title: Dejan Lovren

texts:
 on 25 September.He went on to solidify his spot in the starting XI following Joël Matip's injury. On 27 November, he scored the equalizer in the Champions League group stage match against Napoli, that ended as a 1–1 draw. However, on 10 December, he suffered a knee injury in a game against Red Bull Salzburg and was substituted for Joe Gomez. The injury forced him to miss the 2019 FIFA Club World Cup, which Liverpool won beating Flamengo 1–0 in the final. He returned on 26 January 2020 and captained the team in an FA Cup game against Shrewsbury Town that ended as a 2–2 draw. On 25 June, after Chelsea had defeated Manchester City 2–1, Liverpool mathematically won the Premier League, making Lovren the first Croatian in history to achieve that. Zenit Saint Petersburg

On 27 July 2020, Lovren signed for Zenit Saint Petersburg on a three-year contract for €12 million after a six-year spell with Liverpool.He debuted for Zenit on 7 August in 2020 Russian Super Cup against Lokomotiv Moscow. The match ended as a 2–1 victory for Zenit, meaning that Lovren won his first trophy with the club in his first game. He made his league debut on 11 August, in a 0–2 win over Rotor Volgograd. Four days later, he scored his first goal for Zenit in a 0–2 victory over Rostov. On 20 October, in his Champions League debut for the club, he took a shot from outside of the penalty area which deflected off Ethan Horvath's back into the net, as Zenit lost 1–2 to Club Brugge. On 8 November, Lovren captained Zenit for the first time in a match against Krasnodar, due to Artem Dzyuba being stripped off captaincy after an explicit video depicting him masturbating leaked and went viral. In the closing minutes of the game, he won a penalty which was successfully converted by Aleksei Sutormin, as Zenit won 3–1.Ahead of Zenit's league match against Sochi, played on 11 April 2021, Lovren suffered a muscle injury in training. In his absence, on 2 May, Zenit won the league title after thrashing Lokomotiv Moscow 6–1. Lovren started the 2021–22 season by winning another Super Cup, beating Lokomotiv Moscow 3–0 on 17 July. International career
Lovren has made 54 appearances and scored six goals for various Croatian youth national teams. He received his first call-up to Croatian national team in August 2009 by manager Slaven Bilić, who included the player in his match squad against Belarus. Lovren was an unused substitute, but still was reportedly delighted with the new experience. He made his debut against Qatar on 8 November 2009, coming on as a substitute for Danijel Pranjić.On 2 September 2011, Lovren scored his first international goal, against Malta in a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying match. He was included by manager Slaven Bilić in the training camp prior to UEFA Euro 2012 but was not selected for the final squad because of an injury. Lovren scored his second goal for Croatia on 26 March 2013 in a World Cup qualifying match against Wales at the Liberty Stadium in Swansea. It was an equalizer that leveled the match after Gareth Bale had given Wales the lead from a penalty which Lovren caused. Croatia eventually won the game 1–2. In May 2014, Lovren was named in manager Niko Kovač's provisional 30-man squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. In the opening match of the tournament, on 12 June against the hosts Brazil in São Paulo, Lovren was judged by the Japanese referee Yuichi Nishimura to have fouled Fred in the 69th minute when the score was 1–1.A controversial penalty was given, which was converted by Neymar and led to Brazil's eventual 3–1 win. He was featured in the other two group stage matches as Croatia crashed out of the tournament following a 1–3 defeat to Mexico. Lovren's deteriorating relationship with manager Ante Čačić ultimately resulted in him being left out of Croatia's squad for UEFA Euro 2016. In May 2018, he was named in Croatia's 23-man squad for the 2018 World Cup in Russia. In the final group stage match against Iceland, after Croatia had already qualified for the knockout stage, his handball in the penalty box caused a penalty that was converted successfully by Gylfi Sigurðsson for 1–1. Despite that, Croatia won the match 1–2 and topped their group. He then featured throughout the competition as Croatia reached the final where they lost to France 4–2.On 11 September, Lovren missed Croatia's debut match in the inaugural edition of UEFA's new tournament Nations League, the team's 6–0 historical defeat to Spain, due to injury. He came back a month later for a match against England, that ended up as a goalless draw. On 15 November, he took part in Spain's 3–2 defeat. After the match, Lovren sparked controversy after calling the Spain team "a bunch of pussies" on an Instagram live stream and admitting that he deliberately elbowed Spain's defender Sergio Ramos, whom he had a feud in the media with prior to the match. Three days later, Croatia suffered a 1–2 defeat to England and got relegated from the League A to the League B of the next edition of the Nations League. On 11 January 2019, UEFA banned Lovren for one international match for disrespecting the Spain national team and their flag, and the deliberate elbowing of Sergio Ramos. He could not play in the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match against Azerbaijan.He scored his third international goal on 6 September in a 0–4 win over Slovakia. He was suspended for the deciding home fixture against Slovakia as well due to three yellow cards. Croatia nevertheless won the match 3–1 and secured their spot at the Euros. In his first ever appearance at a UEFA European Championship, a 1–1 draw with the Czech Republic on 18 June 2021, Lovren elbowed Patrik Schick and caused a penalty that Schick successfully converted. Personal life
Lovren's younger brother Davor is also a professional footballer who currently plays for Fortuna Düsseldorf. Lovren was named by his grandmother Ivanka after Montenegrin football legend <mask> Savićević. He speaks Croatian, German, English and French.Lovren is married to Anita Sekulić and the couple have two children, Elena, born in August 2012, and Josip, born in June 2015. In 2013, Lovren founded a fashion brand Russell Brown with his best man Lovro Krčar. Three years after, the brand was shut down due to unknown reasons. Rumours suggest that the reason for the closure was due to a poor relationship between Lovren and Krčar. In May 2018, he founded another brand Rock Filius. On 29 May 2018, Lovren opened a four star hotel Joel in Novalja, near Zrće. Lovren has stated that the hotel is named after Josip and Elena.On 29 December 2020, Lovren offered free temporary accommodation in the hotel for sixteen families who lost their homes in the 2020 Petrinja earthquake. During 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, paparazzi leaked explicit photos of several Croatian internationals taking a "skinny dip" in the pool of a Brazilian hotel. Lovren reportedly suffered the most since almost his entire body was exposed. In February 2017, LFC TV released a short documentary Lovren: My Life as a Refugee where the footballer opened up about his experiences, tough life and traumas and asked for more tolerance for refugees saying: "When I see what's happening today [with refugees] I just remember my thing, my family and how people don't want you in their country. I understand people want to protect themselves, but people don't have homes. It's not their fault; they're fighting for their lives just to save their kids. They want a secure place for their kids and their futures.I went through all this and I know what some families are going through. Give them a chance, give them a chance. You can see who the good people are and who are not." In late April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Lovren endorsed vaccine hesitancy and misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic, sharing posts by conspiracy theorists Rashid Buttar, David Icke and Ivan Pernar. However, in January 2021, he denied being vaccine-hesitant or thinking that the pandemic was a hoax, stating that he believes that every person should have a choice to be vaccinated or not, rather than being obligated to. He went on to state that, if he had to choose, he would receive the Sputnik V vaccine. Ahead of the UEFA Euro 2020, Lovren got vaccinated, as did the rest of the national team.In January 2022, Lovren supported Novak Djokovic to win his 21st Grand Slam tournament amidst the 2022 Australian Open visa controversy caused by Djokovic's opposition to COVID-19 vaccination. He made a cameo appearance in Jakov Sedlar's 2021 film The Match, alongside Croatia teammate Mateo Kovačić. Career statistics

Club

International

Croatia score listed first, score column indicates score after each Lovren goal. Honours
Inter Zaprešić
Druga HNL: 2006–07

Dinamo Zagreb
Prva HNL: 2008–09
Croatian Cup: 2008–09

Lyon
Coupe de France: 2011–12

Liverpool
Premier League: 2019–20
UEFA Champions League: 2018–19; runner-up: 2017–18
UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2015–16

Zenit Saint Petersburg
Russian Premier League: 2020–21
Russian Super Cup: 2020, 2021

Croatia
FIFA World Cup runner-up: 2018

Orders
Order of Duke Branimir: 2018

References

External links

Liverpool F.C. profile

1989 births
Living people
Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sportspeople from Zenica
Footballers from Munich
Yugoslav emigrants to Germany
Croatian footballers
Association football defenders
GNK Dinamo Zagreb players
NK Inter Zaprešić players
Olympique Lyonnais players
Southampton F.C. players
Liverpool F.C. players
FC Zenit Saint Petersburg players
Croatian First Football League players
Ligue 1 players
Premier League players
Russian Premier League players
UEFA Champions League winning players
Croatia youth international footballers
Croatia under-21 international footballers
Croatia international footballers
2014 FIFA World Cup players
2018 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2020 players
Croatian expatriate footballers
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in France
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in England
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Russia
Expatriate footballers in France
Expatriate footballers in England
Expatriate footballers in Russia
Croatian Second Football League players
Sportspeople from Karlovac
Yugoslav Wars


title: Philip P. Barbour

type: original

texts:
<mask> (May 25, 1783 – February 25, 1841) was the tenth speaker of the United States House of Representatives and an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He is the only individual to serve in both positions. He was also a slave owner. Born in Gordonsville, Virginia, Barbour established a legal career in Gordonsville after studying at the College of William & Mary. Several members of Barbour's family, including his brother, <mask>, went on to hold prominent political office. Barbour won election to the House of Representatives in 1814 as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party. He served a single term as Speaker from 1821 to 1823 and declined to seek re-election to Congress in 1824.Barbour returned to Congress in 1827 as an ally of Andrew Jackson. Barbour served in Congress until 1830, when he accepted appointment as a judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. President Jackson appointed Barbour to the Supreme Court in 1835 to fill a vacancy caused by the resignation in 1835 of Gabriel Duvall. Barbour served on the Court until his death in 1841. On the Court, Barbour generally supported Jacksonian principles and states' rights. Early and family life
Barbour was born near Gordonsville, Orange County, Virginia, as the son of a planter, <mask>, who was a legislator, neighbor and early political sponsor of James Madison. He was named for his ancestor <mask>, through whom he was related to <mask>, a politician and judge.The family was one of the First Families of Virginia, descended from a Scottish merchant who married a Miss Taliaferro and made his home in nearby Culpeper County, Virginia. Like his brother <mask>, <mask> attended common and private schools before beginning formal legal studies under jurist St. George Tucker in Williamsburg, Virginia, but financial circumstances forced Tucker to end this arrangement in 1799. He soon moved to Kentucky to make his fortune, where after a year reading law, he was admitted to the bar, and began practicing law in Bardstown. After another year, friends persuaded him to return to Virginia and resume his studies at William and Mary College, so in 1802, he began practicing law near his family home in Gordonsville. In 1804, Barbour married a local planter's daughter, Frances Johnson, with whom he had one son named Sextus <mask>. Early political career

