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<mask> (; ; ; also known by his diminutive Arik, , born <mask>n, ; 26 February 1928 – 11 January 2014) was an Israeli general and politician who served as the 11th Prime Minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006. <mask> was a commander in the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948. As a soldier and then an officer, he participated prominently in the 1948 Palestine war, becoming a platoon commander in the Alexandroni Brigade and taking part in many battles, including Operation Bin Nun Alef. He was an instrumental figure in the creation of Unit 101 and the reprisal operations, as well as in the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Six-Day War of 1967, the War of Attrition, and the Yom-Kippur War of 1973. Yitzhak Rabin called <mask> "the greatest field commander in our history". Upon retirement from the military, <mask> entered politics, joining the Likud party, and served in a number of ministerial posts in Likud-led governments in 1977–92 and 1996–99. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War.An official enquiry found that he bore "personal responsibility" for the Sabra and Shatila massacre and recommended that he be removed as Defense Minister. His perceived complicity in the massacre led to him being known as the "Butcher of Beirut" among Arabs. From the 1970s through to the 1990s, <mask> championed construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. He became the leader of the Likud in 2000, and was elected Prime Minister of Israel after defeating Ehud Barak in the 2001 prime ministerial election. He served as Israel's prime minister from 2001 to 2006, during the Al-Aqsa Intifada. As Prime Minister, <mask> orchestrated Israel's unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2004–05. Facing stiff opposition to this policy within the Likud, in November 2005 he left Likud to form a new party, Kadima.He had been expected to win the next election and was widely interpreted as planning on "clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. After suffering a stroke on 4 January 2006, <mask> remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in January 2014. <mask> remains a highly polarizing figure in Middle East history. Israelis almost universally revere <mask> as a war hero and statesman who played a vital role in defining the country's borders, while Palestinians revile <mask> as an impenitent war criminal who vigorously suppressed their aspirations for nationhood. Early life and education

<mask> was born on 26 February 1928 in Kfar Malal, an agricultural moshav, then in Mandatory Palestine, to Shmuel Scheinerman (1896–1956) of Brest-Litovsk and Vera (née Schneirov) Scheinerman (1900–1988) of Mogilev. His parents met while at university in Tiflis (now Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia), where <mask>'s father was studying agronomy and his mother was studying medicine. They immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1922 in the wake of the Russian Communist government's growing persecution of Jews in the region.In Palestine, Vera Scheinerman went by the name Dvora. The family arrived with the Third Aliyah and settled in Kfar Malal, a socialist, secular community. (<mask> himself would remain proudly secular throughout his life.) Although his parents were Mapai supporters, they did not always accept communal consensus: "The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism ... followed the 1933 Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement's anti-Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevik-style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health-fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative's truck wouldn't make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce."<mask> spoke both Hebrew and Russian. Four years after their arrival at Kfar Malal, the Sheinermans had a daughter, Yehudit (Dita). <mask> was born two years later. At age 10, he joined the youth movement HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed. As a teenager, he began to take part in the armed night-patrols of his moshav. In 1942 at the age of 14, <mask> joined the Gadna, a paramilitary youth battalion, and later the Haganah, the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military precursor to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Military career

Battle for Jerusalem and 1948 War

Sharon's unit of the Haganah became engaged in serious and continuous combat from the autumn of 1947, with the onset of the Battle for Jerusalem.Without the manpower to hold the roads, his unit took to making offensive hit-and-run raids on Arab forces in the vicinity of Kfar Malal. In units of thirty men, they would hit constantly at Arab villages, bridges and bases, as well as ambush the traffic between Arab villages and bases. <mask> wrote in his autobiography: "We had become skilled at finding our way in the darkest nights and gradually we built up the strength and endurance these kind of operations required. Under the stress of constant combat we drew closer to one another and began to operate not just as a military unit but almost as a family. ... [W]e were in combat almost every day. Ambushes and battles followed each other until they all seemed to run together." For his role in a night-raid on Iraqi forces at Bir Adas, <mask> was made a platoon commander in the Alexandroni Brigade.Following the Israeli Declaration of Independence and the onset of the War of Independence, his platoon fended off the Iraqi advance at Kalkiya. <mask> was regarded as a hardened and aggressive soldier, swiftly moving up the ranks during the war. He was shot in the groin, stomach and foot by the Jordanian Arab Legion in the First Battle of Latrun, an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the besieged Jewish community of Jerusalem. <mask> wrote of the casualties in the "horrible battle," and his brigade suffered 139 deaths. Jordanian field marshal Habis Al-Majali claimed that <mask> was among 6 Israeli soldiers captured by the Jordanian 4th battalion during the battle, and that Habis took them to a camp in Mafraq and the 6 were later traded back. <mask> denied the claims, but Habes was adamant. "<mask> is like a grizzly bear," he grumbled."I captured him, I healed his wounds." In 1994 and during the peace treaty signing ceremony with Jordan, <mask> wanted to get in touch with his former captor, but the latter determinedly refused to discuss the incident publicly. After recovering from the wounds received at Latrun, he resumed command of his patrol unit. On 28 December 1948, his platoon attempted to break through an Egyptian stronghold in Iraq-El-Manshia. At about this time, Israeli founding father David Ben-Gurion gave him the Hebraized name "<mask>". In September 1949, <mask> was promoted to company commander (of the Golani Brigade's reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to intelligence officer for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies in history and Middle Eastern culture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.<mask>'s subsequent military career would be characterized by insubordination, aggression and disobedience, but also brilliance as a commander. Unit 101
A year and a half later, on the direct orders of the Prime Minister, <mask> returned to active service in the rank of major, as the founder and commander of the new Unit 101, a special forces unit tasked with reprisal operations in response to Palestinian fedayeen attacks. The first Israeli commando unit, Unit 101 specialized in offensive guerrilla warfare in enemy countries. The unit consisted of 50 men, mostly former paratroopers and Unit 30 personnel. They were armed with non-standard weapons and tasked with carrying out special reprisals across the state's borders— mainly establishing small unit maneuvers, activation and insertion tactics. Training included engaging enemy forces across Israel's borders. Israeli historian Benny Morris describes Unit 101:

Unit 101 undertook a series of raids against Jordan, which then held the West Bank.The raids also helped bolster Israeli morale and convince Arab states that the fledgling nation was capable of long-range military action. Known for raids against Arab civilians and military targets, the unit is held responsible for the widely condemned Qibya massacre in the fall of 1953. After a group of Palestinians used Qibya as a staging point for a fedayeen attack in Yehud that killed a Jewish woman and her two children in Israel, Unit 101 retaliated on the village. By various accounts of the ensuing attack, 65 to 70 Palestinian civilians, half of them women and children, were killed when <mask>'s troops dynamited 45 houses and a school. Facing international condemnation for the attack, Ben-Gurion denied that the Israeli military was involved. In his memoir, <mask> wrote that the unit had checked all the houses before detonating the explosives and that he thought the houses were empty. Although he admitted the results were tragic, <mask> defended the attack, however: "Now people could feel that the terrorist gangs would think twice before striking, now that they knew for sure they would be hit back.Kibbya also put the Jordanian and Egyptian governments on notice that if Israel was vulnerable, so were they." A few months after its founding, Unit 101 was merged with the 890 Paratroopers Battalion to create the Paratroopers Brigade, of which <mask> would also later become commander. Like Unit 101, it continued raids into Arab territory, culminating with the attack on the Qalqilyah police station in the autumn of 1956. Leading up to the Suez War, the missions <mask> took part in included:
Operation Shoshana (now known as the Qibya massacre)
Operation Black Arrow
Operation Elkayam
Operation Egged
Operation Olive Leaves
Operation Volcano
Operation Gulliver (מבצע גוליבר)
Operation Lulav (מבצע לולב)

During a payback operation in the Deir al-Balah refugee camp in the Gaza Strip, <mask> was again wounded by gunfire, this time in the leg. Incidents such as those involving Meir Har-Zion, along with many others, contributed to the tension between Prime Minister Moshe Sharett, who often opposed <mask>'s raids, and Moshe Dayan, who had become increasingly ambivalent in his feelings towards <mask>. Later in the year, <mask> was investigated and tried by the Military Police for disciplining one of his subordinates. However, the charges were dismissed before the onset of the Suez War.1956 Suez War

