title: Thomas Foley (Royal Navy officer)

texts:
Admiral <mask>CB (1757 – 9 January 1833) was a Royal Navy officer and "Hero of the Battle of the Nile". Naval career
He was the second son of landowner <mask> of Ridgeway, the <mask> family's ancestral estate in the parish of Llawhaden near Narberth, Pembrokeshire, and the nephew of Captain <mask>, who accompanied George Anson, 1st Baron Anson, on his voyage around the world. He entered the Royal Navy in 1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a good deal of active service in the West Indies against American privateers. Promoted lieutenant in 1778, he served under Admiral Keppel (afterwards Viscount) and Sir Charles Hardy in the Channel, and with Rodney's squadron was present at the defeat of De Langara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at the relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney's command, he went out to the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which culminated in victory at the Battle of the Saintes on 12 April 1782. In the French Revolutionary War he was engaged from the first. As flag-captain to Admiral John Gell, and afterwards to Sir Hyde Parker, <mask> took part in the siege of Toulon in 1793, the action of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off Toulon on 13 April and 13 July 1795.At St Vincent he was flag-captain to the second in command on Britannia. After the battle he was transferred to the Goliath (74), in which he was sent out in the following year to reinforce Nelson's fleet in the Mediterranean. The part played by the Goliath in the Battle of the Nile was brilliant. She led the squadron round the French van, and this manoeuvre contributed not a little to the result of the day. Whether this was done by <mask>'s own initiative, or intended by Horatio Nelson, has been a matter of controversy. His next important service was with Nelson in the Baltic. At the beginning of 1801, Nelson was promoted to Vice Admiral of the Blue and after a few months, he took part as the second in command in the Battle of Copenhagen.The Elephant carried Nelson's flag and <mask> acted as his chief-of-staff. During the action Nelson's commander, Sir Hyde Parker, who believed that the Danish fire was too strong, signaled for him to break off the action. Nelson ordered that the signal be acknowledged but not repeated. Legend has it that Nelson turned to his flag captain and said:

"You know, <mask>, I only have one eye - I have the right to be blind sometimes" and then holding his telescope to his blind eye said "I really do not see the signal!" Nelson's action was approved in retrospect. <mask> was one of Nelson's "Band of Brothers". Nelson himself was a sea-officer par excellence.Yet there were many who struggled, suffered and were wounded as often as he. This could not help but develop a close relationship among the men. Nelson himself was very aware of the brotherhood which had arisen. In his biography of Nelson, David Howarth makes this clear:

"...Nelson's famous phrase, "I had the happiness to command a band of brothers'...After his first great victory, Nelson called his captains 'my darling children', and none was the least embarrassed by that. Under Jervis, the captains of the Mediterranean fleet were becoming a brotherhood, bonded by skill, experience, mutual respect and a common cause. Maybe they had not thought of it in that way before; but from about this time they all did, and Nelson most of all. And the concept - so suitable to his nature - became an important, conscious element in his conduct of the war."An amusing illustration of the affection Nelson inspired in his captains, and of the half maternal care they exercised over the fragile and stunted body of their famous leader, is supplied by a letter from Nelson himself to Ball, written from Kioge Bay in 1801. He was racked with the Baltic cold, and wroth, as was common with him, with the still chillier winds which blew from the Admiralty Board:

"But," he says, "all in the fleet are so truly kind to me that I should be a wretch not to cheer up. <mask> has put me under a regimen of milk at four in the morning; Murray has given me lozenges; Hardy is as good as ever, and all have proved their desire to keep my mind easy." That picture of one sea veteran administering warm milk to his admiral at four o'clock in the morning is amusing enough; but it shows more effectively than graver things could do the feeling Nelson inspired in his captains. Ill-health obliged <mask> to decline Nelson's offer (made when on the point of starting for the Battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain of the Fleet. Therefore it was <mask>'s fellow "brother" <mask> who was present at Nelson's death. From 1811 to 1815, <mask> commanded in the Downs from his flagship , and at the peace was made KCB.Sir <mask> rose to be full admiral and GCB. He died while serving as Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth in 1833. Marriage
He was married on 31 Jul 1802 to Lady Lucy Anne FitzGerald. She was the youngest surviving daughter of James FitzGerald, 1st Duke of Leinster and Lady Emily Lennox. Her mother was the great-granddaughter of Charles II, King of England, Scotland and Ireland and his mistress Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth. Lucy was the favourite sister of Lord Edward FitzGerald, one of the ill-fated leaders of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and was herself an active participant in the rebellion. She worked as a conduit, clandestinely transmitting letters between the Revolutionary Committee in Dublin and their agents in Paris.A biographer of Lord Edward wrote of Lucy that she "most closely resembled him (Edward) in her strong sense of the ludicrous and her passionate love for justice." She wrote in 1798 of her hope for Irish liberation in an address to the Irish nation that wasn’t published until many years later:

Irishmen, Countrymen, it is Edward FitzGerald's sister who addresses you: it is a woman but that woman is his sister: she would therefore die for you as he did...Yes, this is the moment, the precious moment which must either stamp with Infamy, the name of Irishmen and denote you forever wretched, enslaved to the power of England, or raise the Paddies to the consequence which they deserve and which England shall no longer withhold, to happiness, freedom, glory... The couple's principal residence was <mask>'s country estate, Abermarlais, near Llansadwrn in Carmarthenshire, which he had purchased from Sir Cornwallis Maude, 1st Viscount Hawarden in 1795 with his share of the booty resulting from the capture of a Spanish treasure ship, the St Jago, in 1793. They also had a house at Manchester Square in London. After Sir <mask>' death the widowed Lady Lucy lived at Arundel in Sussex until 1841 when she moved abroad and settled in the south of France, where she spent the remainder of her life. The <mask>s had no children. After Lady Lucy's death in 1851 the Abermarlais estate passed according to the terms of Sir <mask>' will to his great-nephew <mask> (1824-1871), a grandson of Sir <mask>' elder brother John Herbert <mask>.<mask> only inherited the estate because Sir <mask>' preferred heir, <mask>, a captain in the Royal Navy, had died without issue in 1848. Abermarlais Park remained in the family until 1909, when it was sold to the Hunter family. The last known person to live in the house was the reclusive Miss Campbell-Davys, before a fire gutted the house in 1980 leading to its demolition in 1982, a terrible loss for the county on account of its long and fascinating history as well as its architectural significance, the original late-medieval manor house having been demolished in order for Admiral <mask> to build his more commodious neoclassical mansion nearby. The site of Abermarlais is now used as a caravan park. Bibliography
J. B. Herbert, Life and Services of Sir <mask> (Cardiff, 1884). Tom Wareham, ‘<mask>, <mask> (1757–1833)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, May 2007 accessed 9 March 2008

External links
About Nelson

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1757 births
1833 deaths
Royal Navy admirals
Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
British naval commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath

masks:
Sir Thomas Foley G
John Foley
Foley
Thomas Foley
Foley
Foley
Foley
Foley
Foley
Foley
Foley
Foley
Thomas Hardy
Foley
Thomas Foley
Admiral Foley
Thomas
Foley
Thomas
Henry Foley
Thomas
Foley
Henry Foley
Thomas
Osborne Foley
Foley
Thomas Foley
Foley
Sir Thomas


title: Khetam Abuawad

type: original

texts:
<mask> (born 8 October 1974) is a Jordanian paralympic athlete who has spina bifida and has won two medals at the Summer Paralympics and has been competing for Jordan internationally since 1998. She currently ranked world number one in singles class 5 and world number six in teams class. Biography
<mask> was born with spina bifida and started playing para table tennis in 1996 as a senior by her current coach Haron Shalkoni. Sporting success

Early beginnings
Her first international competition was the ISMWSF World Wheelchair Games in Stoke Mandeville in 1998, where she also won her first major title: she won two gold medals for singles class 5 and women's team class 2-5 and a silver medal for the wheelchair open competition. One year later, she competed in the Pan Arab Games in 1999 when she won another gold medal for her country in the women's singles class 5 after being defeated by fellow competitor Fatmeh Al Azzam and won her second silver medal in the wheelchair open competition. In 2002, Abuawad won a bronze medal along with Fatmeh Al Azzam and Maha Al Barghouti in the World Team Cup in Roermund, Netherlands. In the same year, she won three gold medals in all of her events, she had beaten Stephanie Mariage of France to win the three titles including the team class 1-5 event at the King Hussein Memorial Tournament in her hometown, Amman.Two years later in 2004, she took part in the T.T International Masters Italian Open where she got two silver medals after being defeated by Slovenia's Andreja Dolinar in the gold medal match of the wheelchair singles' open and Jitka Pivarciova of Czech Republic, she later took the bronze medal with Al Azzam in the women's team class 1-5. 2004 to 2008
After the Paralympic Games in Athens in 2004, Abuawad was aiming to gain more medals for her country. She took part in the Misr International Tournament in Cairo where she won a silver medal in the women's team class 4-5 and a bronze medal in the singles class 5. She later went on to win six gold medals in the year 2006, she won three gold medals in the singles class 4, wheelchair singles open and team class 4-5 in the City of Liverpool Open in March 2006 and another three gold medals in the same events at the T.T International Master Italians Open in September 2006. She only competed in one international event in the year 2007, the Hong Kong Open where she won a selection of medals: she gained a gold medal in the singles' class 4-5, silver medal in the team's class 4-5 and a bronze medal in the wheelchair open. One year later, she won a silver medal in the singles class 4 and a bronze medal in the team class 4-5 at the Liverpool Open, in the same year she went to the Romania Open and won the same coloured medals in the same classed events. By the end of 2008, Abuawad secured two gold medals in the Al Watani Championships in Amman in both singles class 1-5 and wheelchair singles open.In May 2008, she travelled to the Polish Open in Wladyslawowo-Cetniewo where she won three more gold medals in all of her three events: singles, teams and wheelchair singles open. One month later in June, she went to compete in the Romania Open in Cluj-Napoca where she won a silver medal in the singles class 5 and a bronze medal in the teams class 1-5. One year on, she went on to win two golds at the Al Watani Table Tennis Championships for the second consecutive time in her sporting career. 2010 to 2014
In 2010, she won further medals: four gold medals and a bronze medal in both the annual Al Watani Table Tennis Championships (three golds in singles, wheelchair singles open and teams all in classes 3-5) and the Slovenia Open (one gold medal in singles class 5, one bronze medal in the wheelchair singles open). Abuawad won even more medals in 2011; she won six medals where five were gold mostly in singles competitions. She successfully defended her titles once more in the Al Watani Championships for the fourth time. She won a gold medal in the singles class 5 and a bronze medal in the teams class 5 in the British Open in Sheffield in September 2011.Before the 2012 Summer Paralympics, Abuawad competed in the Slovenian Open for the second time and won two gold medals in the singles and teams competitions, both in class 5 and again, won another two gold medals in the French Open in Nantes. During 2013, she won six medals (four of which are gold) in three different locations: Abuawad won her third two sets of golds in the Al Watani Championships, another two golds at the Slovenian Open in all of her selected events, gained a silver and bronze medal in the singles and teams event in the Taichung Table Tennis Open in Taiwan. She attended two events in 2014 and winning one medal each of the singles' competitions, she won her fourth gold medal in the Al Watani Championships and got a silver medal at the Lignano Master Open in Italy. 2015 to present
Abuawad earned one gold medal in the singles event in the Slovenian Open for the third time as well as a silver medal in the teams class 5 event in 2015. She unfortunately lost her reigning title at the Al Watani Championships in the same year as Zhang Bian clinched both the singles and teams titles. She didn't win any gold medals in 2016 which was the first time since 2004, she won one silver in the singles class 5 event in the Slovakia Open and a bronze medal in the teams class 5, she also got two bronze medals in the same events in the Slovenian Open. Abuawad gained six medals in 2017, four of them gold in the singles and two silvers in the teams events.She won her two singles titles in the Alicante Open, Al-Watani Championships, Slovenian Open and the Thailand Open. She won her teams events' silvers in both Thailand and Slovenia. Paralympics progression

