title: Vadim Kirpichenko

texts:
<mask> (, 25 September 1922 – 3 December 2005) was a Russian officer of the First Chief Directorate of the KGB and its successor, the Foreign Intelligence Service. He served as resident in various countries and rose to First Deputy Head of the First Chief Directorate with the rank of General Lieutenant. Born in 1922, <mask> initially trained to be a pilot, but with the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, he enlisted in the Red Army and served in Eastern and Central Europe during the closing stages of the war. Demobilised in 1946, he undertook studies at the Arab branch of the Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies, and was then recruited into intelligence work with the KGB's First Chief Directorate. He began his overseas postings with a period in Egypt as the KGB's deputy resident. This came during the early administration of Gamal Abdel Nasser, and <mask> worked to gather information on its intentions. He passed information back to Moscow during the Suez Crisis in 1956, and worked to establish diplomatic relations with Yemen, before being recalled to the USSR in 1960.He returned to overseas postings in 1962 as resident in Tunisia, with a further period in the USSR between 1964 and 1970, serving as head of the African Department of the First Chief Directorate from 1967. <mask> returned to Egypt in 1970 as resident, and served during the Yom Kippur War. He warned Moscow that Egyptian President Anwar Sadat was planning to reorient his foreign policy away from the Soviet Union and towards the USA. His predictions were unwelcome to the Soviet leadership, but were ultimately proved accurate. On <mask>'s return to the USSR in 1974 he was appointed deputy head of the First Chief Directorate and placed in charge of Department "S", , and in 1979 he became First Deputy Head of the First Chief Directorate, a post he would hold for the remainder of the existence of the Soviet Union. In late 1979 he was sent to Afghanistan to direct KGB operations surrounding Operation Storm-333, and the beginning of Soviet intervention in the country. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, <mask> became head of a group of consultants under the director of one of the KGB's successors, the Foreign Intelligence Service.After retiring in 1997, he worked with others on a six-volume history of Russian intelligence, wrote two books of his own, and lectured widely on intelligence matters. Over the course of his career he received 54 awards from the Soviet, Russian and foreign governments. He died in 2005, survived by his wife, Valeriya Nikolaevna, an academic specialising in Arabic literature. Their son, <mask>, was a prominent diplomat in the Arab world, serving as ambassador to several Middle Eastern countries, including to Egypt, where his father had served as KGB resident for a number of years. Early life and wartime service

<mask> was born on 25 September 1922 in Kursk, Kursk Oblast, part of the Russian SFSR, in the USSR. He attended the No. 4 Air Force Special School, which provided primary flight training alongside the usual secondary education.He went on to attend the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy, but the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 interrupted his studies. He joined the 103rd Guards Rifle Division in January 1945, seeing action in the closing stages of the war, in Hungary, Austria and Czechoslovakia, and at the Balaton Defensive Operation in March that year. During his wartime service he was awarded the Medal "For Courage", for his part in the Vienna Offensive. His unit remained in action until the surrender of Axis forces in Czechoslovakia on 12 May 1945. Intelligence training
<mask> left the army at the end of 1946 with the rank of senior sergeant, and enrolled in the Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies, where he studied in the Arab branch. He graduated as the highest scoring student, and had been secretary of the institute's party committee. He was then offered the chance to become an intelligence officer.He enrolled in Intelligence School No. 101 on 1 September 1952, where he learned the basics of the intelligence profession, alongside Arabic and French. With the completion of his studies in July 1953, he joined the Eastern Department of the KGB's First Chief Directorate, which was responsible for  foreign operations and intelligence activities. He was assigned the code name "<mask>v". Overseas postings

His first overseas posting was to Egypt in December 1954 as the KGB's deputy resident, where he was based until 1960. On his arrival in Egypt he found that he was not familiar with the local dialect, and spent the next one and a half years in intensive language study alongside his intelligence duties. His arrival coincided with the early period of Gamal Abdel Nasser's rule, with the Soviet authorities particularly concerned about the new government's stance towards the Western powers, and its intentions in the Arab world.<mask> worked to develop intelligence sources and pass information back to the Soviet Union. When Dmitri Shepilov, Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, visited Egypt in May 1956, it was <mask> who arranged a meeting between Nasser and Shepilov, using his contacts in Nasser's powerbase, the Free Officers Movement. During the Suez Crisis in October and November 1956, <mask> remained in Cairo and continued to gather intelligence. Despite Western opinion that the Soviet Union was behind Nasser's nationalisation of the Suez Canal, <mask> noted that "we did not have any specific information about Nasser's intentions, but we always indicated in our reports that such a step was possible at any moment". Despite not having informed Moscow of their intentions, <mask> reported that the general feeling among Egyptians was that the Soviet Union should come to their aid once fighting began. "The first days passed and our situation became grim. Agitated Egyptians, waving their fists, cried "Russians, where are you!Where are your airplanes? Where are your weapons? Where are your soldiers? Why isn't Russia saving Egypt?" I didn't understand these demands back then, but later on, after experiencing two further wars in Egypt, I stopped being amazed at these outcries." In December 1958 he accompanied Nasser on his visit to the Soviet Union, and acted as a translator during Nasser's meetings with Nikita Khrushchev. <mask> was also one of the diplomats involved in the establishment of diplomatic relations with Yemen.He did this by cultivating a friendship with Crown Prince Muhammad al-Badr, that was close enough that the Prince reportedly refused to visit London in 1957 without <mask> at his side. <mask> returned to the Soviet Union in 1960 and spent two years working with the KGB's central organisation, before moving to Tunisia as resident in February 1962. Here he was tasked with maintaining contacts with the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, the political arm of the National Liberation Front during the Algerian War. This posting lasted until August 1964. Returning once more to the Soviet Union, he spent between 1964 and 1967 with the central organisation. In 1967 he was appointed head of the African Department of the First Chief Directorate, holding this position until 1970. During this time he made visits to Syria, Yemen, Ethiopia, Angola, Libya, Algeria and Tunisia.<mask> returned to Egypt in 1970, becoming foreign intelligence resident there until 1974. He was in post during the Yom Kippur War between Egypt and Israel in 1973, and subsequently warned Soviet leaders that Egyptian president Anwar Sadat was planning to reorient Egyptian foreign policy away from the Soviet Union and towards the United States, having learnt that Sadat had been in secret communication with US President Richard Nixon. This view was at odds with the general opinion of Soviet leaders, who considered Sadat a loyal friend of the Soviet Union, and successor to Nasser's political legacy. Subsequent developments were to vindicate <mask>. As with the Suez Crisis, there were suspicions in Western capitals that the Soviet Union was behind Egypt's actions. <mask> instead argued that the Soviet Union had tried to prevent an Egyptian offensive that risked destabilising the region. He was promoted to Major General in 1973, and to General Lieutenant in 1980.His good service brought him to the attention of Yuri Andropov, chairman of the KGB, and in 1974 he was appointed deputy head of the First Chief Directorate and led Department "S", , where he spent the next five years. In 1979 <mask> became First Deputy Head of the First Chief Directorate, and would hold this position until 1991. Afghanistan

On 4 December 1979 <mask> arrived in Kabul, in Afghanistan, with a group of officers of the Soviet Airborne Forces, having been sent by KGB chairman Vladimir Kryuchkov to plan for the removal of Hafizullah Amin, the sitting Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council of Afghanistan. He took charge of the intelligence officials in the country in preparation for Operation Storm-333, the ousting of Amin and the installation of Babrak Karmal as Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council. At a meeting at Kabul airport on 26 December 1979 <mask> oversaw the inclusion of KGB reconnaissance and sabotage units with the 103rd Guards Airborne Division, with orders to direct elements of the division to key Afghan institutions, which were to be secured for the new government. The planning for the operation took place in great secrecy, with even the newly appointed Soviet ambassador, , unaware of the operation until after it had begun. Tabeyev telephoned <mask> asking for explanations, but <mask> replied that he was too busy at the time, but promised to report in the morning.Late and Post-Soviet period
From 1 October 1988 to 6 February 1989 <mask> served as chief of foreign intelligence. In June 1991 <mask> warned against the effects of Glasnost, which he claimed were making it easier for foreign intelligence agents to work successfully in the USSR. In 1991, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and subsequent restructuring of the intelligence services, <mask> was appointed head of a group of consultants under the director of the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service. He retired from this in 1997, and began working with a number of authors as assistant editor-in-chief to compile a six-volume Essays on the History of Russian Intelligence. He lectured widely on this topic, in the US, UK, Bulgaria, Switzerland, Malta, South Korea and France, and attended numerous international conferences and seminars on the history of intelligence. He published two books; From the Intelligence Archives (, Iz arkhiva razvedchika) and Intelligence: People and Personalities (, Razvedka: litsa i lichnosti), and numerous articles and essays on intelligence matters. He was an honorary professor of the Academy of Foreign Intelligence.Awards and honours
Over his career <mask> received many awards and decorations. He held eight Soviet and Russian orders, including the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland" Fourth Class, the Orders of Lenin, October Revolution, Red Star, Patriotic War First Class, and the Badge of Honour. He was twice awarded the Order of the Red Banner. He received the badges "Honorary State Security Officer" and "For Service in Intelligence", and had received honours from eight foreign governments, including Vietnam, Peru, Mongolia, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, the German Democratic Republic and Afghanistan. He was awarded the  in the field of literature and art. He was also an Honorary Citizen of Kursk. In total he had 54 awards.Family and death
<mask> died on 3 December 2005. His wife, Valeriya Nikolaevna, was a philologist and specialist in Arabic literature with the Institute of Oriental Studies at the Russian Academy of Sciences. She outlived him, dying in 2015. Their son, <mask>, was born in 1951, and like his parents specialised in Middle Eastern affairs. He became a diplomat, and served as ambassador to the United Arab Emirates, Libya, Syria and Egypt. References

1922 births
2005 deaths
KGB officers
Soviet spies
People from Kursk
Personnel of the Soviet Airborne Forces
Soviet military personnel of the Soviet–Afghan War
Soviet military personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Medal "For Courage" (Russia)
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 4th class
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Kirpichenko family