<mask> commanded Unit 202 (the Paratroopers Brigade) during the 1956 Suez War (the British "Operation Musketeer"), leading the troop to take the ground east of the Sinai's Mitla Pass and eventually the pass itself against the advice of superiors, suffering heavy Israeli casualties in the process. Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission (joining a battalion parachuted near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), <mask>'s unit was deployed near the pass. Neither reconnaissance aircraft nor scouts reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. <mask>, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear. <mask> asked for permission to attack the pass several times, but his requests were denied, though he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. <mask> sent a small scout force, which was met with heavy fire and became bogged down due to vehicle malfunction in the middle of the pass. <mask> ordered the rest of his troops to attack in order to aid their comrades.<mask> was criticized by his superiors and was damaged by allegations several years later made by several former subordinates, who claimed that <mask> tried to provoke the Egyptians and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue. <mask> had assaulted Themed in a dawn attack, and had stormed the town with his armor through the Themed Gap. <mask> routed the Sudanese police company, and captured the settlement. On his way to the Nakla, <mask>'s men came under attack from Egyptian MIG-15s. On the 30th, <mask> linked up with Eytan near Nakla. Dayan had no more plans for further advances beyond the passes, but <mask> nonetheless decided to attack the Egyptian positions at Jebel Heitan. <mask> sent his lightly armed paratroopers against dug-in Egyptians supported by aircraft, tanks and heavy artillery.<mask>'s actions were in response to reports of the arrival of the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the 4th Egyptian Armored Division in the area, which <mask> believed would annihilate his forces if he did not seize the high ground. <mask> sent two infantry companies, a mortar battery and some AMX-13 tanks under the command of Mordechai Gur into the Heitan Defile on the afternoon of 31 October 1956. The Egyptian forces occupied strong defensive positions and brought down heavy anti-tank, mortar and machine gun fire on the IDF force. Gur's men were forced to retreat into the "Saucer", where they were surrounded and came under heavy fire. Hearing of this, <mask> sent in another task force while Gur's men used the cover of night to scale the walls of the Heitan Defile. During the ensuing action, the Egyptians were defeated and forced to retreat. A total of 260 Egyptian and 38 Israeli soldiers were killed during the battle at Mitla.Due to these deaths, <mask>'s actions at Mitla were surrounded in controversy, with many within the IDF viewing the deaths as the result of unnecessary and unauthorized aggression. Six-Day War, War of Attrition and Yom Kippur War

The Mitla incident hindered <mask>'s military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an infantry brigade commander and received a law degree from Tel Aviv University. However, when Yitzhak Rabin became Chief of Staff in 1964, <mask> again began to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of Aluf (Major General). In the Six-Day War, <mask>, in command of an armored division on the Sinai front, drew up his own complex offensive strategy that combined infantry troops, tanks and paratroopers from planes and helicopters to destroy the Egyptian forces <mask>'s 38th Division faced when it broke through to the Kusseima-Abu-Ageila fortified area. <mask>'s victories and offensive strategy in the Battle of Abu-Ageila led to international commendation by military strategists; he was judged to have inaugurated a new paradigm in operational command. Researchers at the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command studied <mask>'s operational planning, concluding that it involved a number of unique innovations.It was a simultaneous attack by a multiplicity of small forces, each with a specific aim, attacking a particular unit in a synergistic Egyptian defense network. As a result, instead of supporting and covering each other as they were designed to do, each Egyptian unit was left fighting for its own life. According to Sapir Handelman, after <mask>'s assault of the Sinai in the Six-Day War and his encirclement of the Egyptian Third Army in the Yom Kippur War, the Israeli public nicknamed him "The King of Israel". <mask> played a key role in the War of Attrition. In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF's Southern Command. As leader of the southern command, on 29 July Israeli frogmen stormed and destroyed Green Island, a fortress at the northern end of the Gulf of Suez whose radar and antiaircraft installations controlled that sector's airspace. On 9 September <mask>'s forces carried out Operation Raviv, a large-scale raid along the western shore of the Gulf of Suez.Landing craft ferried across Russian-made tanks and armored personnel carriers that Israel had captured in 1967, and the small column harried the Egyptians for ten hours. Following his appointment to the southern command, <mask> had no further promotions, and considered retiring. <mask> discussed the issue with Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who strongly advised him to remain at his post. <mask> remained in the military for another three years, before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he helped found the Likud ("Unity") political party. At the start of the Yom Kippur War on 6 October 1973, <mask> was called back to active duty along with his assigned reserve armored division. On his farm, before he left for the front line, the Reserve Commander, Zeev Amit, said to him, "How are we going to get out of this?"<mask> replied, "You don't know? We will cross the Suez Canal and the war will end over there." <mask> arrived at the front, to participate in his fourth war, in a civilian car. His forces did not engage the Egyptian Army immediately, despite his requests. Under cover of darkness, <mask>'s forces moved to a point on the Suez Canal that had been prepared before the war. In a move that again thwarted the commands of his superiors, <mask>'s division crossed the Suez,

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title: Ariel Sharon

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 effectively winning the war for Israel. He then headed north towards Ismailia, intent on cutting the Egyptian second army's supply lines, but his division was halted south of the Fresh Water Canal.Abraham Adan's division passed over the bridgehead into Africa, advancing to within 101 kilometers of Cairo. His division managed to encircle Suez, cutting off and encircling the Third Army. Tensions between the two generals followed <mask>'s decision, but a military tribunal later found his action was militarily effective. <mask>'s complex ground maneuver is regarded as a decisive move in the Yom Kippur War, undermining the Egyptian Second Army and encircling the Egyptian Third Army. This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, <mask> is widely viewed as the hero of the Yom Kippur War, responsible for Israel's ground victory in the Sinai in 1973. A photo of <mask> wearing a head bandage on the Suez Canal became a famous symbol of Israeli military prowess.<mask>'s political positions were controversial, and he was relieved of duty in February 1974. Bar Lev Line

Following Israel's victory in the six-day war, the war of attrition at the Suez Canal began. The Egyptians began firing in provocation against the Israeli forces posted on the eastern part of the canal. Haim Bar Lev, Israel's chief of staff, suggested that Israel construct a border line to protect its southern border. A wall of sand and earth raised along almost the entire length of the Suez Canal would both allow observation of Egyptian forces and conceal the movements of Israeli troops on the eastern side. This line, named after the chief of staff Haim Bar Lev, became known as the Bar Lev Line. It included at least thirty strong points stretching over almost 200 kilometers.Bar Lev suggested that such a line would defend against any major Egyptian assault across the canal, and was expected to function as a "graveyard for Egyptian troops". Moshe Dayan described it as "one of the best anti-tank ditches in the world." <mask>, and Israel Tal on the other hand, vigorously opposed the line. <mask> said that it would pin down large military formations that would be sitting ducks for deadly artillery attacks, and cited the opinion of Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who explained him "the great military disaster such a line could bring." Notwithstanding, it was completed in spring 1970. During the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian forces successfully breached the Bar Lev Line in less than two hours at a cost of more than a thousand dead and some 5,000 wounded. <mask> would later recall that what Schneerson had told him was a tragedy, "but unfortunately, that happened."Early political career, 1974–2001

Beginnings of political career

In the 1940s and 1950s, <mask> seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of Mapai, the predecessor of the modern Labor Party. However, after retiring from military service, he joined the Liberal Party and was instrumental in establishing Likud in July 1973 by a merger of Herut, the Liberal Party and independent elements. <mask> became chairman of the campaign staff for that year's elections, which were scheduled for November. Two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the Yom Kippur War erupted and <mask> was called back to reserve service. On the heels of being hailed as a war hero for crossing the Suez in the 1973 war, <mask> won a seat to the Knesset in the elections that year, but resigned a year later. From June 1975 to March 1976, <mask> was a special aide to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. He planned his return to politics for the 1977 elections; first, he tried to return to the Likud and replace Menachem Begin at the head of the party.He suggested to Simha Erlich, who headed the Liberal Party bloc in the Likud, that he was more able than Begin to win an election victory; he was rejected, however. He then tried to join the Labor Party and the centrist Democratic Movement for Change, but was rejected by those parties too. Only then did he form his own list, Shlomtzion, which won two Knesset seats in the subsequent elections. Immediately after the elections, he merged Shlomtzion with the Likud and became Minister of Agriculture. When <mask> joined Begin's government, he had relatively little political experience. During this period, <mask> supported the Gush Emunim settlements movement and was viewed as the patron of the settlers' movement. He used his position to encourage the establishment of a network of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories to prevent the possibility of Palestinian Arabs' return to these territories.<mask> doubled the number of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and Gaza Strip during his tenure. After the 1981 elections, Begin rewarded <mask> for his important contribution to Likud's narrow win, by appointing him Minister of Defense. Under <mask>, Israel continued to build upon the unprecedented coordination between the Israel Defense Forces and the South African Defence Force, with Israeli and South African generals giving each other unfettered access to each other's battlefields and military tactics, and Israel sharing with South Africa highly classified information about its missions, such as Operation Opera, which had previously only been reserved for the United States. In 1981, after visiting South African forces fighting in Namibia for 10 days, <mask> argued that South Africa needed more weapons to fight Soviet infiltration in the region. <mask> promised that the relationship between Israel and South Africa would continue to deepen as they work to "ensure the National Defense of both our countries". The collaboration in carrying out joint-nuclear tests, in planning counter-insurgency strategies in Namibia and in designing security fences helped to make Israel, South Africa's closest ally in this period. 1982 Lebanon War and Sabra and Shatila massacre