Barbour practiced law for eight years before he started his public life as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1812 to 1814. When U.S. Representative John Dawson died, Barbour won the special election to fill the seat, and served as a Jeffersonian Old Republican in the U.S. House of Representatives from September 19, 1814 to March 4, 1825, reaching the office of Speaker from 1821 to 1823.Barbour entered politics as the nation witnessed a political shift in which former state's rights activists such as current President James Madison, Henry Clay, and his brother James, now a U.S. Senator, began supporting nationalistic policies. Throughout this shift in power, <mask> remained a strong advocate of Jeffersonian "Old Republican" principles of states' rights and maintaining a strict construction of the Constitution. First term in Congress
<mask>'s reputation for constitutional conservatism grew with his opposition to the Bonus Bill of 1817. The Bill permitted the federal funding of internal
improvement projects such as building roads like that being constructed to connect Buffalo, New York to New Orleans, Louisiana, through Washington. Barbour viewed federally funded internal projects as outside the sphere of Congress' powers and therefore unconstitutional and undermining state sovereignty. Barbour viewed states as sovereign, political communities, independent of an overarching political dynasty and free to secede from the Union if the federal government infringed on the rights of the states, an argument that he employed when countering restrictions to Missouri's admission to the Union as a slave state.His opposition to national restrictions on slave states served to foment his passion for states' rights but also develop his pro-slavery argument in politics. As a Congressman, <mask> was the first prominent politician to openly contest the constitutionality of protective tariffs. Cohens v. Virginia
In Cohens v. Virginia (1821), Congressman <mask> represented the Commonwealth of Virginia to argue the issue of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction to hear the case, in which two men from Baltimore were convicted for selling D.C. lottery tickets in Virginia. Barbour unsuccessfully argued that the Supreme Court lacked jurisdiction, since the law banning the sale of foreign lottery tickets was not meant to affect Virginia, rendering this a purely local issue. He also maintained that the suit was barred by the Eleventh Amendment, which prohibits suit against a state without its consent. However, Chief Justice Marshall held that the Court had jurisdiction based on the Supremacy Clause, Art. VI, cl.2. This case strengthened <mask>'s reputation as an Old Republican leader in a political system in which Virginian influence was waning and power was shifting between parties with the election of Andrew Jackson as the seventh President of the United States. Jacksonian Democratic-Republican Party
Andrew Jackson's election in 1828 led to the bifurcation of the Old Republican Party into the Jacksonian Democratic Republicans and the opposing National Republicans. Jackson formed the Democratic party on the foundation of Old Republican principles, such as Jefferson's displeasure with Hamilton's National Bank. During his two terms, President Jackson destroyed the Second Bank of the United States, and advocated for individual liberty, states' rights, and slavery. State judge and second term in Congress
Barbour declined to run for re-election in 1824 and turned down an offer from Thomas Jefferson to become the professor of law in the University of Virginia in 1825. Instead, he accepted the Virginia legislature's appointment as a judge of the General Court of Virginia.He served for two years. In 1827, <mask> returned to his seat in the House of Representatives as a Jacksonian. For the first two years of his second stint in the House, he was Chairman of the Judiciary Committee. In 1829, Barbour became one of the first Jeffersonian Old Republicans to join the Jacksonian Democrats in opposition to the National Bank. He fought to expose the Second Bank of the United States as a private enterprise, endowed with federal funds while only masquerading as a government institution. Although his anti-Bank campaign did not take hold, <mask>'s advocacy for state sovereignty, the removal of the National Bank, and the legalization of slavery in territories such as Missouri earned him favor with President Andrew Jackson. Also in 1829, while continuing to serve as a U.S. Representative, Barbour became a delegate for the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829-1830, and the Convention elected him their second president, after the Convention's first president, James Monroe, had to withdraw due to failing health on December 8.As such, <mask> (with distinguished Virginians such as Monroe, James Madison, and John Marshall) helped restrict discussion of slavery's role in the Commonwealth, and limited the rancorous assembly's debates to issues of representation and suffrage (Virginia had been one of the last states to allow only landowners to vote, and slaveholders had disproportionate power). The resulting constitution was adopted in 1830, despite the votes against it from the state's northern and western areas (much of which ultimately split off to become West Virginia during the American Civil War decades after Barbour's death). Federal district judge and the 1832 campaign season
Barbour also turned down offers of a chancellorship and the post of U.S. Attorney General before finally resigning his congressional seat October 15, 1830 to accept President Jackson's appointment to become judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. Jackson appointed Barbour by recess appointment on October 8, 1830, to a seat on that court vacated by George Hay. Barbour was formally nominated on December 14, 1830, and two days later he was confirmed by the Senate, and received his commission, serving thereafter until March 17, 1836. In 1832, Democrats unhappy with the selection of Martin Van Buren as their party's vice-presidential nominee held a convention in Virginia, at which they nominated Jackson for president and <mask> for vice president. Barbour eventually withdrew his candidacy and endorsed the Jackson-Van Buren ticket, but the alternative Democratic ticket still appeared on the ballot in several Southern states.Barbour also refused nominations for judge of the court of appeals, for Governor, and for United States Senator. Although it was unknown whether Barbour could gain favor with voters outside Virginia, Barbour's campaigning on the Democratic ticket illuminated the similarities in parties and gained favor for the Democratic party. Voters reasoned that, if a man like Barbour, loyal to his party even when his fellow Virginians chose different principles, could switch to the Democratic party, then the Democrats must hold the same values. By joining the Jacksonian Democratic Party, Barbour entrenched Old Republican principles into a new political dynasty, therefore continuing the legacy of Jefferson and further validating the strength of Democratic principles. This was similar to Lincoln's argument that secession should not occur due to the state of perpetual Union that had existed since the first draft of the Constitution before the term "Union" was first used to describe the North during the Civil War. Therefore, <mask>'s resignation allowed the second party system to coalesce by unifying the Democratic Party on the ideologies of war in the American system through the national reform retrenchment and economy, and a restoration of republican constitutionalism. United States Supreme Court appointment
In 1835, Chief Justice Marshall's death and Justice Gabriel Duvall's resignation created two vacancies on the Supreme Court.President Jackson, at the end of his second Presidential term, nominated <mask> to fill Duvall's vacancy. Nationalists feared Jackson's appointment of Barbour because <mask>'s anti-administration Congressional legacy and Democratic beliefs suggested that he would attempt to undermine the federal supremacy achieved during the Marshall Court. This fear made the finalization of the decision an arduous process with two attempts at delaying the Senate's decision. On March 15, 1836, the Senate approved the appointment of <mask> by a vote of 30-11. During his five years on the Court, Barbour heard 155 cases, for which he authored one major opinion and two dissents. He shaped the legacy of the Taney Court through his passion for states' rights, strict constructionism, and limits on federal power. Tenure on the U.S. Supreme Court (May 12, 1836- February 25, 1841)
During <mask>'s first term (1837), he heard three cases that mitigated Marshall's accomplishment of judicial nationalism, Briscoe v. Bank of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, and New York v. Miln.<mask> authored the majority opinion in New York v. Miln. In 1824, the state of New York passed a law that required all ship masters to provide a report delineating personal information of passengers in order to prevent smuggling and immigration of the impoverished for whom the state could not provide. Ship master Miln