2000 Summer Paralympics

The 2000 Summer Paralympics were <mask>'s debut Paralympics where she competed for singles. She won her match against Stephanie Palasse of France but lost to Ren Guixiang of China, she was however qualified to advance into the quarterfinals. She competed again Jitka Pivarciova of Czech Republic but lost in two sets. Meanwhile, in the team events, <mask> and Al Barghouti were placed third out of four teams in their group play behind Mexico and Chinese Taipei. 2004 Summer Paralympics

The 2004 Summer Paralympics were <mask>'s second Paralympic games where she took part along with Al Azzam and Al Bargouti, she competed for the singles' class 5 and team class 4-5.Abuawad was defeated in straight sets in her group play in the singles' competition by China's Ren Gui Xiang and Chinese Taipei's Wei Mei Hui. In the women's team class 4-5, Abuawad along with Al Azzam and Al Barghouti were placed in second position in their round robin group after losing their match in straight sets to Chinese Taipei and tightly won the game against Germany. In the quarterfinals, they competed against Slovakia and won the match 3 sets to 2. The semifinals saw China defeating the Jordanian team in 3 sets, after their loss, they were up against France in the bronze medal match. <mask>'s team won against France and successfully gained the bronze medal for her country. 2008 Summer Paralympics

At the 2008 Summer Paralympics, she was determined to succeed and win another medal from her previous Paralympics four years earlier. She was positioned in first position after win all three of her games in the group play at the women's singles class 5, she later went on to compete against Ren Guixiang of China where she lost to the game, Abuawad then played the bronze medal match against Andrea Zimmerer of Germany but unfortunately she was heavily defeated and placed in fourth place in the singles' competition.Meanwhile, in the women's team class 4-5, Abuawad teamed up with Al Azzam and Al Barghouti once more and were hoping to get a medal for their team. In the round of 16, she was playing against South Africa's Alisha Almeida and won three sets in the singles' match and won the doubles' event along with Al Azzam, the quarterfinals saw the team against Chinese Taipei in which they narrowly won against Wei Mei Hui and Tsai Hui Chu. The reigning champions China beat Abuawad's team in the semifinals in three games to one. In the bronze medal match, they had their hopes up and were up against Serbia and won their bronze medal consecutively. 2012 Summer Paralympics

Abuawad did well in her group play at the 2012 Summer Paralympics after winning both of her games in straight sets against Kimie Bessho of Japan and Marta Makishi of Argentina. In the semifinals, she lost to China's Gu Gai in three sets to one but lost once more in the bronze medal match where Ingela Lundback from Sweden won the bronze medal. Abuawad teamed up with Fatmeh Al-Azzam in the women's team class 4-5, they were unsuccessful in the competition after being narrowly defeated by Sweden's Anna-Carin Ahlquist and Ingela Lundback in the quarterfinals.2016 Summer Paralympics

The 2016 Summer Paralympics saw Abuawad join with Al Barghouti where both of them competed in the team events together. Abuawad won both her games in the group play against Caroline Tabib of Israel and Maria Paredes of Mexico. She went into the quarterfinals against Ingela Lundback who defeated her again after they last met in the 2012 Summer Paralympics' bronze medal match where Abuawad previously lost to the Swedish table tennis player. The Jordanian women's table tennis team were unlucky again after being defeated by Mexico in two out of three games. See also
Jordan at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
Jordan at the 2008 Summer Paralympics

References

1973 births
Paralympic table tennis players of Jordan
Sportspeople from Amman
Table tennis players at the 2000 Summer Paralympics
Table tennis players at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
Table tennis players at the 2008 Summer Paralympics
Table tennis players at the 2012 Summer Paralympics
Table tennis players at the 2016 Summer Paralympics
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Paralympics
Living people
Paralympic medalists in table tennis
Paralympic medalists for Jordan
Table tennis players at the 2020 Summer Paralympics
Paralympic bronze medalists for Jordan

masks:
Khetam Kamal Hasan Abuawad
Abuawad
Abuawad
Abuawad
Abuawad
Abuawad


title: Joseph ibn Shem-Tov

texts:
To be distinguished from <mask> (1380-1435)

<mask> ibn Shem-Tov (died 1480) was a prolific Judæo-Spanish writer born in Castile. He lived in various cities of Spain: Medina del Campo de Leon (1441); Alcalá de Henares (1451); and Segovia (1454). Though it is not known precisely what office he held at court, he occupied a position which brought him in contact with distinguished Christian scholars. According to the custom of the time, he held public disputations with them in the presence of the court; this probably led him to study the polemical literature of the Jews. In the preface to his commentary on Profiat Duran's Al-Tehi ka-Aboteka, he recounts a disputation with a Christian scholar concerning the doctrine of the Trinity. He seems to have elaborated this disputation and to have used it later in various anti-Christian writings. In 1452 he was sent by the Prince of Asturia, Don Enrique, to Segovia to prevent an outbreak of popular rage at Easter against the Jews.He speaks occasionally in his writings of great sufferings which drove him from place to place, and of passing through a severe illness. Graetz (Gesch. viii. 422) has discovered, from a quotation in <mask>'s Or ha-ayyim, that Ibn Shem-ob died a martyr. The year of his passing was 1480. Ibn Shem-ob's numerous writings, a list of which was compiled by Munk and supplemented by Beer and Steinschneider, are divisible into (a) independent works and (b) commentaries. Original works
Hanhagat ha-Bayit, treatise on economics, written in his youth (see his En ha-ore); nothing further is known concerning it.According to Steinschneider, it may be a revision of Aristotle's Economics. En ha-ore, the only medieval scientific Hebrew homiletical work extant. The book is very rich in quotations from both Christian and Islamic authors. It treats systematically of the science of homiletics, defines the limitations of exegesis, and expresses itself in regard to the fundamental aim of Jewish preaching. It contains frequent references to Aristotle's Ethics, Ibn Shem-Ṭob's favorite work. Kebod Elohim, on the summum bonum and the aim of life; written in 1442, printed at Ferrara in 1555. Da'at 'Elyon, a refutation of a fatalistic writing of the baptized Jew Abner of Burgos (Wolf, Bibl.Hebr. iii.428; the Oppenheim MS. cited by Wolf is no longer to be found in the collection at Oxford). Commentaries
Commentary on Jedaiah ha-Penini's Beinat 'Olam. Commentary on his father's Sefer ha-Yesodot, known only through a citation in En ha-ore. Just as Sefer ha-Yesodot is, probably, only another title of his father's Sefer ha-Emunot, so is this commentary, according to Steinschneider, probably identical with the Sefer Kebod Elohim. Commentary on the anti-Christian letter of Profiat Duran, Al-Tehi ka-Aboteka, edited and printed together for the first time at Constantinople, 1577; reprinted, by A. Geiger in obez Wikkuim, Breslau, 1844. Biul 'Iere ha-Noerim, a Hebrew translation of and commentary on Hasdai Crescas' refutation, in Spanish, of the chief dogmas of Christianity. It was written at Alcala di Henares in 1451, and published anonymously at Salonica (?)in 1860. The original work by Crescas and its title have been lost (Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. p. 462). These last two commentaries were in accord with the anti-Christian polemical spirit prevailing in the Jewish religio-philosophic literature of the time. Commentary on Lamentations, written at Medina del Campo in 1441, after the author had recovered from an illness (Parma, De Rossi MSS. No.177). Commentary on the Isagoge of Porphyry, after Averroes, of which no manuscript has yet been found (see Steinschneider, Cat. der Hebr. Handschriften in der Stadtbibliothek zu Hamburg, p. 106; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 86). Commentary on Averroes' treatise on the possibility of union with the active intellect (Sekel ha-Po'el), after Moses Narboni's translation, with a long introduction (Steinschneider, Cat.der Hebr. Handschriften Berlin, No. 216; Zotenberg, l.c. No. 885). Ibn Shem-Ṭob made a short extract from this voluminous commentary, which he finished at Segovia in 1454 (Neubauer, Cat. Bodl.Hebr. MSS. No. 1253; see Steinschneider in Monatsschrift, xxxii. 459 et seq. ; idem, Hebr. Uebers.pp. 194 et seq.). Commentary on part of Averroes' "large commentary" on the De Anima of Aristotle, cited in Ibn Shem-ob's commentary on Aristotle's Ethics (Steinschneider, l.c. p. 150). Short commentary on Maimonides' Moreh, ii.68, cited in his son's commentary on the same work. Nothing further concerning it is known. Commentary on the Sidra Bereshit, cited by him in the En ha-ore, and a commentary on Deut.xv. 11, cited in his commentary on the Nicomachcan Ethics (according to Steinschneider these two may be only sermons). Commentary, containing minute and diffuse explanations of words and subject-matter, on the Hebrew translation of the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle (Sefer ha-Middot). Finished at Segovia in 1455, this was probably the last and most extensive of his works; he worked upon it for one hundred days continuously in order that no interruption might hinder him from an understanding of the text. The commentary exists in many manuscripts and was widely circulated in the Middle Ages. It has been made use of in Isaac Satanow's edition of the Sefer ha-Middot (Berlin, 1784; Steinschneider, l.c. pp.212 et seq.). Ethical views
The Kebod Elohim is <mask>'s chief work. His leading ideas and principles, scattered throughout his other writings, are here brought together. In it he compares the ethical opinions of the Greeks, especially of Aristotle, with those of Judaism, a thing which had not before been earnestly or thoroughly done. For this purpose he gives many extracts ("peraim") from the Ethics of Aristotle, and translates chapters ix. and x., though from a Latin version. In answer to the question as to man's summum bonum he concludes it to be the Torah, which teaches and promises immortality, whereas the Greeks only speculate as to man's final goal.That the Torah and the philosophy of the Greeks have one and the same end, as some maintain, he denies, declaring the claim to be incompatible with the essence of positive religion; the Torah ordains the fulfilment of the 613 commandments, not the ethical teachings of Aristotle. Speculation within the bounds of the Torah is permitted, even commanded; and its province should be "the secret meanings of the Torah and of its rules, and the teachings of the Prophets." By this he probably indicates kabalistic dogmas. The divine commands are reasonable, although explanations based on reason, without the help of tradition often fail to explain the foundations of the commands. Characterization
<mask> Shem-ob was one of the most learned writers of his time. His knowledge of science and philosophy was intimate, and he had a very thorough acquaintance with Aristotle, his chief commentator Averroes, and the prominent Jewish, Muslim, and Christian writers. At the same time he was an independent and outspoken critic.He not only passed judgment upon Christianity and Islam, but he criticized Maimonides, with whose fundamental ideas he was not in sympathy, and maintained that the claim made by the cabalists that Shimon bar Yochai was the author of the Zohar was baseless. Nevertheless, in a discussion as to the proofs of the unity of God, he prefers the arguments of the kabalists to those of the philosophers. His attitude might be termed "positive Jewish," with a remarkable mixture of rationalism and dogmatism. He would allow no obscurity or confusion of ideas, and emphatically asserted that religion and philosophy are not identical in their final aim: "The Aristotelian laws make men; Jewish laws make Jews." In the strife then raging over the study of rationalistic sciences Ibn Shem-Ṭob took the following position: The Jew in possession of the divine revelation could dispense with the sciences, although their study was useful to him, since they perfected him as a human being; but their study should be deferred to an advanced age. In this he agreed with Solomon ben Adret. He thought it was the "sophistry" of "Greek wisdom," in which speculative knowledge was the chief end of life, which made materialists of so many prominent Jews, causing their defection from Judaism and the extinction of whole communities in Aragon and Castile.In other districts, he said, not affected by this spirit, there were thousands of Jews who would rather be killed than surrender their faith. Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography
Heinrich Grätz, Gesch. viii.141, 163 et seq., 178 et. seq., 421 et seq. ;
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 512 et seq. ;
Moritz Steinschneider, Cat.Bodl. cols. 1529 et seq. ;
idem, Jewish Literature, pp. 97, 100, 104, 127, 309, 317;
idem, in Ersch and Gruber, Encyc. section ii, part 31, pp. 87 et seq.;
M. Straschon, in Pire afon, pp. 84 et seq. ;
Winter and Wünsche, Die Jüdische Litteratur, ii.790, iii.671;
Salomon Munk, Mélanges, pp. 508 et seq. ;
Munk-Beer, Die Philosophischen Schriftsteller der Juden, pp. 118 et seq. Notes