As Defense Minister, <mask> launched an invasion of Lebanon called Operation Peace for Galilee, later known as the 1982 Lebanon War, following the shooting of Israel's ambassador in London, Shlomo Argov.Although this attempted assassination was in fact perpetrated by the Abu Nidal Organization, possibly with Syrian or Iraqi involvement, the Israeli government justified the invasion by citing 270 terrorist attacks by the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in Israel, the occupied territories, and the Jordanian and Lebanese border (in addition to 20 attacks on Israeli interests abroad). <mask> intended the operation to eradicate the PLO from its state within a state inside Lebanon, but the war is primarily remembered for the Sabra and Shatila massacre. In a three-day massacre between 16 and 18 September, between 460 and 3,500 civilians, mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites, in the Sabra neighborhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp were killed by the Phalanges— Lebanese Maronite Christian militias. Shatila had previously been one of the PLO's three main training camps for foreign terrorists and the main training camp for European terrorists; the Israelis maintained that 2,000 to 3,000 terrorists remained in the camps, but were unwilling to risk the lives of more of their soldiers after the Lebanese army repeatedly refused to "clear them out." The killings followed years of sectarian civil war in Lebanon that left 95,000 dead. The Lebanese army's chief prosecutor investigated the killings and counted 460 dead, Israeli intelligence estimated 700–800 dead, and the Palestinian Red Crescent claimed 2,000 dead. 1,200 death certificates were issued to anyone who produced three witnesses claiming a family member disappeared during the time of the massacre.Nearly all of the victims were men. The Phalange militia went into the camps to clear out PLO fighters while Israeli forces surrounded the camps, blocking camp exits and providing logistical support. The killings led some to label <mask> "the Butcher of Beirut". An Associated Press report on 15 September 1982 stated, "Defence Minister <mask>, in a statement, tied the killing of the Phalangist leader Bachir Gemayel to the PLO, saying 'it symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters'." Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved. Robert Maroun Hatem, Hobeika's bodyguard, stated in his book From Israel to Damascus that Phalangist commander Elie Hobeika ordered the massacre of civilians in defiance of Israeli instructions to behave like a "dignified" army. Hatem claimed "<mask> had given strict orders to Hobeika....to guard against any desperate move" and that Hobeika perpetrated the massacre "to tarnish Israel's reputation worldwide" for the benefit of Syria.Hobeika subsequently joined the Syrian occupation government and lived as a prosperous businessman under Syrian protection; further massacres in Sabra and Shatilla occurred with Syrian support in 1985. The massacre followed intense Israeli bombings of Beirut that had seen heavy civilian casualties, testing Israel's relationship with the United States in the process. America sent troops to help negotiate the PLO's exit from Lebanon, withdrawing them after negotiating a ceasefire that ostensibly protected Palestinian civilians. Legal findings
After 400,000 Peace Now protesters rallied in Tel Aviv to demand an official government inquiry into the massacres, the official Israeli government investigation into the massacre at Sabra and Shatila, the Kahan Commission (1982), was conducted. The inquiry found that the Israeli Defense Forces were indirectly responsible for the massacre since IDF troops held the area. The commission determined that the killings were carried out by a Phalangist unit acting on its own, but its entry was known to Israel and approved by <mask>. Prime Minister Begin was also found responsible for not exercising greater involvement and awareness in the matter of introducing the Phalangists into the camps.The commission also concluded that <mask> bore personal responsibility "for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge [and] not taking appropriate measures to prevent bloodshed". It said <mask>'s negligence in protecting the civilian population of Beirut, which had come under Israeli control, amounted to a dereliction of duty of the minister. In early 1983, the commission recommended the removal of <mask> from his post as defense minister and stated:

We have found ... that the Minister of Defense [<mask>] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office— and if necessary, that the Prime Minister consider whether he should exercise his authority ... to ... remove [him] from office." <mask> initially refused to resign as defense minister, and Begin refused to fire him. After a grenade was thrown into a dispersing crowd at an Israeli Peace Now march, killing Emil Grunzweig and injuring 10 others, a compromise was reached: <mask> agreed to forfeit the post of defense minister but stayed in the cabinet as a minister without portfolio. <mask>'s resignation as defense minister is listed as one of the important events of the Tenth Knesset.In its 21 February 1983 issue, Time published an article implying that <mask> was directly responsible for the massacres. <mask> sued Time for libel in American and Israeli courts. Although the jury concluded that the Time article included false allegations, they found that the magazine had not acted with actual malice and so was not guilty of libel. On 18 June 2001, relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in Belgium to have <mask> indicted on alleged war crimes charges. Elie Hobeika, the leader of the Phalange militia who carried out the massacres, was assassinated in January 2002, several months before he was scheduled to testify trial. Prior to his assassination, he had "specifically stated that he did not plan to identify <mask> as being responsible for Sabra and Shatila." Political downturn and recovery

After his dismissal from the Defense Ministry post, <mask> remained in successive governments as a minister without portfolio (1983–1984), Minister for Trade and Industry (1984–1990), and Minister of Housing Construction (1990–1992).In the Knesset, he was member of the Foreign Affairs and Defense committee (1990–1992) and Chairman of the committee overseeing Jewish immigration from the Soviet Union. During this period he was a rival to then prime minister Yitzhak Shamir, but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of Likud. Their rivalry reached a head in February 1990, when <mask> grabbed the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed: "Who's for wiping out terrorism?" The incident was widely viewed as an apparent coup attempt against Shamir's leadership of the party. <mask> unsuccessfully challenged Shamir in the 1984 Herut leadership election and the 1992 Likud leadership election. In Benjamin Netanyahu's 1996–1999 government, <mask> was Minister of National Infrastructure (1996–98), and Foreign Minister (1998–99). Upon the election of the Barak Labor government, <mask> became leader of the Likud party.Opposition to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia
<mask> criticised the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 as an act of "brutal interventionism". <mask> said both Serbia and Kosovo have been victims of violence. He said prior to the current Yugoslav campaign against Kosovo Albanians, Serbians were the targets of attacks in the Kosovo province. "Israel has a clear policy. We are against aggressive actions. We are against hurting innocent people. I hope that the sides will return to the negotiating table as soon as possible."During the crisis, Elyakim Haetzni said the Serbs should be the first to receive Israeli aid. "There are our traditional friends," he told Israel Radio." It was suggested that <mask> may have supported the Yugoslav position because of the Serbian population's history of saving Jews during the holocaust. On <mask>'s death, Serbian minister Aleksandar Vulin stated: The Serbian people will remember <mask> for opposing the 1999 NATO bombing campaign against the former Yugoslavia and advocating respect for sovereignty of other nations and a policy of not interfering with their internal affairs. Campaign for Prime Minister, 2000–2001
On 28 September 2000, <mask> and an escort of over 1,000 Israeli police officers visited the Temple Mount complex, site of the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, the holiest place in the world to Jews and the third holiest site in Islam. <mask> declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused <mask> of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks.On the following day, a large number of Palestinian demonstrators and an Israeli police contingent confronted each other at the site. According to the U.S. State Department, "Palestinians held large demonstrations and threw stones at police in the vicinity of the Western Wall. Police used rubber-coated metal bullets and live ammunition to disperse the demonstrators, killing 4 persons and injuring about 200." According to the government of Israel, 14 policemen were injured. <mask>'s visit, a few months before his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities. <mask>'s supporters claim that Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian National Authority planned the Second Intifada months prior to <mask>'s visit. They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if <mask> did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise.They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P.A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after <mask>'s visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of <mask>'s visit, stating the intifada "was carefully planned since the return of (Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from Camp David negotiations rejecting the U.S. conditions". According to the Mitchell Report,
the government of Israel asserted that the immediate catalyst for the violence was the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations on 25 July 2000 and the "widespread appreciation in the international community of Palestinian responsibility for the impasse." In this view, Palestinian violence was planned by the PA leadership, and was aimed at "provoking and incurring Palestinian casualties as a means of regaining the diplomatic initiative." The Mitchell Report found that
the <mask> visit did not cause the Al-Aqsa Intifada. But it was poorly timed and the provocative effect

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 should have been foreseen; indeed, it was foreseen by those who urged that the visit be prohibited. More significant were the events that followed: The decision of the Israeli police on 29 September to use lethal means against the Palestinian demonstrators.In addition, the report stated,
Accordingly, we have no basis on which to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the PA [Palestinian Authority] to initiate a campaign of violence at the first opportunity; or to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the GOI [Government of Israel] to respond with lethal force. The Or Commission, an Israeli panel of inquiry appointed to investigate the October 2000 events,
criticised the Israeli police for being unprepared for the riots and possibly using excessive force to disperse the mobs, resulting in the deaths of 12 Arab Israeli, one Jewish and one Palestinian citizens. Prime Minister (2001–2006)