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Sergei Vadimovich


title: Damian Woetzel

type: original

texts:
<mask> (born May 17, 1967) is the 7th President of The Juilliard School. Woetzel was a principal dancer with the New York City Ballet, where he performed from 1985 until 2008. He also frequently performed internationally as a guest star and visiting artist with numerous internationally recognized companies including the Kirov Ballet and American Ballet Theatre, until his retirement from the stage in 2008. As a Principal Dancer at New York City Ballet, Woetzel danced virtually the entire leading male dancer repertory, and had works created for him by Jerome Robbins, Eliot Feld, Twyla Tharp, Susan Stroman, and Christopher Wheeldon among others. Woetzel also frequently performed as a guest star with companies including the Kirov Ballet and American Ballet Theatre, and starred in numerous television broadcasts and as the Cavalier in the Time Warner movie version of George Balanchine’s The Nutcracker. Woetzel has also choreographed a number of ballets for NYCB and other companies. Among his awards, in April 2015, Woetzel received the Harvard Arts Medal.In July 2012 <mask> was honored with the inaugural Gene Kelly Legacy Award - an honor jointly created by the Dizzy Feet Foundation and the Estate of Gene Kelly in honor of the 100th anniversary of Kelly's birth. Woetzel serves on the artists committee of the Kennedy Center Honors, the Knight Foundation's National Arts Advisory Committee, and was a member of the Harvard University Task Force on the Arts. <mask> holds an MPA degree from Harvard's Kennedy School of Government. In the falls of 2010 and 2017 he was a visiting lecturer at Harvard Law School where he co-taught a course on performing arts and the law. In November 2009, President Obama appointed Woetzel to the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities, where he has worked on creating the Turnaround Arts Program, which now brings arts education to some of the nation’s most challenged school districts. Woetzel serves on the board of directors of NY City Center, Volunteer Lawyers for the Arts, Sing for Hope, Ava DuVernay's ARRAY Alliance, on the advisory board of Define American. In May 2017, <mask> was named President of the Juilliard School, replacing Joseph W. Polisi.Early life and education
<mask> was originally trained in Boston at E. Virginia Williams ballet school, then moved to Los Angeles at 15 where he attended John Clifford’s school before joining Clifford’s Los Angeles Ballet at 16. He toured nationally with this company including to New York City; where he received raves in the New York Times and New Yorker Magazine for his role in ”The Young Apollo” a ballet made especially for him by Clifford. He danced many ballets by Balanchine, Bournonville, Petipa, as well as Clifford’s during his 3 years with that company. When the Los Angeles Ballet closed Clifford sent him to New York where he joined the NYC Ballet, quickly rising through the ranks. He was a particular favorite of Jerome Robbins. Woetzel attended Fay School in Massachusetts, where he graduated in 1981. In 2007, he earned an MPA degree from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University.Career as director and producer

Aspen Institute
In June 2011, Woetzel was named the Director of Arts Programs at the Aspen Institute. Among the events curated by the Aspen Institute Arts Program under Woetzel's direction include the inaugural US-China Forum on the Arts and Culture in Beijing, in partnership with Asia Society and the Chinese People’s Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries. American and Chinese artists and cultural representatives engaged in the forum included Joel Coen, Meryl Streep, Yo-Yo Ma, Alice Waters, Liu Ye, Ge You and others. In March 2012, Woetzel produced a panel with Howard Gardner, the Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, and Dr. Ellen Winner, Professor of Psychology at Boston College, and Senior Research Associate at Project Zero, examining the current state of the arts in education. In June 2012, the Arts Program for the first time curated multiple sessions at the Institute’s premiere public program, the Aspen Ideas Festival. For nineteen sessions, Woetzel brought renowned artists, policymakers, arts administrators as well as leading Chinese cultural representatives for discussions, film screenings and cultural exchanges focusing on how the arts impact society. In October 2012, the Arts Program under Woetzel's direction hosted the inaugural Aspen Arts Strategy Group, convening over 30 arts leaders from around the nation in New York City.In December 2012, Woetzel and cellist Yo-Yo Ma organized a participatory visit to the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in Bethesda, MD, where musician Arthur Bloom and his MusiCorps program help wounded warriors to overcome injuries and recover their lives through intensive music practice. In April 2013, Woetzel and the Arts Program announced the appointment of cellist Yo-Yo Ma as the 2013 Harman-Eisner Artist in Residence. Since 2013, the Arts Program has produced over 100 events in cities across the country, involving a range of participants including artists-in-residence Renee Fleming, Theaster Gates, JR, Goldie Hawn, Cameron Carpenter, Lil Buck, Alfre Woodard, Yo-Yo Ma, Eric Fischl, Julie Taymor, and Elizabeth Diller. Additional program expansion activities include the Aspen Arts Strategy Group, and the Creative Young Leaders Alliance. Vail Dance Festival
Since 2006, <mask> has been the Artistic Director of the Vail Dance Festival, where he presents dance performances and commissions. Under Woetzel's direction, the festival has received wide acclaim for its innovation and growth as a nationally recognized showcase for dance, featuring such performances as the debut of Morphoses/The Wheeldon Company, and the launch of New York City Ballet MOVES. The Festival has also hosted the Pacific Northwest Ballet, Miami City Ballet, Paul Taylor Dance Company, the Trey McIntyre Project, the Martha Graham Dance Company, and other major companies.As a major part of Festival programming and community activities, Woetzel has engaged noted and diverse musicians including Philip Glass, Eddie Palmieri, Caroline Shaw, members of the Silk Road Ensemble, Jennifer Koh, and Brooklyn Rider. The annual International Evenings of Dance galas have become renowned for Woetzel's curation of first-time partnerships across companies and countries, as well as the presentation of young, emerging stars making their debuts in new repertory. In August 2012, The New York Times Alastair Macaulay wrote that the 2012 Vail International Dance Festival presentations "were distinguished above all by catholic taste and brilliant programming. They merit superlatives" and that the International Evenings I gala "was simply the best gala I have attended in decades." Writing the same week, Wendy Perron of Dance Magazine compared Woetzel to the legendary impresario Serge Diaghilev, and praised Woetzel for engaging and educating audiences through spoken introductions to each work, and for his commitment to collaboration with live musicians. Also under Woetzel, the Festival has commissioned choreographers to create new works, including Paul Taylor, Christopher Wheeldon, Fang-Yi Sheu, Jill Johnson, Ronald K. Brown, Trey McIntyre, Matthew Neenan, Larry Keigwin and Brian Brooks. Woetzel has instituted a number of other initiatives as director, including bringing the educational arts program "Celebrate The Beat" - the Colorado associate of Jacques d'Amboise's National Dance Institute - to the Vail Valley, to reach local underserved children in the public schools.Through public events involving Festival Artists, Mr. Woetzel has also institutionalized several initiatives highlighting community engagement with the arts, including an annual celebration of National Dance Day, “Dancing in the Streets” programs, open Master Classes and “UpClose” lecture-demonstration events which combine rehearsal, performance and commentary by Woetzel and special guests. Recent UpClose performances have included: “UpClose: Footwork,” which explored virtuoso footwork in dance forms ranging from Memphis jookin’ to ballet to tango to modern dance (2013); "UpClose: Stravinsky by Balanchine," an examination of the legendary collaboration between George Balanchine and Igor Stravinsky, co-hosted by Woetzel and New York City Ballet Master-in-Chief Peter Martins (2012); "UpClose: Premieres," which provided a first look at a series of works created in Vail by choreographers including Christopher Wheeldon and Emery LeCrone during the weeks of the 2011 Vail International Dance Festival; among many others. In 2013, the Festival celebrated its 25th anniversary, and launched its Now: Premieres annual program which has presented new commissions from a wide variety of choreographers. Lil Buck @ Le Poisson Rouge
In April 2013, Woetzel directed and produced a "jookin' jam session" at New York’s Le Poisson Rouge, featuring the Memphis  Charles "Lil Buck" Riley with special guests including dancer Ron "Prime Tym" Myles, Yo-Yo Ma (cello), Marcus Printup (trumpet), Cristina Pato (galician bagpipe), John Hadfield (percussion) and the ensemble Brooklyn Rider. The evening featured a specially commissioned world premiere for solo cello by Philip Glass, co-choreographed by Woetzel and Lil Buck. Alastair Macaulay wrote in The New York Times, “As Lil Buck performed with an array of distinguished musicians on Tuesday night at Le Poisson Rouge, a series of extraordinary windows seemed to open, each revealing a new and imagined realm.”
On October 7, 2013, Charles “Lil Buck” Riley and Ron “Prime Tyme” Myles were awarded Bessies in the Outstanding Performance category for their appearances in Lil Buck @ Le Poisson Rouge. Kennedy Center Honors
In December 2012, Woetzel co-produced the tribute to legendary ballerina Natalia Makarova as part of the 35th annual Kennedy Center Honors, and in 2014 he co-produced the tribute to ballerina Patricia McBride.For his contributions to the Emmy-Award-winning CBS special, Woetzel was honored by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for the 2012-2013 Primetime Emmy Awards. World Science Festival
In 2009 and 2010, Woetzel produced and directed the World Science Festival Gala Performances at Lincoln Center’s Alice Tully Hall. For the 2010 event he created an arts salute to science honoring the theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, featuring performances by Yo-Yo Ma, John Lithgow, and Kelli O’Hara among others. New Essential Works Program
In the fall of 2009, Woetzel co-founded and began directing the Jerome Robbins Foundation's New Essential Works (NEW) Program, which supports choreographers and

masks:
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title: Damian Woetzel