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Philip Pendleton Barbour
James Barbour
Thomas Barbour
Philip Pendleton
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title: Philip P. Barbour

texts:
 refused to comply with the law and was therefore jailed and fined. The case went to the Court on the issue of whether the statute violated the Commerce Clause, U.S. Const., Art. 1, § 8. <mask> held that the New York statute did not violate the Commerce Clause, because it was an exercise of the power granted to the state to "regulate their internal police and to take care that no detriment comes to the commonwealth."People were "not the subject of commerce, and not being imported goods, cannot fall within a train of reasoning founded upon the construction of a power given to Congress to regulate commerce and the prohibition to the states from imposing a duty on imported goods." <mask> argued that the statue was valid as an act of police power to protect the health and welfare of the community. Because it is within the powers of the state to have jurisdiction over its people and things within its territorial boundaries, then "the authority of a state is complete, unqualified, and exclusive." <mask>'s holding in Miln was supported by Taney's opinion in Charles River Bridge that the people have rights and it is the duty of both the state and the nation to preserve those rights in order to ensure the happiness and welfare of every citizen. Miln helped Barbour develop a states' rights constitutional vision for the Supreme Court, by narrowing the scope of federal commerce power while expanding state policing power. For both Briscoe v. Bank of the Commonwealth of Kentucky and Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, Barbour voted with the majority, simultaneously gaining more power for states and weakening Marshall Court nationalism. While Barbour did not spend enough time on the court to amass a large body of judicial opinions, he authored dissents in Kendall v. United States ex rel.Stokes (1838) and Holmes v. Jennison (1840). These two dissents sought to diminish federal authority by supporting Jacksonian political aspirations and opposing restrictions to state sovereignty. Kendall dealt with judicial supervision of executive acts. In 1835, President Jackson appointed Amos Kendall the Postmaster General for the United States. A firm, Stockton and Stokes, had had a contract with the previous Postmaster General, and demanded payment of outstanding debts thereunder, which Kendall declined, in favor of the debt-ridden U.S. Postal Service's other creditors. The Court viewed Kendall as a proceeding against an Executive Branch official who acted within the scope of his powers.The Court dealt with the issues of whether it had jurisdiction to hear the case under Section 25 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 and whether it had the power to issue a writ of mandamus under Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 to an official of the Executive Branch. The majority held that the Supreme Court could issue a writ of mandamus to "compel the Postmaster General to perform any ministerial duty devolved on him by law." This issue and holding is similar to that in Marbury v. Madison (1803), which also involved writs of mandamus to an executive officer and held that the Supremacy Clause in Article VI and the notion of popular sovereignty granted the Court jurisdiction over state court cases and the power of judicial review to make legitimate and final rulings on constitutional questions. Justices Taney and Catron concurred with Barbour's opinion that it was never within the scope of judicial power to control executive actions. Although Barbour believed that "Congress has the constitutional power to give to the federal judiciary …authority to issue the writ of mandamus," Barbour did not believe that the lower court had the "power to issue the writ in question". Even though the Postmaster General was subject to direction and control of the President with respect of the duties imposed by law, when the law is 'ministerial,' Congress can limit and regulate the executive officials. Because Congress created the executive office, then Congress could monitor executive decisions, but the President is not controlled by the federal courts.While the majority opinion served to further define separation of powers by holding acts of the executive branch as subject to the rulings of the Supreme Court, <mask>'s dissenting opinion sought to discourage judicial supervision of executive acts by applying President Jackson's departmental theory, the notion that the executive branch has the right to interpret the Constitution for itself. <mask>'s opinion in Kendall demonstrated his loyalty to President Jackson's political agenda. <mask> made his most powerful argument in favor of states' rights in Holmes v. Jennison (1840), which focused on the extradition of a fugitive from Vermont to Canada. In 1838, George Holmes, a resident of Quebec, was convicted of murdering <mask> Achille Tache in Canada. Holmes escaped to the United States where he was detained under issue of warrant in Vermont. Silas H. Jennison, the governor of Vermont, issued the warrant stating that Holmes, being a citizen of the lower province of Canada, would be arrested and returned to suffer prosecution according to the Canadian justice system, even though the United States had no extradition treaty with Canada. Because the Vermont Supreme Court refused to issue a writ of habeas corpus, Holmes petitioned to the Supreme Court on grounds that he was unlawfully imprisoned and deprived of his personal liberties.The case became a contentious debate further polarizing the Court between nationalists and states' rights Justices. Holmes focused on whether the Court had the authority to review the case based on Section 25 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 and whether the governor's warrant violated the Extradition Clause of Article IV, section 2 of the Constitution, which gave the federal government power to surrender a fugitive to a foreign government. Chief Justice Taney believed that the Court's jurisdiction to review the case as well as the exclusive power of the federal government to govern foreign relations, and so believed that the governor had violated the Extradition Clause. However, as the Court divided 4-4 over the issue of jurisdiction, the Court dismissed the petition. The Vermont Supreme Court subsequently ordered Holmes released in light of the fact that five of the eight Justices expressed the opinion that the governor had violated the Extradition Clause, an expression of the principle that the Constitution gives state officers no power to take independent actions concerned with foreign governments. Barbour was one of the four Justices who disagreed with the Chief Justice. Barbour believed that, because "there is no treaty on the subject of surrendering fugitives," between Vermont and Canada, then the returning of fugitives to Canada did not violate a power granted to the federal government by the Constitution, and therefore the "authority, exercised by the Governor of Vermont, is not repugnant to the power of making treaties in its dormant state, because, in the language of the Chief Justice before cited, it is not the mere existence of the power but its exercise which is incompatible with the exercise of the same power by the states."Barbour opined that, because the Constitution did not explicitly define the affairs of states with foreign countries, Governor Jennison was completely within his rights to order the extradition. <mask>'s opinion in Holmes accorded with his opinion in New York v. Miln that the state has the duty to maintain the welfare of its people. Holmes v. Jennison provides an example of Barbour's strict reading of the Constitution, which allowed him to read a more pronounced states' rights view into the text. Death and legacy

Barbour died of a coronary thrombosis on February 25, 1841, while asleep in his bed, and partway through the arguments of John Quincy Adams, who sought freedom for African captives in the Amistad Case. Justice Story (although opposing slavery and personally more nationalist than Barbour) eulogized Barbour as earning the respect of his colleagues by his commitment to personal values, persistence in fighting for his beliefs, and legal acumen. Barbour owned fifty-four slaves at the time of the 1840 census. An Episcopalian throughout his life, <mask> <mask>ur's long-time friend and fellow Virginian, <mask>. Daniel, succeeded him on the U.S. Supreme Court, and continued Barbour's legacy of maintaining Jacksonian principles, states' rights, and strict constructionist reading of the Constitution.Locations named after him include Barbour County, West Virginia, Philippi, West Virginia and its Philip Barbour High School. Constitutional legacy
<mask>'s tenure on the Court demonstrated his loyalty to President Jackson's national vision while applying a narrowed reading of state's rights into the Constitution. Barbour's decisions in major Court cases created an enduring Jacksonian legacy on the Taney Court. <mask>'s furtherance of Jacksonian principles of departmental theory in his Kendall dissent, his states' rights advocacy in his majority opinion in New York v. Miln, and textualist reading of the Constitution in order to distinguish state from Congressional power in his dissent in Holmes, all served in this regard. Barbour's opinions began to unravel the work of Marshall's Court, and set a precedent for future cases as the country became more polarized. Barbour's arguments for the authority of the President to interpret the Constitution in Kendall, and those in defense of the states' police power in Cohens v. Virginia, allowed Chief Justice Taney to rule that slaves were not citizens in Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857). Ironically, they were also used by President Abraham Lincoln to issue a suspension of habeas corpus in 1861.See also
 Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829-1830
 List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States

References
 FJC Bio

Further reading
 Abraham, Henry J. Justices, Presidents, and Senators: A History of the US Supreme Court Appointments from Washington to Clinton. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc, 1999. Belko, William S. <mask> Barbour in Jacksonian America: An Old Republican in King Andrew’s Court (University of Alabama Press, 2016). Friedman, L and Israel, Fred L. The Justices of The United States Supreme Court 1789-1969: Their Lives and Major Opinions. New York and London: Chelsea House Publishers, 1969. Huebner, Timothy S. The Taney Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy.California: ABC-CLIO Inc., 2003. Schwartz, Bernard. A Book of Legal Lists: The Best and Worst in American Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Urofsky, Melvin I. The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York and London: Garland Publishing Inc, 1994.External links

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1783 births
1841 deaths
People from Gordonsville, Virginia
Barbour family
<mask> family
American people of Scottish descent
American Episcopalians
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia
Jacksonian members of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia
Virginia Democratic-Republicans
Virginia Democrats
Virginia Jacksonians
Members of the Virginia House of Delegates
Speakers of the United States House of Representatives
Judges of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia
United States federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson
Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
19th-century American judges
Virginia lawyers
College of William & Mary alumni
Burials at the Congressional Cemetery
American slave owners
Members of the United States House of Representatives from

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title: Rama

texts:
<mask> (; , ; ), Ram, <mask> or <mask>, also known as <mask> (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular avatars of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Being. <mask> is said to have been born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, the ruler of the Kingdom of Kosala. His siblings included Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna. He married Sita. Though born in a royal family, their life is described in the Hindu texts as one challenged by unexpected changes such as an exile into impoverished and difficult circumstances, ethical questions and moral dilemmas.Of all their travails, the most notable is the kidnapping of Sita by demon-king Ravana, followed by the determined and epic efforts of <mask> and Lakshmana to gain her freedom and destroy the evil Ravana against great odds. The entire life story of <mask>, Sita and their companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social responsibilities of an individual. It illustrates dharma and dharmic living through model characters. <mask> is especially important to Vaishnavism. He is the central figure of the ancient Hindu epic Ramayana, a text historically popular in the South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. His ancient legends have attracted bhasya (commentaries) and extensive secondary literature and inspired performance arts. Two such texts, for example, are the Adhyatma Ramayana – a spiritual and theological treatise considered foundational by Ramanandi monasteries, and the Ramcharitmanas – a popular treatise that inspires thousands of Ramlila festival performances during autumn every year in India.<mask> legends are also found in the texts of Jainism and Buddhism, though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts, and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions. Jain Texts also mentioned <mask> as the eighth balabhadra among the 63 salakapurusas. In Sikhism, <mask> is mentioned as one of twenty four divine incarnations of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar in Dasam Granth. Etymology and nomenclature
Rāma is a Vedic Sanskrit word with two contextual meanings. In one context as found in Atharva Veda, as stated by Monier Monier-Williams, means "dark, dark-colored, black" and is related to the term ratri which means night. In another context as found in other Vedic texts, the word means "pleasing, delightful, charming, beautiful, lovely". The word is sometimes used as a suffix in different Indian languages and religions, such as Pali in Buddhist texts, where -rama adds the sense of "pleasing to the mind, lovely" to the composite word.<mask> as a first name appears in the Vedic literature, associated with two patronymic names – Margaveya and Aupatasvini – representing different individuals. A third individual named <mask>a is the purported author of hymn 10.110 of the Rigveda in the Hindu tradition. The word <mask> appears in ancient literature in reverential terms for three individuals:

Parashu-rama, as the sixth avatar of Vishnu. He is linked to the <mask>a of the Rigveda fame. <mask>-chandra, as the seventh avatar of Vishnu and of the ancient Ramayana fame. Bala-rama, also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of Krishna both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The name <mask> appears repeatedly in Hindu texts, for many different scholars and kings in mythical stories.The word also appears in ancient Upanishads and Aranyakas layer of Vedic literature, as well as music and other post-Vedic literature, but in qualifying context of something or someone who is "charming, beautiful, lovely" or "darkness, night". The Vishnu avatar named <mask> is also known by other names. He is called <mask> (beautiful, lovely moon), or Dasarathi (son of Dasaratha), or Raghava (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology). He is also known as Ram Lalla (Infant form of <mask>). Additional names of <mask> include <mask> (Javanese), Phreah Ream (Khmer), Phra Ram (Lao and Thai), Megat Seri <mask> (Malay), Raja Bantugan (Maranao), Ramudu (Telugu), <mask> (Tamil). In the Vishnu sahasranama, <mask> is the 394th name of Vishnu. In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, <mask> connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self (Atman, soul) in whom yogis delight nondualistically.The root of the word <mask> is ram- which means "stop, stand still, rest, rejoice, be pleased". According to Douglas Q. Adams, the Sanskrit word <mask> is also found in other Indo-European languages such as Tocharian ram, reme, *romo- where it means "support, make still", "witness, make evident". The sense of "dark, black, soot" also appears in other Indo European languages, such as *remos or Old English romig. Legends
This summary is a traditional legendary account, based on literary details from the Ramayana and other historic mythology-containing texts of Buddhism and Jainism. According to Sheldon Pollock, the figure of <mask> incorporates more ancient "morphemes of Indian myths", such as the mythical legends of Bali and Namuci. The ancient sage Valmiki used these morphemes in his Ramayana similes as in sections 3.27, 3.59, 3.73, 5.19 and 29.28. Birth

<mask> was born on the ninth day of the lunar month Chaitra (March–April), a day celebrated across India as Ram Navami.This coincides with one of the four Navaratri on the Hindu calendar, in the spring season, namely the Vasantha Navaratri. The ancient epic Ramayana states in the Balakhanda that <mask> and his brothers were born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, a city on the banks of Sarayu River. The Jain versions of the Ramayana, such as the Paumacariya (literally deeds of Padma) by Vimalasuri, also mention the details of the early life of <mask>. The Jain texts are dated variously, but generally pre-500 CE, most likely sometime within the first five centuries of the common era. Moriz Winternitz states that the Valmiki Ramayana was already famous before it was recast in the Jain Paumacariya poem, dated to the second half of the 1st century CE, which pre-dates a similar retelling found in the Buddha-carita of Asvagosa, dated to the beginning of the 2nd century CE or prior. Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, and a part of the solar dynasty of Iksvakus. His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala.The kingdom of Kosala is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts, as one of the sixteen Maha janapadas of ancient India, and as an important center of pilgrimage for Jains and Buddhists. However, there is a scholarly dispute whether the modern Ayodhya is indeed the same as the Ayodhya and Kosala mentioned in the Ramayana and other ancient Indian texts. Youth, family and friends

<mask> had three brothers, according to the Balakhanda section of the Ramayana. These were Lakshmana, Bharata and Shatrughna. The extant manuscripts of the text describes their education and training as young princes, but this is brief. <mask> is portrayed as a polite, self-controlled, virtuous youth always ready to help others. His education included the Vedas, the Vedangas as well as the martial arts.The years when <mask> grew up are described in much greater detail by later Hindu texts, such as the Ramavali by Tulsidas. The template is similar to those found for Krishna, but in the poems of Tulsidas, <mask> is milder and reserved introvert, rather than the prank-playing extrovert personality of Krishna. The Ramayana mentions an archery contest organised by King Janaka, where Sita and <mask> meet. <mask> wins the contest, whereby Janaka agrees to the marriage of Sita and <mask>. Sita moves with <mask> to his father Dashratha's capital. Sita introduces <mask>'s brothers to her sister and her two cousins, and they all get married. While <mask> and his brothers were away, Kaikeyi, the mother of Bharata and the second wife of King Dasharatha, reminds the king that he had promised long ago to comply with one thing she asks, anything.Dasharatha remembers and agrees to do so. She demands that <mask> be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka forest. Dasharatha grieves at her request. Her son Bharata, and other family members become upset at her demand. <mask> states that his father should keep his word, adds that he does not crave for earthly or heavenly material pleasures, neither seeks power nor anything else. He talks about his decision with his wife and tells everyone that time passes quickly. Sita leaves with him to live in the forest, the brother Lakshmana joins them in their exile as the caring close brother.Exile and war

<mask> heads outside the Kosala kingdom, crosses Yamuna river and initially stays at Chitrakuta, on the banks of river Mandakini, in the hermitage of sage Vasishtha. During the exile, <mask> meets one of his devotee, Shabari who happened to love him so much that when <mask> asked something to eat she offered her ber, a fruit. But every time she gave it to him she first tasted it to ensure, it was sweet and tasty. Such was the level of her devotion. <mask> also understood her devotion and ate all the half-eaten bers given by her. Such was the reciprocation of love and compassion he had for his people. This place is believed in the Hindu tradition to be the same as Chitrakoot on the border of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.The region has numerous Rama temples and is an important Vaishnava pilgrimage site. The texts describe nearby hermitages of Vedic rishis (sages) such as Atri, and that <mask> roamed through forests, lived a humble simple life, provided protection and relief to ascetics in the forest being harassed and persecuted by demons, as they stayed at different ashrams. After ten years of wandering and struggles, <mask> arrives at Panchavati, on the banks of river Godavari. This region had numerous demons (rakshashas). One day, a demoness called Shurpanakha saw <mask>, became enamored of him, and tried to seduce him. <mask> refused her. Shurpanakha retaliated by threatening Sita.Lakshmana, the younger brother protective of his family, in turn retaliated by cutting off the nose and ears of Shurpanakha. The cycle of violence escalated, ultimately reaching demon king Ravana, who was the brother of Shurpanakha. Ravana comes to Panchavati to take revenge on behalf of his family, sees Sita, gets attracted, and kidnaps her to his kingdom of Lanka (believed to be modern Sri Lanka). <mask> and Lakshmana discover the kidnapping, worry about Sita's safety, despair at the loss and their lack of resources to take on Ravana. Their struggles now reach new heights. They travel south, meet Sugriva, marshall an army of monkeys, and attract dedicated commanders such as Hanuman who was a minister of Sugriva. Meanwhile, Ravana harasses Sita to be his wife, queen or goddess.Sita refuses him. Ravana gets enraged and ultimately reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately <mask> prevails, kills Ravana and forces of evil, and rescues his wife Sita. They return to Ayodhya. Post-war rule and death

The return of <mask> to Ayodhya was celebrated with his coronation. It is called <mask>heka, and his rule itself as <mask> rajya described to be a just and fair rule. It is believed by many that when <mask> returned people celebrated their happiness with diyas (lamps), and the festival of Diwali is connected with <mask>'s return. Upon <mask>'s accession as king, rumors emerge that Sita may have gone willingly when she was with Ravana; Sita protests that her capture was forced.<mask> responds to public gossip by renouncing his wife and asking her to undergo a test before Agni (fire). She does and passes the test. <mask> and Sita live happily together in Ayodhya, have twin sons named Luv and Kush, in the Ramayana and other major texts. However, in some revisions, the story is different and tragic, with Sita dying of sorrow for her husband not trusting her, making Sita a moral heroine and leaving the reader with moral questions about <mask>. In these revisions, the death of Sita leads <mask> to drown himself. Through death, he joins her in afterlife. <mask> dying by drowning himself is found in the Myanmar version of  <mask>'s life story called Thiri Rama.Inconsistencies
<mask>'s legends vary significantly by the region and across manuscripts. While there is a common foundation, plot, grammar and an essential core of values associated with a battle between good and evil, there is neither a correct version nor a single verifiable ancient one. According to Paula Richman, there are hundreds of versions of "the story of <mask> in India, Southeast Asia and beyond". The versions vary by region reflecting local preoccupations and histories,

masks:
Rama
Raman
Ramar
Ramachandra
Rama
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Rama Jamadagny
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Rama Jamadagny
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Ramachandra
Rama
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Ramavijaya
Rama
Ramar
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Ramahis
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title: Rama

texts:
 and these cannot be called "divergences or different tellings" from the "real" version, rather all the versions of <mask> story are real and true in their own meanings to the local cultural tradition, according to scholars such as Richman and <mask>jan. The stories vary in details, particularly where the moral question is clear, but the appropriate ethical response is unclear or disputed. For example, when demoness Shurpanakha disguises as a woman to seduce <mask>, then stalks and harasses <mask>'s wife Sita after <mask> refuses her, Lakshmana is faced with the question of appropriate ethical response. In the Indian tradition, states Richman, the social value is that "a warrior must never harm a woman".The details of the response by <mask> and Lakshmana, and justifications for it, has numerous versions. Similarly, there are numerous and very different versions to how <mask> deals with rumours against Sita when they return victorious to Ayodhya, given that the rumours can neither be objectively investigated nor summarily ignored. Similarly the versions vary on many other specific situations and closure such as how <mask>, Sita and Lakshmana die. The variation and inconsistencies are not limited to the texts found in the Hinduism traditions. The <mask> story in the Jainism tradition also show variation by author and region, in details, in implied ethical prescriptions and even in names – the older versions using the name Padma instead of <mask>, while the later Jain texts just use <mask>. Dating