After the collapse of Barak's government, <mask> was elected Prime Minister on 6 February 2001, defeating Barak 62 percent to 38 percent. <mask>'s senior adviser was Raanan Gissin. In his first act as prime minister, <mask> invited the Labor Party to join in a coalition with Likud. After Israel was struck by a wave of suicide bombings in 2002, <mask> decided to launch Operation Defensive Shield and began the construction of a barrier around the West Bank. A survey conducted by Tel Aviv University's Jaffe Center in May 2004 found that 80% of Jewish Israelis believed that the Israel Defense Forces had succeeded in militarily countering the Al-Aqsa Intifada.The election of the more pro-Russian <mask>, as well as the more pro-Israel Vladimir Putin, led to an improvement in Israel–Russia relations. In September 2003, <mask> became the first prime minister of Israel to visit India, saying that Israel regarded India as one of the most important countries in the world. Some analysts speculated on the development of a three-way military axis of New Delhi, Washington, D.C., and Jerusalem. On 20 July 2004, <mask> called on French Jews to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in antisemitism in France (94 antisemitic assaults were reported in the first six months of 2004, compared to 47 in 2003). France has the third-largest Jewish population in the world (about 600,000 people). <mask> observed that an "unfettered anti-Semitism" reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as "unacceptable", as did the French representative Jewish organization CRIF, which denied <mask>'s claim of intense anti-Semitism in French society.An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that <mask> had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by <mask>. Upon his visit, both <mask> and French President Jacques Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them. Unilateral disengagement

In September 2001, <mask> stated for the first time that Palestinians should have the right to establish their own land west of the Jordan River. In May 2003, <mask> endorsed the Road Map for Peace put forth by the United States, the European Union and Russia, which opened a dialogue with Mahmud Abbas, and stated his commitment to the creation of a Palestinian state in the future. He embarked on a course of unilateral withdrawal from the Gaza Strip, while maintaining control of its coastline and airspace. <mask>'s plan was welcomed by both the Palestinian Authority and Israel's left wing as a step towards a final peace settlement.However, it was greeted with opposition from within his own Likud party and from other right wing Israelis, on national security, military, and religious grounds. Disengagement from Gaza
On 1 December 2004, <mask> dismissed five ministers from the Shinui party for voting against the government's 2005 budget. In January 2005, <mask> formed a national unity government that included representatives of Likud, Labor, and Meimad and Degel HaTorah as "out-of-government" supporters without any seats in the government (United Torah Judaism parties usually reject having ministerial offices as a policy). Between 16 and 30 August 2005, <mask> controversially expelled 9,480 Jewish settlers from 21 settlements in Gaza and four settlements in the northern West Bank. Once it became clear that the evictions were definitely going ahead, a group of conservative Rabbis, led by Yosef Dayan, placed an ancient curse on <mask> known as the Pulsa diNura, calling on the Angel of Death to intervene and kill him. After Israeli soldiers bulldozed every settlement structure except for several former synagogues, Israeli soldiers formally left Gaza on 11 September 2005 and closed the border fence at Kissufim. While his decision to withdraw from Gaza sparked bitter protests from members of the Likud party and the settler movement, opinion polls showed that it was a popular move among most of the Israeli electorate, with more than 80 percent of Israelis backing the plans.On 27 September 2005, <mask> narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52–48 percent vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by <mask>'s main rival, Benjamin Netanyahu, who had left the cabinet to protest <mask>'s withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party's leader. Founding of Kadima
On 21 November 2005, <mask> resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centrist party called Kadima ("Forward"). November polls indicated that <mask> was likely to be returned to the prime ministership. On 20 December 2005, <mask>'s longtime rival Netanyahu was elected his successor as leader of Likud. Following <mask>'s incapacitation, Ehud Olmert replaced <mask> as Kadima's leader, for the nearing general elections.Likud, along with the Labor Party, were Kadimas chief rivals in the March 2006 elections. <mask>'s stroke occurred a few months before he had been expected to win a new election and was widely interpreted as planning on "clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. In the elections, which saw Israel's lowest-ever voter turnout of 64 percent (the number usually averages on the high 70%), Kadima, headed by Olmert, received the most Knesset seats, followed by Labor. The new governing coalition installed in May 2006 included Kadima, with Olmert as Prime Minister, Labor (including Amir Peretz as Defense Minister), the Pensioners' Party (Gil), the Shas religious party, and Israel Beytenu. Alleged fundraising irregularities and Greek island affair
During the latter part of his career, <mask> was investigated for alleged involvement in a number of financial scandals, in particular, the Greek island affair and irregularities of fundraising during the 1999 election campaign. In the Greek island affair, <mask> was accused of promising (during his term as Foreign Minister) to help Israeli businessman David Appel in his development project on a Greek island in exchange for large consultancy payments to <mask>'s son Gilad. The charges were later dropped due to lack of evidence.In the 1999 election fundraising scandal, <mask> was not charged with any wrongdoing, but his son Omri, a Knesset member at the time, was charged and sentenced in 2006 to nine months in prison. To avoid a potential conflict of interest in relation to these investigations, <mask> was not involved in the confirmation of the appointment of a new attorney general, Menahem Mazuz, in 2005. On 10 December 2005, Israeli police raided Martin Schlaff's apartment in Jerusalem. Another suspect in the case was Robert Nowikovsky, an Austrian involved in Russian state-owned company Gazprom's business activities in Europe. According to Haaretz, "The $3 million that parachuted into Gilad and Omri <mask>'s bank account toward the end of 2002 was transferred there in the context of a consultancy contract for development of kolkhozes (collective farms) in Russia. Gilad <mask> was brought into the campaign to make the wilderness bloom in Russia by Getex, a large Russian-based exporter of seeds (peas, millet, wheat) from Eastern Europe. Getex also has ties with Israeli firms involved in exporting wheat from Ukraine, for example.The company owns farms in Eastern Europe and is considered large and prominent in its field. It has its Vienna offices in the same building as Jurimex, which was behind the $1-million guarantee to the Yisrael Beiteinu party." On 17 December, police found evidence of a $3 million bribe paid to <mask>'s sons. Shortly afterwards, <mask> suffered a stroke. Illness, incapacitation and death (2006–14)

<mask> had been obese since the 1980s, and also had suspected chronic high blood pressure and high cholesterol – at  tall, he was reputed to weigh . Stories of <mask>'s appetite and obesity were legendary in Israel. He would often joke about his love of food and expansive girth.His staff car would reportedly be stocked with snacks, vodka, and caviar. In October 2004 when asked why he did not wear a bulletproof vest despite frequent death threats, <mask> smiled and replied, "There is none that fits my size". He was a daily consumer of cigars and luxury foods. Numerous attempts by doctors, friends, and staff to impose a balanced diet on <mask> were unsuccessful. <mask> was hospitalized on 18 December 2005, after suffering a minor ischemic stroke. During his hospital stay, doctors discovered a heart defect requiring surgery and ordered bed rest pending a cardiac catheterization scheduled for 5 January 2006. Instead, <mask> immediately returned to work and suffered a hemorrhagic stroke on 4 January.He was rushed to Hadassah Medical Center in Jerusalem. After two surgeries lasting 7 and 14 hours, doctors stopped the bleeding in <mask>'s brain, but were unable to prevent him from entering into a coma. Subsequent media reports indicated that <mask> had been diagnosed with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) during his December hospitalisation. Hadassah Hospital Director Shlomo Mor-Yosef declined to respond to comments that the combination of CAA and blood thinners after <mask>'s December stroke might have caused his more serious subsequent stroke. Ehud Olmert became Acting Prime Minister the night of <mask>'s second stroke, while <mask> officially remained in office. Knesset elections followed in March, with Olmert and <mask>'s Kadima party winning a plurality. The next month, the Israeli Cabinet declared <mask> permanently incapacitated and Olmert became Interim Prime Minister on 14 April 2006 and Prime Minister in his own right on 4 May.<mask> underwent a series of subsequent surgeries related to his state. In May 2006, he was transferred to a long-term care facility in Sheba Medical Center. In July of that year, he was briefly taken to the hospital's intensive care unit to be treated for bacteria in his blood, before returning to the long-term care facility on 6 November 2006. <mask> would remain at Sheba Medical Center until his death. Medical experts indicated that his cognitive abilities had likely been destroyed by the stroke. His condition worsened from late 2013, and <mask> suffered from renal failure on 1 January 2014. After spending eight years in a coma, <mask> died at 14:00 local time (12:00 UTC) on 11 January 2014.<mask>'s state funeral was held on 13 January in accordance with Jewish burial customs, which require that interment take place as soon after death as possible. His body lay in state in the Knesset Plaza from 12 January until the official ceremony, followed by a funeral held at the family's ranch in the Negev Desert. <mask> was buried beside his wife, Lily. Personal life

