a summary of methods is provided below and a detailed description of methods is included in the supplementary information .
the toxin nanosponges were prepared by fusing rbc membrane vesicles on preformed poly(lactic - co - glycolic acid ) ( plga ) nanoparticles through an established extrusion process .
the size of the nanosponges was obtained from three dynamic light scattering ( dls ) measurements using a malvern zen 3600 zetasizer .
the morphology of the nanosponges after absorbing toxins was measured by transmission electron microscopy ( tem ) . for preparation of human rbc nanosponges ,
the rbcs were collected from whole human blood ( bioreclamation ) and the characterization results were shown in fig .
reconstitution of the lyophilized samples was performed by solubilizing the samples in water and the characterization results were included in fig .
the in vitro toxin neutralization ability of the nanosponges was examined by mixing 3 g of -toxin with 200 l of 1 mg / ml nanosponges for 30 min , followed by adding into 1.8 ml of 5% purified mouse rbcs .
the in vitro toxin absorption capacity of the nanosponges was determined through titrating -toxin to a fixed amount of nanosponges .
the interaction of the nanosponges with cells was examined by a scanning fluorescence microscopy by incubating fluorescent nanosponges and rbc membrane vesicles with human umbilical vein endothelial cells ( huvec ) .
the in vitro cellular cytotoxicity of nanosponge - sequestered toxins was examined by incubating nanosponges of different concentrations with varied amounts of -toxin , streptolysin - o , and melittin for 30 min , followed by adding to huvecs for 24 hr .
the in vivo toxin neutralization ability of the nanosponges was tested through subcutaneous injection of the nanosponge / toxin mixture to the flank region of nude mice , followed by histological analyses .
on - site neutralization of -toxin by the nanosponges was conducted by subcutaneously injecting 50 l of 36 g / ml of -toxin solution , immediately followed by a 100 l injection of 2 mg / ml nanosponges .
the mice were imaged 3 days later for visualization of skin lesion formation ( fig s11 ) .
the in vivo detoxification efficacy was tested through intravenous injection of nanosponges before or after administration of a lethal dose of -toxin to icr mice , followed by monitoring the survival rate of the mice .
for the in vivo hepatotoxicity study , one group of mice was sacrificed on day 3 following the injection of the toxin - bound nanosponges and another group was sacrificed on day 7 .
 detoxification treatments such as toxin - targeted anti - virulence therapy1 , 2 offer ways to cleanse the body of virulence factors that are caused by bacterial infections , venomous injuries , and biological weaponry . because existing detoxification platforms such as antisera3 , monoclonal antibodies4 , small - molecule inhibitors5 , 6 , and molecularly imprinted polymers7 act by targeting the molecular structures of the toxins , customized treatments are required for different diseases . here 
 we show a biomimetic toxin nanosponge that functions as a toxin decoy in vivo . 
 the nanosponge , which consists of a polymeric nanoparticle core surrounded by red blood cell membranes , absorbs membrane - damaging toxins and diverts them away from their cellular targets . in a mouse model , 
 the nanosponges markedly reduce the toxicity of staphylococcal alpha - hemolysin ( -toxin ) and thus improve the survival rate of toxin - challenged mice . 
 this biologically inspired toxin nanosponge presents a detoxification treatment that can potentially treat a variety of injuries and diseases caused by pore - forming toxins . 
Methods
Supplementary Material