mosquitoes , the most important group of nuisance pest insects , due to their diversity and abundance , demonstrated vector competence and frequent infection in nature , they are regarded as one of the most important vectors of diseases ( sardelis et al .
2008a , b ) . tracking the movement of mosquitoes in their natural habitat is critically important for understanding their basic biology , demography , ethology and vector - borne disease control as well as prevention .
animal marking have been used since 218 bc when fisher and peterson used banding to distinguish ownership of birds ( fisher and peterson 1964 ) .
unfortunately , for marking insects , most marking techniques for vertebrate , such as bands , brands , tattoos , tags , notches , paints are not practical because they are tedious , time - consuming , heavy and costly ( southwood 1978 , basavaraju et al .
insect marking for scientific studies dates back to 1920 , since then , a variety of marking techniques , paints , dyes etc .
were used to in studies of insect population dynamics ( geiger et al . 1919 , dudley and searles 1923 ) .
2007 ) , paints ( trpis and hausermann 1986 , niebylski and meek 1989 , service 1993 , bellini et al .
2007 ) , and radioactive isotopes ( jenkins 1949 , abdel - malek 1966 , lindquist et al . 1967 , hood - nowotny et al .
however , for study on the behavioral characteristics of post bloodmeal , existing techniques tend to be labor intensive , as they require rearing mosquitoes , marking them in large quantities , and then inspecting large numbers of individuals to detect recaptures ( walker et al .
furthermore , compared with natural populations , rearing mosquitoes , marking them in large quantities by using artificial methods , and releasing them may change their behavior ( reisen et al .
2003 , silver 2008 ) . for study the behavior characteristics after blood meal , these methods are not ideal
however , the problem is how to mark breeding mosquitoes without inhibiting their normal biology , and with long - term retention after blood meal , it is still bothering most biological scientists .
( 2014 ) marked adult mosquitoes by feeding them on cow injected with isotope p and subsequent ecological investigations .
in some studies , successfully labeled mosquitoes by feeding them on radioactive animal blood ( hassett and jenkins 1951 ) , use of large bait animals for marking wild population of adult anophels aquasalis injected with a dose of 1.7 curies of p ( bruce - chwatt 1956 ) .
however , such high dosage would be dangerous to the animal ( winteringham london meeting , 1953 ) .
the aim of the current study was to develop a marking technique as an internal marker to mark post blood meal mosquitoes by using stable phosphate isotope p and determine the optimal concentration of it . before experimenting , 6 healthy rabbits ( 2 kg ) were selected and physically examined by veterinarian .
the injection method of normal saline solution to the rabbits was according to smith et al .
( 1951 ) , i e. an isotonic buffered saline solution , containing different concentration of na2hpo4 , was injected intravenously of rabbits . the dosage for no . 1 , 2 rabbits , no . 3 , 4 rabbits , no .
5 rabbit and no . 6 were 0.2 mci , 0.4 mci , 0.8 mci and 1.7 mci , respectively .
for the negative control , 1 healthy rabbits was injected with isotonic buffered saline solution without na2hpo4 . then 20 to 50 emerged female cx .
pipiens fed on these rabbits at 6 , 12 , 24 , 48 , 72 h and 120 h after injected with na2hpo4 . at the same time , 0.2 ml of blood was extracted from rabbits , as well as at 16 and 32 days for radioactivity level measure .
pipiens radioactivity levels were measured at 2 h , 6 h , 12 h , 24 h , 48 h , 72 h and 120 h after blood meal .
the measurement of radioactivity was conducted using a liquid scintillation counters ( model ysj-76 ) . before injection of p to rabbits , to normalize background radiation , radioactivity level of 30 emerged adult cx .
mosquitoes tested were anesthesia with ether , placed in a  bell counter tube of the vitriol chambers for 1 minute , as for the rabbits blood test , 0.2 ml of blood was dipped on the paper in the tinfoil sample plates , counts that exceeding 50% of the background was as the standard that were labeled . at the 2 day after no .