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 dance companies during the current financial crisis by giving grants to enable the production of new works. Choreographers who have received grants to date include Andrew Bartee, Stephanie Batten-Bland, Attila Bongar, Brian Brooks,  Thaddeus Davis, Norbert de la Cruz, Elena Demyanenko, Robert Garland, Jodie Gates, John Heginbotham, Larry Keigwin, Jessica Lang, Emery LeCrone, Edwaard Liang,  Jodi Melnick, Michelle Mola, Jennifer Muller, Matthew Neenan, Helen Pickett, Zalman Raffael, Brian Reeder, Ken Roht, Matthew Rushing, Amy Seiwert, Pam Tanowitz, Endalyn Taylor, Zack Winokur and Nicholas Villeneuve. Companies who have participated in the production of NEW works include Alaska Dance Theatre, Aspen Santa Fe Ballet, Ballet X, Baryshnikov Arts Center, Boston Ballet, Carolina Ballet, Colorado Ballet, Dance St. Louis, Dance Theatre of Harlem, Eugene Ballet, Grand Rapids Ballet, Joffrey Ballet, Kansas City Ballet, Keigwin+Company, Nevada Ballet Theatre, NYC Opera, Oakland Ballet, Orchestra of St. Lukes, Oregon Ballet Theatre, Pacific Northwest Ballet, Pennsylvania Ballet, Philadanco, Richmond Ballet, and Sacramento Ballet. Grant awards fall into two categories: NEW grants, for the premiere of a new work, and RE(NEW) grants, supporting the restaging of a NEW work.Studio 5 Performance Series
In 2009, Woetzel launched as curator and director the new Studio 5 performance series at New York’s City Center, which features in-depth examinations of today’s most compelling dance artists and companies highlighted by in-studio performances and demonstrations. In 2009-2013, guests included David Hallberg, Christopher Wheeldon, Herman Cornejo, Gabriel Missé and Analía Centurión, Tiler Peck and Robert Fairchild, Victoria Clark, Rob Berman, Angel Corella, Wendy Whelan, Edward Villella, among others; topics of discussion ranged from musicality to collaboration to musical theatre; and featured companies included American Ballet Theatre, the Paul Taylor Dance Company and Dance Theater of Harlem. Turnaround Arts
As a presidentially-appointed artist on the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities (along with Chuck Close, Sarah Jessica Parker, Kerry Washington, Forest Whitaker, Yo-Yo Ma, and others), Woetzel is actively involved with Turnaround Arts, an arts education initiative developed in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Education and the White House Domestic Policy Council to help turn around low-performing schools through engagement with the arts. Woetzel has adopted two schools – Lame Deer Jr. High School in Lame Deer, MT, and Orchard Gardens K-8 in Roxbury, MA – and works on arts programming and projects with the schools and their surrounding communities consistently throughout the year. Arts Strike
In June 2010 Woetzel piloted "Arts Strike," a new effort to have celebrated artists engage educators and students, schools and communities, highlighting and sharing the unique power of the arts to empower, enrich and educate. The first events have taken place in Vail, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, and Washington, D.C., and almost all have featured Woetzel with Yo-Yo Ma in schools, engaging with students and their teachers to promote learning through the arts. Most recently, Woetzel piloted the High Line Arts Education Project, an Arts Strike organized in New York in collaboration with architect Elizabeth Diller.Silk Road Connect
Woetzel works with Yo-Yo Ma on his Silk Road Connect program in the New York City Public Schools. In June 2010, Woetzel directed the culminating year-end event which took place at New York’s Museum of Natural History, and featured the participation of the Silk Road Ensemble and 450 6th grade students. In June 2011, the culminating year-end event opened the Central Park SummerStage series. Titled “Night at the Caravanserai: Tales of Wonder,” the performance again featured hundreds of 6th grade students from New York-area public schools, Ma with his Silk Road Ensemble, vocalist Bobby McFerrin, the soprano Emalie Savoy, actor Bill Irwin, and author Jhumpa Lahiri, among others. In April 2011, Woetzel organized an "arts strike" at Inner-City Arts in downtown Los Angeles with Yo-Yo Ma, The Silk Road Ensemble, and Memphis  Charles "Lil Buck" Riley. The event included a demonstration and workshop for more than one hundred elementary school students from the Los Angeles Unified School District. Highlighting the event was a first-time duet directed by Woetzel between Ma and Lil Buck, who performed a Memphis Jookin' version of The Dying Swan with Ma accompanying on the cello; the performance was immortalized in a video shot by Spike Jonze which reached over one million views within weeks.Other education work
In October 2012, <mask>, Renée Fleming and Yo-Yo Ma — as National Cultural Advisors — helped Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel unveil the long-awaited Chicago Cultural Plan, which guarantees the arts an important place within the Chicago school curriculum. The announcement came one year after the Aspen Institute Arts Program, with Yo-Yo Ma and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, convened a closed-door roundtable with Chicago Public Schools leadership and local arts education forces, to strategize on the place of the arts in the longer school day anticipated for 2012-13. Harvard Law School
In the fall of 2010, Woetzel was a visiting Lecturer at Harvard Law School, where he co-taught a course on Performing Arts and the Law with Jeannie Suk. The course explored many intersections of the arts and law, from copyright law, to courtroom performance to celebrity law, with guests including playwright John Guare, actor Alec Baldwin, and Balanchine Trust Co-Founding Trustee Barbara Horgan. New York State Summer School for the Arts
<mask> was the artistic director of the New York State Summer School for the Arts School of Ballet from 1994-2007. Dance career

New York City Ballet
Woetzel joined New York City Ballet in 1985, and was a principal dancer from 1989 until his retirement from the stage in 2008. At New York City Ballet, Woetzel had works created for him by Jerome Robbins, Eliot Feld, Twyla Tharp, Susan Stroman and Christopher Wheeldon among others, and danced more than 50 featured roles in the Company's repertory, including: George Balanchine's: Agon, Coppélia, The Prodigal Son, Slaughter on Tenth Avenue, Stars and Stripes, Swan Lake; and Jerome Robbins': Afternoon of a Faun, Fancy Free, Dances at a Gathering, A Suite of Dances, and West Side Story Suite.Woetzel originated featured roles in: Jerome Robbins' Ives, Songs and Quiet City, Eliot Feld's The Unanswered Question and Organon, Twyla Tharp's The Beethoven Seventh, Christopher Wheeldon's An American in Paris, Carousel, Evenfall, Morphoses, and Variations sérieuses, Peter Martins' Jeu de cartes and The Sleeping Beauty, and Susan Stroman's "The Blue Necklace" from Double Feature. Woetzel also originated roles in ballets by Kevin O'Day, Richard Tanner and Lynne Taylor-Corbett, among others. Woetzel appeared in Dance in America's presentation of "Dinner with Balanchine," dancing Union Jack and Stars and Stripes. In May 1999, he starred as Prince Siegfried in Peter Martins' Swan Lake on the PBS national telecast "Live from Lincoln Center." Woetzel also appeared in the 2002 nationally televised Live from Lincoln Center broadcast "New York City Ballet's Diamond Project: Ten Years of New Choreography" on PBS and in the May 2004 Live from Lincoln Center broadcast of "Lincoln Center Celebrates Balanchine 100." <mask> starred as the Cavalier in the film version of George Balanchine's The Nutcracker, released in the winter of 1993. In October 1998, Mr. <mask> appeared as one of the stars of the Cole Porter musical Jubilee in a special benefit performance at Carnegie Hall, during which he sang as well as danced.Guest appearances
During his career, <mask> frequently performed internationally as a guest star and was a visiting artist with numerous companies including the Kirov Ballet and American Ballet Theatre. In his guest appearances, Woetzel danced principal roles in classics such as Don Quixote, Giselle, and La Bayadere among others, in addition to his NYCB repertory. Choreography
Woetzel has choreographed a number of ballets for New York City Ballet, among other companies. For New York City Ballet, he choreographed Ebony Concerto to Stravinsky, and Glazounov Pas de Deux to the composer's Les Ruses d'Amour. <mask> also choreographed the "Polovtsian Dances" for New York City Opera's production of Prince Igor, and in 1998, he choreographed and starred in a new version of An American in Paris ballet for Marvin Hamlisch's Gershwin Centennial Gala. In recent years, Woetzel has choreographed works including The Orchard for Pacific Northwest Ballet’s Carla Körbes, which premiered at the Vail International Dance Festival, and collaborated on choreography with the jookin’ star Lil Buck for performances in New York, Los Angeles and Colorado, among other places. Honors and appointments
In 2015, Woetzel was awarded the Harvard Arts Medal.In July 2012, <mask> was honored with the inaugural Gene Kelly Legacy Award - an award jointly created by the Dizzy Feet Foundation and the Estate of Gene Kelly in honor of the 100th anniversary of Kelly's birth - for his contributions to the arts as a ballet star and director of dance and music performances. He serves on the Artists Committee of the Kennedy Center Honors and as a judge for the Astaire Awards. He has also served as a juror for the Princess Grace Awards. <mask> is a frequent speaker on the arts and arts policy. <mask> was the 2008 Harman-Eisner Artist in Residence of the Aspen Institute, and in 2011, he became a member of the Knight Foundation's National Arts Advisory Committee. <mask> also serves on the boards of directors of New York City Center, The Clive Barnes Foundation and The Sphinx Organization, and served on the recent Harvard Task Force on the Arts. In November 2009, President Obama appointed Woetzel to the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities.Education
<mask> holds a Master in Public Administration Degree from Harvard's Kennedy School of Government. Personal life
<mask> has been married to fellow New York City Ballet Principal Dancer Heather Watts since 1999. References

External links
 http://www.aspeninstitute.org/policy-work/arts-program
 www.vaildance.org
 New York Choreographic Institute webpage
 <mask> & Alexia Hess performing Adagio for Two (Barber/Mahdaviani) at Jacobs Pillow (1986) on danceinteracive.jacobspillow.org

1967 births
Male ballet dancers
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
Living people
New York City Ballet Diamond Project choreographers
New York City Ballet principal dancers
School of American Ballet alumni
Fay School

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title: Grand Prince Neungwon

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Grand Prince <mask> (Hangul: 능원대군, Hanja: 綾原大君; 15 May 1598 - 26 January 1656), personal name Yi Bo (Hangul: 이보, Hanja: 李俌) was a Korean Politician in the Late Joseon dynasty. He was also a Korean Royal Prince as the second son of Wonjong of Joseon and Queen Inheon of the Neungseong Gu clan. He was the younger brother of Injo of Joseon. Biography

Early life
The future Grand Prince <mask> was born on 15 May 1598 (31st year reign of Seonjo of Joseon) in Seongcheon, Pyeongan-do, Kingdom of Joseon as the second son of Prince Jeongwon (정원군, 定遠君) and Princess Consort Yeonju of the Neungseong Gu clan (연주군부인, 連珠郡夫人) during the Late Imjin War periods (임진왜란). Since child, he was spent a brief childhood in Pyeongyang-si, Pyeongan-do and grew up in his father's private residence in Hanseong-bu. Meanwhile, later in 1608 (41st year reign of his grandfather, Seonjo of Joseon), at 11 years old, Bo was adopted as his 1st uncle, <mask> (의안군)'s son. However, Prince Uian at 12 years old and later, in 1601, Bo was given royal title Master Neungwon (능원수, 綾原守) at first and later changed into <mask> (능원군) on 1608.During Gwanghaegun of Joseon's reign