<mask> was married twice, to two sisters, Margalit and Lily Zimmerman, who were from Romania. <mask> met Margalit in 1947 when she was 16, while she was tending a vegetable field, and married her in 1953, shortly after becoming a military instructor. Margalit was a supervisory psychiatric nurse. They had one son, Gur.Margalit died in a car accident in May 1962 and Gur died in October 1967, aged 11, after a friend accidentally shot him while the two children were playing with a rifle at the <mask> family home. After Margalit's death, <mask> married her younger sister, Lily. They had two sons, Omri and Gilad, and six grandchildren. <mask> died of lung cancer in 2000. <mask>'s sister, Yehudit (Dita) married Dr. Shmuel Mandel. In the 1950s, the couple permanently left Israel and emigrated to the United States. This caused a permanent rift in the family.Shmuel and Vera Scheinerman were greatly hurt by their daughter's choice to leave Israel. As a result, Vera Scheinerman willed only a small part of her estate to Dita, an act which enraged her. At one point, Dita decided to return to Israel, but after Vera was informed by the Israel Lands Administration that it would not be legally possible to split the family property between <mask> and Dita, and informed her that she would not be able to build a home there, Dita, believing she was being lied to, permanently cut her family in Israel off, and refused to attend the funerals of her mother and sister-in-law. She reestablished contact after <mask>'s stroke. <mask>'s sister has rarely been mentioned in biographies of him: he himself rarely acknowledged her and only mentioned her twice in his autobiography. Recognition
The <mask> Sharon Park, an environmental park near Tel Aviv, is named for him. In the Negev desert, the IDF is currently building its city of training bases, Camp Ariel Sharon.In total, a NIS 50 billion project, the city of bases is named after <mask>, the largest active construction project in Israel, it is to become the largest IDF base in Israel. Overview of offices held
<mask> served as prime minister (Israel's head of government) from 7 March 2001 through 14 April 2006 (with Ehud Barak serving as acting prime minister beginning 4 January 2006, after <mask> slipped into a coma). As prime minister he led the 12th government during the 15th Knesset and the 13th government during the 16th Knesset. <mask> served in the Knesset, first for several months in 1973, and later from 1977 through 2006. <mask>. From July 1999 through July 2000, <mask> served as the unofficial/honorary Knesset's opposition leader. Thereafter, from July 2000 through March 2001, he served as the first official designated Knesset opposition leader.<mask> served as leader of the Likud party from 1999 through 2005, leaving to create Kadima which he led from 2006 through early 2006 (when he fell into a coma). In addition to these positions and ministerial roles, <mask> also served as a special aide to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin from June 1975 through March 1976. Ministerial posts

Electoral history

2001 direct election for Prime Minister

Party leadership elections

References

Further reading

Ben Shaul, Moshe (editor); Generals of Israel, Tel-Aviv: Hadar Publishing House, Ltd., 1968. Uri Dan; <mask>: An Intimate Portrait, Palgrave Macmillan, October 2006, 320 pages. .
<mask>, with David Chanoff; Warrior: The Autobiography of <mask>, Simon & Schuster, 2001, . Gilad <mask>, (translated by Mitch Ginsburg); <mask>: The Life of a Leader, HarperCollins Publishers, 2011, . Nir Hefez, Gadi Bloom, (translated by Mitch Ginsburg); <mask>: A Life, Random House, October 2006, 512 pages, . Freddy Eytan, (translated by Robert Davies); <mask>: A Life in Times of Turmoil, translation of <mask>: le bras de fer, Studio 8 Books and Music, 2006, .Abraham Rabinovich; The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East, 2005, . <mask>, official biography, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Tzvi T. Avisar; <mask>: Five years forward, Publisher House, March 2011, 259 pages, Official website, . External links

Three recordings from <mask>'s Military Career, published by Israel State Archives:

1928 births
2014 deaths
Deaths from kidney failure
Haganah members
Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni
Israeli generals
Israeli Ashkenazi Jews
Leaders of political parties in Israel
Israeli people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
Israeli people of Russian-Jewish descent
Israeli people of the Yom Kippur War
Jewish agnostics
Jewish military personnel
Kadima politicians
Likud politicians
Members of the 8th Knesset (1974–1977)
Members of the 9th Knesset (1977–1981)
Members of the 10th Knesset (1981–1984)
Members of the 11th Knesset (1984–1988)
Members of the 12th Knesset (1988–1992)
Members of the 13th Knesset (1992–1996)
Members of the 14th Knesset (1996–1999)
Members of the 15th Knesset (1999–2003)
Members of the 16th Knesset (2003–2006)
Ministers of Agriculture of Israel
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Moshavniks
Prime Ministers of Israel
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Tel Aviv University alumni
People with disorders of consciousness
People with severe brain damage
Israeli people of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War
Likud leaders
Israeli

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title: Pete Anderson

texts:
<mask> is an American guitarist, music producer, arranger and songwriter. <mask> is most known for his guitar work with, and critically acclaimed production of, country music star Dwight Yoakam from 1984 through 2002, a partnership that resulted in numerous platinum records, sold-out tours, and some music in the Bakersfield and hillbilly traditions. On guitar, <mask>'s technical proficiency and versatility allows him to perform a variety of styles, including country, western, rock, rockabilly, soul, blues, Flamenco, Tex-Mex. Among the artists <mask> has produced are Dwight Yoakam, Roy Orbison, Meat Puppets, Jackson Browne, Michelle Shocked, Buck Owens, k.d. Lang, Steve Pryor Band, Lonesome Strangers, and Lucinda Williams. He more recently produced Mark Chesnutt's album Outlaw (2010). Record label
In 1993, along with Dusty Wakeman, <mask> joined Barbara Hein, a longtime Capitol Records executive with a history in the music business, and engineer Michael Dumas to form Little Dog Records.Recording his first solo CD on his own label in 1994, <mask> placed himself on the road in support of Working Class, a country-blues-rock-roots music extravaganza produced by Wakeman. While continuing to work with Yoakam, being the president of a record label opened new worlds for <mask>. Signing artists that he and his partners believed in gave <mask> the creative freedom he craved. Having to be part businessman and part artist was a difficult part to play every day, but <mask> proved he was up to the challenge when he negotiated a distribution deal with Polygram in 1996. <mask> stuck with Wakeman for his second release, 1997's Dogs In Heaven. Discography
 Solo albums
Working Class (1994)
Dogs In Heaven (1997)
Live At Ohio University (1998)
Daredevil (2004)
Even Things Up (2009)
Birds Above Guitarland (2013)
Live At The Moose (2015)

 With Dwight Yoakam
Guitars, Cadillacs, Etc., Etc. (1986)
Hillbilly Deluxe (1987)
Buenas Noches From a Lonely Room (1988)
Just Lookin' for a Hit (1989) compilation
If There Was a Way (1990)
"Suspicious Minds" (Single) (1992)
La Croix D'Amour (1992) compilation
This Time (1993)
Gone (1995)
Dwight Live (1995)
Under the Covers (1997)
Come On Christmas (1997)
A Long Way Home (1998)
Last Chance for a Thousand Years (1999) compilation
"Crazy Little Thing Called Love" (Single) (1999)
dwightyoakamacoustic.net (2000)
Tomorrow's Sounds Today (2000)
South of Heaven, West of Hell (Soundtrack) (2001)
Reprise Please Baby (2002) 4CD compilation
Population Me (2003)
In Others' Words (2003) compilation
Dwight's Used Records (2004) compilation
The Very Best of Dwight Yoakam (2004) compilation
Live from Austin, TX (1988, [rel.