6 rabbit was injected with na2hpo4 , up to 5 g feces was placed into a container with 300 ml of tap water and cx .
pipiens larvae and pupae inside . as the negative control , placed 5 g feces of the rabbit without injected na2hpo4 into the water .
the experimental project was reviewed and approved by the ethical committee of shandong academy of medical sciences ( jinan , shandong ) .
urine and feces of the rabbits were collected and sent to the institute of radiation medicine , shandong academy of medical sciences for appropriate processing to prevent spread of the isotope .
before experimenting , 6 healthy rabbits ( 2 kg ) were selected and physically examined by veterinarian .
the injection method of normal saline solution to the rabbits was according to smith et al .
( 1951 ) , i e. an isotonic buffered saline solution , containing different concentration of na2hpo4 , was injected intravenously of rabbits . the dosage for no . 1 , 2 rabbits , no . 3 , 4 rabbits , no .
6 were 0.2 mci , 0.4 mci , 0.8 mci and 1.7 mci , respectively .
for the negative control , 1 healthy rabbits was injected with isotonic buffered saline solution without na2hpo4 . then 20 to 50 emerged female cx .
pipiens fed on these rabbits at 6 , 12 , 24 , 48 , 72 h and 120 h after injected with na2hpo4 . at the same time , 0.2 ml of blood was extracted from rabbits , as well as at 16 and 32 days for radioactivity level measure .
pipiens radioactivity levels were measured at 2 h , 6 h , 12 h , 24 h , 48 h , 72 h and 120 h after blood meal .
the measurement of radioactivity was conducted using a liquid scintillation counters ( model ysj-76 ) . before injection of p to rabbits , to normalize background radiation , radioactivity level of 30 emerged adult cx .
mosquitoes tested were anesthesia with ether , placed in a  bell counter tube of the vitriol chambers for 1 minute , as for the rabbits blood test , 0.2 ml of blood was dipped on the paper in the tinfoil sample plates , counts that exceeding 50% of the background was as the standard that were labeled .
at the 2 day after no . 6 rabbit was injected with na2hpo4 , up to 5 g feces was placed into a container with 300 ml of tap water and cx .
pipiens larvae and pupae inside . as the negative control , placed 5 g feces of the rabbit without injected na2hpo4 into the water .
the experimental project was reviewed and approved by the ethical committee of shandong academy of medical sciences ( jinan , shandong ) .
urine and feces of the rabbits were collected and sent to the institute of radiation medicine , shandong academy of medical sciences for appropriate processing to prevent spread of the isotope .
pipiens and rabbits blood was measured , the background was determined as was 1213 counts per minute ( cpm ) , i e counts that exceeded 50% of background ( > 20 cpm ) were considered positive . within 5 days after no
pipiens fed on the rabbits , among the 222 mosquitoes blood feeding , except one mosquito was fewer than 20 cpm , the others 221 mosquitoes were labeled no matter how much dosage of na2hpo4 was injected .
the more dosage the rabbits injected with na2hpo4 , the higher radioactive levels of cx .
the radioactive levels started to decrease from the 48 hours ( 2 day ) after injection . compared with radioactive level at 48 h ,
though the radioactive level of labeled mosquitoes was higher than background at 72 h , 96h and 120 h , radioactive level decreased to a lower level ( figs . 1 , 2 , 3 ) . levels of radioactivity of culex pipiens after fed on no . 1 , 2 rabbits after injection of p ( 0.2 mci ) legend 6 , 12 , 24 , 48 , 72 , 120 : mosquito fed time after injection p into rabbit ( hours ) levels of radioactivity of culex pipiens after fed on no . 3 , 4 rabbits after injection of p ( 0.4 mci ) legend 6 , 12 , 24 , 48 , 72 , 120 : mosquito fed time after injection p into rabbit ( hours ) levels of radioactivity of culex pipiens after fed on no .
5 rabbits after injection of p ( 0.8 mci ) legend 6 , 24 , 48 , 72 , 120 : mosquito fed time after injection p into rabbit ( hours ) the radioactive level decreased very fast in the blood of rabbits . at 6 hour the radioactive level was 100% , the radioactive level decreased 2648% , 6075% and 9597% at the 2 , the 5 and the 32 day , respectively ( table 1 ) .
radioactivity levels of rabbit blood after injection of p ( 1.7 mci ) at different time cpm = pulse per minute , - do not measured no .
