2004) and offers an interesting blend of the biophysical modeling approach and a statistically based version of the ricardian idea of different activities competing for a common land resource. the climateinduced impacts are obtained from a biophysical model, but the choice of activities, as well as the intensity of input use, are based on economic considerations as determined by the econometrically estimated supply equations (recall figure 1). having discussed a range of models, some allowing for primarily biophysical adaptation, and others focusing on economic adaptation, it is useful to consider a recent study (aisabokhae, mccarl, and zhang 2012) in which the authors seek to compare the relative economic
data.question: What can a qualitative approach be useful for?
data.text: however, to understand other factors that may promote or hinder behavior change, a qualitative approach can be invaluable
data.question: Is it better to use single-method approaches or mixed-method approaches?
data.text: researchers increasingly recognize the benefit of mixed-method approaches that include both quantitative and qualitative analyses
data.question: What do quantitative analyses emphasize? Qualitative analyses?
data.text: the two approaches are complementary: quantitative analyses emphasise the magnitude of an effect, and qualitative analyses emphasise the why and how of the effect
data.context: these analytic approaches convey whether or not objective behavioral change has occurred, and they may include quantitative information about the role of independent variables or covariates. however, to understand other factors that may promote or hinder behavior change, a qualitative approach can be invaluable. researchers increasingly recognize the benefit of mixed-method approaches that include both quantitative and qualitative analyses.98the two approaches are complementary: quantitative analyses emphasise the magnitude of an effect, and qualitative analyses emphasise the why and how of the effect. together, these approaches comprise the best overall way of determining how and why an outcome or intervention was successful or not.
data.question: Explain  Black Hills ?
data.text: the black hills are a relatively isolated mountain range that rises over 1000 m above the surrounding mixed-grass prairies of the northern great plains
data.question: What is the main part of the range?
data.text: the main part of the range is in southwestern south dakota with a smaller extension, the bear lodge mountains, in northeastern wyoming
data.question: What is the range of elevation?
data.text: elevations range from 1050 to 1350 m on the margins with the great plains to the highest point at 2207 m. the black hills support extensive ponderosa pine forests (shepperd and battaglia 2002
data.context: study area the black hills are a relatively isolated mountain range that rises over 1000 m above the surrounding mixed-grass prairies of the northern great plains. the main part of the range is in southwestern south dakota with a smaller extension, the bear lodge mountains, in northeastern wyoming (fig. 1). elevations range from 1050 to 1350 m on the margins with the great plains to the highest point at 2207 m. the black hills support extensive ponderosa pine forests (shepperd and battaglia 2002). white spruce picea glauca and aspen populus tremuloides are occasional co-dominants of higher and wetter forests in the northern and central hills. in most areas ponderosa pine is the only tree species present. annual precipitation declines from
data.question: Why can false alarms arise?
data.text: false alarms can arise because signals interpreted as indicative of approaching bifurcation are not statistically robust or have other causes
data.question: What can affect the significance of any trend?
data.text: comparison of early warning methods being applied by different groups is limited44,52, and some uncertainty remains over their sensitivity to parameter choices used in the statistical analyses (such as filtering bandwidth and sliding-window length
data.context: false alarms can arise because signals interpreted as indicative of approaching bifurcation are not statistically robust or have other causes13. comparison of early warning methods being applied by different groups is limited44,52, and some uncertainty remains over their sensitivity to parameter choices used in the statistical analyses (such as filtering bandwidth and sliding-window length), which can affect the significance, and even the sign, of any trend10 (figs 3 and 4). a few guidelines can help guard against false alarms12. before trying to extract warning indicators, where data is of sufficiently high temporal resolution to be sampling fast decay modes in the system in question, it can be aggregated such that the resulting time step is longer than the time it takes non-critical modes to decay, but still short enough to sample the slow decay of the critical mode8,12. next the data should be de-trended, with a filtering bandwidth and
data.question: How does sea ice affect the Canadian Arctic coastline?
data.text: the coastline of the canadian arctic is characterized by biophysical processes and socio-economic activities that are greatly influenced by sea ice
data.question: To what conclusion does the mentioned study come regarding the sea-ice cover in the summer?
data.text: this trend is projected to continue under scenarios of future climate change, such that some studies project only very limited summer sea-ice cover by the end of this century
data.question: How is the decrease of sea-ice over the last 3 to 4 decades documented?