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title: Peter II of Russia

texts:
<mask> (, Pyotr Vtoroy,  Pyotr Alekseyevich,  – ) reigned as Emperor of Russia from 1727 until his untimely death at the age of 14. He was the only son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich (son of <mask> by his first wife, Eudoxia Lopukhina) and of Charlotte Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He was the last agnatic member of the House of Romanov. Early life

<mask> was born in Saint Petersburg on 23 (O.S. 12) October 1715. His mother died when he was only ten days old. His father, the tsarevich Alexei, accused of treason by his own father, <mask>, died in prison in 1718.So three-year-old <mask> and his four-year-old sister, Natalya, became orphans. Their grandfather showed no interest in their upbringing or education: the Tsar had disliked their father and even their grandmother, his own first wife, and young <mask> in particular reminded him of his only son Alexei, whom the Tsar suspected of treachery. Therefore, from his childhood, the young orphaned <mask> was kept in the strictest seclusion. His earliest governesses were the wives of a tailor and a vintner from the Dutch settlement, while a sailor named Norman taught him the rudiments of navigation. When he grew older, however, <mask> was placed under the care of a Hungarian noble, Janos (Ivan) Zeikin (Zékány), who seems to have been a conscientious teacher. <mask> Great died in 1725 and was succeeded by his second wife, Catherine I, a woman of low birth. The powerful minister Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov, who had aided in Catherine's accession, replaced the boy's teachers with the vice-chancellor, Count Ostermann.The program of education that Ostermann compiled included history, geography, mathematics, and foreign languages, but the overall education of the future emperor remained shallow and left much to be desired. <mask> himself did not display much interest in study; his favorite occupations were hunting and feasting. During the reign (1725-1727) of Catherine I, young <mask> was ignored; but by the time she died in 1727, it had become clear to those in power that the only grandson of <mask> the Great could not be kept from his inheritance much longer. The majority of Russians and three-quarters of the nobility (especially the old-established nobility) were on his side, while the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI (<mask>'s uncle - the husband of his mother's elder sister, Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel) persistently urged <mask>'s claims through the imperial ambassador at Saint Petersburg. Through the efforts of Menshikov, the court named <mask> as Catherine's heir apparent, even though Catherine had two daughters of her own. The relevant documentation also specified the betrothal of <mask> to Menshikov's daughter Maria. Reign

After Catherine's death in May 1727 and the proclamation of the 11-year-old <mask> II as emperor, Menshikov took the young autocrat into his own house on Vasilievsky Island and had full control over all of his actions.For a few months in the summer of 1727, "[n]ot even <mask> the Great was so feared or so obeyed", according to the Saxon ambassador. Menshikov became arrogant and domineering. He issued orders to the Emperor himself and then removed a silver plate that <mask> had just given as a gift to his sister Natalya. To which the Emperor replied, "We shall see who is emperor, you or I." Soon, however, Menshikov became sick, and his opponents took advantage of his illness. Under the influence of Ostermann and the Dolgorukovs, <mask> – long sick of Menshikov's wardship – stripped him of his rank (September 1727)  and exiled him to Siberia. The Emperor also announced the dissolution of his engagement with Menshikov's daughter.The senate, the privy council and the guards took the oath of allegiance forthwith. At this time, German mathematician Christian Goldbach was appointed tutor to the young <mask> to take over from Andrey Osterman, whom Menshikov had appointed. <mask> II was quick-witted, but apparently a stubborn and wayward boy, much like his grandfather. Despite these similarities, the emperor had no desire to learn to rule, unlike <mask> the Great. His young age meant that he could not adequately manage public affairs, and he almost never appeared at the Supreme Privy Council. This led to frustration among his subjects and in the imperial administration – officials did not dare to assume responsibility for important decisions. The Russian fleet became neglected, but <mask> II showed no interest in the matter.<mask> tightened serfdom by banning serfs from volunteering for military service and thus escaping their status. With the fall of Menshikov and related court intrigues, the Emperor's main favorites became Prince Aleksey Dolgorukov and his son Ivan, who maintained great influence over the Emperor's decisions. According to contemporaries, Ivan Dolgorukov lived a reckless and profligate lifestyle, leading <mask> to spend much time feasting, playing cards and enjoying the company of women. He soon became addicted to alcohol. The coronation of <mask> II took place in Moscow on 9 January 1728, with the Emperor and a huge entourage. Still, he was disengaged from the affairs of state. Foreign witnesses proclaimed: "All of Russia is in terrible disorder ... money is not paid to anyone.God knows what will happen with finances. Everyone steals, as much as he can." Moving the court and several other institutions from St. Petersburg back to Moscow (1728) was painful for the "Northern Capital", as well as for the nobility forced to move with it, as <mask> Great had put much effort into developing St. Petersburg into a large and lively city. <mask> returned to St. Petersburg from time to time, but continued to lead an aimless life full of entertainment and distraction. He gradually fell under the thorough-going influence of the Dolgorukovs, and became smitten with the 18-year-old beauty Ekaterina Alekseyevna Dolgorukova. The Dolgorukov family schemed to tie themselves to the imperial bloodline, and persuaded <mask> to become engaged to marry Ekaterina. However, it soon became clear that the young monarch had no interest in his fiancee, perhaps influenced by his aunt Elizabeth Petrovna, who did not like Ekaterina.Planning for the wedding went forward regardless, set to take place on . "<mask> II has not reached the age when a person's personality has already shaped," Russian historian Nikolay Kostomarov wrote. "While contemporaries praised his natural intelligence and good heart, they only hoped for that good to happen in the future. However, his behavior did not give chances to hope that he would be a good ruler. He hated learning and thinking about national affairs. He was totally engrossed in amusements, and was kept under someone else's influence." In late December 1729 <mask> II fell dangerously ill. His condition deteriorated sharply after the frosty Epiphany Day (), when he participated in a feast.He was then rushed into the palace, standing at the back of his sleigh. The next day doctors diagnosed smallpox. The Dolgorukovs attempted to get the emperor to sign a testament naming Ekaterina as his heir, but they were not allowed into the dying emperor’s quarters: <mask> II was already unconscious. In his delirium, he ordered horses so that he could visit his sister Natalya (who had died in 1728). A few minutes later, he died. Emperor <mask> died as dawn broke on 30 January 1730 – the day scheduled for his marriage to Ekaterina Dolgorukova. He is buried in the Cathedral of the Archangel located at the Moscow Kremlin and was the only post-Petrine Russian monarch given that honor; along with Ivan VI (who was murdered and buried in the fortress of Shlisselburg), he is the only post-Petrine monarch not buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg.With <mask>'s death, the direct male line of the Romanov dynasty ended. He was succeeded on the Russian throne by Anna Ivanovna, daughter of <mask> the Great's half-brother and co-ruler, Ivan V.

Ancestry

See also
Tsars of Russia family tree

Further reading
 Konstantin Arseniev (1839) (in Russian) The reign of <mask> II (Царствование Петра II) at Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats

External links
  – Historical reconstruction "The Romanovs". StarMedia. Babich-Design(Russia, 2013)

References

1715 births
1730 deaths
18th-century Russian monarchs
Deaths from smallpox
People from Saint Petersburg
Russian emperors
House of Romanov
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Rulers who died as children
Modern child rulers
Infectious disease deaths in Russia
Russian people of German descent
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)

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title: Jane Johnston Schoolcraft

texts:
<mask>, also known as Bamewawagezhikaquay (January 31, 1800 – May 22, 1842) is the one of earliest Native American literary writers. She was of Ojibwa and Scots-Irish ancestry. Her Ojibwa name can also be written as O-bah-bahm-wawa-ge-zhe-go-qua (Obabaamwewe-giizhigokwe in modern spelling), meaning "Woman of the Sound [that the stars make] Rushing Through the Sky." From babaam- 'place to place' or bimi- 'along', wewe- 'makes a repeated sound', giizhig 'sky', and ikwe 'woman'. She lived most of her life in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Sault Ste.Marie in the upper peninsula of what is now the state of Michigan. Her mother, Ozhaguscodaywayquay, was the daughter of Waubojeeg, a prominent Ojibwa war chief and civil leader from what is now northern Wisconsin, and his wife. Her father <mask> (1762–1828) was a fur trader who emigrated from Belfast, Ireland in 1790. The <mask>s are famous historically in the Sault Ste. Marie area, where the couple were prominent leaders in both the Euro-American and the Ojibwa communities. The young <mask> learned the Ojibwe language and culture from her mother and her family, and she learned about written literature from her father and his large library. Writing
<mask> wrote poetry and traditional Ojibwa stories, and she translated Ojibwa songs into English.She mostly wrote in English, but she wrote several poems in the Ojibwe language, as she lived her daily life in both Ojibwe and English. While she did not publish her work, she lived a literary life with her husband Henry Rowe <mask>. They worked together closely on each of their writings. Her poetry was generally concerned with private life. <mask>’s writings have attracted considerable interest from scholars and students, especially those concerned with Native American literature and history. She has been recognized as "the first Native American literary writer, the first known Indian woman writer, the first known Indian poet, the first known poet to write poems in a Native American language and the first known American Indian to write out traditional Indian stories." Her role in the Native American literary canon has been compared to that of Anne Bradstreet in the "broader American literary canon."Marriage and family
In 1823 <mask> married Henry Rowe <mask>, a US Indian agent in the region, who became a founding figure of American cultural anthropology. He was appointed U.S. Indian Agent to the Michigan Territory in 1822 and served in the Northwest until 1841. In 1826 and 1827, <mask> produced a handwritten magazine called The Literary Voyager which included some of <mask>’s writings. Although he had only single issues, each was distributed widely to residents in Sault Ste. Marie, then to his friends in Detroit, New York and other eastern cities. The <mask>s' letters to each other during periods of separation often included poetry, also expressing how literature was part of their daily lives. <mask> won fame for his later publications about Native Americans, especially the Ojibwe people and their language (also known as Chippewa and Anishinaabemowin).His work was based on information and stories he learned from <mask> and the <mask> family, and the access they arranged to other Ojibwe. In 1846, he was commissioned by the United States Congress for what became a six-volume study known as Indian Tribes of the United States. <mask>’s publications, including materials written by <mask>, were the main source for Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s The Song of Hiawatha (1855). They had four children:
William Henry <mask> (June 1824 - March 1827) died of croup at nearly three. <mask> wrote poems expressing her grief about his loss. stillborn daughter (November 1825);
<mask> <mask> (14 October 1827 - 25 November 1892, Richmond, Virginia), called <mask>; and
<mask> <mask> (2 October 1829 – 24 April 1864), served in the Civil War but was wounded at the Battle of Gettysburg and disabled. He died at age 34 in Elmira, New York.<mask> and <mask> moved to Mackinac Island in 1833, after he had been given responsibility for a larger territory as Indian agent. Their home has since been demolished, but <mask>'s office, also known as the Indian Dormitory, survives. It was used to house Indians who came to the island to acquire promised annuities and supplies. The <mask>s took <mask>e and John to a boarding schools on the East coast when they were eleven and nine, respectively, which was hard for John. <mask> wrote a poem in Ojibwe that expressed her feelings of loss after their separation. (Use link below to hear poem sung in Ojibwe.) In 1841, when Henry lost his patronage position as federal Indian agent due to a change in political administrations, the Schoolcrafts moved to New York City.He worked for the state in American Indian research. <mask> suffered from frequent illnesses; she died in 1842 while visiting a married sister in Canada. She was buried at St. John's Anglican Church in what is now Ancaster, Ontario. Legacy and honors
 1962: Philip P. Mason published an edition of several issues of The Literary Voyager, with annotation and introduction. He acknowledged <mask>'s debt to the <mask> family for helping with his research and collecting materials. Based on her own works in The Literary Voyager, <mask>'s writings gradually began to attract interest in the 1990s, as the work of minorities was more widely studied. 2005: "Sweet Willy, My Boy"; lyrics of the song were taken from a poem by <mask> <mask> mourning the death of her first son.From Dave Stanaway and Susan Askwith, CD: <mask>: His Life and Times in the Fur Trade Era. 2007: Robert Dale Parker published The Sound the Stars Make Rushing Through the Sky: The Writings of <mask> <mask>, a complete edition of her extensive writings, based mostly on previously unpublished manuscripts, and including a cultural history and biography. <mask>’s writings are now beginning to attract considerable interest from scholars and students of multicultural and American Indian literature and history. 2008: <mask> <mask> was inducted into the Michigan Women's Hall of Fame. References