In some Hindu texts, <mask> is stated to have lived in the Treta Yuga that their authors estimate existed before about 5,000 BCE. A few other researchers place <mask> to have more plausibly lived around 1250 BCE, based on regnal lists of Kuru and Vrishni leaders which if given more realistic reign lengths would place Bharat and Satwata, contemporaries of <mask>, around that period.According to H. S. Sankalia, an Indian archaeologist, who specialised in Proto- and Ancient Indian history, this is all "pure speculation". The composition of <mask>'s epic story, the Ramayana, in its current form is usually dated between 7th and 4th century BCE. According to John Brockington, a professor of Sanskrit at Oxford known for his publications on the Ramayana, the original text was likely composed and transmitted orally in more ancient times, and modern scholars have suggested various centuries in the 1st millennium BCE. In Brockington's view, "based on the language, style and content of the work, a date of roughly the fifth century BCE is the most reasonable estimate". Appearance

Valmiki in Ramayana describes <mask> as a charming, well built person of a dark complexion (varṇam śyāmam) and long arms (ājānabāhu, meaning a person whose middle finger reaches beyond their knee). In the Sundara Kanda section of the epic, Hanuman describes <mask> to Sita when she is held captive in Lanka  to prove to her that he is indeed a messenger from <mask>:

Iconography
<mask> iconography shares elements of Vishnu avatars, but has several distinctive elements. It never has more than two hands, he holds (or has nearby) a bana (arrow) in his right hand, while he holds the dhanus (bow) in his left.The most recommended icon for him is that he be shown standing in tribhanga pose (thrice bent "S" shape). He is shown black, blue or dark color, typically wearing reddish color clothes. If his wife and brother are a part of the iconography, Lakshamana is on his left side while Sita always on the right of <mask>, both of golden-yellow complexion. Philosophy and symbolism
<mask>'s life story is imbued with symbolism. According to Sheldon Pollock, the life of <mask> as told in the Indian texts is a masterpiece that offers a framework to represent, conceptualise and comprehend the world and the nature of life. Like major epics and religious stories around the world, it has been of vital relevance because it "tells the culture what it is". <mask>'s life is more complex than the Western template for the battle between the good and the evil, where there is a clear distinction between immortal powerful gods or heroes and mortal struggling humans.In the Indian traditions, particularly <mask>, the story is about a divine human, a mortal god, incorporating both into the exemplar who transcends both humans and gods. As a person, <mask> personifies the characteristics of an ideal person (purushottama). He had within him all the desirable virtues that any individual would seek to aspire, and he fulfils all his moral obligations. <mask> is considered a maryada purushottama or the best of upholders of Dharma. According to Rodrick Hindery, Book 2, 6 and 7 are notable for ethical studies. The views of <mask> combine "reason with emotions" to create a "thinking hearts" approach. Second, he emphasises through what he says and what he does a union of "self-consciousness and action" to create an "ethics of character".Third, <mask>'s life combines the ethics with the aesthetics of living. The story of <mask> and people in his life raises questions such as "is it appropriate to use evil to respond to evil? ", and then provides a spectrum of views within the framework of Indian beliefs such as on karma and dharma. <mask>'s life and comments emphasise that one must pursue and live life fully, that all three life aims are equally important: virtue (dharma), desires (kama), and legitimate acquisition of wealth (artha). <mask> also adds, such as in section 4.38 of the Ramayana, that one must also introspect and never neglect what one's proper duties, appropriate responsibilities, true interests, and legitimate pleasures are. Literary sources

Ramayana
The primary source of the life of <mask> is the Sanskrit epic Ramayana composed by Rishi Valmiki. The epic had many versions across India's regions.The followers of Madhvacharya believe that an older version of the Ramayana, the Mula-Ramayana, previously existed. The Madhva tradition considers it to have been more authoritative than the version by Valmiki. Versions of the Ramayana exist in most major Indian languages; examples that elaborate on the life, deeds and divine philosophies of <mask> include the epic poem Ramavataram, and the following vernacular versions of <mask>'s life story:
Ramavataram or Kamba-Ramayanam in Tamil by the poet Kambar. (12th century)
Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by poet Madhava Kandali. (14th century)
Krittivasi Ramayan in Bengali by poet Krittibas Ojha. (15th century)
Ramcharitmanas in Hindi by sant Tulsidas. (16th-century)
Pampa Ramayana, Torave Ramayana by Kumara Valmiki and Sri Ramayana Darshanam by Kuvempu in Kannada;
Ramayana Kalpavruksham by Viswanatha Satyanarayana and Ramayana by Ranganatha in Telugu;
Vilanka Ramayana in Odia;
Eluttachan in Malayalam (this text is closer to the Advaita Vedanta-inspired rendition Adhyatma Ramayana).The epic is found across India, in different languages and cultural traditions. Adhyatma Ramayana
Adhyatma Ramayana is a late medieval Sanskrit text extolling the spiritualism in the story of Ramayana. It is embedded in the latter portion of Brahmānda Purana, and constitutes about a third of it. The text philosophically attempts to reconcile Bhakti in god <mask> and Shaktism with Advaita Vedanta, over 65 chapters and 4,500 verses. The text represents <mask> as the Brahman (metaphysical reality), mapping all attributes and aspects of <mask> to abstract virtues and spiritual ideals. Adhyatma Ramayana transposes Ramayana into symbolism of self study of one's own soul, with metaphors described in Advaita terminology. The text is notable because it influenced the popular Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas, and inspired the most popular version of Nepali Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya.This was also translated by Thunchath Ezhuthachan to Malayalam, which lead the foundation of Malayalam literature itself. Ramacharitmanas
The Ramayana is a Sanskrit text, while <mask>charitamanasa retells the Ramayana in a vernacular dialect of Hindi language, commonly understood in northern India. Ramacharitamanasa was composed in the 16th century by Tulsidas. The popular text is notable for synthesising the epic story in a Bhakti movement framework, wherein the original legends and ideas morph in an expression of spiritual bhakti (devotional love) for a personal god. Tulsidas was inspired by Adhyatma Ramayana, where <mask> and other characters of the Valmiki Ramayana along with their attributes (saguna narrative) were transposed into spiritual terms and abstract rendering of an Atma (soul, self, Brahman) without attributes (nirguna reality). According to Kapoor, <mask>'s life story in the Ramacharitamanasa combines mythology, philosophy, and religious beliefs into a story of life, a code of ethics, a treatise on universal human values. It debates in its dialogues the human dilemmas, the ideal standards of behaviour, duties to those one loves, and mutual responsibilities.It inspires the audience to view their own lives from a spiritual plane, encouraging the virtuous to keep going, and comforting those oppressed with a healing balm. The Ramacharitmanas is notable for being the Rama-based play commonly performed every year in autumn, during the weeklong performance arts festival of Ramlila. The "staging of the Ramayana based on the Ramacharitmanas" was inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as one of the Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity. Yoga Vasistha

Yoga Vasistha is a Sanskrit text structured as a conversation between young Prince <mask> and sage Vasistha who was called as the first sage of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy by Adi Shankara. The complete text contains over 29,000 verses. The short version of the text is called Laghu Yogavasistha and contains 6,000 verses. The exact century of its completion is unknown, but has been estimated to be somewhere between the 6 century to as late as the 14 century, but it is likely that a version of the text existed in the 1 millennium.The Yoga Vasistha text consists of six books. The first book presents <mask>'s frustration with the nature of life, human suffering and disdain for the world. The second describes, through the character of <mask>, the desire for liberation and the nature of those who seek such liberation. The third and fourth books assert that liberation comes through a spiritual life, one that requires self-effort, and present cosmology and metaphysical theories of existence embedded in stories. These two books are known for emphasising free will and human creative power. The fifth book discusses meditation and its powers in liberating the individual, while the last book describes the state of an enlightened and blissful <mask>. Yoga Vasistha is considered one of the most important texts of the Vedantic philosophy.The text, states David Gordon White, served as a reference on Yoga for medieval era Advaita Vedanta scholars. The Yoga Vasistha, according to White, was one of the popular texts on Yoga that dominated the Indian Yoga culture scene before the 12th century. Other texts
Other important historic Hindu texts on <mask> include Bhusundi Ramanaya, Prasanna raghava, and  Ramavali by Tulsidas. The Sanskrit poem Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhatti, who lived in Gujarat in the seventh century CE, is a retelling of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the Prakrit language. Another historically and chronologically important text is Raghuvamsa authored by Kalidasa. Its story confirms many details of the Ramayana, but has novel and different elements. It mentions that Ayodhya was not the capital in the time of <mask>'s son named Kusha, but that he later returned to it and made it the capital again.This text is notable because the poetry in the text is exquisite and called a Mahakavya in the Indian tradition, and has attracted many scholarly commentaries. It is also significant because Kalidasa has been dated to between the 4th and 5th century CE, suggesting that the Ramayana legend was well established by the time of Kalidasa. The Mahabharata has a summary of the Ramayana. The Jainism tradition has extensive literature of <mask> as well, but generally refers to him as Padma, such as in the Paumacariya by Vimalasuri. <mask> and Sita legend is mentioned in the Jataka tales of Buddhism, as Dasaratha-Jataka (Tale no. 461), but with slightly different spellings such as Lakkhana for Lakshmana and <mask>-pandita for <mask>. The chapter 4 of Vishnu Purana, chapter 112 of Padma Purana, chapter 143 of Garuda Purana and chapters 5 through 11 of Agni Purana also summarise the life story of <mask>.Additionally, the <mask> story is included in the Vana

masks: Rama Ramanu Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama Rama


title: Rama

texts:
 Parva of the Mahabharata, which has been a part of evidence that the Ramayana is likely more ancient, and it was summarised in the Mahabharata epic in ancient times. Influence