data.text: the past 3 to 4 decades have seen a significant decrease in the extent of seasonal sea-ice cover, as documented by satellite imagery (e.g., reference 23; see 'fisheries' chapter
data.context: the coastline of the canadian arctic is characterized by biophysical processes and socio-economic activities that are greatly influenced by sea ice, which at present covers most of the coastal, interisland channel, and ocean regions for 8 to 12 months of the year. the past 3 to 4 decades have seen a significant decrease in the extent of seasonal sea-ice cover, as documented by satellite imagery (e.g., reference 23; see 'fisheries' chapter). this trend is projected to continue under scenarios of future climate change, such that some studies project only very limited summer sea-ice cover by the end of this century.(24)
data.question: Over the Great Plains of the United States, when is rainfall observed to reach its maximum?
data.text: rainfall is observed to reach maximum during the summer
data.question: What effect does a strong northward moisture transport along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental range have on the Great Plains?
data.text: this summertime northward moisture transport provides a moisture source for rainfall over the great plains of the central united states
data.question: Figure 5b shows a negative value of moisture transport difference near the GPLLJ's transport core, in response to LAWP-SAWP. What is the significance of this?
data.text: this means that an anomalously large (small) awp reduces (enhances) the gpllj's northward moisture transport
data.context: the gpllj's meridional moisture transport from the ctrl run and its response to lawp-sawp at 30degn during the summer are shown in fig. 5. a strong northward moisture transport is located along the eastern slopes of the sierra madre oriental range (fig. 5a). this summertime northward moisture transport provides a moisture source for rainfall over the great plains of the central united states where rainfall is observed to reach maximum during the summer (e.g., mo and berbery 2004; mo et al. 2005; ruiz-barradas and nigam 2005; nigam and ruiz-barradas 2006). figure 5b shows a negative value of moisture transport difference near the gpllj's transport core, in response to lawp-sawp. this means that an anomalously large (small) awp reduces (enhances) the gpllj's northward moisture transport. the reduction (enhancement) of the gpllj's northward moisture transport is associated with a decreased (increased) rainfall in the
data.question: Describe pastoralism and show how  it is  affected by climatic conditions ?
data.text: pastoralism or animal herding is a livelihood practised on an estimated 25% of the global land area, providing 10% of the world's meat production (unpfii, 2010). as a livelihood system, pastoralism enables people to cope with low productivity environments that are often characterized by climatic fluctuations and substantial variation in the timing, intensity and nature of precipitation between and within years
data.question: With respect to African pastoralist communities, what observations do the IPCC make?
data.text: with respect to african pastoralist communities, the ipcc noted in the ar4 that: mobility remains the most important pastoralist adaptation to spatial and temporal variations in rainfall, and in drought years many communities make use of fall-back grazing areas unused in 'normal' dry seasons because of distance, land tenure constraints, animal disease problems or conflict. but encroachment on and individuation of communal grazing lands, and the desire to settle to access human services and food aid, have severely limited pastoral mobility. (ipcc, 2007: 293) subsequent literature on pastoralism in the east african context has stressed the importance of traditional knowledge as a basis for climate change adaptation among pastoral communities, while also noting that external interventions may unintentionally undermine the ability of traditional knowledge-based systems 55
data.context: pastoralism or animal herding is a livelihood practised on an estimated 25% of the global land area, providing 10% of the world's meat production (unpfii, 2010). as a livelihood system, pastoralism enables people to cope with low productivity environments that are often characterized by climatic fluctuations and substantial variation in the timing, intensity and nature of precipitation between and within years. shared characteristics of nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoral systems include the following (hesse and cotula, 2006):  livestock depend on natural pastures, while rainfall is the most important factor determining the quantity and quality of pastures and the availability of water.  herds are composed mainly of indigenous livestock breeds.  livestock represent more than just economic assets, they are also social, cultural and spiritual assets, and define social identity.  natural resources are managed through common property regimes where access to pastures and water is negotiated and dependent on flexible and reciprocal arrangements. with respect to african pastoralist communities, the ipcc noted in the ar4 that: mobility remains the most important pastoralist adaptation to spatial and temporal variations in rainfall, and in drought years many communities make use of fall-back grazing areas unused in 'normal' dry seasons because of distance, land tenure constraints, animal disease problems or conflict. but encroachment on and individuation of communal grazing lands, and the desire to settle to access human services and food aid, have severely limited pastoral mobility. (ipcc, 2007: 293) subsequent literature on pastoralism in the east african context has stressed the importance of traditional knowledge as a basis for climate change adaptation among pastoral communities, while also noting that external interventions may unintentionally undermine the ability of traditional knowledge-based systems 55
data.question: What is the Climate Science Society?
data.text: let us close this preface with some personal reflections on what is necessary for the climate science community to produce the highest quality numerical models. start by noting the obvious: ocean climate models are not conceived one year, to be then publicly released and supported the next
data.question: What is the climate model?