1 to 4 rabbits showed good health , have no change on body temperature and body weight .
on the 2 day , no . 5 rabbit abortion , and gave birth to 2 died bunnies , the radioactive level was 15 mr / h at 5 cm away from these died bunnies .
the no . 5 rabbit presented no abnormalities and was dissected at the 143 day after injected with na2hpo4 , no pathological changes were found in the internal organs .
the radioactivity level of liver was measured , which decreased to similar level of background .
6 rabbit showed diarrhea , appetite loss , weight loss and other symptoms . at the 31 days , and no special lesions
it still presented a higher radioactivity level in liver , spleen , intestine , heart , lung , kidney , muscle etc ( table 2 ) .
6 rabbit tissue after injection of p ( 1.7 mci ) 31 days background radiation= 22 cpm at the 2 day after no .
6 rabbit was placed into a container , at the 2 and 7 day , there were total 39 adult cx .
pipiens mosquitoes emerged , among them , 22 ( 56.5% ) were marked , their cpm was 21875 , the average was 323 .
pipiens and rabbits blood was measured , the background was determined as was 1213 counts per minute ( cpm ) , i e counts that exceeded 50% of background ( > 20 cpm ) were considered positive . within 5 days after no
pipiens fed on the rabbits , among the 222 mosquitoes blood feeding , except one mosquito was fewer than 20 cpm , the others 221 mosquitoes were labeled no matter how much dosage of na2hpo4 was injected .
the more dosage the rabbits injected with na2hpo4 , the higher radioactive levels of cx .
the radioactive levels started to decrease from the 48 hours ( 2 day ) after injection . compared with radioactive level at 48 h ,
though the radioactive level of labeled mosquitoes was higher than background at 72 h , 96h and 120 h , radioactive level decreased to a lower level ( figs . 1 , 2 , 3 ) . levels of radioactivity of culex pipiens after fed on no . 1 , 2 rabbits after injection of p ( 0.2 mci ) legend 6 , 12 , 24 , 48 , 72 , 120 : mosquito fed time after injection p into rabbit ( hours ) levels of radioactivity of culex pipiens after fed on no . 3 , 4 rabbits after injection of p ( 0.4 mci ) legend 6 , 12 , 24 , 48 , 72 , 120 : mosquito fed time after injection p into rabbit ( hours ) levels of radioactivity of culex pipiens after fed on no .
5 rabbits after injection of p ( 0.8 mci ) legend 6 , 24 , 48 , 72 , 120 : mosquito fed time after injection p into rabbit ( hours )
the radioactive level was 100% , the radioactive level decreased 2648% , 6075% and 9597% at the 2 , the 5 and the 32 day , respectively ( table 1 ) .
radioactivity levels of rabbit blood after injection of p ( 1.7 mci ) at different time cpm = pulse per minute , - do not measured
1 to 4 rabbits showed good health , have no change on body temperature and body weight . on the 2 day ,
5 rabbit abortion , and gave birth to 2 died bunnies , the radioactive level was 15 mr / h at 5 cm away from these died bunnies .
the no . 5 rabbit presented no abnormalities and was dissected at the 143 day after injected with na2hpo4 , no pathological changes were found in the internal organs .
the radioactivity level of liver was measured , which decreased to similar level of background . however , no .
6 rabbit showed diarrhea , appetite loss , weight loss and other symptoms . at the 31 days , and no special lesions were found in internal organs after dissection .
it still presented a higher radioactivity level in liver , spleen , intestine , heart , lung , kidney , muscle etc ( table 2 ) .
6 rabbit tissue after injection of p ( 1.7 mci ) 31 days background radiation= 22 cpm
at the 2 day after no . 6 rabbit was injected with na2hpo4 . after 5 g feces of no .