Sources
Henry Rowe <mask>, ed., Schoolcraft: The Literary Voyager or Muzzeniegun, Philip P. Mason, ed., East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1962, full text online. Robert Dale Parker, ed., The Sound the Stars Make Rushing Through the Sky: The Writings of <mask> Schoolcraft, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007. External links
"<mask> Schoolcraft".Michigan Women's Hall of Fame. Musical setting of poem by <mask> <mask>. University of Michigan. Dave Stanaway and Susan Askwith. CD: <mask>: His Life and Times in the Fur Trade Era. Borderland Records. Included is the song "Sweet Willy, My Boy", with lyrics taken from a poem written by <mask> <mask>.Writers from Michigan
Native American poets
Native American women writers
American women poets
American women short story writers
American folklorists
Women folklorists
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
Ojibwe people
1800 births
1842 deaths
Translators to English
People from Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan
19th-century American poets
19th-century translators
19th-century American women writers
19th-century American short story writers
Native American people from Michigan

masks:
Jane Johnston Schoolcraft
Jane Johnston
John Johnston
Johnston
Jane
Johnston
Schoolcraft
Jane Schoolcraft
Jane
Schoolcraft
Henry Schoolcraft
Jane
Schoolcraft
Henry Schoolcraft
Jane
Johnston
Henry Schoolcraft
Jane Schoolcraft
Schoolcraft
Jane Schoolcraft
Jane Susan
Ann Schoolcraft
Janee
John Johnston
Schoolcraft
Jane
Henry Schoolcraft
Henry Schoolcraft
Schoolcraft
Jane
Schoolcraft
Jane Schoolcraft
Henry Schoolcraft
John Johnston
Jane Schoolcraft
Jane Johnston
Schoolcraft
John Johnston
Jane Johnston
Schoolcraft
Schoolcraft
Jane Johnston
Schoolcraft
Schoolcraft
Jane Johnston
Jane Johnston
Jane Johnston
Schoolcraft
John Johnston
Jane Johnston
Schoolcraft


title: Hugh Dennis

texts:
<mask> (born 13 February 1962) is an English comedian, presenter, actor, writer, impressionist and voice-over artist who is in comedy double act Punt and <mask> with partner Steve Punt. He played Pete Brockman, the father in the BBC One sitcom Outnumbered, and since 2014 has played Toby in the long-running sitcom Not Going Out. From 2020 he has indulged his long-standing love of geography and social history by presenting the light-hearted community archaeology TV show The Great British Dig. Since 2005, <mask> has been a regular panellist on the BBC Two satirical comedy show Mock the Week. Early life
<mask> was born in Kettering, Northamptonshire, the younger son of schoolteacher Dorothy Mary (Hinnels) and <mask>. His brother, also named John, was the British Ambassador to Angola from 2014 to 2018. He grew up in Mill Hill in North London as his father was appointed as Vicar of John Keble Church, Mill Hill soon after his birth.His father later became the Bishop of Knaresborough and then of Saint Edmundsbury and Ipswich. <mask> was educated at University College School in London. During his time at UCS, he played rugby with Will Self and was head boy in his final year. Subsequently, <mask> went on to read for the Geographical Tripos as an exhibitioner at St John's College, Cambridge. His dissertation was titled "The Spatial Distribution of Elementary Education in 19th-century Wakefield". He also joined the Footlights, where he first met Punt and club president Nick Hancock and the trio collaborated on a number of projects besides the annual revue. In a 2016 interview with ITV's This Morning programme, <mask> said that he was approached by Britain's domestic intelligence service, MI5, whilst at Cambridge University and attended a preliminary interview; however, he eventually decided that he did not want to take the matter any further, particularly due to being told during the interview that the job would require him to "do people over".After graduating with a first (his nickname was "Desk"), <mask> worked for Unilever for six years in the marketing department while performing comedy with Punt at venues including The Comedy Store at weekends. The duo then formed half of the team of The Mary Whitehouse Experience on BBC Radio 1. When the BBC commissioned the series for BBC Two, <mask> took a sabbatical as the rehearsal days changed to weekdays and eventually went into comedy full-time. <mask> uses his middle name <mask> as his stage name because the actor <mask> was already a member of Equity; he explained, in an episode of Would I Lie To You that he'd requested to keep his birth name as there was little chance of confusing the two actors, due to their age difference; Equity responded by saying normally this would have been allowed, but advised against it as the elder <mask> was the chair of Equity's name-changing committee. Radio and television career