References

15th-century rabbis
Spanish rabbis
1480 deaths
15th-century Castilian Jews
Jewish martyrs
Year of birth unknown
Jewish–Christian debate

masks:
Joseph Albo
Joseph ben Shem Tov
Joseph Jaabez
Joseph
Joseph ibn


title: Helene Glatzer

texts:
<mask> (8 February 1902 - 31 January 1935) was a young Communist politician who after 1933 became a German anti-government resistance activists. She died - some sources state simply that she was murdered - following several days of questioning and torture at the police facility in the Hallmarkt district of central Halle. Life
<mask> "Lene" <mask> was born into a working-class family in Weinböhla, a small town that had grown prosperous thanks to its limestone extraction operations. Weinböhla is located on the edge of Meissen, a short distance to the north-west of Dresden. Her parents became members of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) in 1905, some years before, in the eyes of the political establishment of that time, the young party became mainstream. After her father's early death her mother was left to bring up two daughters as a single parent. Money was short.Helene was still young when they moved to Berlin where in 1908 she enrolled at a "Volksschule" (state backed compulsory secondary school). By the time she successfully completed her school career, in 1916, the family had moved back to Weinböhla. She moved on to study at a business oriented secondary sachool ("Handelsschule") in nearby Coswig, and then took office work with a succession of businesses in Dresden. By this time she had become the principal bread-winner for herself, her mother and her younger sister. Glatzer was still only 14 in 1916 shen she joined the young socialists ("Freie sozialistische Jugend" / FSJ). Serious internal divisions within the SPD had emerged at the start of the war when the party leadership agreed to back war funding with their votes in the Reichstag (national parliament). Division was intensified by the slaughter of war abroad and economic austerity on the home front, which led to the launch, formally in 1917, of a breakaway anti-war Independent Social Democratic Party (" Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands" / USPD).Glatzer joined the Weinböhla branch of the USPD in 1919, also joining the local branch of the FSJ. Over the next couple of tumultuous years the FSJ became part of the newly formed Young Communist League (KJVD) of which she now also became a member. Around 1921, now aged 19, she became seriously politically active through her work with the KJVD in her part of East Saxony. There was a particular focus, in which she played a leading part, on recruitment of new members and the creation of new "communist children's groups" locally. She became a representative of her locality with the KJVD regional leadership team ("Bezirksleitung") for East Saxony. In 1922 Glatzer took part in the creation of a "communist children's group". After that, by now aged twenty, she joined the party.Over the next few years she teamed up with Olga Körner to organise the creation and provide leadership for an East Saxony branch of the RFMB, a female counterpart of the newly launched network, Red Front Alliance ("Roter Frontkämpferbund") of pro-communist paramilitaries. According to one source the East Saxony RFMB was "the first proletarian women's organisation in Germany". Glatzer was also employed in the  "Women's section" of the party's regional leadership team. In 1923 it was primarily due to <mask> Glatzer that the first Conference of the Communist Children's Group in East Saxony took place. She engaged with several other organisation including workers' sports associations and Red Aid ("Rote Hilfe"), a workers' welfare organisation with close links to  the party. In 1929 <mask> <mask> took part as a delegate at the party's national conference, held that year in Berlin-Wedding and in the national congress of the RFMB. On 12 May 1929 she was elected to membership of the Saxon state parliament ("Landtag"), but she remained a member only till the next state election, held on 22 June 1930.Issues on which she focused her attention included equal rights for proletarian women, improved training and conditions for apprentices along with various social concerns highlighted by midwives. It nevertheless became clear that  the party had other plans for Glatzer. In 1930 she was sent to Moscow where she undertook a three-year period of study at the International Lenin School. The institution was operated at this time by the Comintern and it was also with the Comintern that she worked while in Moscow. Around this time she married Max Tschalewitschow, a physician. Sources differ as to whether it was in 1934 or early in 1935 that <mask> <mask> returned to Germany. (There is no mention in the sources of her having been accompanied by her new husband.)The Hitler government had taken power at the start of 1933 and almost immediately taken steps to transform Germany into a one-party dictatorship. <mask>'s political activity on her return as a member of the "underground" Communist Party leadership team ("Bezirksleitung") in Halle-Merseburg was therefore by definition illegal:  one cover name under which she operated was "Erna Schneider". It appears likely that the Communist group to which <mask> Glatzer belonged had been infiltrated by an informant working for the security services. On 26 January 1935 she took part in an illegal meeting at a "safe house" along Thüringerstraße 26 in Halle. The authorities became aware of the meeting and the participants were surprised by the arrival of Gestapo officials. Glatzer was arrested along with the others present:  Wilhelm Künzler, Albert Kayser and the owner of the apartment, Hans Lehnert. Grounds for the arrests were "treasonable communication" ("hochverräterische Beratung").The detainees were initially taken to the police station in the Merseburgerstraße where their personal details were logged. Then they were then taken to the police facility in the city's Hallmarkt district for investigatory detention, which involved several days of questioning and torture. <mask> Glatzer succumbed to the mistreatment and died - effectively murdered - on 31 January 1935. Her physical remains were buried in Halle on 6 February 1935. References

People from Judenburg
People from Meissen
Members of the Landtag of Saxony
Independent Social Democratic Party politicians
Communist Party of Germany politicians
International Lenin School alumni
Communists in the German Resistance
1902 births
1935 deaths

masks:
Helene Glatzer
Helene
Glatzer
Helene
Helene
Glatzer
Helene
Glatzer
Glatzer
Helene
Helene


title: Jasmin Dizdar

texts:
<mask> (born 8 June 1961) is a British-Bosnian film director, screenwriter and author best known for his feature film Beautiful People and his World War Two thriller Chosen. <mask> also published a book on cinema, which achieved a high volume of sales, with over 50,000 copies sold. His distinctive filmmaking signature includes unflaggingly inventive uses of montage, sound and music where coincidences are often both funny and horrific, iconoclastic dry wit humor and imaginative rich storytelling. Dizdar’s kinetics awaken and reveal our fundamental need for love whilst drawing our attention to what separates us: language barriers, prejudice, dogmatism, and above all, a collective obtuseness and indifference towards one another. Early life