6 rabbit was placed into a container , at the 2 and 7 day , there were total 39 adult cx .
pipiens mosquitoes emerged , among them , 22 ( 56.5% ) were marked , their cpm was 21875 , the average was 323 .
we could see that the more dosage the rabbits injected with na2hpo4 , the higher radioactive levels of cx .
the radioactive levels started to decrease from the 48 hours ( 2 day ) after injection . compared with radioactive level at 48 h ,
though the radioactive level of labeled mosquitoes was higher than background at 72 h , 96 h and 120 h , radioactive level decreased to a lower level .
the more injection of na2hpo4 into rabbits , the higher radioactivity level in the blood and the slower decrease , was also consistent with the labeling condition of cx .
1 , 2 , 3 ) . no . 1 to 4 rabbits showed good health , but as for the no .
5 rabbit injected with 0.8 mci of na2hpo4 , on the 2 day , abortion , and gave birth to 2 died bunnies . at the 143 day , the no .
5 rabbit presented no abnormalities , no pathological changes were found in the internal organs .
6 rabbit injected with 1.7 mci of na2hpo4 showed diarrhea , appetite loss , weight loss and other symptoms . at the 31 days
, it still presented a higher radioactivity level in liver , spleen , intestine , heart , lung , kidney , muscle etc .
therefore , the appropriate concentration for not only marking mosquitoes but also no harm to rabbits was not more than 0.4 mci .
stable isotopes occur naturally in the environment , are safe and non - invasive , pose no health or environmental risks ( hood - nowotny and knols 2007 ) . in medical research ,
most stable isotopes are non - toxic and are routinely used for mosquito feeding trials , in which human adults are 
labelled up through supplementary feeding with stable isotopes , may be useful for host seeking behavior and repellent testing , etc .
several tracers were studied , such as co , sr , zn , i , ca and p , whereas p was the most applied radioisotope for tagging due to its short half - life , safety , activity and easy of detection ( obrien and wolfe 1964 ) .
hasset and jenkins ( 1951 ) also performed a detailed study of the conditions affecting mosquitoes labelled with p and compared stages , p concentrations and age .
the filarial larvae , setaria digitata linstow was marked after adult mosquitoes ( armigerea obturbans walker ) fed on cows or men infected with microfilaria , that larvae of mosquitoes were reared in water containing 1 c of p / ml ( dissanaike et al . 1957 ) .
toxicity to the insect was also a serious problem to be considered in many studies ( quarterman et al .
the radioisotopes ca and i were very toxic when fed to adult houseflies at 1 c / ml of milk , whereas p was satisfactory ( quarterman et al .
1954 ) . by using n - labeled potassium nitrate and c - labeled glucose to mark larval mosquitoes
, there were no consistent effects of isotopic enrichment on immature mosquito survival or adult mosquito body size ( hamer et al .
although fluorescent dyes or powders are also suitable for marking mosquitoes ( takken et al .
1998 , mccall et al . 2001 , pates 2002 , lapointe 2008 , baber et al .
2010 ) , and no effect of these dyes and powders on performance of ant ( pogonomyrmex owyheei ) , mountain pine beetle ( dendroctonus ponderosae ) , grasshopper ( melanoplus spp . ) , ae .
aegypti , anopheles sinensis in some studies ( porter and jorgenson 1980 , linton et al .
others have found a reduced longevity , behavioural response or survival of opine parasitoids ( diachasmimorpha spp . ) , weevils , ae .
aegypti , asian citrus psyllid ( diaphorina citri ) and codling moths ( laspeyresia pomonella ) ( sheppard et al .
be caused of the restrictions of the retention , most studies researches primarily focus on dispersal of nulliparous female mosquitoes during the initial host - seeking event and sometimes a second host - seeking event ( hamer et al .