data.text: nstead, they take years, indeed decades, of creative passion and obsession from many scientists and engineers. it is only via patience and persistence that an ocean climate model is successfully realized
data.question: What are climate model equations?
data.text: there are many phases of development that an ocean climate model sees. the first phase can be considered a vision phase, where model equations are written down and then debated by theorists and modelers alike. material in parts 1 and 2 of this book address this phase. upon arriving at a set of suitable equations, one moves onto the prototype phase, where the continuum equations are discretized xxii preface
data.context: let us close this preface with some personal reflections on what is necessary for the climate science community to produce the highest quality numerical models. start by noting the obvious: ocean climate models are not conceived one year, to be then publicly released and supported the next. instead, they take years, indeed decades, of creative passion and obsession from many scientists and engineers. it is only via patience and persistence that an ocean climate model is successfully realized. there are many phases of development that an ocean climate model sees. the first phase can be considered a vision phase, where model equations are written down and then debated by theorists and modelers alike. material in parts 1 and 2 of this book address this phase. upon arriving at a set of suitable equations, one moves onto the prototype phase, where the continuum equations are discretized xxii preface
data.question: What is Mediterranean?
data.text: the mediterranean is a region that will be badly affected by climate change
data.question: Which is the reference for above content?
data.text: http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: what are the places are called Mediterranean?
data.text: these included the first century ad villa julio polibio in pompeii, the sixteenth century pallazzo gravina in naples, the eighteenth century villa campolieto in herculaneum, the twentieth century modern movement icon building of villa mala parte on capri, a 1950s ' vernacular villa on capri and the 1980s ' ' bioclimatic ' building of the instituto motori in naples
data.context: the extent to which buildings can and do evolve their ability to control the climate is well demonstrated in the buildings of the naples region, looking at the evolution of buildings over two millennia to see whether they really did evolve to perform better in the bay area, famous for its architecture. the mediterranean is a region that will be badly affected by climate change. for this reason we looked at the palette of environmental strategies used in cooling a range of buildings through time in the region of naples. these included the first century ad villa julio polibio in pompeii, the sixteenth century pallazzo gravina in naples, the eighteenth century villa campolieto in herculaneum, the twentieth century modern movement icon building of villa mala parte on capri, a 1950s ' vernacular villa on capri and the 1980s ' ' bioclimatic ' building of the instituto motori in naples. what we found was that the simple roman building evolved, over the following two millennia, into extremely sophisticated and efficient passive building types, but surprisingly the most sophisticated was that of the baroque period in the late eighteenth century, since when the passive design skills of the master builders of the region appear to be in decline. this case study highlights the interesting fact that vernacular architectures of the world appeared only to have discovered the climatic benefits of commonly building homes into the ground after ad 1000, be it in the mediterranean or in the middle east. more free ebooks http://fast-file.blogspot.com
data.question: The notion of conserving what as they presently exist may soon be obsolete?
data.text: the notion of conserving communities and ecosystems as they presently exist may soon be obsolete
data.question: Why will changes in temperature over continental areas be higher, possibly more than double the global average, in some areas?
data.text: changes in temperature over continental areas will be higher, possibly more than double the global average in some areas, because sea surface temperatures are lower and change less
data.question: Those concerned about biodiversity need to become an important voice in what?
data.text: first, those concerned about biodiversity need to become an important voice in the global warming debate
data.context: the notion of conserving communities and ecosystems as they presently exist may soon be obsolete. projections of human-induced climate changes and evidence of past rapid climate shifts indicate that patterns of biodiversity may change over landscape scales over time frames as short as decades. new, dynamic conservation strategies are needed to accommodate the natural and human-induced changes in climate that present evidence suggests are inevitable. at the same time, future climate change must be constrained. if it is not, even expanded, dynamic conservation efforts will ultimately be overwhelmed. the stakes are high. the political barometer of average global temperature increase in 2100 masks the magnitude of possible effects on biodiversity in both time and space. changes in temperature over continental areas will be higher, possibly more than double the global average in some areas, because sea surface temperatures are lower and change less. the end-of-the-century global average misleads in time because, under present greenhouse-gas emissions trends and most reduction scenarios, warming will continue well beyond 2100. biodiversity will have to cope with the ultimate temperature change, not just the end-of-the-century political yardstick. of course, climate change is much more than just temperature change, so biodiversity also will be confronted with changing rainfall patterns, declining water balances, increased extreme climate events, and changes in oscillations such as el nino. a two-pronged response is required. first, those concerned about biodiversity need to become an important voice in the global warming debate. biodiversity scientists have strong reason to become an active constituency and to advocate that global greenhouse-gas emissions be reduced in real terms. second, we must use our skills to develop conservation strategies to help biodiversity survive the climate changes that will result from greenhouse-gas emissions, both those already in the atmosphere and those that are apparently unavoidable under present abatement agreements.