<mask> was born and grew up in his Bosnian hometown of Zenica, where his gift for creative writing was spotted early on by primary school teacher of literature. With her guidance and encouragement, he sent his short story “History Hour” to a regional competition and won his first award for the best short story. When he was 12, Dizdar’s love affair with movies had begun, and he soon became a prolific cinema-goer.There were four theaters in Zenica, and Dizdar used an intricate system to get into them for free: he made facsimiles of movie tickets by scavenging for stubs in rubbish bins, then collecting the other halves from patrons as they came out of theaters. Gluing torn bits together and re-using them as fake cinema tickets enabled him to see the same film several times for free, particularly multiple showings of such Westerns as Sergio Leone's A Fistful of Dollars, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly and Once Upon a Time in the West. Because Dizdar was so tall for his age (he is now 6 foot 6), he managed to see Bernardo Bertolucci's film Last Tango in Paris, despite its 18 rated certificate. During his time at secondary school, he was an actor in the Bosnian theatre play Hanka, based on the novel by Isak Samokovlija as well as being adapted for the 1955 film Hanka directed by Yugoslav film director Slavko Vorkapić. The play premiered in Zenica's Old National Theatre. As a teenager <mask> <mask> joined a local film club where he wrote, edited and directed numerous short documentary, drama and experimental films and began to take interest in film theory, particularly Russian structuralist film theory. His last Bosnian film Butterfly Dance (featuring an ensemble cast from Zenica's National Theatre) got him into the Film and TV School of the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, Czech Republic.Career

<mask> <mask> studied film directing at the Prague film school FAMU. There he became known for his daring satirical humour often casting ordinary people, Czech actors and filmmakers who were not favoured with the communist regime. Legendary Czech film director Elmar Klos (Academy Award winner for the film The Shop on Main Street) gave Grand Jury prize to Dizdar's graduation film After Silence. This student film is preserved as a national treasure in the Czech national film archive. During his film studies <mask> <mask> wrote, what is today regarded as daringly unique piece of film theory about his fellow FAMU alumni – double-Oscar-winning Czech-American film director Miloš Forman. This is regarded as a very rare type of analytical film theory written by a foreign-film student whilst studying in the totalitarian communist regime about an officially banned film director, who was often regarded as an “enemy of the state”, during the time. His friendship with internationally acclaimed Czech cinematographer Miroslav Ondricek and Czech film critic Eva Zaoralova led to the publishing of <mask>’s book about Forman, Audition for a Director.This book is remembered as a unique in-depth analysis of a legendary filmmaker. The book was published in a record number of fifty thousand copies. After graduating from university with a Red Diploma (i.e. highest honours) <mask> lived briefly in France before settling in United Kingdom where he wrote number of screenplays for BBC Television and a radio play for BBC Radio 4. Beautiful People is award-winning and critically acclaimed feature film written and directed by <mask> <mask>. Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport paid official visit to Cannes Film Festival world premier of Beautiful People where the film received a ten-minute standing ovation. The film won an award for the best film in Un Certain Regard category at the 1999 Cannes Film Festival, an audience award "Gold Gryphon" at Saint-Petersburg International Festival of Festivals, and many other international awards.<mask> <mask> became the second Bosnian filmmaker (after Emir Kusturica) to win a major award at the Cannes Film Festival and the first and only Bosnian filmmaker born and raised in Zenica, to achieve such a prestige international recognition. Based on its success at Cannes, distributors in over 30 countries purchased the rights to Beautiful People, making it an international sensation. <mask> is loath to label the film a comedy or anything else. He says that Beautiful People embraces every emotion, which is why people all around the world have embraced it. After Beautiful People was screened for several weeks in the world’s capitals, alongside Stanley Kubrick’s film Eyes Wide Shut, Robert Altman’s Cookie's Fortune and Pedro Almodóvar’s Oscar-winning All About My Mother, <mask> exclaimed during an interview with his friend, world-music renowned BBC Radio London DJ, Charlie Gillett: “Film directors like Stanley Kubrick, Robert Altman and Pedro Almodóvar standing shoulder to shoulder with me in London, New York, Paris and Tokyo makes my teenage dream come true. If a car were to hit me now, I’d die a happy man.”

Beautiful People, like <mask> <mask>'s other films, is a satire. <mask> <mask>'s satire could be described as a seraphic-smile sardonicism which combines everyday and imaginative realism with a musical and playful irony.The New York Times film critic A. O. Scott describes <mask> <mask> as a filmmaker: "At once sarcastic and entirely sincere, he directs with an extraordinary exuberance and self-confidence, intelligence and grace, with a style that combines realism with a playful, improvisatory sense of formal possibility. <mask> Dizdar's camera hurtles through the scenes like a child in a toy store, grabbing at every detail as though it were a shiny, precious prize, acknowledging both the fundamental ridiculousness of the war and its inassimilable horror." Following Beautiful People, <mask> <mask> wrote and directed a segment for the French feature film Les Europeens (2006) based on a burning social topic of refugees finding a various ingenious ways to enter Europe. <mask> <mask>'s segment is about an African refugee who tries to smuggle himself into Europe by stowing away in the landing-gear bay of a passenger plan that departs from North Africa. When the landing-gear bay opens as the plane makes its descent, he tumbles out from a few thousand feet over Rome and falls on the car-roof of a middle-class religious woman who begins to believe that the refugee is a gift from God. <mask> <mask>’s next feature film Chosen (2016) starring Harvey Keitel, Ana Ularu and Luke Mably is a moving drama of love, courage and survival against all odds. Set during the Second World War, the film tells the extraordinary story of a young lawyer who uses a clever ploy to fight the Nazis to save thousands of lives.Harvey Keitel plays the lawyer in present-day New York, USA. Personal life

As a young adolescent <mask> <mask> discovered that Nazis killed his paternal grandparents during the Second World War. A post-war orphanage changed his father's original surname from Dizdar to Dizdarević (most of former Yugoslavs surnames end with "ić"). After thirty years of living under surname Dizdarević, he took back his grandfather’s original surname Dizdar. <mask> <mask> currently lives in the UK, London, since 1989, and is a British citizen since 1993. He has a daughter who is also a filmmaker and visual artist.

masks:
Jasmin Dizdar
Jasmin Dizdar
Jasmin Dizdar
Jasmin
Dizdar
Jasmin
Dizdar
Jasmin
Dizdar
Dizdar
Dizdar
Jasmin
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Jasmin
Dizdar


title: Boris Pasternak

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<mask> (; ; 30 May 1960) was a Russian poet, novelist, and literary translator. Composed in 1917, <mask>'s first book of poems, My Sister, Life, was published in Berlin in 1922 and soon became an important collection in the Russian language. <mask>'s translations of stage plays by Goethe, Schiller, Calderón de la Barca and Shakespeare remain very popular with Russian audiences. <mask> is the author of Doctor Zhivago (1957), a novel that takes place between the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the Second World War. Doctor Zhivago was rejected for publication in the USSR, but the manuscript was smuggled to Italy for publication. <mask> was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958, an event that enraged the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which forced him to decline the prize. Finally, in 1989 <mask>'s son Yevgeny accepted the award on his father's behalf.Doctor Zhivago has been part of the main Russian school curriculum since 2003. Early life

<mask> was born in Moscow on 10 February (Gregorian), 1890 (29 January, Julian) into a wealthy, assimilated Jewish family. His father was the post-Impressionist painter Leonid <mask>, who taught as a professor at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture. His mother was Rosa Kaufman, a concert pianist and the daughter of Odessa industrialist Isadore Kaufman and his wife. <mask> had a younger brother, Alex, and two sisters, Lydia and Josephine. The family claimed descent on the paternal line from Isaac Abarbanel, the famous 15th-century Sephardic Jewish philosopher, Bible commentator, and treasurer of Portugal. Early education
From 1904 to 1907, <mask> was the cloister-mate of Peter Minchakievich (1890–1963) in Holy Dormition Pochayiv Lavra, located in West Ukraine.Minchakievich came from an Orthodox Ukrainian family and <mask> came from a Jewish family. Some confusion has arisen as to <mask> attending a military academy in his boyhood years. The uniforms of their monastery Cadet Corp were only similar to those of The Czar Alexander the Third Military Academy, as <mask> and Minchakievich never attended any military academy. Most schools used a distinctive military-looking uniform particular to them as was the custom of the time in Eastern Europe and Russia. Boyhood friends, they parted in 1908, friendly but with different politics, never to see each other again. <mask> went to the Moscow Conservatory to study music (later Germany to study philosophy), and Minchakievich went to L'viv University (L'vov, Lwów) to study history and philosophy. The good dimension of the character Strelnikov in Dr. Zhivago is based upon Peter Minchakievich.Several of <mask>'s characters are composites. After World War One and the Revolution, fighting for the Provisional or Republican government under Kerensky, and then escaping a Communist jail and execution, Minchakievich trekked across Siberia in 1917 and became an American citizen. <mask> stayed in Russia. In a 1959 letter to Jacqueline de Proyart, <mask> recalled,

Shortly after his birth, <mask>'s parents had joined the Tolstoyan Movement. Novelist Leo Tolstoy was a close family friend, as Pasternak recalled, "my father illustrated his books, went to see him, revered him, and ...the whole house was imbued with his spirit." In a 1956 essay, <mask> recalled his father's feverish work creating illustrations for Tolstoy's novel Resurrection. The novel was serialized in the journal Niva by the publisher Fyodor Marx, based in St Petersburg.The sketches were drawn from observations in such places as courtrooms, prisons and on trains, in a spirit of realism. To ensure that the sketches met the journal deadline, train conductors were enlisted to personally collect the illustrations. Pasternak wrote,

According to Max Hayward, "In November 1910, when Tolstoy fled from his home and died in the stationmaster's house at Astapovo, Leonid <mask> was informed by telegram and he went there immediately, taking his son <mask> with him, and made a drawing of Tolstoy on his deathbed." Regular visitors to the Pasternaks' home also included Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Scriabin, Lev Shestov, Rainer Maria Rilke. Pasternak aspired first to be a musician. Inspired by Scriabin, <mask> briefly was a student at the Moscow Conservatory. In 1910 he abruptly left for the German University of Marburg, where he studied under Neo-Kantian philosophers Hermann Cohen, Nicolai Hartmann and Paul Natorp.Life and career