, mosquitoes were successfully marked after feeding on hosts injected with trace element rb and cs ( anderson et al .
they are not radioactive , safe for workers and for the environment . as for insects marked with an element , no tags , paints , dyes , dusts , or visible marks
were found left to alter insects behavior or interactions with other insects ( hagler and jackson 2001 ) . however
, a limitation to use of trace elements as insect markers in large fields is that the detection of elements can be difficult , expensive , and time - consuming , requires technical expertise and expensive detection equipment ( akey and burns 1991 ) .
some trace elements are not retained very well in certain insect species , for example , rb could be detected for only 26 days after marking aphids ( guillebeau et al .
high concentrations of trace elements can adversely affect development , survival , increased adult deformity , reduced pupation , eclosion , egg production and fecundity of certain insects ( stimmann et al .
naturally , occurring stable isotope markers are useful , as they do not require the pre - marking of individuals ( hood - nowotny and knols 2007 ) .
labelling a distinct portion of an ecosystem with stable isotopes is a useful , minimally invasive method to study insect dispersal from an ecophysiological perspective ( macneale et al .
stable isotopes occur naturally in the environment , unlike painting , dusting , etc . , stable isotope methods are non - invasive and samples require only minimal preparation following collection , which makes the cost of the process as a completely comparable to methods such as polymerase chain reaction ( hood - nowotny and knols 2007 ) .
other advantages are the analysis costs ( depending on the isotope and the matrix , the cost per sample may range from us$ 5100.00 ) , shipping stable isotope samples is simple , safe and inexpensive ( iaea 2009 ) .
it would cost between $ 150250 to label 1 000 000 anopheles mosquitoes with c - labelled glucose in the larval stages ( hood - nowotny et al .
it is possible to trace the fate of labelled sperm into female spermatheca in studies of male mosquitoes labelled with c ( helinski et al .
these stable isotope markers meet the usual criteria for use in insect studies : retention , no effect on behavior , durability , easily applied , clearly identifiable , and not expensive ( hagler and jackson 2001 ) .
a labelled blood source also provides an easily identifiable point source for post feeding dispersal studies .
tracing of labelled blood to determine resource allocation to the eggs or other tissues could also provide useful physiological information .
it was possible to mark large numbers of mosquitoes by providing blood meals from a host fed injected with a stable isotope substance .
na2hpo4 was injected via the jugular of rabbit vein ; these rabbits were bitten by emerged female cx .
pipiens , so mosquitoes were successfully marked . the appropriate dosage ( not only can label mosquito but also have no ill effects on rabbits ) of na2hpo4 was 0.1 mci / kg .
pipiens mosquitoes were also can be marked by placing rabbit feces or na2hpo4 into container .
the technique was less time - consuming , more sensitive , and safer , can be used to study post - blood meal dispersal of mosquitoes and other blood - sucking insects . the short half - life of 14 days of p , however , was a disadvantage in studies where prolonged observations were necessary .
 background : the aim of the current study was to develop a marking technique as an internal marker to mark post blood meal mosquitoes by using stable phosphate isotope 32p and determine the optimal concentration of it.methods:an isotonic physiological saline solution , containing different concentration of radioactive isotope 32p - labeled disodium phosphate ( na2h32po4 ) was injected into rabbits via the jugular vein in the laboratory 
 . emerged cx . 
 pipiens were marked after feeding on rabbit . at the same time , the labeled conditions of emerged cx . 
 pipiens were also measured by placing feces of no . 
 6 rabbit into containers with mosquito larvae and pupae inside.results:according to the label condition of cx . 
 pipiens after taking blood and the effect of different dosage na2h32po4 on rabbit health , the optimal concentration of radioactive isotope was determined , that is , 0.1211 mci / kg . by placing feces of no . 
 6 rabbit into containers with mosquito larvae and pupae inside , the emerged mosquitoes were also labeled . 
 therefore , feeding mosquitoes on the animal injected with radioactive na2h32po4 was more practical for detecting and tracing mosquitoes.conclusion:the method was less time - consuming , more sensitive and safer 
 . this marking method will facilitate post - bloodmeal studies of mosquitoes and other blood - sucking insects . 
Introduction
Injection of rabbits with Na
Measuring methods
Placing feces of No. 6 Rabbit in tap water to mark mosquitoes
Ethics clearance
Results
Conditions of mosquitoes radioactively labeled after blood feeding
Radioactivity levels of rabbit blood after injection of Na
Effect of Na
Conditions of mosquitoes radioactively labeled after placing feces in the container
Discussion
Conclusion