<mask>'s story has had a major socio-cultural and inspirational influence across South Asia and Southeast Asia. Few works of literature produced in any place at any time have been as popular, influential, imitated and successful as the great and ancient Sanskrit epic poem, the Valmiki Ramayana. – Robert Goldman, Professor of Sanskrit, University of California at Berkeley. According to Arthur Anthony Macdonell, a professor at Oxford and Boden scholar of Sanskrit, <mask>'s ideas as told in the Indian texts are secular in origin, their influence on the life and thought of people having been profound over at least two and a half millennia. Their influence has ranged from being a framework for personal introspection to cultural festivals and community entertainment. His life stories, states Goldman, have inspired "painting, film, sculpture, puppet shows, shadow plays, novels, poems, TV serials and plays."Hinduism

Rama Navami

Rama Navami is a spring festival that celebrates the birthday of <mask>. The festival is a part of the spring Navratri, and falls on the ninth day of the bright half of Chaitra month in the traditional Hindu calendar. This typically occurs in the Gregorian months of March or April every year. The day is marked by recital of <mask> legends in temples, or reading of <mask> stories at home. Some Vaishnava Hindus visit a temple, others pray within their home, and some participate in a bhajan or kirtan with music as a part of puja and aarti. The community organises charitable events and volunteer meals. The festival is an occasion for moral reflection for many Hindus.Some mark this day by vrata (fasting) or a visit to a river for a dip. The important celebrations on this day take place at Ayodhya, Sitamarhi, Janakpurdham (Nepal), Bhadrachalam, Kodandarama Temple, Vontimitta and Rameswaram. Rathayatras, the chariot processions, also known as Shobha yatras of <mask>, Sita, his brother Lakshmana and Hanuman, are taken out at several places. In Ayodhya, many take a dip in the sacred river Sarayu and then visit the Rama temple. Rama Navami day also marks the end of the nine-day spring festival celebrated in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh called Vasanthothsavam (Festival of Spring), that starts with Ugadi. Some highlights of this day are Kalyanam (ceremonial wedding performed by temple priests) at Bhadrachalam on the banks of the river Godavari in Bhadradri Kothagudem district of Telangana, preparing and sharing Panakam which is a sweet drink prepared with jaggery and pepper, a procession and <mask> temple decorations. Ramlila and Dussehra

<mask>'s life is remembered and celebrated every year with dramatic plays and fireworks in autumn.This is called Ramlila, and the play follows Ramayana or more commonly the Ramcharitmanas. It is observed through thousands of Rama-related performance arts and dance events, that are staged during the festival of Navratri in India. After the enactment of the legendary war between Good and Evil, the Ramlila celebrations climax in the Dussehra (Dasara, Vijayadashami) night festivities where the giant grotesque effigies of Evil such as of demon Ravana are burnt, typically with fireworks. The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in historically important Hindu cities of Ayodhya, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Almora, Satna and Madhubani – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The epic and its dramatic play migrated into southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE, and Ramayana based Ramlila is a part of performance arts culture of Indonesia, particularly the Hindu society of Bali, Myanmar, Cambodia and Thailand. Diwali

In some parts of India, <mask>'s return to Ayodhya and his coronation is the main reason for celebrating Diwali, also known as the Festival of Lights.In Guyana, Diwali is marked as a special occasion and celebrated with a lot of fanfare. It is observed as a national holiday in this part of the world and some ministers of the Government also take part in the celebrations publicly. Just like Vijayadashmi, Diwali is celebrated by different communities across India to commemorate different events in addition to <mask>'s return to Ayodhya. For example, many communities celebrate one day of Diwali to celebrate the Victory of Krishna over the demon Narakasur. Hindu arts in Southeast Asia

<mask>'s life story, both in the written form of Sanskrit Ramayana and the oral tradition arrived in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE. <mask> was one of many ideas and cultural themes adopted, others being the Buddha, the Shiva and host of other Brahmanic and Buddhist ideas and stories. In particular, the influence of <mask> and other cultural ideas grew in Java, Bali, Malaya, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.The Ramayana was translated from Sanskrit into old Javanese around 860 CE, while the performance arts culture most likely developed from the oral tradition inspired by the Tamil and Bengali versions of Rama-based dance and plays. The earliest evidence of these performance arts are from 243 CE according to Chinese records. Other than the celebration of <mask>'s life with dance and music, Hindu temples built in southeast Asia such as the Prambanan near Yogyakarta (Java), and at the Panataran near Blitar (East Java), show extensive reliefs depicting <mask>'s life. The story of <mask>'s life has been popular in Southeast Asia. In the 14th century, the Ayutthaya Kingdom and its capital Ayuttaya was named after the Hindu holy city of Ayodhya, with the official religion of the state being Theravada Buddhism. Thai kings, continuing into the contemporary era, have been called <mask>, a name inspired by <mask> of Ramakien – the local version of Sanskrit Ramayana, according to Constance Jones and James Ryan. For example, King Chulalongkorn (1853-1910) is also known as <mask>, while King Vajiralongkorn who succeeded to the throne in 2016 is called <mask>.

Jainism

In Jainism, the earliest known version of <mask> story is variously dated from the 1st to 5th century CE.This Jaina text credited to Vimalasuri shows no signs of distinction between Digambara-Svetambara (sects of Jainism), and is in a combination of Marathi and Sauraseni languages. These features suggest that this text has ancient roots. In Jain cosmology, characters continue to be reborn as they evolve in their spiritual qualities, until they reach the Jina state and complete enlightenment. This idea is explained as cyclically reborn triads in its Puranas, called the Baladeva, Vasudeva and evil Prati-vasudeva. <mask>, Lakshmana and evil Ravana are the eighth triad, with <mask> being the reborn Baladeva, and Lakshmana as the reborn Vasudeva. <mask> is described to have lived long before the 22nd Jain Tirthankara called Neminatha. In the Jain tradition, Neminatha is believed to have been born 84,000 years before the 9th-century BCE Parshvanatha.Jain texts tell a very different version of the <mask> legend than the Hindu texts such as by Valmiki. According to the Jain version, Lakshmana (Vasudeva) is the one who kills Ravana (Prativasudeva). <mask>, after all his participation in the rescue of Sita and preparation for war, he actually does not kill, thus remains a non-violent person. The <mask> of Jainism has numerous wives as does Lakshmana, unlike the virtue of monogamy given to <mask> in the Hindu texts. Towards the end of his life, <mask> becomes a Jaina monk then successfully attains siddha followed by moksha. His first wife Sita becomes a Jaina nun at the end of the story. In the Jain version, Lakshmana and Ravana both go to the hell of Jain cosmology, because Ravana killed many, while Lakshmana killed Ravana to stop Ravana's violence.Padmapurana mentions <mask> as a contemporary of Munisuvrata, 20th tirthankara of Jainism. Buddhism
The Dasaratha-Jataka (Tale no. 461) provides a version of the <mask> story. It calls <mask> as <mask>-pandita. At the end of this Dasaratha-Jataka discourse, the Buddhist text declares that the Buddha in his prior rebirth was <mask>:

While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt <mask> and make him an incarnation of Buddha in a previous life, the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an avatar of Vishnu. The Jataka literature of Buddhism is generally dated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium BCE, based on the carvings in caves and Buddhist monuments such as the Bharhut stupa. The 2nd-century BCE stone relief carvings on Bharhut stupa, as told in the Dasaratha-Jataka, is the earliest known non-textual evidence of <mask> story being prevalent in ancient India.Sikhism

<mask> is mentioned as one of twenty four divine incarnations of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh. The discussion of <mask> and Krishna avatars is the most extensive in this section of the secondary Sikh scripture. The name of <mask> is mentioned more than 2,500 times in the Guru Granth Sahib and is considered as avatar along with the Krishna. Among people
In Assam, Boro people call themselves Ramsa, which means Children of Ram. In Chhattisgarh, Ramnami people tattooed their whole body with name of Ram. Worship and temples

Worship

<mask> is a revered Vaishanava deity, one who is worshipped privately at home or in temples. He was a part of the Bhakti movement focus, particularly because of efforts of 14th century North Indian poet-saint <mask>da who created the Ramanandi Sampradaya, a sannyasi community.This community has grown to become the largest Hindu monastic community in modern times. This Rama-inspired movement has championed social reforms, accepting members without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion since the time of <mask>da who accepted Muslims wishing to leave Islam. Traditional scholarship holds that his disciples included later Bhakti movement poet-saints such as Kabir, Ravidas, Bhagat Pipa and others. Temples