Olga Freidenberg
In 1910 <mask> was reunited with his cousin, Olga Freidenberg (1890–1955). They had shared the same nursery but been separated when the Freidenberg family moved to Saint Petersburg. They fell in love immediately but were never lovers. The romance, however, is made clear from their letters, <mask> writing:You do not know how my tormenting feeling grew and grew until it became obvious to me and to others. As you walked beside me with complete detachment, I could not express it to you. It was a rare sort of closeness, as if we two, you and I, were in love with something that was utterly indifferent to both of us, something that remained aloof from us by virtue of its extraordinary inability to adapt to the other side of life.The cousins' initial passion developed into a lifelong close friendship. From 1910 <mask> and Freidenberg exchanged frequent letters, and their correspondence lasted over 40 years until 1954.The cousins last met in 1936. Ida Wissotzkaya

<mask> fell in love with Ida Wissotzkaya, a girl from a notable Moscow Jewish family of tea merchants, whose company Wissotzky Tea was the largest tea company in the world. <mask> had tutored her in the final class of high school. He helped her prepare for finals. They met in Marburg during the summer of 1912 when <mask>' father, Leonid <mask>, painted her portrait. Although Professor Cohen encouraged him to remain in Germany and to pursue a Philosophy doctorate, <mask> decided against it. He returned to Moscow around the time of the outbreak of the First World War.In the aftermath of events, <mask> proposed marriage to Ida. However, the Wissotzky family was disturbed by <mask>'s poor prospects and persuaded Ida to refuse him. She turned him down and he told of his love and rejection in the poem "Marburg" (1917):

I quivered. I flared up, and then was extinguished. I shook. I had made a proposal—but late,
Too late. I was scared, and she had refused me.I pity her tears, am more blessed than a saint. Around this time, when he was back in Russia, he joined the Russian Futurist group Centrifuge, also spelt Tsentrifuga, as a pianist; although poetry was just a hobby for him then, it was in their group journal, Lirika, where some of his earliest poems were published. His involvement with the Futurist movement as a whole reached its peak when, in 1914, he published a satirical article in Rukonog, which attacked the jealous leader of the "Mezzanine of Poetry", Vadim Shershenevich, who was criticizing Lirika and the Ego-Futurists because Shershenevich himself was barred from collaborating with Centrifuge, the reason being that he was such a talentless poet. The action eventually caused a verbal battle amongst several members of the groups, fighting for recognition as the first, truest Russian Futurists; these included the Cubo-Futurists, who were by that time already notorious for their scandalous behaviour. <mask>'s first and second books of poetry were published shortly after these events. Another failed love affair in 1917 inspired the poems in his third and first major book, My Sister, Life. His early verse cleverly dissimulates his preoccupation with Immanuel Kant's philosophy.Its fabric includes striking alliterations, wild rhythmic combinations, day-to-day vocabulary, and hidden allusions to his favourite poets such as Rilke, Lermontov, Pushkin and German-language Romantic poets. During World War I, <mask> taught and worked at a chemical factory in Vsevolodovo-Vilve near Perm, which undoubtedly provided him with material for Dr. Zhivago many years later. Unlike the rest of his family and many of his closest friends, <mask> chose not to leave Russia after the October Revolution of 1917. According to Max Hayward,

When it finally was published in 1922, <mask>'s My Sister, Life revolutionised Russian poetry. It made <mask> the model for younger poets, and decisively changed the poetry of Osip Mandelshtam, Marina Tsvetayeva and others. Following My Sister, Life, <mask> produced some hermetic pieces of uneven quality, including his masterpiece, the lyric cycle Rupture (1921). Both Pro-Soviet writers and their White emigre equivalents applauded <mask>'s poetry as pure, unbridled inspiration.In the late 1920s, he also participated in the much celebrated tripartite correspondence with Rilke and Tsvetayeva. As the 1920s wore on, however, <mask> increasingly felt that his colourful style was at odds with a less educated readership. He attempted to make his poetry more comprehensible by reworking his earlier pieces and starting two lengthy poems on the Russian Revolution of 1905. He also turned to prose and wrote several autobiographical stories, notably "The Childhood of Luvers" and "Safe Conduct". (The collection Zhenia's Childhood and Other Stories would be published in 1982.) In 1922 <mask> married Evgeniya Lurye (Евгения Лурье), a student at the Art Institute. The following year their son Yevgenii was born.Evidence of <mask>'s support of still-revolutionary members of the leadership of the Communist Party as late as 1926 is indicated by his poem "In Memory of Reissner" presumably written upon the shockingly premature death from typhus of legendary Bolshevik leader Larisa Reisner aged 30 in February of that year. By 1927, <mask>'s close friends Vladimir Mayakovsky and Nikolai Aseyev were advocating the complete subordination of the arts to the needs of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In a letter to his sister Josephine, <mask> wrote of his intentions to "break off relations" with both of them. Although he expressed that it would be deeply painful, <mask> explained that it could not be prevented. He explained:

By 1932, <mask> had strikingly reshaped his style to make it more understandable to the general public and printed the new collection of poems, aptly titled The Second Birth. Although its Caucasian pieces were as brilliant as the earlier efforts, the book alienated the core of <mask>'s refined audience abroad, which was largely composed of anti-communist emigres. In 1932 <mask> fell in love with Zinaida Neuhaus, the wife of the Russian pianist Heinrich Neuhaus.They both got divorces and married two years later. He continued to change his poetry, simplifying his style and language through the years, as expressed in his next book, Early Trains (1943). Stalin Epigram
In April 1934 Osip Mandelstam recited his "Stalin Epigram" to Pasternak. After listening, <mask> told Mandelstam: "I didn't hear this, you didn't recite it to me, because, you know, very strange and terrible things are happening now: they've begun to pick people up. I'm afraid the walls have ears and perhaps even these benches on the boulevard here may be able to listen and tell tales. So let's make out that I heard nothing." On the night of 14 May 1934, Mandelstam was arrested at his home based on a warrant signed by NKVD boss Genrikh Yagoda.Devastated, <mask> went immediately to the offices of Izvestia and begged Nikolai Bukharin to intercede on Mandelstam's behalf. Soon after his meeting with Bukharin, the telephone rang in <mask>'s Moscow apartment. A voice from the Kremlin said, "Comrade Stalin wishes to speak with you." According to Ivinskaya, <mask> was struck dumb. "He was totally unprepared for such a conversation. But then he heard his voice, the voice of Stalin, coming over the line. The Leader addressed him in a rather bluff uncouth fashion, using the familiar thou form: 'Tell me, what are they saying in your literary circles about the arrest of Mandelstam?'"Flustered, <mask> denied that there was any discussion or that there were any literary circles left in Soviet Russia. Stalin went on to ask him for his own opinion of Mandelstam. In an "eager fumbling manner" <mask> explained that he and Mandelstam each had a completely different philosophy about poetry. Stalin finally said, in a mocking tone of voice: "I see, you just aren't able to stick up for a comrade", and put down the receiver. Great Purge

According to <mask>, during the 1937 show trial of General Iona Yakir and Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky, the Union of Soviet Writers requested all members to add their names to a statement supporting the death penalty for the defendants. <mask> refused to sign, even after leadership of the Union visited and threatened him. Soon after, <mask> appealed directly to Stalin, describing his family's strong Tolstoyan convictions and putting his own life at Stalin's disposal; he said that he could not stand as a self-appointed judge of life and death.<mask> was certain that he would be arrested, but instead Stalin is said to have crossed <mask>'s name off an execution list, reportedly declaring, "Do not touch this cloud dweller" (or, in another version, "Leave that holy fool alone!"). <mask>'s close friend Titsian Tabidze did fall victim to the Great Purge. In an autobiographical essay published in the 1950s, <mask> described the execution of Tabidze and the suicides of Marina Tsvetaeva and Paolo Iashvili as the greatest heartbreaks of his life. Ivinskaya wrote, "I believe that between Stalin and <mask> there was an incredible, silent duel." World War II
When the Luftwaffe began bombing Moscow, <mask> immediately began to serve as a fire warden on the roof of the writer's building on Lavrushinski Street. According to Ivinskaya, he repeatedly helped to dispose of German bombs which fell on it. In 1943, <mask> was finally granted permission to visit the soldiers at the front.He bore it well, considering the hardships of the journey (he had a weak leg from an old injury), and he wanted to go to the most dangerous places. He read his poetry and talked extensively with the active and injured troops. With the end of the war in 1945, the Soviet people expected to see the end of the devastation of Nazism, and hoped for the end of Stalin's purges. But sealed trains began carrying large numbers of prisoners to the Soviet Gulags. Some were Nazi collaborators who had fought under General Andrey Vlasov, but most were ordinary Soviet officers and men. <mask> watched as ex-POWs were directly transferred from Nazi Germany to Soviet concentration camps. White emigres who had returned due to pledges of amnesty were also sent directly to the Gulag, as were Jews from the Anti-Fascist Committee and other organizations.Many thousands of innocent people were incarcerated in connection with the Leningrad affair and the so-called doctors' plot, while whole ethnic groups were deported to Siberia. <mask> later said, "If, in a bad dream, we had seen all the horrors in store for us after the war, we should not have been sorry to see Stalin fall, together with Hitler. Then, an end to the war in favour of our allies, civilized countries with democratic traditions, would have meant a hundred times less suffering for our people than that which Stalin again inflicted on it after his victory." Olga Ivinskaya
In October 1946, the twice married <mask> met Olga Ivinskaya, a 34 year old single mother employed by Novy Mir. Deeply moved by her resemblance to his first love Ida Vysotskaya, <mask> gave Ivinskaya several volumes of his poetry and literary translations. Although <mask> never left his wife Zinaida, he started an extramarital relationship with Ivinskaya that would last for the remainder of <mask>'s life. Ivinskaya later recalled, "He phoned almost every day and, instinctively fearing to meet or talk with him, yet dying of happiness, I would stammer out that I was "busy today."But almost every afternoon, toward the end of working hours, he came in person to the office and often walked with me through the streets, boulevards, and squares all the way home to Potapov Street. 'Shall I make you a present of this square?' he would ask." She gave him the phone number of her neighbour Olga Volkova who resided below. In the evenings, <mask> would phone and Volkova would signal by Olga banging on the water pipe which connected their apartments. When they first met, Pasternak was translating the verse of the Hungarian national poet, Sándor Petőfi. Pasternak gave his lover a book of Petőfi with the inscription, "Petőfi served as a code in May and June 1947, and my close translations of his lyrics are an expression, adapted to the requirements of the text, of my feelings and thoughts for you and about you.In memory of it all, B.P., 13 May 1948." <mask> later noted on a photograph of himself, "Petőfi is magnificent with his descriptive lyrics and picture of nature, but you are better still. I worked on him a good deal in 1947 and 1948, when I first came to know you. Thank you for your help. I was translating both of you." Ivinskaya would later describe the Petőfi translations as, "a first declaration of love." According to Ivinskaya, Zinaida <mask> was infuriated by her husband's infidelity.Once, when his younger son Leonid fell seriously ill, Zinaida extracted a promise from her husband, as they stood by the boy's sickbed, that he would end his affair with Ivinskaya. <mask> asked Luisa Popova, a mutual friend, to tell Ivinskaya about his promise.