In 1608 (Gwanghaegun's ascension to the throne), immediately after Yu Yeong-Gyeong (유영경)'s death in prison, the Prince become of Jeongunwonjonggongsin rank 1 (정운원종공신 1등). Later, in 1613 (5th year reign of Gwanghaegun), after Prince Imhae (임해군) was imprisoned, he became Iksawonjonggongsin rank 1 (익사원종공신 1등). However, 4 years later in 1617 (10th year reign of Gwanghaegun), he was participated in the discussion on the abolition of Dowager Queen Inmok (인목대비) as the senior person in the palace. Other bureaucrats whom participated in these discussion were punished, but he wasn't got punished. During Injo of Joseon's reign
Later, on 13 March 1623, his big brother, Prince Neungyang (능양군) make a rebellion and then ascended the throne. However, when their youngest brother, Prince Neungchang (능창군) was exiled to Gyo-dong on charges of treason in 1615 (7th year reign of Gwanghaegun of Joseon), he was immediately killed and died in there. Heard if the youngest brother was death, their father, Wonjong was so heartbroken over this and while drinking the alcohol, he died on 2 February 1619 (11st year reign of Gwanghaegun of Joseon) at 40 years old.Then, on 22 December in the same year, Neungwon became an officer in Sodeokdaebu (소덕대부). However, in March 1625 (Injo's 3rd year reign), a man named Jeong Yeong-Sin (정영신), the servant of Neungwon's adopted father was beaten and got killed. At this time, there were some ministers accused him, but Injo only believed the words of the servants who betrayed him and didn't conducted the investigation fairly,  instead ordered the ministers to left. Afterwards, both of Yun Sun-Ji (윤순지) and Gim-Yu (김유) were filed an appeal for fear that the state's words would be blocked and Injo then apologized for being too excessive. However, on 28 November 1625 (Injo's 3rd year reign), when his mother, Lady Gyewoon (계운궁, 啓運宮) became critically ill, Injo specially offered Hyeollokdaebu (현록대부) to Neungwon in order to comfort his biological mother. Later, when their mother passed away on 10 February 1626, Neungwon become the resident instead of Injo. Numerous ministers argued that Neungwon, who had already been adopted by Prince Uian, couldn't be Lady Gyewoon's resident, but Injo didn't grant permission and refused it.After that, Neungwon must faced a difficult life because he was being dismissed from the office and must divorced from his wife, Lady Yu (유씨) because her father was failed in conspiracy to make Prince Inseong (인성군), the first son of Seonjo of Joseon and Royal Noble Consort Jeong of the Yeoheung Min clan as the new King to succeeded Gwanghae in the throne, so King Injo demanded him to divorced from her. At first, he refused this, but later removed her title and demoted to just be his concubine (첩, 妾). Although that, she can still able to lived in his home. Meanwhile, when Injo concerned about his small house, Injo fell wrong with this and gave him a special palace in Yihyeon (이현, 梨峴), Hanseong-bu as his house. Later, on 17 September 1628 (Injo's 5th year reign), Neungwon became Somuwonjonggongsin rank 1 (소무원종공신 1등). After Military Service and ranks
Later, after Injo's ascension to the throne, their father was honoured as King Wonjong (원종왕, 元宗王) and their mother was honoured as Queen Inheon (인헌왕후, 仁獻王后). Then, on 4 May 1623 (Injo's 10th year reign), he was honoured as Grand Prince Neungwon (능원대군, 綾原大君) along with his younger brother who was died as Grand Prince Neungchang (능창대군, 綾昌大君).In 1645 (Injo's 23rd year reign), he received a portion of the envoys from Dorgon (도르곤) who was the Prince regent of Qing dynasty. Later, in September 1646 (24th year reign of Injo of Joseon), after Sim Gi-won (심기원)'s rebellion case was ended, Neungwon became Yeonggukgongsin (영국공신, 寧國功臣) and then Yeonggukwonjonggongsin (영국원종공신, 寧國元從功臣) in September 1646 (Injo's 24th year reign). Faction
Famous figures of his faction (능원대군파) were such as the Politician Yi Jin-Yong (정치인 이진용) and the playwright Yi Hae-Rang (연극인 이해랑). Meanwhile, since the Prince was adopted by his 1st uncle, his faction was sometimes called as <mask> Faction (의안군파). Died and later life
He later died on 26 January 1656 (7th year reign of his nephew, Hyojong of Joseon) at 57 years old and received his Posthumous name, then, was buried in Nokchon-ri, Hwado-eup, Namyangju-si, Gyeonggi-do along with his wife. On the other hand, it was said that he also claimed the theory of Cheokhwa (척화) together with Gim Sang-Heon (김상헌), who was a presiding officer at the time, despite the growing public opinion insisting on strengthening the Qing dynasty. He was also ignorant of Buddhism and didn't even look the cause, but after his 1st father in-law, Yu Hyo-Rib (유효립) was punished and exiled, he faced his wife, wept and complained about this.It was said that he lived together as before without any regrets. Family
Grand Prince Neungwon had 20 grandchildren and 45 middle-grandsons, almost of them were lived with prospering. His Sindo (신도) was written by Song Siyeol (송시열) and Jo Sa-U (조사우). Younger brother - Yi Jeon, Grand Prince Neungchang (16 July 1599 - 17 November 1615) (이전 능창대군)
Sister-in-law - Grand Princess Consort Gu of the Neungseong Gu clan (부부인 능성 구씨)
 Adoptive nephew - Yi Yo, Grand Prince Inpyeong (인평대군 요) (1622 - 1658); 3rd son of King Injo
Consorts and their Respective Issue(s):
Grand Princess Consort Munhwa of the Munhwa Ryu clan (27 October 1598 - 3 August 1676) (문화부부인 문화 류씨)
Grand Princess Consort of the Yeongam Kim clan (9 March 1610 - 25 January 1696) (부부인 영암 김씨)
Yi Sik, <mask>pung (? - 1692) (이식 영풍군)
Yi Ham, <mask>n (이함 영은군)
Yi Hyeong, <mask>sin (이형 영신군)
Yi Jeong, <mask>chun (이정 영춘군)
Yi Yu (이유)
Lady Yi (이씨)
Lady Yi Yeong-Jeong (1639 - 1657) (이영정, 李英淨)
Lady Yi (이씨)

Legacy
His tomb designated as Gyeonggi-do Cultural Heritage Material No. 115 on 16 September 2002 by the Cultural Heritage Administration of the Republic of Korea. References

External links
 능원대군 in Encykorea (in Korean).Retrieved June 5, 2021. 1598 births
1656 deaths
15th-century Korean people
Korean princes
House of Yi
16th-century Korean people

masks:
Neungwon
Neungwon
Prince Uian
Prince Nngwon
Prince Uian
Prince Yeong
Prince Yeongeu
Prince Yeong
Prince Yeong


title: Joseph Johnson (publisher)

texts:
<mask> (15 November 1738 – 20 December 1809) was an influential 18th-century London bookseller and publisher. His publications covered a wide variety of genres and a broad spectrum of opinions on important issues. <mask> is best known for publishing the works of radical thinkers such as Mary Wollstonecraft, William Godwin, Thomas Malthus, Erasmus Darwin and Joel Barlow, feminist economist Priscilla Wakefield, as well as religious dissenters such as <mask>, Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Gilbert Wakefield, and George Walker. In the 1760s, <mask> established his publishing business, which focused primarily on religious works. He also became friends with Priestley and the artist Henry Fuseli – two relationships that lasted his entire life and brought him much business. In the 1770s and 1780s, <mask> expanded his business, publishing important works in medicine and children's literature as well as the popular poetry of William Cowper and Erasmus Darwin. Throughout his career, <mask> helped shape the thought of his era not only through his publications, but also through his support of innovative writers and thinkers.He fostered the open discussion of new ideas, particularly at his famous weekly dinners, the regular attendees of which became known as the "Johnson Circle". In the 1790s, <mask> aligned himself with the supporters of the French Revolution, and published an increasing number of political pamphlets in addition to a prominent journal, the Analytical Review, which offered British reformers a voice in the public sphere. In 1799, he was indicted on charges of seditious libel for publishing a pamphlet by the Unitarian minister Gilbert Wakefield. After spending six months in prison, albeit under relatively comfortable conditions, <mask> published fewer political works. In the last decade of his career, <mask> did not seek out many new writers; however, he remained successful by publishing the collected works of authors such as William Shakespeare. <mask>'s friend John Aikin eulogized him as "the father of the booktrade". He has also been called "the most important publisher in England from 1770 until 1810" for his appreciation and promotion of young writers, his emphasis on publishing inexpensive works directed at a growing middle-class readership, and his cultivation and advocacy of women writers at a time when they were viewed with skepticism.Early life
<mask> was the second son of <mask>, a Baptist yeoman who lived in Everton, Liverpool, and his wife Rebecca Turner. Religious Dissent marked <mask> from the beginning of his life, as two of his mother's relatives were prominent Baptist ministers and his father was a deacon. Liverpool, at the time of <mask>'s youth, was fast becoming a bustling urban centre and was one of the most important commercial ports in England. These two characteristics of his home – Dissent and commercialism – remained central elements in <mask>'s character throughout his life. At the age of fifteen, <mask> was apprenticed to George Keith, a London bookseller who specialized in publishing religious tracts such as Reflections on the Modern but Unchristian Practice of Innoculation. As Gerald Tyson, <mask>'s major modern biographer, explains, it was unusual for the younger son of a family living in relative obscurity to move to London and to become a bookseller. Scholars have speculated that <mask> was indentured to Keith because the bookseller was associated with Liverpool Baptists.Keith and <mask> published several works together later in their careers, which suggests that the two remained on friendly terms after <mask> started his own business. 1760s: Beginnings in publishing
Upon completing his apprenticeship in 1761, <mask> opened his own business, but he struggled to establish himself, moving his shop several times within one year. Two of his early publications were a kind of day planner: The Complete Pocket-Book; Or, Gentleman and Tradesman's Daily Journal for the Year of Our Lord, 1763 and The Ladies New and Polite Pocket Memorandum Book. Such pocketbooks were popular and <mask> outsold his rivals by publishing his both earlier and cheaper. <mask> continued to sell these profitable books until the end of the 1790s, but as a religious Dissenter, he was primarily interested in publishing books that would improve society. Therefore, religious texts dominated his book list, although he also published works relating to Liverpool (his home town) and medicine. However, as a publisher <mask> attended to more than the selling and distributing of books, as scholar Leslie Chard explains:

As <mask> became successful and his reputation grew, other publishers began including him in congers – syndicates that spread the risk of publishing a costly or inflammatory book among several firms.Formative friendships
In his late twenties, <mask> formed two friendships that were to shape the rest of his life. The first was with the painter and writer Henry Fuseli, who was described as "quick witted and pugnacious". Fuseli's early 19th-century biographer writes that when Fuseli met <mask> in 1764, <mask> "had already acquired the character which he retained during life, – that of a man of great integrity, and encourager of literary men as far as his means extended, and an excellent judge of their productions". Fuseli became and remained <mask>'s closest friend. The second and possibly more consequential friendship was with <mask>, the renowned natural philosopher and Unitarian theologian. This friendship led <mask> to discard the Baptist faith of his youth and to adopt Unitarianism, as well as to pursue forms of political dissent. <mask>'s success as a publisher can be explained in large part through his association with Priestley, as Priestley published dozens of books with him and introduced him to many other Dissenting writers.Through Priestley's recommendation, <mask> was able to issue the works of many Dissenters, especially those from Warrington Academy: the poet, essayist, and children's author Anna Laetitia Barbauld; her brother, the physician and writer, John Aikin; the naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster; the Unitarian minister and controversialist Gilbert Wakefield; the moralist William Enfield; and the political economist Thomas Malthus. Tyson writes that "the relationship between the Academy and the bookseller was mutually very useful. Not only did many of the tutors send occasional manuscripts for publication, but also former pupils often sought him out in later years to issue their works." By printing the works of Priestley and other of the Warrington tutors, <mask> also made himself known to an even larger network of Dissenting intellectuals, including those in the Lunar Society, which expanded his business further. Priestley, in turn, trusted <mask> enough to handle the logistics of his induction into the Royal Society. Partnerships
In July 1765, <mask> moved his business to the more visible 8 Paternoster Row and formed a partnership with B. Davenport, of whom little is known aside from his association with <mask>. Chard postulates that they were attracted by mutual beliefs because the firm of <mask> and Davenport published even more religious works, including many that were "rigidly Calvinistic".However, in the summer of 1767, Davenport and <mask> parted ways; scholars have speculated that this rupture occurred because <mask>'s religious views were becoming more unorthodox. Newly independent, with a solid reputation, <mask> did not need to struggle to establish himself as he had early in his career. Within a year, he published nine first editions himself as well as thirty-two works in partnership with other booksellers. He was also a part of "the select circle of bookmen that gathered at the Chapter Coffee House", which was the centre of social and commercial life for publishers and booksellers in 18th-century London. Major publishing ventures had started at the Chapter and important writers "clubbed" there. In 1768 <mask> went into partnership with John Payne (<mask> was probably the senior partner); the following year they published 50 titles. Under <mask> and Payne, the firm published a wider array of works than under <mask> and Davenport.Although <mask> looked to his business interests, he did not publish works only to enrich himself. Projects that encouraged free discussion appealed to <mask>; for example, he helped Priestley publish the Theological Repository, a financial failure that nevertheless fostered open debate of theological questions. Although the journal lost <mask> money in the 1770s, he was willing to begin publishing it again in 1785 because he endorsed its values. The late 1760s was a time of growing radicalism in Britain, and although <mask> did not participate actively in the events, he facilitated the speech of those who did, e.g., by publishing works on the disputed election of John Wilkes and the agitation in the American colonies. Despite his growing interest in politics, <mask> (with Payne) still published primarily religious works and the occasional travel narrative. As Tyson writes, "in the first decade of his career <mask>'s significance as a bookseller derived from a desire to provide dissent (religious and political) a forum". Fire
<mask> was on the verge of real success when his shop was ravaged by fire on 9 January 1770.As one London newspaper reported it:

At the time Fuseli had been living with <mask> and he also lost all of his possessions, including the first printing of his Remarks on the Writings and Conduct of J. J. Rousseau. <mask> and Payne subsequently dissolved their partnership. It was an amicable separation, and <mask> even published some of Payne's works in later years. 1770s: Establishment
By August 1770, just seven months after fire had destroyed his shop and goods, <mask> had re-established himself at 72 St. Paul's Churchyard – the largest shop on a street of booksellers – where he was to remain for the rest of his life. How <mask> managed this feat is unclear; he later cryptically told a friend that "his friends came about him, and set him up again". An early 19th-century biography states that "Mr. <mask> was now so well known, and had been so highly respected, that on this unfortunate occasion, his friends with one accord met, and contributed to enable him to begin business again". Chard speculates that Priestley assisted him since they were such close friends.Religious publications and advocacy of Unitarianism

Immediately upon reopening his business, <mask> started publishing theological and political works by Priestley and other Dissenters. Starting in the 1770s, <mask> published more specifically Unitarian works, as well as texts advocating religious toleration; he also became personally involved in the Unitarian cause. He served as a conduit for information between Dissenters across the country and supplied provincial publishers with religious publications, thereby enabling Dissenters to spread their beliefs easily. <mask> participated in efforts to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts, which restricted the civil rights of Dissenters. In one six-year period of the 1770s, <mask> was responsible for publishing nearly one-third of the Unitarian works on the issue. He continued his support in 1787, 1789, and 1790, when Dissenters introduced repeal bills in Parliament, and he published much of the pro-repeal literature written by Priestley and others. <mask> was also instrumental in Theophilus Lindsey's founding of the first Unitarian chapel in London.With some difficulty, as Unitarians were feared at that time and their beliefs held illegal until the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813, <mask> obtained the building for Essex Street Chapel and, with the help of barrister John Lee, who later became Attorney-General, its licence. To capitalize on the opening of the new chapel in addition to helping out his friends, <mask> published Lindsey's inaugural sermon, which sold out in four days. <mask> continued to attend and participate actively in this congregation throughout his life. Lindsey and the church's other minister, John Disney, became two of <mask>'s most active writers. In the 1780s, <mask> continued to advocate Unitarianism and published a series of controversial writings by Priestley arguing for its legitimacy. These writings did not make <mask> much money, but they agreed with his philosophy of open debate and religious toleration. <mask> also became the publisher for the Society for Promoting the Knowledge of the Scriptures, a Unitarian group determined to release new worship materials and commentaries on the Bible.(See British and Foreign Unitarian Association#Publishing.) Although <mask> is known for publishing Unitarian works, particularly those of Priestley, he also published the works of other Dissenters, Anglicans, and Jews. The common thread uniting his disparate religious publications was religious toleration. For example, he published the Reverend George Gregory's 1787 English translation of Bishop Robert Lowth's seminal book on Hebrew poetry, De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum. Gregory published several other works with <mask>, such as Essays Historical and Moral (1785) and Sermons with Thoughts on the Composition and Delivery of a Sermon (1787). Gregory exemplified the type of author that <mask> preferred to work with: industrious and liberal-minded, but not bent on self-glorification. Yet, as Helen Braithwaite writes in her study of <mask>, his "enlightened pluralistic approach was also seen by its opponents as inherently permissive, opening the door to all forms of unhealthy questioning and scepticism, and at odds with the stable virtues of established religion and authority".American revolution

Partially as a result of his association with British Dissenters, <mask> became involved in publishing tracts and sermons in defence of the American revolutionaries. He began with Priestley's Address to Protestant Dissenters of All Denominations, on the Approaching Election of Members of Parliament (1774), which urged Dissenters to vote for candidates that guaranteed the American colonists their freedom. <mask> continued his series of anti-government, pro-American pamphlets by publishing Fast Day sermons by Joshua Toulmin, George Walker, Ebenezer Radcliff, and Newcome Cappe. Braithwaite describes these as "well-articulated critiques of government" that "were not only unusual but potentially subversive and disruptive", and she concludes that <mask>'s decision to publish so much of this material indicates that he supported the political position it espoused. Moreover, <mask> published what Braithwaite calls "probably the most influential English defence of the colonists", Richard Price's Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty (1776). Over 60,000 copies were sold in a year. In 1780 <mask> also issued the first collected political works of Benjamin Franklin in England, a political risk as the American colonies were in rebellion by that time.<mask> did not usually reprint colonial texts – his ties to the revolution were primarily through Dissenters. Thus, the works published by <mask> emphasized both colonial independence and the rights for which Dissenters were fighting – "the right to petition for redress of grievance, the maintenance and protection of equal civil rights, and the inalienable right to liberty of conscience". Informative texts

After 1770, <mask> began to publish a wider array of books, particularly scientific and medical texts. One of the most important was John Hunter's A Natural History of the Human Teeth, Part I (1771), which "elevated dentistry to the level of surgery". <mask> also supported doctors when they questioned the efficacy of cures, such as with John Millar in his Observations on Antimony (1774), which claimed that Dr James's Fever Powder was ineffective. This was a risky publication for <mask>, because this patent medicine was quite popular and his fellow bookseller John Newbery had made his fortune from selling it. In 1777 <mask> published the remarkable Laws Respecting Women, as they Regard Their Natural Rights, which is an explication, for the layperson, of exactly what its title suggests.As Tyson comments, "the ultimate value of this book lies in its arming women with the knowledge of their legal rights in situations where they had traditionally been vulnerable because of ignorance". <mask> published Laws Respecting Women anonymously, but it is sometimes credited to Elizabeth Chudleigh Bristol, known for her bigamous marriage to the 2nd Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull after having previously privately married Augustus John Hervey, afterwards 3rd Earl of Bristol. This publication foreshadowed <mask>'s efforts to promote works about women's issues – such as A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) – and his support of women writers. Revolution in children's literature
<mask> also contributed significantly to children's literature. His publication of Barbauld's Lessons for Children (1778–79) spawned a revolution in the newly emerging genre. Its plain style, mother-child dialogues, and conversational tone inspired a generation of authors, such as Sarah Trimmer. <mask> encouraged other women to write in this genre, such as Charlotte Smith, but his recommendation always came with a caveat of how difficult it was to write well for children.For example, he wrote to Smith, "perhaps you cannot employ your time and extraordinary talents more usefully for the public & your self , than in composing books for children and young people, but I am very sensible it is extreamly  difficult to acquire that simplicity of style which is their great recommendation". He also advised William Godwin and his second wife, Mary Jane Clairmont, on the publication of their Juvenile Library (started in 1805). Not only did <mask> encourage the writing of British children's literature, but he also helped sponsor the translation and publication of popular French works such as Arnaud Berquin's L'Ami des Enfans (1782–83). In addition to books for children, <mask> published schoolbooks and textbooks for autodidacts, such as John Hewlett's Introduction to Spelling and Reading (1786), William Nicholson's Introduction to Natural Philosophy (1782), and his friend John Bonnycastle's An Introduction to Mensuration and Practical Mathematics (1782). <mask> also published books on education and