While an impressionist, <mask> did voices for Spitting Image and appeared with Punt as resident support comics on two TV series hosted on the BBC by Jasper Carrott. <mask> also appeared twice as a contestant on the topical panel show Have I Got News for You, including one opposite former schoolmate Self. Punt and <mask>' radio career includes over a decade of performing Punt and <mask>, It's Been a Bad Week, The Party Line and the satirical radio comedy show, The Now Show.On The Now Show , <mask> is in a line-up including Punt, Mitch Benn, Laura Shavin, Jon Holmes and Marcus Brigstocke. He is friends with Chris Morris and has had cameos on Brass Eye as well as doing the narration for the CBBC show Sam and Mark's Guide To Dodging Disasters. In December 2009, <mask> joined Oz Clarke in presenting the 60-minute Christmas special Oz and <mask> Drink to Christmas broadcast on BBC Two. In December 2010 the pair returned for a four-part series called Oz and <mask> Raise the Bar, which puts them in a competition to create a bar featuring only local British food and drinks. <mask> has starred in a number of sitcoms, including My Hero, in which he played obnoxious GP Piers Crispin. From 2007 to 2014, he starred in Outnumbered, a semi-improvised sitcom based around family life and won a BAFTA nomination in the comedy category for the 2009 Christmas special. On Radio 4 he also featured in the sitcom Revolting People which, like Outnumbered, was co-written by Andy Hamilton.Besides his regular television work, <mask> is a panellist on Mock the Week and has appeared in all episodes since its premiere in 2005, with the exception of a special episode of the programme that was broadcast as part of David Walliams' 24 Hour Panel People He is a regular guest on various BBC-broadcast comedy panel game shows such as They Think It's All Over, Would I Lie To You?, QI and has guest hosted Have I Got News for You. In 2011, <mask> hosted the short-lived improvisational comedy series Fast and Loose. Beginning on 16 February 2012, <mask> and Julia Bradbury hosted a four-part BBC One documentary series The Great British Countryside. From October 2014, <mask> has started appearing in the sitcom Not Going Out as Toby. In 2016 <mask> appeared as the Bank Manager in the acclaimed BBC Three series Fleabag, acting alongside Phoebe Waller-Bridge in the first, fourth, and final episodes of series 1. In 2019 he was a narrator in ITV's series Yorkshire Airport. In February 2021 <mask> started presenting The Great British Dig on More 4.In the September 2021 Bond film No Time to Die, <mask> cameoed as a scientist in an MI6 laboratory. Personal life
<mask> lives in London. He has been married twice: to Miranda Carroll (1987-1993), and to Catherine "Kate" Abbot-Anderson (1996-2015), with whom he has a son and a daughter . In June 2018, it was confirmed that <mask> was in a relationship with actress Claire Skinner, who starred opposite him in the sitcom Outnumbered. In July 2008, <mask> received an Honorary fellowship from the University of Northampton. <mask> took part in the 2007 L'Étape du Tour, cycling an open stage of the Tour de France for amateurs which was held in the mountains two weeks before the main event. He completed it in 11 hours and 7 minutes.He said: "I was an hour ahead of the broom, the vehicle that gathers the slower riders and disqualifies them." In October 2011, <mask> completed the Great South Run in Portsmouth for the Alzheimer's Society. <mask> was the subject of the BBC One programme Who Do You Think You Are? (broadcast on 12 September 2012) in which he tries to find out more about his two grandfathers and their backgrounds. His paternal great-grandfather was a miner at Kiveton Park Colliery near Rotherham whose younger son, <mask>' grandfather, served as an officer during World War I, and was coincidentally trained at <mask>' alma mater St John's College. His maternal grandfather also served in France during the Great War and was in the Suffolk Regiment. His father was the bishop <mask>, and he has an older brother, also called <mask>, who is a diplomat and was the British Ambassador to Angola from 2014 to 2018.<mask> is a supporter of Arsenal F.C., and also a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. Filmography

Accolades

References

External links

Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
English comedy writers
English male comedians
English male television actors
English satirists
People educated at University College School
People from Kettering
1962 births
British comedy writers
Living people
20th-century English comedians
21st-century English comedians
Comedians from Northamptonshire
People from Mill Hill

masks:
Peter Hugh Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
John Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Hugh
Peter Dennis
Peter Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Hugh
Hugh
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
Dennis
John Dennis
John Dennis
Dennis


title: David Joseph Watson

texts:
<mask> (died September 15, 1948) was executed by the United States Federal Government in Florida for a murder committed on the high seas (a federal offense). <mask> was one of very few people to be executed by the United States federal government in the 20th century. Background and murder
Newspaper accounts described <mask> as "a negro navy cook" who was "short, stocky, and powerfully built," with an "above average" education. He was a native of Norfolk, Virginia. His victim, Benjamin Leroy Hobbs, was from Nebo, North Carolina and lived with his poor widowed mother. Hobbs was five days away from being honorably discharged, after which he planned to move in with his mother to help her with the family farm. In the early morning hours of July 25, 1946, in Key West, Florida, <mask> murdered Hobbs, a 19-year-old seaman.The two were aboard the USS Stribling, a naval ship, at the time of the murder; Hobbs' body was found in the ship's gun turret the next day. Two days after the murder, authorities placed <mask> in naval custody as he was the prime suspect in the murder. For two weeks, authorities carried out a "highly secret" manhunt to confirm the identity of the killer, monitoring <mask>'s shipmates as well to detect their movements and eliminate other suspects. Finally, after two weeks of searching and twelve days of keeping <mask> in custody, the FBI and the office of naval intelligence extracted an oral confession from <mask>. <mask> confessed to committing the murder alone. His motive was sexual assault - he had attempted to sexually attack Hobbs in his bunk, but when Hobbs fought back, <mask> decided to kill him to avoid detection and consequences for the sexual attack. After the attempted sexual assault, <mask> bludgeoned and strangled Hobbs to death.When <mask> was first arrested, he was held in a naval shipyard in Miami. Later, after authorities transported <mask> to the county jail in Miami to await his trial for murder, they discovered an iron bar and two hidden razors on his person. Trials
<mask> had two trials. During the first, which took place in October 1946, <mask>'s mother Inez, a schoolteacher born in Pennsylvania, was reported to have attended many of the proceedings. On October 4, 1946, <mask> was convicted of first-degree murder, and the jury refused to recommend mercy, resulting in <mask> receiving a death sentence. However, this first sentence was reversed on appeal sometime in 1947, and <mask> earned a second trial. During <mask>'s second trial, his defense attempted to paint <mask> as someone afflicted with a "psychopathic personality."Attorney A.C. Dressler stated during the defense's closing statements, "[<mask>] has a warped mind; he is a lost soul. If you comply with the oath you took, you cannot kill. You cannot send this boy to the chair." <mask>'s other defense attorney, John G. Sawyer, argued that <mask> should be put away in prison for life "for the good of society. His life should not be taken." On the contrary, the United States District Attorney working for the prosecution, Herbert S. Phillips, argued that <mask> was a "cunning murderer." The prosecution, basing their arguments on <mask>'s confession, purported that <mask>'s motive for murdering Hobbs was to avoid detection and a court martial after <mask> had attempted to commit a "pervert act" on Hobbs.Contrasting the defense's argument that <mask>'s psychopathy made him less responsible for his actions, Phillips read <mask>'s confession to the jury and stated that the confession showed that <mask> was fully aware of his actions. The judge, John W. Holland, instructed the jury that if they agreed with the defense that <mask> was not criminally responsible for his actions because of his purported psychopathy impairing his judgment, then the jury could not find him guilty of a crime higher than second-degree murder. As first-degree murder was the only murder charge punishable by death by the federal government at the time, the jury finding <mask> guilty of second-degree murder or less would have saved his life. However, the second trial concluded on August 7, 1947, and <mask> was again convicted of first-degree murder; the jury again refused to recommend mercy, and <mask> was again sentenced to death. Judge Holland formally passed the second sentence two weeks after the jury reached their verdict. Appeals and execution
<mask> appealed his second death sentence to the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of Florida. The first death sentence had been reversed due to an error involving the judge not instructing the jury on the possibility of <mask> being found guilty of a lesser charge due to mental impairment.However, on April 1, 1948, the second death sentence was affirmed, with the District Court finding that <mask>'s murder was "shocking" and committed with "vile motive," and that "the trial court went to great lengths to see to it that the defendant had a fair and lawful trial." The second appeal affirming his death sentence also pointed out that two separate juries had found <mask> guilty of the same crime on the same "overwhelming evidence" and that the second trial was "free from reversible error," thereby paving the way for <mask> to be executed. In one final attempt to save his life, <mask> appealed to President Harry S. Truman for clemency, but Truman refused to intervene in the sentence, making his intentions known a week prior to the scheduled execution date. According to the Associated Press, <mask> spent his final hours praying with a minister and singing hymns. He also received a final visit from his mother. On the morning of Wednesday, September 15, 1948, <mask> was executed in the electric chair at the Union Correctional Institution in Raiford, Florida, where Florida kept their electric chair until 1961. He was placed in the chair at 9:11 A.M. and pronounced dead a few minutes later.<mask> was 23 years old at the time of his execution. <mask> was the third federal inmate executed under President Truman and one of only two inmates executed on a federal execution warrant in Florida during the 20th century. Unlike the first, James Alderman, <mask> was put to death in Florida's electric chair in the Union Correctional Institution. Contrarily, Alderman was hanged at the U.S. Coast Guard Station near Fort Lauderdale, Florida. At the time of Alderman's execution, it was customary for all federal inmates to be executed by hanging regardless of the method used by the state where they committed their capital crime. However, the law changed in 1936 following the botched hanging of Earl Gardner, a federal inmate in Arizona, where state law provided for executions by gas chamber. From 1936 onward, federal inmates were executed by the method used by the state where they committed their capital crime.During both Alderman's execution in 1929 and <mask>'s execution in 1948, the electric chair was Florida's method of execution, as the state had adopted the electric chair in 1923 and, save for Alderman's federal execution, exclusively used the electric chair instead of hanging starting in October 1924. Presently, all federal executions take place in Terre Haute, Indiana; all federal executions are carried out by lethal injection, regardless of the methods permitted for use in the state where an executed federal death row inmate committed their capital crime. References

Year of birth missing
1948 deaths
People from Florida
People executed by the United States federal government by electric chair
Place of birth missing
American people convicted of murder
People convicted of murder by the United States federal government
Executed African-American people
20th-century executions by the United States federal government
People executed for murder
20th-century executions of American people
20th-century African-American people

masks:
David Joseph Watson
Watson
Watson
David Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
Watson
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