masks:
Boris Leonidovich Pasternak
Pasternak
Pasternak
Pasternak
Pasternak
Pasternak
Pasternak
Pasternak
Pasternak
Boris Pasternak
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Boris
Pasternak
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Boris
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Pasternak


title: Boris Pasternak

texts:
 Popova told him that he must do it himself. Soon after, Ivinskaya happened to be ill at Popova's apartment, when suddenly Zinaida <mask> arrived and confronted her. Ivinskaya later recalled,

In 1948, Pasternak advised Ivinskaya to resign her job at Novy Mir, which was becoming extremely difficult due to their relationship. In the aftermath, Pasternak began to instruct her in translating poetry. In time, they began to refer to her apartment on Potapov Street as, "Our Shop."On the evening of 6 October 1949, Ivinskaya was arrested at her apartment by the KGB. Ivinskaya relates in her memoirs that, when the agents burst into her apartment, she was at her typewriter working on translations of the Korean poet Won Tu-Son. Her apartment was ransacked and all items connected with Pasternak were piled up in her presence. Ivinskaya was taken to the Lubyanka Prison and repeatedly interrogated, where she refused to say anything incriminating about <mask>. At the time, she was pregnant with <mask>'s child and had a miscarriage early in her ten-year sentence in the GULAG. Upon learning of his mistress' arrest, <mask> telephoned Liuisa Popova and asked her to come at once to Gogol Boulevard. She found him sitting on a bench near the Palace of Soviets Metro Station.Weeping, <mask> told her, "Everything is finished now. They've taken her away from me and I'll never see her again. It's like death, even worse." According to Ivinskaya, "After this, in conversation with people he scarcely knew, he always referred to Stalin as a 'murderer.' Talking with people in the offices of literary periodicals, he often asked: 'When will there be an end to this freedom for lackeys who happily walk over corpses to further their own interests?' He spent a good deal of time with Akhmatova—who in those years was given a very wide berth by most of the people who knew her. He worked intensively on the second part of Doctor Zhivago."In a 1958 letter to a friend in West Germany, <mask> wrote, "She was put in jail on my account, as the person considered by the secret police to be closest to me, and they hoped that by means of a gruelling interrogation and threats they could extract enough evidence from her to put me on trial. I owe my life, and the fact that they did not touch me in those years, to her heroism and endurance." Translating <mask>'s translation of the first part of Faust led him to be attacked in the August 1950 edition of Novy Mir. The critic accused <mask> of distorting Goethe's "progressive" meanings to support "the reactionary theory of 'pure art'", as well as introducing aesthetic and individualist values. In a subsequent letter to the daughter of Marina Tsvetaeva, <mask> explained that the attack was motivated by the fact that the supernatural elements of the play, which Novy Mir considered, "irrational," had been translated as Goethe had written them. <mask> further declared that, despite the attacks on his translation, his contract for the second part had not been revoked. Khrushchev thaw
When Stalin died of a stroke on 5 March 1953, Ivinskaya was still imprisoned in the Gulag, and <mask> was in Moscow.Across the nation, there were waves of panic, confusion, and public displays of grief. Pasternak wrote, "Men who are not free... always idealize their bondage." After her release, <mask>'s relationship with Ivinskaya picked up where it had left off. Soon after he confided in her, "For so long we were ruled over by a madman and a murderer, and now by a fool and a pig. The madman had his occasional flights of fancy, he had an intuitive feeling for certain things, despite his wild obscurantism. Now we are ruled over by mediocrities." During this period, <mask> delighted in reading a clandestine copy of George Orwell's Animal Farm in English.In conversation with Ivinskaya, <mask> explained that the pig dictator Napoleon, in the novel, "vividly reminded" him of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. Doctor Zhivago

Although it contains passages written in the 1910s and 1920s, Doctor Zhivago was not completed until 1955. <mask> submitted the novel to Novy Mir in 1956, which refused publication due to its rejection of socialist realism. The author, like his protagonist Yuri Zhivago, showed more concern for the welfare of individual characters than for the "progress" of society. Censors also regarded some passages as anti-Soviet, especially the novel's criticisms of Stalinism, Collectivisation, the Great Purge, and the Gulag. <mask>'s fortunes were soon to change, however. In March 1956, the Italian Communist Party sent a journalist, Sergio D'Angelo, to work in the Soviet Union, and his status as a journalist as well as his membership in the Italian Communist Party allowed him to have access to various aspects of the cultural life in Moscow at the time.A Milan publisher, the communist Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, had also given him a commission to find new works of Soviet literature that would be appealing to Western audiences, and upon learning of Doctor Zhivagos existence, D'Angelo travelled immediately to Peredelkino and offered to submit <mask>'s novel to Feltrinelli's company for publication. At first <mask> was stunned. Then he brought the manuscript from his study and told D'Angelo with a laugh, "You are hereby invited to watch me face the firing squad." According to Lazar Fleishman, <mask> was aware that he was taking a huge risk. No Soviet author had attempted to deal with Western publishers since the 1920s, when such behavior led the Soviet State to declare war on <mask> and Evgeny Zamyatin. <mask>, however, believed that Feltrinelli's Communist affiliation would not only guarantee publication, but might even force the Soviet State to publish the novel in Russia. In a rare moment of agreement, both Olga Ivinskaya and Zinaida <mask> were horrified by the submission of Doctor Zhivago to a Western publishing house.<mask>, however, refused to change his mind and informed an emissary from Feltrinelli that he was prepared to undergo any sacrifice in order to see Doctor Zhivago published. In 1957, Feltrinelli announced that the novel would be published by his company. Despite repeated demands from visiting Soviet emissaries, Feltrinelli refused to cancel or delay publication. According to Ivinskaya, "He did not believe that we would ever publish the manuscript here and felt he had no right to withhold a masterpiece from the world – this would be an even greater crime." The Soviet government forced <mask> to cable the publisher to withdraw the manuscript, but he sent separate, secret letters advising Feltrinelli to ignore the telegrams. Helped considerably by the Soviet campaign against the novel (as well as by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's secret purchase of hundreds of copies of the book as it came off the presses around the world – see "Nobel Prize" section below), Doctor Zhivago became an instant sensation throughout the non-Communist world upon its release in November 1957. In the State of Israel, however, <mask>'s novel was sharply criticized for its assimilationist views towards the Jewish people.When informed of this, <mask> responded, "No matter. I am above race..." According to Lazar Fleishman, <mask> had written the disputed passages prior to Israeli independence. At the time, <mask> had also been regularly attending Russian Orthodox Divine Liturgy. Therefore, he believed that Soviet Jews converting to Christianity was preferable to assimilating into atheism and Stalinism. The first English translation of Doctor Zhivago was hastily produced by Max Hayward and Manya Harari in order to coincide with overwhelming public demand. It was released in August 1958, and remained the only edition available for more than fifty years. Between 1958 and 1959, the English language edition spent 26 weeks at the top of The New York Times''' bestseller list.Ivinskaya's daughter Irina circulated typed copies of the novel in Samizdat. Although no Soviet critics had read the banned novel, Doctor Zhivago was pilloried in the State-owned press. Similar attacks led to a humorous Russian saying, "I haven't read <mask>, but I condemn him". During the aftermath of the Second World War, <mask> had composed a series of poems on Gospel themes. According to Ivinskaya, <mask> had regarded Stalin as a "giant of the pre-Christian era." Therefore, <mask>'s decision to write Christian poetry was "a form of protest." On 9 September 1958, the Literary Gazette critic Viktor Pertsov retaliated by denouncing "the decadent religious poetry of Pasternak, which reeks of mothballs from the Symbolist suitcase of 1908–10 manufacture."Furthermore, the author received much hate mail from Communists both at home and abroad. According to Ivinskaya, <mask> continued to receive such letters for the remainder of his life. In a letter written to his sister Josephine, however, <mask> recalled the words of his friend Ekaterina Krashennikova upon reading Doctor Zhivago. She had said, "Don't forget yourself to the point of believing that it was you who wrote this work. It was the Russian people and their sufferings who created it. Thank God for having expressed it through your pen." Nobel Prize

According to Yevgeni <mask> <mask>, "Rumors that Pasternak was to receive the Nobel Prize started right after the end of World War II.According to the former Nobel Committee head Lars Gyllensten, his nomination was discussed every year from 1946 to 1950, then again in 1957 (it was finally awarded in 1958). <mask> guessed at this from the growing waves of criticism in USSR. Sometimes he had to justify his European fame: 'According to the Union of Soviet Writers, some literature circles of the West see unusual importance in my work, not matching its modesty and low productivity…'

Meanwhile, <mask> wrote to Renate Schweitzer and his sister, <mask> Slater. In both letters, the author expressed hope that he would be passed over by the Nobel Committee in favour of Alberto Moravia. <mask> wrote that he was wracked with torments and anxieties at the thought of placing his loved ones in danger. On 23 October 1958, <mask> was announced as the winner of the Nobel Prize. The citation credited <mask>'s contribution to Russian lyric poetry and for his role in "continuing the great Russian epic tradition."On 25 October, <mask> sent a telegram to the Swedish Academy: "Infinitely grateful, touched, proud, surprised, overwhelmed." That same day, the Literary Institute in Moscow demanded that all its students sign a petition denouncing <mask> and his novel. They were further ordered to join a "spontaneous" demonstration demanding <mask>'s exile from the Soviet Union. Also on that day, the Literary Gazette published a letter which was sent to B<mask> in September 1956 by the editors of the Soviet literary journal Novy Mir to justify their rejection of Doctor Zhivago. In publishing this letter the Soviet authorities wished to justify the measures they had taken against the author and his work. On 26 October, the Literary Gazette ran an article by David Zaslavski entitled, Reactionary Propaganda Uproar over a Literary Weed. According to Solomon Volkov:

Furthermore, <mask> was informed that, if he traveled to Stockholm to collect his Nobel Medal, he would be refused re-entry to the Soviet Union.As a result, on 29 October <mask> sent a second telegram to the Nobel Committee: "In view of the meaning given the award by the society in which I live, I must renounce this undeserved distinction which has been conferred on me. Please do not take my voluntary renunciation amiss." The Swedish Academy announced: "This refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award. There remains only for the Academy, however, to announce with regret that the presentation of the Prize cannot take place." According to Yevgenii <mask>, "I couldn't recognize my father when I saw him that evening. Pale, lifeless face, tired painful eyes, and only speaking about the same thing: 'Now it all doesn’t matter, I declined the Prize. Deportation plans
Despite his decision to decline the award, the Soviet Union of Writers continued to demonise Pasternak in the State-owned press.Furthermore, he was threatened at the very least with formal exile to the West. In response, <mask> wrote directly to Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev,

In The Oak and the Calf, Alexander Solzhenitsyn sharply criticized Pasternak, both for declining the Nobel Prize and for sending such a letter to Khrushchev. In her own memoirs, Olga Ivinskaya blames herself for pressuring her lover into making both decisions. According to Yevgenii <mask>, "She accused herself bitterly for persuading Pasternak to decline the Prize. After all that had happened, open shadowing, friends turning away, Pasternak's suicidal condition at the time, one can... understand her: the memory of Stalin's camps was too fresh, [and] she tried to protect him." On 31 October 1958, the Union of Soviet Writers held a trial behind closed doors. According to the meeting minutes, <mask> was denounced as an internal emigré and a Fascist fifth columnist.Afterwards, the attendees announced that <mask> had been expelled from the Union. They further signed a petition to the Politburo, demanding that <mask> be stripped of his Soviet citizenship and exiled to "his Capitalist paradise." According to Yevgenii <mask>, however, author Konstantin Paustovsky refused to attend the meeting. Yevgeny Yevtushenko did attend, but walked out in disgust. According to Yevgenii <mask>, his father would have been exiled had it not been for Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who telephoned Khrushchev and threatened to organize a Committee for Pasternak's protection. It is possible that the 1958 Nobel Prize prevented <mask>'s imprisonment due to the Soviet State's fear of international protests. Yevgenii <mask> believes, however, that the resulting persecution fatally weakened his father's health.Meanwhile, Bill Mauldin produced a cartoon about <mask> that won the 1959 Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning. The cartoon depicts <mask> as a GULAG inmate splitting trees in the snow, saying to another inmate: "I won the Nobel Prize for Literature. What was your crime?" Last years

<mask>'s post-Zhivago poetry probes the universal questions of love, immortality, and reconciliation with God.Conference set on Doctor Zhivago writer (Stanford Report, 28 April 2004) <mask> wrote his last complete book, When the Weather Clears, in 1959. According to Ivinskaya, <mask> continued to stick to his daily writing schedule even during the controversy over Doctor Zhivago. He also continued translating the writings of Juliusz Słowacki and Pedro Calderón de la Barca. In his work on Calderon, <mask> received the discreet support of Nikolai Mikhailovich Liubimov, a senior figure in the Party's literary apparatus.Ivinskaya describes Liubimov as, "a shrewd and enlightened person who understood very well that all the mudslinging and commotion over the novel would be forgotten, but that there would always be a Pasternak." In a letter to his sisters in Oxford, England, Pasternak claimed to have finished translating one of Calderon's plays in less than a week. During the summer of 1959, <mask> began writing The Blind Beauty, a trilogy of stage plays set before and after Alexander II's abolition of serfdom in Russia. In an interview with Olga Carlisle from The Paris Review, <mask> enthusiastically described the play's plot and characters. He informed Olga Carlisle that, at the end of The Blind Beauty, he wished to depict "the birth of an enlightened and affluent middle class, open to occidental influences, progressive, intelligent, artistic". However, <mask> fell ill with terminal lung cancer before he could complete the first play of the trilogy. "Unique Days"
"Unique Days" was the last poem <mask> wrote.Death

<mask> died of lung cancer in his dacha in Peredelkino on the evening of 30 May 1960. He first summoned his sons, and in their presence said, "Who will suffer most because of my death? Who will suffer most? Only Oliusha will, and I haven't had time to do anything for her. The worst thing is that she will suffer." <mask>'s last words were, "I can't hear very well. And there's a mist in front of my eyes.But it will go away, won't it? Don't forget to open the window tomorrow." Shortly before his death, a priest of the Russian Orthodox Church had given Pasternak the last rites. Later, in the strictest secrecy, a Russian Orthodox funeral liturgy, or Panikhida, was offered in the family's dacha. Funeral demonstration
Despite only a small notice appearing in the Literary Gazette, handwritten notices carrying the date and time of the funeral were posted throughout the Moscow subway system. As a result, thousands of admirers braved Militia and KGB surveillance to attend <mask>'s funeral in Peredelkino. Before <mask>'s civil funeral, Ivinskaya had a conversation with Konstantin Paustovsky.According to her,

Then, in the presence of a large number of foreign journalists, the body of <mask> was removed to the cemetery. According to Ivinskaya,

To the horror of the assembled Party officials, however, someone with "a young and deeply anguished voice" began reciting <mask>'s banned poem Hamlet. According to Ivinskaya,

The final speaker at the graveside service said,

As the spectators cheered, the bells of Peredelkino's Church of the Transfiguration began to toll. Written prayers for the dead were then placed upon <mask>'s forehead and the coffin was closed and buried.

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texts:
 <mask>'s gravesite would go on to become a major shrine for members of the Soviet dissident movement. Modern research about the CIA role in the 1958 Nobel Award

Writer and Radio Liberty journalist Ivan Tolstoy wrote the book The Laundered Novel: Doctor Zhivago between the KGB and the CIA, published in Russia in December 2008. Ivan Tolstoy said in his book the British MI6 and the American CIA allegedly lent a hand to ensure that Doctor Zhivago was submitted to the Nobel Committee in the original Russian.According to Tolstoy, this was allegedly done so that <mask> could win the Nobel Prize and harm the international credibility of the Soviet Union. He repeats and elaborates upon Feltrinelli's claims that the CIA operatives had photographed a manuscript of the novel and secretly printed a small number of books in the Russian language. Ivan Tolstoy explained on a Russian radio program Echo of Moscow, aired on 7 December 2008, his research about whether the Central Intelligence Agency helped <mask> win the Nobel Prize. He said "...possibly, because of the publication of this CIA's Russian edition, <mask> received the Nobel Prize. I emphasize — it is possible! These documents do not exist. I suppose he got it, after all, because of the CIA edition.But I stipulate this very carefully." Anna Sergeyeva-Klyatis, a Russian philologist, published her research in 2012, where she suggested that the first Russian edition of Doctor Zhivago, which was a pirated version with numerous typographical errors and omissions, was actually initiated by the Central Association of Postwar Émigrés, in response to a growing demand among Russian émigrés. On 14 April 2014, The Central Intelligence Agency declassified more than 130 documents of files about 1,000 Russian copies published by the Mouton Publishers of the Hague early September 1958. In one of the files, dated 12 December 1957, the CIA agents recommend: "Dr. Zhivago should be published in a maximum number of foreign editions, for maximum free world discussion and acclaim and consideration for such honor as the Nobel prize". [sic]

In its announcement of the declassification of the Zhivago documents the CIA states: "After working secretly to publish the Russian-language edition in the Netherlands, the CIA moved quickly to ensure that copies of Doctor Zhivago were available for distribution to Soviet visitors at the 1958 Brussels World’s Fair. By the end of the Fair, 355 copies of Doctor Zhivago had been surreptitiously handed out..."

The Washington Post's journalist Peter Finn and writer Petra Couvée, who collaborated on a book titled The Zhivago Affair, after studying the disclosed files, said: "While the CIA hoped <mask>'s novel would draw global attention, including from the Swedish Academy, there was no indication that the agency’s motive for printing a Russian-language edition was to help <mask> win the prize, something that has been a matter of speculation for some decades." Legacy

After <mask>'s death, Ivinskaya was arrested for the second time, with her daughter, Irina Emelyanova.Both were accused of being <mask>'s link with Western publishers and of dealing in hard currency for Doctor Zhivago. All of <mask>'s letters to Ivinskaya, as well as many other manuscripts and documents, were seized by the KGB. The KGB quietly released them, Irina after one year, in 1962, and Olga in 1964. By this time, Ivinskaya had served four years of an eight-year sentence, in retaliation for her role in Doctor Zhivago's publication. In 1978, her memoirs were smuggled abroad and published in Paris. An English translation by Max Hayward was published the same year under the title A Captive of Time: My Years with Pasternak. Ivinskaya was rehabilitated only in 1988.After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ivinskaya sued for the return of the letters and documents seized by the KGB in 1961. The Russian Supreme Court ultimately ruled against her, stating that "there was no proof of ownership" and that the "papers should remain in the state archive". Ivinskaya died of cancer on 8 September 1995. A reporter on NTV compared her role to that of other famous muses for Russian poets: "As Pushkin would not be complete without Anna Kern, and Yesenin would be nothing without Isadora, so Pasternak would not be Pasternak without Olga Ivinskaya, who was his inspiration for Doctor Zhivago.". Meanwhile, <mask> continued to be pilloried by the Soviet State until Mikhail Gorbachev proclaimed Perestroika during the 1980s. In 1980, an asteroid was named 3508 Pasternak after <mask>. In 1988, after decades of circulating in Samizdat, Doctor Zhivago was serialized in the literary journal Novy Mir.In December 1989, Yevgenii <mask> <mask> was permitted to travel to Stockholm in order to collect his father's Nobel Medal. At the ceremony, acclaimed cellist and Soviet dissident Mstislav Rostropovich performed a Bach serenade in honor of his deceased countryman. A 2009 book by Ivan Tolstoi reasserts claims that British and American intelligence officers were involved in ensuring <mask>'s Nobel victory; another Russian researcher, however, disagreed. When Yevgeny <mask> <mask> was questioned about this, he responded that his father was completely unaware of the actions of Western intelligence services. Yevgeny further declared that the Nobel Prize caused his father nothing but severe grief and harassment at the hands of the Soviet State. The <mask> family papers are stored at the Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University. They contain correspondence, drafts of Doctor Zhivago and other writings, photographs, and other material, of <mask> and other family members.Since 2003, the novel Doctor Zhivago has entered the Russian school curriculum, where it is read in the 11th grade of secondary school. Commemoration