Temples dedicated to <mask> are found all over India and in places where Indian migrant communities have resided. In most temples, the iconography of <mask> is accompanied by that of his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana. In some instances, Hanuman is also included either near them or in the temple premises. Hindu temples dedicated to <mask> were built by early 5th century, according to copper plate inscription evidence, but these have not survived.The oldest surviving <mask> temple is near Raipur (Chhattisgarh), called the Rajiva-locana temple at Rajim near the Mahanadi river. It is in a temple complex dedicated to Vishnu and dates back to the 7th-century with some restoration work done around 1145 CE based on epigraphical evidence. The temple remains important to <mask> devotees in the contemporary times, with devotees and monks gathering there on dates such as Rama Navami. Important Rama temples include:

 Rama temple, Ram Janmabhoomi, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. Bhadrachalam Temple, Telangana. Kodandarama Temple, Vontimitta, Andhra Pradesh. Ramateertham Temple, Andhra Pradesh.Ramaswamy Temple, Kumbakonam
 Mudikondan Kothandaramar Temple, Tamil Nadu. Vijayaraghava Perumal temple, Tamil Nadu. Sri Yoga Ramar Temple Nedungunam, Tamil Nadu. Triprayar Sriramaswami Kshetram, Triprayar, Kerala. Kalaram Temple, Nashik, Maharashtra. Raghunath Temple, Jammu. Ram Mandir, Bhubaneswar, Odisha.Kodandarama Temple, Chikmagalur, Karnataka. Kothandarama Temple, Thillaivilagam, Tamilnadu. Kothandaramaswamy Temple, Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu. Odogaon Raghunath Temple, Odisha. Ramchaura Mandir, Bihar. Sri Rama Temple, Ramapuram, Kerala. Vilwadrinatha Temple, Thiruvilwamala, Kerala.Popular culture

<mask> has been considered as a source of inspiration and has been described as Maryāda Puruṣottama Rāma (). He has been depicted in many films, television shows and plays. See also

 Ayodhya dispute
 Ram Mandir, Ayodhya
 Culture of India
 Genealogy of Rama
 Hindu philosophy
 Natyashastra
 Ram Nam
 Ram Statue
 Jai Shri Ram
 <mask>yan (1987 TV series)
 <mask> in Jainism
 <mask>tara
 Vaishnavism
 Erlang Shen

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

Ancient Indian culture
Asian rulers
Avatars of Vishnu
Ayyavazhi mythology
Buddhist gods
Characters in the Mahabharata
Characters in the Ramayana
Creator gods
Heavenly attendants in Jainism
Hindu given names
Hindu gods
Solar dynasty
Names of God in Hinduism
Salakapurusa
Savior gods
Names of God in

masks:
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Rama X
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title: Norman Heatley

texts:
<mask> OBE (10 January 1911 – 5 January 2004) was an English biologist and biochemist. He was member of the team of Oxford University scientists who developed penicillin. <mask> developed the back-extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. Early life
He was born in Woodbridge, Suffolk, and as a boy was an enthusiastic sailor of a small boat on the River Deben, an experience which gave him a lifelong love of sailing. He attended school in Folkestone, followed by Tonbridge School, then went on to St John's College, Cambridge, where he studied Natural Sciences, graduating in 1933. His doctoral research in Cambridge led to a PhD in 1936, and he then moved to the University of Oxford, where he became a fellow of Lincoln College and joined a team working under Howard Florey that included Ernst Chain. Production problem
Alexander Fleming had first discovered penicillin by accident in 1928, but at that time believed it had little application.When Florey and his team recognised the potential of the discovery for combating bacterial infection, they faced the problem of how to manufacture penicillin in sufficient quantities to be of use. <mask>, although the junior member of the team, possessed a natural gift for ingenuity and invention. It was he who suggested transferring the active ingredient of penicillin back into water by changing its acidity, thus purifying the penicillin. Heatley recorded these trials, carried out on eight mice in May 1940, in his diary:
"After supper with some friends, I returned to the lab and met the professor to give a final dose of penicillin to two of the mice. The 'controls' were looking very sick, but the two treated mice seemed very well. I stayed at the lab until 3:45 a.m., by which time all four control animals were dead." On returning home, he realised that in haste and darkness, he had put his underpants on back to front, and noted this in his diary too, adding "It really looks as if penicillin may be of practical importance."In order to conduct tests on human patients, even more of the drug had to be produced, and again it was <mask> who realised that the most effective vessel for this purpose was something like the porcelain bedpans in use at the Radcliffe Infirmary. These were in short supply because the ongoing World War II, so <mask> designed a modified version which was manufactured in the Potteries. With the help of these, the Oxford laboratory became the first penicillin factory, and subsequent tests on humans proved the efficacy of the new treatment. Even so, it was very difficult to produce enough for sustained treatment. Trials on humans
In December 1940, a 43-year-old police constable, Albert Alexander, was accidentally scratched by a rose thorn on his mouth, and was succumbing to septicaemia. Alexander was admitted to the Radcliffe Infirmary, where various conventional treatments all failed, and his case was brought to Florey and <mask>'s attention. Having previously tried penicillin only on mice, Heatley was concerned about the side effects large doses of penicillin might have.A patient in a terminal condition with nothing to lose was needed as a human volunteer, and Constable Alexander met this requirement. On 12 February 1941, Alexander was given an intravenous infusion of 160 mg (200 units) of penicillin. Within 24 hours, Alexander's temperature had dropped, his appetite had returned and the infection had begun to subside. However, owing to the instability of penicillin and the wartime restrictions placed on Florey's laboratory, only a small quantity was available, and although Florey and colleagues extracted any remaining penicillin from Alexander's urine, they had run out by the fifth day and Alexander died a month later. Florey and his team thereafter decided to work only on sick children, who did not need such large doses of penicillin, until their methods of production improved. Illinois and New Jersey
Eventually <mask> and Florey travelled to the United States in 1941 because they wanted to produce about one kilogram of pure penicillin, and persuaded a laboratory in Peoria, Illinois, to develop larger-scale manufacturing of it. In Peoria, <mask> was assigned to work with Dr. A.J.Moyer. Moyer suggested adding corn-steep liquor, a by-product of starch extraction, to the growth medium. With this and other subtle changes, such as using lactose in place of glucose, they were able to push up yields of penicillin to 20 units per milliliter. But their cooperation had become one-sided. <mask> noted, "Moyer had begun not telling me what he was doing." Florey returned to Oxford that September, but <mask> stayed on in Peoria until December; then for the next six months he worked at Merck & Co. in Rahway, New Jersey. In July 1942 he returned to Oxford, and was soon to learn why Moyer had become so secretive.When he published their research results, he omitted <mask>'s name from the paper, despite an original contract which stipulated that any publications should be jointly authored. Fifty years on, <mask> confessed that he was amused, rather than upset, by Moyer's duplicity. Later he was to learn that financial greed had led Moyer to claim all the credit for himself. To have acknowledged <mask>'s part of the work would have made it difficult to apply for patents, as he did, with himself as sole inventor. Achievement
As Sir Henry Harris put it succinctly in 1998:  Yet while Fleming, Florey and Chain jointly received the Nobel prize for their work in 1945, <mask>'s contribution was not fully recognized for another 45 years. It was only in 1990 that he was awarded the unusual distinction of an honorary Doctorate of Medicine from Oxford University, the first given to a non-medic in Oxford's 800-year history. Final years
<mask> died on 5 January 2004 at his home, 12 Oxford Road, Marston, Oxfordshire, which now bears a commemorative plaque in his honour.He was cremated in a cardboard coffin after a funeral service at St. Nicholas's Church, Marston, on 15 January. <mask> was survived by his wife, Mercy, and four children, Rose, Chris, Jonathan and Tamsin. Sources
<mask>, <mask> - Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (restricted access)
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (restricted access - includes photo)

References

1911 births
2004 deaths
British biologists
People from Woodbridge, Suffolk
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Fellows of Lincoln College, Oxford
English humanitarians
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Saint Felix School
20th-century biologists

masks:
Norman George Heatley
Norman Heatley
Heatley
Heatley
Heatley
Heatley
Heatley
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Norman George