data.question: What is the percentage  of male and female between  31 to 40 years?
data.text: 66% were males while 34% were females
data.question: Why More experienced and matured farmers were administered to questionnaires?
data.text: because they are better at distinguishing climate change from merely inter-annual variation of weather scenarios
data.question: What are the human activities that changed environment?
data.text: environment has been changing over the years due human activities such as farming, deforestation either by cutting down of trees for fuel, roofing, farmlands extension, furniture; overgrazing, bush burning, urbanization and industrialization
data.context: results and discussion in this study about 98% percent of the inhabitants of the villages studied were farmers even those who claimed not to be farmers engage themselves in little farming activities. out of those studied 66% were males while 34% were females and 11.5% of the respondents fall between 31 to 40 years while the remaining 81% falls between the 41 to 65 years of age. more experienced and matured farmers were administered questionnaires to because they are better at distinguishing climate change from merely inter-annual variation of weather scenarios. considering the issues of environmental change, majority (86%) of the respondents opine that the environment has been changing over the years due human activities such as farming, deforestation either by cutting down of trees for fuel, roofing, farmlands extension, furniture; overgrazing, bush burning, urbanization and industrialization. in analyzing the issues of climate change 85.5% of the respondents agreed that the environment and the climate in particular are changing due to diverse human
data.question: What does higher altitudes lead to?
data.text: leads to a high diversity in species numbers
data.question: What is the lower montane zone between?
data.text: 1300 and 2000 m above sea level (asl
data.question: What is subalpine forests zone between?
data.text: 2800-3000m asl
data.context: as shown in figure 12 species numbers are highest in moderately cultivated or disturbed areas and not in natural, completely untouched areas. in this context the second peak at 2600 m at the lower border of the subalpine zone is of interest. in this altitude fire starts to be an important ecological factor on mt. kilimanjaro, creating a mosaic of different fire induced stages of forest, shrub and tussock grassland communities. this high diversity in habitats compared with the closed forest at lower altitudes and the monotonous heath lands at higher altitudes - leads to a high diversity in species numbers. this trend is enhanced by the occurrence of fire-tolerating species, which show the same bimodal altitudinal distribution with a gap in the wettest central forest parts where fires are uncommon. they can therefore be regarded as fire indicators. 7.5.2 influence of fire on regeneration, composition and structure of forests forest fires are frequent in the subalpine zone and also, less frequent in the submontane and forest fires are frequent in the subalpine zone and also, less frequent in the submontane and lower montane zone between 1300 and 2000 m above sea level (asl). fires in the submontane and lower montane forests are mostly set by people. in these forests, fire changes species composition and structure of the tree as well as the herb layer (hemp, a. in press). this is of major importance for forest regeneration, as the dense cover of bracken impedes the sprouting of trees. in the subalpine forests between 2800-3000m asl fire causes sharp discontinuities in the floristic composition and structure26. once erica excelsa has established, regeneration of a broad-leaved forest becomes more and more improbable (hemp beck 2001). if the frequency of fire becomes too high it degrades erica excelsa forests into bush lands in which e. excelsa is substituted by e. trimera and e. arborea this erica bush extends between
data.question: Say Pacific Islanders?
data.text: zealand, but not explicit policies to accept pacific islanders who have been displaced due to rising sea levels
data.question: How are fieldwork interviews conducted?
data.text: interviews from fieldwork revealed mixed views on migration, ranging from the most common perception of resignation and despair, to hope that the international community will rally to effectively battle climate change and prevent sea level rise and other harrowing consequences
data.question: Climate Say sea level rise?
data.text: some believe that climate negotiations that set aside sufficient adaptation financing could preempt a need to migrate due to changing climate and sea level rise: "the international community needs to do something to help us. we're not responsible for climate change, so our country cannot disappear. the other countries need to fix this problem. "103
data.context: zealand, but not explicit policies to accept pacific islanders who have been displaced due to rising sea levels. interviews from fieldwork revealed mixed views on migration, ranging from the most common perception of resignation and despair, to hope that the international community will rally to effectively battle climate change and prevent sea level rise and other harrowing consequences. some believe that climate negotiations that set aside sufficient adaptation financing could preempt a need to migrate due to changing climate and sea level rise: "the international community needs to do something to help us. we're not responsible for climate change, so our country cannot disappear. the other countries need to fix this problem. "103