In October 1984 by decision of a court, <mask>’s dacha in Peredelkino was taken from the writer's relatives and transferred to state ownership. Two years later, in 1986, the House-Museum of <mask> was founded (the first house-museum in the USSR). In 1990, the year of the poet’s 100th anniversary, the Pasternak Museum opened its doors in Chistopol, in the house where the poet evacuated to during the Great Patriotic War (1941–1943), and in Peredelkino, where he lived for many years until his death. The head of the poet’s house-museum is <mask>, his daughter-in-law (widow of the youngest son Leonid). In 2008 a museum was opened in Vsevolodo-Vilva in the house where the budding poet lived from January to June 1916. In 2009 on the City Day in Perm the first Russian monument to <mask> was erected in the square near the Opera Theater (sculptor: Elena Munc).A memorial plaque was installed on the house where <mask> was born. In memory of the poet's three-time stay in Tula, on 27 May 2005 a marble memorial plaque to <mask> was installed on the Wörmann hotel's wall, as <mask> was a Nobel laureate and dedicated several of his works to Tula. On 20 February 2008, in Kyiv, a memorial plaque was put up on the house №9 on Lipinsky Street, but seven years later it was stolen by vandals. In 2012 a monument to <mask> was erected in the district center of Muchkapsky by Z. Tsereteli. In 1990, as part of the series "Nobel Prize Winners", the USSR and Sweden ("Nobel Prize Winners – Literature") issued stamps depicting <mask>. In 2015, as part of the series "125th Annive. of the Birth of <mask>, 1890–1960", Mozambique issued a miniature sheet depicting <mask>.Although this issue was acknowledged by the postal administration of Mozambique, the issue was not placed on sale in Mozambique, and was only distributed to the new issue trade by Mozambique's philatelic agent. In 2015, as part of the series "125th Birth Anniversary of <mask>", Maldives issued a miniature sheet depicting <mask>. The issue was acknowledged by the Maldive postal authorities, but only distributed by the Maldive philatelic agent for collecting purposes. On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of B<mask>'s Nobel Prize, the Principality of Monaco issued a postage stamp in his memory. On 27 January 2015, in honor of the poet’s 125th birthday, the Russian Post issued an envelope with the original stamp. On 1 October 2015, a monument to <mask> was erected in Chistopol. On 10 February 2021, Google celebrated his 131st birthday with a Google Doodle.The Doodle was displayed in Russia, Sweden, some Middle Eastern countries and some Mediterranean countries. Cultural influence

A minor planet (3508 Pasternak) discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1980 is named after him. Russian-American singer and songwriter Regina Spektor recites a verse from "Black Spring", a 1912 poem by Pasternak in her song "Apres Moi" from her album Begin to Hope. Russian-Dutch composer Fred Momotenko (Alfred Momotenko) wrote a companion composition to Sergej Rachmaninov's All-Night Vigil Op 37. based on the eponymous poem from the diptych Doktor Zhivago Na Strastnoy

Adaptations
The first screen adaptation of Doctor Zhivago, adapted by Robert Bolt and directed by David Lean, appeared in 1965. The film, which toured in the roadshow tradition, starred Omar Sharif, Geraldine Chaplin, and Julie Christie. Concentrating on the love triangle aspects of the novel, the film became a worldwide blockbuster, but was unavailable in Russia until perestroika. In 2002, the novel was adapted as a television miniseries.Directed by Giacomo Campiotti, the serial starred Hans Matheson, Alexandra Maria Lara, Keira Knightley, and Sam Neill. The Russian TV version of 2006, directed by Aleksandr Proshkin and starring Oleg Menshikov as Zhivago, is considered  more faithful to <mask>'s novel than David Lean's 1965 film. Work

Poetry

Thoughts on poetry
According to Olga Ivinskaya:

For this reason, <mask> regularly avoided literary cafes where young poets regularly invited them to read their verse. According to Ivinskaya, "It was this sort of thing that moved him to say: 'Who started the idea that I love poetry? I can't stand poetry.' "

Also according to Ivinskaya, " 'The way they could write!' he once exclaimed – by 'they' he meant the Russian classics.And immediately afterward, reading or, rather, glancing through some verse in the Literary Gazette: 'Just look how tremendously well they've learned to rhyme! But there's actually nothing there – it would be better to say it in a news bulletin. What has poetry got to do with this?' By 'they' in this case, he meant the poets writing today." Translation
Reluctant to conform to socialist realism, <mask> turned to translation in order to provide for his family. He soon produced acclaimed translations of Sándor Petőfi, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Rainer Maria Rilke, Paul Verlaine, Taras Shevchenko, and Nikoloz Baratashvili. Osip Mandelstam, however, privately warned him, "Your collected works will consist of twelve volumes of translations, and only one of your own work."In a 1942 letter, <mask> declared, "I am completely opposed to contemporary ideas about translation. The work of Lozinski, Radlova, Marshak, and Chukovski is alien to me, and seems artificial, soulless, and lacking in depth. I share the nineteenth-century view of translation as a literary exercise demanding insight of a higher kind than that provided by a merely philological approach." According to Ivinskaya, <mask> believed in not being too literal in his translations, which he felt could confuse the meaning of the text. He instead advocated observing each poem from afar to plumb its true depths. <mask>'s translations of William Shakespeare (Romeo and Juliet, Antony and Cleopatra, Othello, King Henry IV (Part I) and (Part II), Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear) remain deeply popular with Russian audiences because of their colloquial, modernised dialogues. <mask>'s critics, however, accused him of "pasternakizing" Shakespeare.In a 1956 essay, <mask> wrote: "Translating Shakespeare is a task which takes time and effort. Once it is undertaken, it is best to divide it into sections long enough for the work to not get stale and to complete one section each day. In thus daily progressing through the text, the translator finds himself reliving the circumstances of the author. Day by day, he reproduces his actions and he is drawn into some of his secrets, not in theory, but practically, by experience." According to Ivinskaya:

While they were both collaborating on translating Rabindranath Tagore from Bengali into Russian, <mask> advised Ivinskaya: "1) Bring out the theme of the poem, its subject matter, as clearly as possible; 2) tighten up the fluid, non-European form by rhyming internally, not at the end of the lines; 3) use loose, irregular meters, mostly ternary ones. You may allow yourself to use assonances." Later, while she was collaborating with him on a translation of Vítězslav Nezval, <mask> told Ivinskaya:

According to Ivinskaya, however, translation was not a genuine vocation for Pasternak.She later recalled:

Music
<mask> was also a composer, and had a promising musical career as a musician ahead of him, had he chosen to pursue it. He came from a musical family: his mother was a concert pianist and a student of Anton Rubinstein and Theodor Leschetizky, and <mask>'s early impressions were of hearing piano trios in the home. The family had a dacha (country house) close to one occupied by Alexander Scriabin. Sergei Rachmaninoff, Rainer Maria Rilke and Leo Tolstoy were all visitors to the family home. His father Leonid was a painter who produced one of the most important portraits of Scriabin, and <mask> wrote many years later of witnessing with great excitement the creation of Scriabin's Symphony No. 3 (The Divine Poem), in 1903. <mask> began to compose at the age of 13.The high achievements of his mother discouraged him from becoming a pianist, but – inspired by Scriabin – he entered the Moscow Conservatory, but left abruptly in 1910 at the age of twenty, to study philosophy in Marburg University. Four years later he returned to Moscow, having finally decided on a career in literature, publishing his first book of poems, influenced by Aleksandr Blok and the Russian Futurists, the same year. <mask>'s early compositions show the clear influence of Scriabin. His single-movement Piano Sonata of 1909 shows a more mature and individual voice. Nominally in B minor, it moves freely from key to key with frequent changes of key-signature and a chromatic dissonant style that defies easy analysis. Although composed during his time at the Conservatory, the Sonata was composed at Rayki, some 40 km north-east of Moscow, where Leonid <mask> had his painting studio and taught his students. Selected books by Pasternak

Poetry collectionsTwin in the Clouds (1914)Over the Barriers (1916)Themes and Variations (1917)My Sister, Life (1922)On Early Trains (1944)Selected Poems (1946)Poems (1954)When the Weather Clears (1959)In The Interlude: Poems 1945–1960 (1962)

Books of proseSafe Conduct (1931)Second Birth (1932)The Last Summer (1934)Childhood (1941)Selected Writings (1949)Collected Works (1945)Goethe's Faust (1952)Essay in Autobiography (1956)Doctor Zhivago (1957)

See also
List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

Sources

 .Further reading
 Conquest, Robert. (1979). The Pasternak Affair: Courage of Genius :A Documentary Report. New York, NY: Octagon Books. Paolo Mancosu, Inside the Zhivago Storm: The Editorial Adventures of Pasternak's Masterpiece, Milan: Feltrinelli, 2013

 Mossman, Elliott (ed.) (1982) The Correspondence of <mask> and Olga Freidenberg 1910 – 1954, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
Peter Finn and Petra Couvee, The Zhivago Affair: The Kremlin, the CIA, and the Battle Over a Forbidden Book, New York: Pantheon Books, 2014
Paolo Mancosu, Zhivago's Secret Journey: From Typescript to Book, Stanford: Hoover Press, 2016
<mask>, Lara: The Untold Love Story and the Inspiration for Doctor Zhivago, Ecco, 2017; . Paolo Mancosu, Moscow has Ears Everywhere: New Investigations on <mask> and Ivinskaya,'' Stanford: Hoover Press, 2019

External links

 <mask>'s interview with The Paris Review Summer-Fall 1960 No.24

 Pasternak profile at Poets.org
 PBS biography of Pasternak
 Register of the Pasternak Family Papers at the Hoover Institution Archives
 profile and images at the Pasternak Trust
 pp. 36–39: Pasternak as a student at Marburg University, Germany
 <mask>ak poetry
 The Poems by <mask> (English)

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Pasternak

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