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title: Joseph Johnson (publisher)

texts:
 childrearing, such as Wollstonecraft's first book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787). By the end of the 1770s, <mask> had become an established publisher. Writers – particularly Dissenters – sought him out, and his home started to become the centre of a radical and stimulating intellectual milieu.Because he was willing to publish multiple opinions on issues, he was respected as a publisher by writers from across the political spectrum. <mask> published many Unitarian works, but he also issued works criticizing them; although he was an abolitionist, he also published works arguing in favour of the slave trade; he supported inoculation, but he also published works critical of the practice. 1780s: Success

During the 1780s, <mask> achieved success: he did well financially and his firm published more books with other firms. Although <mask> had begun his career as a relatively cautious publisher of religious and scientific tracts, he was now able to take more risks and he encouraged friends to recommend works to him, creating a network of informal reviewers. Yet <mask>'s business was never large; he usually had only one assistant and never took on an apprentice. Only in the last years of his life did two relatives assist him. Literature
Once <mask>'s financial situation had become secure, he began to publish literary authors, most famously the poet William Cowper.<mask> issued Cowper's Poems (1782) and The Task (1784) at his own expense (a generous action at a time when authors were often forced to take on the risk of publication), and was rewarded with handsome sales of both volumes. <mask> published many of Cowper's works, including the anonymous satire Anti-thelyphora (1780), which mocked the work of Cowper's own cousin, the Rev. Martin Madan, who had advocated polygamy as a solution for prostitution. <mask> even edited and critiqued Cowper's poetry in manuscript, "much to the advantage of the poems" according to Cowper. In 1791, <mask> published Cowper's translations of the Homeric epics (extensively edited and corrected by Fuseli) and three years after Cowper's death in 1800, <mask> published a biography of the poet by William Hayley. <mask> never published much "creative literature"; Chard attributes this to "a lingering Calvinistic hostility to 'imaginative' literature". Most of the literary works <mask> published were religious or didactic.Some of his most popular productions in this vein were anthologies; the most famous is probably William Enfield's The Speaker (1774), which went through multiple editions and spawned many imitations, such as Wollstonecraft's The Female Speaker. Medical and scientific publications
<mask> continued his interest in publishing practical medical texts in the 1780s and 1790s; during the 1780s, he brought out some of his most significant works in this area. According to <mask>'s friend, the physician John Aikin, he intentionally established one of his first shops on "the track of the Medical Students resorting to the Hospitals in the Borough", where they would be sure to see his wares, which helped to establish him in medical publishing. <mask> published the works of the scientist-Dissenters he met through Priestley and Barbauld, such as Thomas Beddoes and Thomas Young. He issued the children's book on birds produced by the industrialist Samuel Galton and the Lunar Society's translation of Linnaeus's System of Vegetables (1783). He also published works by James Edward Smith, "the botanist who brought the Linnaean system to England". In 1784, <mask> issued John Haygarth's An Inquiry How to Prevent Small-Pox, which furthered the understanding and treatment of smallpox.<mask> published several subsequent works by Haygarth that promoted inoculation (and later vaccination) for the healthy, as well as quarantining for the sick. He also published the work of James Earle, a prominent surgeon, whose significant book on lithotomy was illustrated by William Blake, and Matthew Baillie's Morbid Anatomy (1793), "the first text of pathology devoted to that science exclusively by systematic arrangement and design". Not only did <mask> publish the majority of Priestley's theological works, but he also published his scientific works, such as Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1774–77) in which Priestley announced his discovery of oxygen. <mask> also published the works of Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier, both of whom made their own claims of having discovered oxygen. When Lavoisier began to publish works in France on the "new chemistry" that he had developed (which included today's modern notions of element and compound), <mask> had these translated and printed immediately, despite his association with Priestley who argued strenuously against Lavoisier's new system. <mask> was the first to publish an English edition of Lavoisier's early writings on chemistry and he kept up with the ongoing debate. These works did well for <mask> and increased his visibility among men of science.Johnson Circle and dinners
With time, <mask>'s home became a nexus for radical thinkers, who appreciated his open-mindedness, generous spirit, and humanitarianism. Although usually separated by geography, such thinkers would meet and debate with one another at <mask>'s house in London, often over dinner. This network not only brought authors into contact with each other, it also brought new writers to <mask>'s business. For example, Priestley introduced John Newton to <mask>, Newton brought John Hewlett, and Hewlett invited Mary Wollstonecraft, who in turn attracted Mary Hays who brought William Godwin. With this broad network of acquaintances and reputation for free-thinking publications, <mask> became the favourite publisher of a generation of writers and thinkers. By bringing inventive, thoughtful people together, he "stood at the very heart of British intellectual life" for over twenty years. Importantly, <mask>'s circle was not made up entirely of either liberals or radicals.Chard emphasizes that it "was held together less by political liberalism than by a common interest in ideas, free enquiry, and creative expression in various fields". As Tyson notes, although "<mask>'s circle" is usually used in the singular, there were at least two such "circles". The first was made up of a group of London associates: Fuseli, Gregory, Bonnycastle, and Geddes. The second consisted of <mask>'s writers from farther afield, such as Priestley, Thomas Henry, Thomas Percival, Barbauld, Aikin, and Enfield. Later, more radicals would join, including Wollstonecraft, Wakefield, John Horne Tooke, and Thomas Christie. <mask>'s dinners became legendary and it appears, from evidence collected from diaries, that a large number of people attended each one. Although there were few regulars, except perhaps for <mask>'s close London friends (Fuseli, Bonnycastle and, later, Godwin), the large number of high-profile guests, including Thomas Paine, attests to the reputation of these dinners.The enjoyment and intellectual stimulation that these dinners provided is evidenced by the numerous references to them in diaries and letters. Barbauld wrote to her brother in 1784 that "our evenings, particularly at <mask>'s, were so truly social and lively, that we protracted them sometimes till – but I am not telling tales." At one dinner in 1791, Godwin records that the conversation focused on "monarch, Tooke, [Samuel] <mask>, Voltaire, pursuits, and religion" [emphasis Godwin's]. Although the conversation was stimulating, <mask> apparently only served his guests simple meals, such as boiled cod, veal, vegetables, and rice pudding. Many of the people that met at these dinners became fast friends, as did Fuseli and Bonnycastle; Godwin and Wollstonecraft eventually married. Friendship with Mary Wollstonecraft
The friendship between <mask> and Mary Wollstonecraft was pivotal in both of their lives, and illustrates the active role that <mask> played in developing writing talent. In 1787, Wollstonecraft was in financial straits: she had just been dismissed from a governess position in Ireland and had moved back to London.She had resolved to be an author in an era that afforded few professional opportunities to women. After Unitarian schoolteacher John Hewlett suggested to Wollstonecraft that she submit her writings to <mask>, an enduring and mutually supportive relationship blossomed between <mask> and Wollstonecraft. He dealt with her creditors, secured lodgings for her, and advanced payment on her first book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787), and her first novel, Mary: A Fiction (1788). <mask> included Wollstonecraft in the exalted company of his weekly soirées, where she met famous personages, such as Thomas Paine and her future husband, William Godwin. Wollstonecraft, who is believed to have written some 200 articles for his periodical, the Analytical Review, regarded <mask> as a true friend. After a disagreement, she sent him the following note the next morning:

You made me very low-spirited last night, by your manner of talking – You are my only friend – the only person I am intimate with. – I never had a father, or a brother – you have been both to me, ever since I knew you – yet I have sometimes been very petulant.– I have been thinking of those instances of ill-humour and quickness, and they appeared like crimes. Yours sincerely, Mary. <mask> offered Wollstonecraft work as a translator, prompting her to learn French and German. More importantly, <mask> provided encouragement at crucial moments during the writing of her seminal political treatises A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). 1790s: Years of radicalism