title: Paul Lodge

texts:
<mask> (born 13 February 1961) is an English former footballer and football manager. A midfielder, he played in every division of the Football League, as well as in the Conference, Northern Premier League, and League of Wales. He began his career at Everton in 1979, and had loan spells at Wigan Athletic and Rotherham United, before joining Preston North End in 1983. He moved on to Bolton Wanderers the following year, who in turn loaned him out to Port Vale. After spending time with Stockport County, he headed into semi-professional football in 1986 with Barrow. He moved on to Southport, Macclesfield Town, Witton Albion (winning the Northern Premier League Premier Division title in 1990–91), and Morecambe, before returning to Southport in November 1993. After another 100 league appearances for the club, he ended his career following spells with Lancaster City, Bangor City, Chorley, and Burscough.He began coaching with Southport in 1998, and also served as the club's caretaker-manager in 1999. He spent June 2001 to March 2002 as <mask>'s assistant at Stalybridge Celtic. He took on the management reins at St Helens Town in July 2003, but was sacked in January 2004. After coaching at Accrington Stanley, he spent two months in charge at Chorley in late 2006. He then returned to his coaching role at Accrington Stanley. Playing career
Tutored by Colin Harvey and Ray Minshull, <mask> started his career with Everton, as the "Toffees" hovered above the First Division relegation zone in 1979–80 and 1980–81. Manager Gordon Lee was then sacked, and was replaced by Howard Kendall, who took the club to just one place off European football in 1981–82.<mask> was loaned out to Larry Lloyd's Wigan Athletic and Emlyn Hughes's Rotherham United in 1982–83. He scored one goal in five Third Division games for the struggling "Latics", and played four Second Division for the soon to be relegated "Millers". His brief spells at Springfield Park and Millmoor failed to reignite his career, and he was transferred to Third Division side Preston North End later in the season, in a move that reunited him with Gordon Lee. <mask> had played 24 league games for Everton in his four years at Goodison Park. Lee left Deepdale in December 1983, and Alan Kelly went on to lead the "Lambs" to a mid-table finish in 1983–84. <mask> switched to league rivals Bolton Wanderers in the summer, but would feature just four times for John McGovern's "Trotters" in 1984–85. He was loaned to John Rudge's Port Vale in November 1984.He was only to play three Fourth Division games at Vale Park, before heading back to Burnden Park in January 1985. <mask> moved on to Les Chapman's Fourth Division Stockport County, and scored twice in 15 games for the "Hatters" in 1985–86, in a brief stay at Edgeley Park. <mask> dropped out of the Football League and joined Alliance Premier League side Barrow, before moving on to Northern Premier League side Southport in March 1986. He scored once in 13 games for the "Sandgrounders" in 1985–86. He made a massive 63 appearances in the 1986–87 season, scoring five goals. He played 26 games in 1987–88, before leaving Haig Avenue. <mask> played for Macclesfield Town and then joined Witton Albion.He made his debut for Witton on 10 September 1988 and scored four goals from 57 appearances in the 1988–89 season. He scored two goals in 58 games in the 1989–90 season and four goals in 59 games in the 1990–91 Northern Premier League Premier Division title winning season. He made a further six appearances in the 1991–92 season. He later played for Morecambe, before returning to Southport in November 1993. He scored once in 36 games in 1993–94, and then featured 46 times in the 1994–95 season under manager Brian Kettle. <mask> then played 47 times in 1995–96, and was appointed captain by new boss Billy Ayre. <mask> went on to play for Lancaster City, Bangor City, Chorley, and Burscough.Management career
<mask> returned to Southport as assistant manager to <mask> in 1998. He became caretaker-manager the following year after Futcher was sacked, before he returned to his assistant role under new boss Mark Wright. Futcher appointed him as his assistant at Stalybridge Celtic in June 2001, before the pair were sacked in March 2002. After working at St Helens College, he was appointed manager of North West Counties club St Helens Town in July 2003, but was sacked in January 2004 after his team lost ten of their previous eleven games. Town went on to finish 19th out of the 22 team division in 2003–04. <mask> then went on to coach at Accrington Stanley, and was promoted to the post of reserve team manager by John Coleman. <mask> was appointed manager of Northern Premier League side Chorley in September 2006.He signed ten young players in an attempt to mould a newer and more cost-effective team, but resigned after less than two months in charge after telling the media "..the players forced my hand. There was no pride from them, no fight..." The "Magpies" finished the 2006–07 season second-from-bottom. He later went on to work as a first team coach at Accrington Stanley, and also worked at Accrington and Rossendale College. Statistics
Source:

Honours
Witton Albion
Northern Premier League Premier Division: 1990–91

References

1961 births
Living people
Footballers from Liverpool
English footballers
Association football midfielders
Everton F.C. players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
Rotherham United F.C. players
Preston North End F.C.players
Bolton Wanderers F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Stockport County F.C. players
Barrow A.F.C. players
Southport F.C. players
Macclesfield Town F.C. players
Witton Albion F.C.players
Morecambe F.C. players
Lancaster City F.C. players
Bangor City F.C. players
Chorley F.C. players
Burscough F.C. players
English Football League players
National League (English football) players
Northern Premier League players
Cymru Premier players
English football managers
Southport F.C. managers
St Helens Town A.F.C.managers
Chorley F.C. managers
National League (English football) managers
Northern Premier League managers
Association football coaches
Accrington Stanley F.C. non-playing staff

masks:
Paul Lodge
Paul Futcher
Lodge
Lodge
Lodge
Lodge
Lodge
Lodge
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Lodge
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Paul Futcher
Lodge
Lodge


title: Théodore Rousseau

texts:
<mask> (April 15, 1812December 22, 1867) was a French painter of the Barbizon school. Life

Youth
He was born in Paris, France in a bourgeois family. At first he received a basic level of training, but soon displayed aptitude for painting. Although his father regretted the decision at first, he became reconciled to his son forsaking business, and throughout the artist's career (for he survived his son) was a sympathizer with him in all his conflicts with the Paris Salon authorities. <mask> shared the difficulties of the romantic painters of 1830, in securing for their pictures a place in the annual Paris exhibition. The influence of classically trained artists was against them, and not until 1848 was <mask> presented adequately to the public. He had exhibited six works in the Salons of 1831, 1833, 1834 and 1835, but in 1836 his great work Paysage du Jura [La descente des vaches] was rejected by the Salon jury.He sent a total of eight further works to the Salon between 1836 and 1841; and yet none of them were accepted. Thereafter, he ceased sending work to the Salon until 1849, when all three of his submissions were accepted. He was not without champions in the press, and with the title of "le grand refusé" he became known through the writings of his friend Théophile Thoré, the critic who afterwards resided in England and wrote using the name Burger. During these years of artistic exile <mask> produced some of his best pictures: The Chestnut Avenue, The Marsh in the Landes (now in the Louvre), Hoar-Frost (now in America); and in 1851, after the reorganization of the Salon in 1848, he exhibited his masterpiece, The Edge of the Forest (also in the Louvre), a picture similar in treatment to, but slightly varied in subject from, the composition called A Glade in the Forest of Fontainebleau, in the Wallace Collection at Hertford House, London. Barbizon and maturity
Until this period <mask> had lived only occasionally at Barbizon, but in 1848 he took up his residence in the forest village, and spent most of his remaining days in the vicinity. He was now able to obtain fair sums for his pictures (but only about one-tenth of their value thirty years after his death), and the number of his admirers increased. He was still ignored by the authorities, for while Narcisse Virgilio Diaz was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1851, <mask> was left undecorated at this time, but was nominated and awarded the Cross soon afterwards.He would eventually become an Officer of the Legion of Honor. At the Exposition Universelle of 1853, where all <mask>'s rejected pictures of the previous twenty years were gathered together, his works were acknowledged to form one of the best of the many splendid groups there exhibited. But, after an unsuccessful sale of his works by auction in 1861, he contemplated leaving Paris for Amsterdam or London, or even New York. Later years

<mask> then suffered a series of misfortunes. His wife's mental health had worsened; his aged father became dependent on him for pecuniary assistance; his patrons were few. Moreover, while he was temporarily absent with his ill wife, a youth living in his home (a friend of his family) committed suicide in his Barbizon cottage. When he visited the Alps in 1863, making sketches of Mont Blanc, he became dangerously ill with inflammation of the lungs; and when he returned to Barbizon he suffered from insomnia and became gradually weakened.He was elected president of the fine-art jury for the 1867 Exposition; however, his disappointment at being denied the better awards may have affected his health, for in August he became paralyzed. He recovered slightly, but was again attacked several times during the autumn. In November his condition worsened, and he died in the presence of his lifelong friend, Jean-François Millet, on December 22, 1867. Millet, the peasant painter, for whom <mask> had the greatest regard, had been much with him during the last years of his life, and at his death Millet assumed charge of <mask>'s ill wife. <mask>'s other friend and neighbor, Jules Dupré, himself an eminent landscape painter of Barbizon, relates the difficulty <mask> experienced in knowing when his picture was finished, and how he, Dupré, would sometimes take away from the studio some canvas on which <mask> was laboring too long. <mask> was a good friend to Diaz, teaching him how to paint trees, for until a certain point in his career Diaz considered he could only paint figures. Work
<mask>'s pictures are always grave in character, with an air of exquisite melancholy.They are well finished when they profess to be completed pictures, but <mask> spent so much time developing his subjects that his absolutely completed works are comparatively few. He left many canvases with parts of the picture realized in detail and with the remainder somewhat vague; and also a good number of sketches and water-color drawings. His pen work in monochrome on paper is rare. There are a number of good pictures by him in the Louvre, and the Wallace collection contains one of his most important Barbizon pictures. There is also an example in the Ionides collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Paintings

References

Attribution:
  Endnotes:
 Alfred Sensier, Souvenirs sur Th. <mask> (Paris, 1872).E. Michel, Les Artistes célébres: Th. <mask> (Paris, 1891). J. W. Mollett, <mask> and Diaz (London, 1890). David Croal Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters: Th. <mask> (London, 1892). Albert Wolff, La Capitale de l'art: Th. <mask> (Paris, 1886).E. Chesneau, Peintres romantiques: Th. <mask> (Paris, 1880). P Burty, Maîtres et petit-maîtres: Th. <mask> (Paris, 1877). Further reading
 (see index)

External links
Théodore <mask> - Rehs Galleries' biography on the artist. 1812 births
1867 deaths
19th-century French painters
Painters from Paris
French male painters
French Realist painters
Landscape artists
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur

masks:
Étienne Pierre Théodore Rousseau
Téodore Rousseau
Rousseau
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