innovations in research , diagnosis and therapeutics stimulated interest in this young branch of medicine . in 1805 , cuvier defined the medulla and cortex of the adrenal gland .
a few years late , alibert described acromegaly ( 1822 ) , while rathke described the formation of the pituitary gland ( 1838 ) . in 1860
prevost and dumas described ovulation , and in 1827 , von baer discovered the human ovum .
berthold , in 1849 , conducted elegant experiments on testicular transplants in birds , and brown- sequard tried organotherapy , using testicular extracts on himself .
in such a rapidly evolving , exciting period of scientific discovery , the parathyroids took back seat .
the choice of their name itself was unfortunate , as they were considered thyroid appendages , and were not given their due physiological significance too easily .
in 1852 , the parathyroids were described in the rhinoceros by sir richard owen in london .
he noted a small compact yellow , glandular body , attached to thyroid , in an indian rhinoceros cadaver , preserved in london .
virchow described the human parathyroids in 1963 , but credit for the first complete description goes to the swedish doctor sandstroem , in 1980 .
he identified two parathyroid bodies in 43 out of 50 autopsies . in 1890 , anton woelfler described areas of  young tissue  or  foetal rests  which might have been intrathyroid , as parathyroid glands . though the anatomy of the parathyroids had been reasonably well described , their physiology was not understood until much later .
eugene gley studied the parathyroid glands ( he thought there were two in each animal ) in rabbits , and performed parathyroidectomy , without causing death ( 1891 ) .
he thought that the parathyroids were potential thyroid tissue , as they grew hypertropic after thyroidectomy .
they demonstrated the occurrence of tetany and myxedema after parathyroid and thyroid removal , in 1895 and 1986 , respectively . at the same time , walter edmunds proved that the parathyroids did not convert to thyroid tissue after thyroidectomy .
a few years later , kohn was able to establish that the parathyroids were anatomically independent from the thyroid .
later workers showed fatal tetany after complete removal of all parathyroid tissue , proving that the glands are essential for life , in the first decade of the twentieth century . in spite of this research ,
however , scientists such as noel paton and findlay continued to assert that the function of the parathyroid was to detoxify guanidine ( 1917 ) .
though the study of anatomy and physiology of the parathyroids proceeded slowly , clinical medicine had recognized the symptoms of parathyroid disease quite early .
tetany in the pediatric age group was described by john charke in 1815 , and carpopedal spasm and glottis spasm by george kellie in 1816 .
trousseau 's sign was described in 1862 , erb 's sign in 1873 , and chvostek 's sign in 1876 .
though organotherapy had been in vogue as far as testicular and thyroid extracts were concerned , for quite some time , the first account of parathyroid hormone replacement was given in 1898 .
g. moussu injected on aqueous extract of 12- 20 equine glands and successfully treated post- parathyroidectomy tetany in canine models . in 1909 , berkeley and beebe described correction of hypo- calcemic tetany , with parathyroid extract , in man . in the same year , mac callum and vogetlin demonstrated a much simpler method of managing tetany with intravenous calcium chloride .
while experimental parathyroidectomies had been carried out by early researchers in the ninetieth century , the first parathyroid transplant was attempted by ws halsted in 1909 , in baltimore .
he transplanted canine parathyroids into thyroid tissue and under the abnormal skin , trying both iso- and auto- transplantation .
mandl was the first surgeon to include the small parathyroid glands in the ambit of endocrine surgery .
he successfully treated a case of osteitis fibrosa by surgical removal of a parathyroid adenoma in 1925 .
the first report of isolation of an effective parathyroid extract is by hanson , who reported his work in cattle in 1923 .
parathromone was discovered by collip in 1925 , and used to treat tetany successfully , by leitch and him , in the same year .
it is surprising that collip is remembered more for his role in the discovery of insulin ( though the nobel prize committee did not feel him worthy of the prize ) , than for his role in the discovery of parathyroid hormone , an equally important feat .
the parathyroid hormone was isolated and purified by ramussen and craig in 1959 , and its polypeptide structure defined by them in 1962 .
greenwald identified its phosphaturic action in 1911 , while barnicot noted its resorptive effect on bone in 1948 .
the anti calciuric and anti magnesiuric action were described by jahan and pitts in the same year .
another ten years passed before talage and elliott observed an increase in calcium absorption form the small intense parathormone .
it has taken many years for scientists to understand the actual relationship between vitamin d and parathormone . in 1962 , a new hormone , calcitonin , was discovered , and was initially thought to be secreted from the parathyroid gland .
von recklinghausen gave a complete description of the disease in 1891 . in 1904 , askanasy discovered a parathyroid adenoma while performing a post- mortem on a patient with skeletal disease , and postulated a connection between parathyroid tumour and osteitis fibrosa cystic . in 1907 , erdheim described hyperplasia of the parathyroids in osteomalacia in humans , while in 1914 ; he found the same finding in rachitic rats .
the pathophysiology of the parathyroids was put in perspective by greep ro , in 1963 , who studied the comparative endocrinology of the glands .
he suggested that as amphibians migrated from calcium- rich marine environment to calcium- poor terrestrial surroundings , and the need for a calcium homeostasis mechanism occurred .
the endocrinology of the parathyroids has grown slowly over the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries .
advances in anatomy , physiology , medicine , surgery and biochemistry have contributed to effective modalities of diagnosis and treatment which are in use today .
this brief article pays homage to the pioneers of our specialty , while offering tribute to their acumen and perseverance .
 the parathyroid glands are now recognized as being essential for life . their structure and function is well delineated , and their disease and dysfunction , well characterized . diagnosis and management of parathyroid disease has improved in the past few decades . 
 the path of parathyroid science , however , has been far from smooth . 
 this paper describes the early history of parathyroid endocrinology . in doing so , it focuses on major events and discoveries , which improved the understanding and practice of our specialty . 
 contribution in anatomy , physiology , pathology , medicine , surgery and biochemistry are reviewed . 
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