As radicalism took hold in Britain in the 1790s, <mask> became increasingly involved in its causes: he was a member of the Society for Constitutional Information, which was attempting to reform Parliament; he published works defending Dissenters after the religiously motivated Birmingham Riots in 1791; and he testified on behalf of those arrested during the 1794 Treason Trials. <mask> published works championing the rights of slaves, Jews, women, prisoners, Dissenters, chimney sweeps, abused animals, university students forbidden from marrying, victims of press gangs, and those unjustly accused of violating the game laws. Political literature became <mask>'s mainstay in the 1790s: he published 118 works, which amounted to 57% of his total political output.As Chard notes, "hardly a year went by without at least one anti-war and one anti-slave trade publication from <mask>". In particular, <mask> published abolitionist works, such as minister and former slave-ship captain John Newton's Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade (1788), Barbauld's Epistle to William Wilberforce (1791), and Captain John Gabriel Stedman's Narrative, of a Five Years' Expedition, Against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (1796) (with illustrations by Blake). Most importantly he helped organize the publication of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789), the autobiography of former slave Olaudah Equiano. Later in the decade, <mask> focused on works about the French revolution, concentrating on those from France itself, but he also published commentary from America by Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe. <mask>'s determination to publish political and revolutionary works, however, fractured his Circles: Dissenters were alienated from Anglicans during efforts to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts and moderates split from radicals during the French revolution. <mask> lost customers, friends, and writers, including the children's author Sarah Trimmer. Braithwaite speculates that <mask> also lost business due to his willingness to put out works that promoted the "challenging new historicist versions of the scriptures", such as those by Alexander Geddes.<mask> refused to publish Paine's Rights of Man and William Blake's The French Revolution, for example. It is almost impossible to determine <mask>'s own personal political beliefs from the historical record. Marilyn Gaull argues that "if <mask> were radical, indeed if he had any political affiliation ... it was accidental". Gaull describes <mask>'s "liberalism" as that "of [a] generous, open, fair-minded, unbiased defender of causes lost and won". His real contribution, she contends, was "as a disseminator of contemporary knowledge, especially science, medicine, and pedagogical practice" and as an advocate for a popular style. He encouraged all of his writers to use "plain syntax and colloquial diction" so that "self-educated readers" could understand his publications. <mask>'s association with writers such as Godwin has previously been used to emphasize his radicalism, but Braithwaite points out that Godwin only became a part of <mask>'s Circle late in the 1790s; <mask>'s closest friends – Priestley, Fuseli, and Bonnycastle – were much more politically moderate.<mask> was not a populist or democratic bookseller: he catered to the self-educating middle class. Revolution controversy
In 1790, with the publication of his Reflections on the Revolution in France, philosopher and statesman Edmund Burke launched the first volley of a vicious pamphlet war in what became known as the Revolution Controversy. Because he had supported the American Revolution, friends and enemies alike expected him to support the French Revolution. His book, which decries the French Revolution, therefore came as a shock to nearly everyone. Priced at an expensive five shillings, it still sold over 10,000 copies in a few weeks. Reformers, particularly Dissenters, felt compelled to reply. <mask>'s periodical, the Analytical Review, published a summary and review of Burke's work within a couple of weeks of its publication.Two weeks later, Wollstonecraft responded to Burke with her Vindication of the Rights of Men. In issuing one of the first and cheapest replies to Burke (Vindication cost only one shilling), <mask> put himself at some risk. Thomas Cooper, who had also written a response to Burke, was later informed by the Attorney General that "although there was no exception to be taken to his pamphlet when in the hands of the upper classes, yet the government would not allow it to appear at a price which would insure its circulation among the people". Many others soon joined in the fray and <mask> remained at the centre of the maelstrom. By Braithwaite's count, <mask> published or sold roughly a quarter of the works responding to Burke within the following year. The most notable of all of these responses was Thomas Paine's Rights of Man. <mask> originally agreed to publish the controversial work, but he backed out later for unknown reasons and J. S. Jordan distributed it (and was subsequently tried and imprisoned for its publication).Braithwaite speculates that <mask> did not agree with Paine's radical republican statements and was more interested in promoting the rights of Dissenters outlined in the other works he published. After the initial risk was taken by Jordan, however, <mask> published Paine's work in an expensive edition, which was unlikely to be challenged at law. Yet, when Paine was himself later arrested, <mask> helped raise funds to bail him out and hid him from the authorities. A contemporary satire suggested that <mask> saved Paine from imprisonment:

Alarmed at the popular appeal of Paine's Rights of Man, the king issued a proclamation against seditious writings in May 1792. Booksellers and printers bore the brunt of this law, the effects of which came to a head in the 1794 Treason Trials. <mask> testified, publicly distancing himself from Paine and Barlow, despite the fact that the defendants were received sympathetically by the juries. Poetry
During the 1790s alone, <mask> published 103 volumes of poetry – 37% of his entire output in the genre.The bestselling poetical works of Cowper and Erasmus Darwin enriched <mask>'s firm. Darwin's innovative The Botanic Garden (1791) was particularly successful: <mask> paid him 1,000 guineas before it was ever released and bought the copyright from him for £800, a staggeringly large sum. The poem contains three "interludes" in the form of dialogues between a poet and his bookseller. The bookseller asks the poet what Tyson calls "leading questions" in order to elucidate the poet's theory of poetry. Tyson comments "that although the flat questions of the practical-minded bookseller may be meant to parody <mask>'s manner, most likely Darwin did not have him or any other particular bookseller in mind". After the success of The Botanic Garden, <mask> published Darwin's work on evolution, Zoonomia (1794–96); his treatise A Plan on the Conduct of Female Education (1797); Phytologia; or, the Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening (1800); and his poem The Temple of Nature (1803). According to Braithwaite, The Temple of Nature was Zoonomia in verse and "horrified reviewers with its warring, factious, overly materialistic view of the universe".<mask> continued to publish the poetic works of Aikin and Barbauld as well as those of George Dyer, <mask>, James Hurdis, Joel Barlow, Ann Batten Cristall and Edward Williams. Most of the poets that <mask> promoted and published are not remembered today. However, in 1793, <mask> published William Wordsworth's An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches; he remained Wordsworth's publisher until a disagreement separated them in 1799. <mask> also put out Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Fears of Solitude (1798). They were apparently close enough friends for Coleridge to leave his books at <mask>'s shop when he toured Europe. <mask> had a working relationship with illustrator William Blake for nearly twenty years: <mask> commissioned around 100 engravings from Blake – more than any other publisher – including the second edition of Wollstonecraft's Original Stories from Real Life (1791) and Darwin's Botanic Garden. <mask> may also have had some connection with Blake as a writer, judging from galley proofs of his French Revolution (1791).Yet, in An Island in the Moon, Blake represents <mask> as "a bookseller without aesthetic values whose repetitive questions reveal his ignorance". Translations
As part of his endeavour to expose the public to more foreign-language works, <mask> facilitated the translation of

masks:
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title: Joseph Johnson (publisher)

texts:
 educational texts, serious fiction, and philosophy (he was less interested in translating popular novels). In particular, he promoted the translation of the works of persecuted French Girondins, such as Condorcet's Outlines of an Historical View of the Progress of the Human Mind (1795) and Madame Roland's An Appeal to Impartial Posterity (1795), which he had released in English within weeks of its debut in France. His publication of a translation of Constanin Volney's deistic Les Ruines, ou méditations sur les révolutions des empires (1791) quickly became a bestseller. <mask> also had some of the most prominent French children's literature translated, such as the works of Madame de Genlis. <mask>'s most significant contribution in this area was his promotion of German-language literature. Fuseli encouraged him to publish translations of important new German authors, such as Goethe and Schiller.<mask> was one of the few British publishers arranging for the translation of German moral philosophy in the 1790s, and his most important translated publication was arguably Johann Herder's Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1776), which introduced many of the historical and anthropological methods of thought already present on the Continent to Britons. Instead of attempting to faithfully reproduce texts, almost all of <mask>'s translators followed the 18th-century practice of freely adapting their texts, for example by substituting "British" counterparts of "German" examples. Analytical Review and other periodicals

<mask>'s first periodicals, Gospel Magazine (1766–? ), The Universal Museum and Complete Magazine (1765–1770), and The Monthly Record of Literature (1767), like many 18th-century journals, lasted only a short while, but his later attempts were much more successful. In 1783, he financed the first quarterly medical periodical in London, the London Medical Journal, founded by Samuel Foart Simmons, a prominent physician. Explaining the journal's goals, Simmons wrote that it would provide "an account of new medical books and useful discoveries in physic, and at the same time be a repository for original essays". The journal lasted until 1790 when it was replaced by another <mask> venture, Medical Facts and Observations, which ran until 1797.In 1788, <mask> and Thomas Christie, a Unitarian, liberal, and classicist, founded the Analytical Review. It was a gadfly publication, which offered readers a summary and analysis of the flood of new publications issuing from the presses at the end of the 18th century and provided a forum for radical political and religious ideas. Although it aimed at impartiality, its articles were often critical of the Pitt administration and supportive of the French revolutionaries. Tyson calls it "the most outspoken journal of its day", but Chard argues that it was "never particularly strident and certainly not radical". It was also instrumental in promoting scientific, philosophical, and literary foreign-language publications, particularly those in German and French. Compared to <mask>'s earlier periodicals, which were generally "marginal sectarian efforts", the Analytical Review was quite popular. At 1,500 copies per issue, it did not have the circulation of the Gentleman's Magazine, which averaged around 4,550, but it was influential despite its more limited readership.Its conservative counterpart and nemesis was the Anti-Jacobin Review, established specifically to counteract the effects of the Analytical and other radical media outlets. The Analytical was suspended at the end of 1798 following the deaths of Christie and Wollstonecraft in 1796 and 1797 respectively, and the retirement of other contributing editors. In 1796 <mask> joined in a venture to start The Monthly Magazine. Founded by his neighbour Richard Phillips and edited by his friend John Aikin, it was associated with Dissenting interests and was responsible for importing much German philosophical thought into England. According to Marilyn Butler, it "combined many of the best features of the periodicals of the century. It was a miscellany, but more intellectual and much more bookish than the [Gentleman's Magazine]; hospitable to readers, it nevertheless high-mindedly projected an ideal of liberal, middle-class intellectuality that anticipates both the innovative writing and projected readership" of Blackwood's and Fraser's. Changing political winds
With the beginning of the violence of the Reign of Terror (1793–94), those in Britain who had initially supported the French Revolution began to rethink their position and the government became increasingly concerned about the possibility of a British revolution akin to that of the French.The ardour of radicalism that had prevailed in the early 1790s dissipated. Booksellers were arrested and tried for seditious libel, and many of <mask>'s authors either stopped writing or became more conservative. Only a few, like Paine, veered further left. After being forced to testify at the trial of Paine and Thomas Hardy, <mask> published fewer incendiary works, among them Joel Barlow's Advice to the Privileged Orders (1792). Braithwaite describes it as "without doubt the most extreme that <mask> ever published (taking him immoderately close to what he later, jokingly, described as a 'hanging' offence)". However, once it became clear that Barlow, like Paine, was becoming radicalized, <mask> refused to publish any more of his works. In 1794 <mask> even considered emigrating to America with Priestley to escape the increasing pressure he felt from conservatives and the government.1798: Trial and imprisonment
Following the publication of Paine's provocative Rights of Man in 1791, a sedition law was passed in Britain and, in 1798, <mask> and several others were put on trial for selling Gilbert Wakefield's A Reply to Some Parts of the Bishop Llandaff's Address to the People of Great Britain, a Unitarian work attacking the privileged position of the wealthy. The indictment against <mask>, written on a six-foot parchment roll, read in part:

Braithwaite explains, "an English jury, in effect, was being asked to consider whether <mask>'s intentions as a bookseller were really as dangerous and radical as those of Thomas Paine". An issue of the Analytical Review was even offered as evidence against <mask>. Despite having retained Thomas Erskine as his lawyer, who had successfully defended Hardy and Horne Tooke at the 1794 Treason Trials, and character references from George Fordyce, Aikin, and Hewlett, <mask> was fined £50 and sentenced to six months imprisonment at King's Bench Prison in February 1799. Braithwaite speculates:

<mask>'s friends accused Erskine of using the trial as a political platform and not thinking of the best interests of his client. <mask>'s imprisonment was not harsh; being relatively wealthy, <mask> rented a home for himself within the prison, where he continued to hold his weekly soirées. Although <mask> still believed in the free exchange of ideas and was not embittered by his stay in prison, his publishing habits changed dramatically.After he was released, <mask> published very few political works and none were controversial. Other booksellers followed suit, and <mask>'s friend, Unitarian minister Theophilus Lindsey, wrote that "<mask>'s fate deters them all". <mask> lost authors after the trial and experienced a noticeable decline in business. Furthermore, he gained fewer new authors, his stalwarts like Priestley began to complain that he was not attending to their business, and he was forced to cease publishing the Analytical Review. 1800s: Declining years and death
As publishing began to change its form in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, large publishing houses pushed out small, independent booksellers. <mask> did not attempt to form or join one of these new firms. In the late 1790s and early 19th century, <mask>'s business declined, particularly as his relatives, John Miles and Roland Hunter, began to take over the daily operations; Miles was uninterested in the business, and Hunter did not have <mask>'s commercial sense or his ability to choose successful manuscripts.In January 1806, <mask>'s premises were wracked by a second fire, destroying the building and all of his stock. Although not as active in routine business, <mask> still took an interest in political events. For example, he spearheaded the efforts of the booksellers of London and Westminster to appeal a new copyright law in 1808. Moreover, although <mask> did not publish controversial political works after his imprisonment, he still undertook important publishing ventures. For example, he administered the publication of a forty-five volume work entitled The British Essayists, edited by Alexander Chalmers; the complete works of <mask>; and a ten-volume set of Shakespeare. <mask> published in more congers during the last decade of his life than at any other time. He also occasionally published important new authors, such as the political economist Thomas Malthus, whose Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) sparked a long debate between idealists and pragmatists.His emphasis on educational books continued or even increased as his interest in publishing contentious political works diminished. He also continued to support his friends, as with Godwin, who needed financial rescue after his play, Faulkener, cost him £800. <mask>'s authors became increasingly frustrated with him towards the end of his life, Wakefield calling him "heedless, insipid, [and] inactive" and Lindsey describing him as "a worthy and most honest man, but incorrigably  neglectful often to his own detriment". Priestley, by then in Pennsylvania, eventually broke off his forty-year relationship with the publisher, when his book orders were delayed several years and <mask> failed to communicate with him regarding the publication of his works. Most of the authors who became upset with <mask> were those writing religious or literary works, the riskiest publishing ventures. Death
Afflicted by a "chronic respiratory disease" for many years, <mask> died at his home and office on 20 December 1809, at the age of 71. The exact nature of his malady is unclear, but his great-nephew Miles wrote to Maria Edgeworth that <mask> was incapacitated with "spasms" and "asthma" near the end of his life.Never having married, he bequeathed his business concerns to his great-nephews, Hunter and Miles (Hunter took over the business, but could not retain <mask>'s impressive author list and floundered due to his lack of business "acumen"). <mask>'s remaining £60,000 fortune was shared among friends and family: for example, he willed a £200 annuity to Fanny Imlay, daughter of Mary Wollstonecraft, and £100 to one of <mask>'s sons. <mask> was buried at Fulham, where he had rented a country home since 1804, under an epitaph by his life-long friend Henry Fuseli:

According to Chard, <mask>'s obituaries, both those written by his friends and those not, "consistently stress his generosity and his principles", particularly his integrity. William Godwin's obituary of 21 December 1809 in the Morning Chronicle was particularly eloquent, calling <mask> an "ornament to his profession" and praising his modesty, his warm heart, and the integrity and clarity of his mind. Legacy

<mask> published more books in more fields than any other publisher of his time: "virtually every giant of the second half of the eighteenth century in medicine, science, religion, philosophy, political thought, education, and poetry published at least one work with <mask>". <mask>'s publications helped to "demystify medicine" for the public and were integral to the scientific revolution. His periodical, the Analytical Review, can be seen as a precursor to the New Statesman.By the end of his career, <mask> had acquired a majority or monopoly share in the ownership of the works of: Shakespeare, Milton, Alexander Pope, <mask>, Richard Steele, <mask>, and all of the major novelists of the period (except Samuel Richardson). <mask> was known for fostering the development of new writers without worrying about maximizing profits, and for printing works on principle, even if he knew they would make little money. His risky publication of Joel Barlow's Advice to the Privileged Orders (1792), for example, sold 600 copies and barely broke even. He was also instrumental in the creation of the female professional writer, a role that began opening to women only at the end of the 18th century in Britain. By nurturing the writings of Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Charlotte Smith, Mary Hays, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Maria Edgeworth, he gave women the opportunity to demonstrate that they could be both successful and significant authors. Additionally, he published works promoting women's equality, such as Hays's An Appeal to the Men of Great Britain (1798), which called for an end to the tyrannical rule of men over women; <mask>'s Analytical Review reviewed the work extensively and approvingly. <mask> was remarkably adept at recognizing new writing talent and making innovative works appealing to the public.More importantly, he functioned as a catalyst for experimentation by bringing disparate authors together. While <mask> promoted his authors, he retreated into the background himself. His friend John Aikin explained that he had "a decided aversion to all sorts of puffing and parade"; <mask>'s unassuming character has left historians and literary critics sparse material from which to reconstruct his life. For 200 years, it was assumed that all of <mask>'s business records and correspondence had been destroyed, but in the early 1990s, one of his "letter books" was discovered in an old desk. It contained copies of letters written to business associates as well as friends from 1795 to 1809. His letters to other publishers discuss "paper, printing, engraving costs, delivery dates, breaches of copyright, binding charges and accounts" whereas his letters to friends include missives to Priestley, Maria Edgeworth, Erasmus Darwin, Charlotte Smith, and others. This material has allowed scholars to theorize more concretely about <mask>'s life and work.<mask>'s publications were rarely luxury goods: he priced his merchandise competitively, but always within the reach of the middle class, the audience he most wanted to serve. One way that he reduced costs was by printing texts in the provinces and then importing them to London; many of Priestley's works, for example, were printed locally in Birmingham. <mask> did not take great care with the printing of many of his books; they are full of errors and poorly bound. But as they were often printed extremely quickly to respond to a particular event, this was expected by his contemporaries. Before <mask>'s generation of booksellers, publishers were not highly respected; <mask>'s sterling reputation helped publishing to become a more reputable business. His advocacy of cheap books, his desire to foster extensive provincial and foreign connections are all a part of why <mask> has been called "the most important publisher in England from 1770 until 1810". Publishing statistics
According to Chard, in the 48 years of his career, <mask> published around 2,700 imprints, averaging 56 per year.About half of these were pamphlets (e.g. sermons, religious tracts, political leaflets) and many were reprints; therefore he averaged around 20 to 30 new books per year. About 25% of his publications were of anonymous authors; these were usually political or religious works. He published more religious works than any other genre (1,067 titles). <mask> made roughly 750 copies for each print run, although many of his political and religious works would have been printed in editions of 250, as their topics were often ephemeral. Notes

Bibliography
 Aikin, John. "Biographical account of the late Mr. <mask>".The Gentleman's Magazine 79 (1809): 1167–68. Braithwaite, Helen. Romanticism, Publishing and Dissent: <mask> and the Cause of Liberty. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. .
 Butler, Marilyn. "Culture's Medium: the Role of the Review". The Cambridge Companion to British Romanticism. Ed.Stuart Curran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. .
 Chard, Leslie. "Bookseller to publisher: <mask> and the English book trade, 1760–1810". The Library. 5th series. 32 (1977): 138–154. Chard, Leslie."<mask>: Father of the Book Trade". Bulletin of the New York Public Library 78 (1975): 51–82. Chard, Leslie. "<mask> in the 1790s". Wordsworth Circle 33.3 (2002): 95–101. Esterhammer, Angela. "Continental literature, translation, and the <mask> circle".Wordsworth Circle 33.3 (2002): 101–104. Gaull, Marilyn. "<mask>: Literary Alchemist". European Romantic Review 10.3 (1999): 265–278. Hall, Carol. "<mask>". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.Oxford University Press. 2004. Retrieved on 30 April 2007. Hall, Carol. "<mask> (London 1761–1809)". The British Literary Book Trade, 1700–1820. Eds.J. K. Bracken and J. Silver. New York: Gale Group, 1995. Holmes, Richard. Footsteps: Adventures of a Romantic Biographer. New York: Viking, 1985. .
 Lau, Beth. "William Godwin and the <mask> Circle: the evidence of the diaries".Wordsworth Circle 33.3 (2002): 104–109. Mandell, Laura. "<mask>'s Lessons for men: producing the professional woman writer". Wordsworth Circle 33.3 (2002): 108–113. Mann, Phyllis. "Death of a London bookseller". Keats–Shelley Memorial Bulletin 15 (1964): 8–12.Rowe, Mortimer. The History of Essex Hall. London: Lindsey Press, 1959. Full text reproduced here. Smyser, Jane Worthington. "The trial and imprisonment of <mask>, bookseller". Bulletin of the New York Public Library 77 (1974): 418–435.Tomalin, Claire. "Publisher in prison: <mask> and the book trade". Times Literary Supplement (2 December 1994): 15–16. Tyson, Gerald P. <mask>: A Liberal Publisher. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1979. .*
 Uglow, Jenny. "The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World." Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 2002.Zall, P. M. "The cool world of Samuel Taylor Coleridge: <mask>, or, The perils of publishing". Wordsworth Circle 3 (1972): 25–30. 1738 births
1809 deaths
British magazine publishers (people)
English prisoners and detainees
English booksellers
English Dissenters
English Unitarians
Male feminists
Publishers (people) from London
Deaths from

masks:
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson Simmons
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Samuel Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Joseph Priestley
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Joseph Addison
Samuel Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson