title: Bram Stoker

texts:
<mask> (8 November 1847 – 20 April 1912) was an Irish author, best known today for his 1897 Gothic horror novel Dracula. During his lifetime, he was better known as the personal assistant of actor Sir Henry Irving and business manager of the Lyceum Theatre, which Irving owned. Early life
Stoker was born on 8 November 1847 at 15 Marino Crescent, Clontarf, on the northside of Dublin, Ireland. The park adjacent to the house is now known as Bram Stoker Park. His parents were <mask> (1799–1876) from Dublin and Charlotte Mathilda Blake Thornley (1818–1901), who was raised in County Sligo. Stoker was the third of seven children, the eldest of whom was <mask>, 1st Bt. Abraham and Charlotte were members of the Church of Ireland Parish of Clontarf and attended the parish church with their children, who were baptised there.Abraham was a senior civil servant. Stoker was bedridden with an unknown illness until he started school at the age of seven, when he made a complete recovery. Of this time, Stoker wrote, "I was naturally thoughtful, and the leisure of long illness gave opportunity for many thoughts which were fruitful according to their kind in later years." He was educated in a private school run by the Reverend (William Woods). After his recovery, he grew up without further serious illnesses, even excelling as an athlete at Trinity College, Dublin, which he attended from 1864 to 1870. He graduated with a BA in 1870, and pursued his MA in 1875. Though he later in life recalled graduating "with honours in mathematics", this appears to have been a mistake.He was named University Athlete, participating in multiple sports, including playing rugby for Dublin University. He was auditor of the College Historical Society (the Hist) and president of the University Philosophical Society (he remains the only student in Trinity's history to hold both positions), where his first paper was on Sensationalism in Fiction and Society. Early career
Stoker became interested in the theatre while a student through his friend Dr. Maunsell. While working for the Irish Civil Service, he became the theatre critic for the Dublin Evening Mail, which was co-owned by Sheridan Le Fanu, an author of Gothic tales. Theatre critics were held in low esteem, but he attracted notice by the quality of his reviews. In December 1876, he gave a favourable review of Henry Irving's Hamlet at the Theatre Royal in Dublin. Irving invited Stoker for dinner at the Shelbourne Hotel where he was staying, and they became friends.Stoker also wrote stories, and "Crystal Cup" was published by the London Society in 1872, followed by "The Chain of Destiny" in four parts in The Shamrock. In 1876, while a civil servant in Dublin, Stoker wrote the non-fiction book The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland (published 1879) which remained a standard work. Furthermore, he possessed an interest in art, and was a founder of the Dublin Sketching Club in 1879. Lyceum Theatre

In 1878, Stoker married Florence Balcombe, daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel James Balcombe of 1 Marino Crescent. She was a celebrated beauty whose former suitor had been Oscar Wilde. Stoker had known Wilde from his student days, having proposed him for membership of the university's Philosophical Society while he was president. Wilde was upset at Florence's decision, but Stoker later resumed the acquaintanceship, and, after Wilde's fall, visited him on the Continent.The Stokers moved to London, where Stoker became acting manager and then business manager of Irving's Lyceum Theatre, London, a post he held for 27 years. On 31 December 1879, <mask> and Florence's only child was born, a son whom they christened Irving Noel Thornley Stoker. The collaboration with Henry Irving was important for Stoker and through him he became involved in London's high society, where he met James Abbott McNeill Whistler and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (to whom he was distantly related). Working for Irving, the most famous actor of his time, and managing one of the most successful theatres in London made Stoker a notable if busy man. He was dedicated to Irving and his memoirs show he idolised him. In London, Stoker also met Hall Caine, who became one of his closest friends – he dedicated Dracula to him. In the course of Irving's tours, Stoker travelled the world, although he never visited Eastern Europe, a setting for his most famous novel.Stoker enjoyed the United States, where Irving was popular. With Irving he was invited twice to the White House, and knew William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Stoker set two of his novels in America, and used Americans as characters, the most notable being Quincey Morris. He also met one of his literary idols, Walt Whitman. <mask>r in Cruden Bay

Stoker was a regular visitor to Cruden Bay in Scotland between 1893 and 1910. His month-long holidays to the Aberdeenshire coastal village provided a large portion of available time for writing his books. Two novels were set in Cruden Bay: The Watter's Mou' (1895) and The Mystery of the Sea (1902).He started writing Dracula there in 1895 while in residence at the Kilmarnock Arms Hotel. The guest book with his signatures from 1894 and 1895 still survives. The nearby Slains Castle (also known as New Slains Castle) is linked with <mask> and plausibly provided the visual palette for the descriptions of Castle Dracula during the writing phase. A distinctive room in Slains Castle,  the octagonal hall, matches the description of the octagonal room in Castle Dracula. Writings

Stoker visited the English coastal town of Whitby in 1890, and that visit was said to be part of the inspiration for Dracula. He began writing novels while working as manager for Irving and secretary and director of London's Lyceum Theatre, beginning with The Snake's Pass in 1890 and Dracula in 1897. During this period, Stoker was part of the literary staff of The Daily Telegraph in London, and he wrote other fiction, including the horror novels The Lady of the Shroud (1909) and The Lair of the White Worm (1911).He published his Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving in 1906, after Irving's death, which proved successful, and managed productions at the Prince of Wales Theatre. Before writing Dracula, Stoker met Ármin Vámbéry, a Hungarian-Jewish writer and traveller (born in Szent-György, Kingdom of Hungary  now Svätý Jur, Slovakia). Dracula likely emerged from Vámbéry's dark stories of the Carpathian mountains. However this claim has been challenged by many including Elizabeth Miller, a professor who, since 1990, has had as her major field of research and writing Dracula, and its author, sources, and influences. She has stated, “The only comment about the subject matter of the talk was that Vambery 'spoke loudly against Russian aggression.'" There had been nothing in their conversations about the "tales of the terrible Dracula" that are supposed to have "inspired Stoker to equate his vampire-protagonist with the long-dead tyrant." At any rate, by this time, Stoker's novel was well underway, and he was already using the name Dracula for his vampire.Stoker then spent several years researching Central and East European folklore and mythological stories of vampires. The 1972 book In Search of Dracula by Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally claimed that the Count in Stoker's novel was based on Vlad III Dracula. However, according to Elizabeth Miller, Stoker borrowed only the name and "scraps of miscellaneous information" about Romanian history; further, there are no comments about Vlad III in the author's working notes. Dracula is an epistolary novel, written as a collection of realistic but completely fictional diary entries, telegrams, letters, ship's logs, and newspaper clippings, all of which added a level of detailed realism to the story, a skill which Stoker had developed as a newspaper writer. At the time of its publication, Dracula was considered a "straightforward horror novel" based on imaginary creations of supernatural life. "It gave form to a universal fantasy ... and became a part of popular culture." Stoker was a deeply private man, but his almost sexless marriage, his admiration of Walt Whitman, Henry Irving, Hall Caine, and Oscar Wilde, as well as the perceived homoerotic aspects of Dracula, have led to scholarly speculation that he was a repressed homosexual who used his fiction as an outlet for his sexual frustrations.In 1912, he demanded imprisonment of all homosexual authors in Britain: it has been suggested that this was to disguise his own vulnerability. According to the Encyclopedia of World Biography, Stoker's stories are today included in the categories of horror fiction, romanticized Gothic stories, and melodrama. They are classified alongside other works of popular fiction, such as Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, which also used the myth-making and story-telling method of having multiple narrators telling the same tale from different perspectives. According to historian Jules Zanger, this leads the reader to the assumption that "they can't all be lying". The original 541-page typescript of Dracula was believed to have been lost until it was found in a barn in northwestern Pennsylvania in the early 1980s. It consisted of typed sheets with many emendations, and handwritten on the title page was "THE UN-DEAD." The author's name was shown at the bottom as <mask>.Author Robert Latham remarked: "the most famous horror novel ever published, its title changed at the last minute." The typescript was purchased by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen. Stoker's inspirations for the story, in addition to Whitby, may have included a visit to Slains Castle in Aberdeenshire, a visit to the crypts of St. Michan's Church in Dublin, and the novella Carmilla by Sheridan Le Fanu. Stoker's original research notes for the novel are kept by the Rosenbach Museum and Library in Philadelphia. A facsimile edition of the notes was created by Elizabeth Miller and Robert Eighteen-Bisang in 1998. Stoker at The London Library
Stoker was a member of The London Library and it is here that he conducted much of the research for Dracula. In 2018, the Library discovered some of the books that Stoker used for his research, complete with notes and marginalia.Death

After suffering a number of strokes, Stoker died at No. 26 St George's Square, London on 20 April 1912. Some biographers attribute the cause of death to overwork, others to tertiary syphilis. His death certificate named the cause of death as "Locomotor ataxia 6 months", presumed to be a reference to syphilis. He was cremated, and his ashes were placed in a display urn at Golders Green Crematorium in north London. The ashes of Irving Noel <mask>, the author's son, were added to his father's urn following his death in 1961. The original plan had been to keep his parents' ashes together, but after <mask>'s death, her ashes were scattered at the Gardens of Rest.Beliefs and philosophy
Stoker was raised a Protestant in the Church of Ireland. He was a strong supporter of the Liberal Party and took a keen interest in Irish affairs. As a "philosophical home ruler", he supported Home Rule for Ireland brought about by peaceful means. He remained an ardent monarchist who believed that Ireland should remain within the British Empire, an entity that he saw as a force for good. He was an admirer of Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, whom he knew personally, and supported his plans for Ireland. Stoker believed in progress and took a keen interest in science and science-based medicine. Some of Stoker's novels represent early examples of science fiction, such as The Lady of the Shroud (1909).He had a writer's interest in the occult, notably mesmerism, but despised fraud and believed in the superiority of the scientific method over superstition. Stoker counted among his friends J.W. Brodie-Innis, a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and hired member Pamela Colman Smith as an artist for the Lyceum Theatre, but no evidence suggests that Stoker ever joined the Order himself. Although Irving was an active Freemason, no evidence has been found of Stoker taking part in Masonic activities in London. The Grand Lodge of Ireland also has no record of his membership. Posthumous
The short story collection Dracula's Guest and Other Weird Stories was published in 1914 by Stoker's widow, <mask>, who was also his literary executrix. The first film adaptation of Dracula was F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu, released in 1922, with Max Schreck starring as Count Orlok.<mask> eventually sued the filmmakers, and was represented by the attorneys of the British Incorporated Society of Authors. Her chief legal complaint was that she had neither been asked for permission for the adaptation nor paid any royalty. The case dragged on for some years, with Mrs. Stoker demanding the destruction of the negative and all prints of the film. The suit was finally resolved in the widow's favour in July 1925. A single print of the film survived, however, and it has become well known. The first authorised film version of Dracula did not come about until almost a decade later when Universal Studios released Tod Browning's Dracula starring Bela Lugosi. Dacre Stoker
Canadian writer Dacre <mask>, a great-grandnephew of <mask>, decided to write "a sequel that bore the Stoker name" to "reestablish creative control over" the original novel, with encouragement from screenwriter Ian Holt, because of the Stokers' frustrating history with Dracula's copyright.In 2009, Dracula: The Un-Dead was released, written by Dacre <mask> and Ian Holt. Both writers "based [their work] on <mask>'s own handwritten notes for characters and plot threads excised from the original edition" along with their own research for the sequel. This also marked Dacre <mask>'s writing debut. In spring 2012, Dacre <mask> (in collaboration with Elizabeth Miller) presented the "lost" Dublin Journal written by <mask>, which had been kept by his great-grandson Noel Dobbs. Stoker's diary entries shed a light on the issues that concerned him before his London years. A remark about a boy who caught flies in a bottle might be a clue for the later development of the Renfield character in Dracula. Commemorations
On 8 November 2012, Stoker was honoured with a Google Doodle on Google's homepage commemorating the 165th anniversary of his birth.An annual festival takes place in Dublin, the birthplace of <mask>r, in honour of his literary achievements. The 2014 Bram Stoker Festival encompassed literary, film, family, street, and outdoor events, and ran from October 24 to 27 in Dublin. The festival is supported by the Bram Stoker Estate and funded by Dublin City Council and Fáilte Ireland. Jefferson, NC & London: McFarland. Articles
 "Recollections of the Late W. G. Wills", The Graphic, 19 December 1891
 "The Art of Ellen Terry", The Playgoer, October 1901
"The Question of a National Theatre", The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol. LXIII, January/June 1908
"Mr. De Morgan's Habits of Work", The World's Work, Vol. XVI, May/October 1908
"The Censorship of Fiction", The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol.LXIV, July/December 1908
"The Censorship of Stage Plays", The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol. LXVI, July/December 1909
"Irving and Stage Lightning", The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol. LXIX, January/June 1911

Critical works on Stoker
William Hughes, Beyond Dracula: <mask>'s Fiction and Its Cultural Context (Palgrave, 2000)
Belford, Barbara. <mask>: A Biography of the Author of Dracula. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1996. Hopkins, Lisa. <mask>r: A Literary Life.Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Murray, Paul. From the Shadow of Dracula: A Life of <mask>r (London: Jonathan Cape, 2004)
Senf, Carol. Science and Social Science in <mask>r's Fiction (Greenwood, 2002). Senf, Carol. Dracula: Between Tradition and Modernism (Twayne, 1998). Senf, Carol A. <mask> (University of Wales Press, 2010).Shepherd, Mike. When Brave Men Shudder: the Scottish origins of Dracula (Wild Wolf Publishing, 2018). Skal, David J. Something in the Blood: The Untold Story of <mask>r (Liveright, 2016)

Bibliographies
William Hughes <mask>r – Victorian Fiction Research Guide

References

External links

h2g2 article on <mask>r

 Archival material at

Dracula
1847 births
1912 deaths
19th-century Irish male writers
20th-century Irish male writers
19th-century Irish novelists
20th-century Irish novelists
19th-century Irish short story writers
20th-century Irish short story writers
Auditors of the College Historical Society
Dublin University Football Club players
Irish horror writers
Irish male short story writers
Irish Anglicans
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
People from Clontarf, Dublin
Irish male novelists
Victorian novelists
Golders Green Crematorium
Irish fantasy writers
Writers of Gothic fiction
Ghost story writers
Irish theatre critics
The Daily Telegraph people

masks:
Abraham Stoker
Abraham Stoker
Sir Thornley Stoker
Bram
Bram Stoke
Bram Stoker
Bram Stoker
Stoker
Florence Stoker
Florence Stoker
Florence Stoker
Stoker
Bram Stoker
Stoker
Bram Stoker
Stoker
Stoker
Bram Stoker
Bram Stoke
Bram Stoker
Bram Stoker
Bram Stoke
Bram Stoke
Bram Stoke
Bram Stoker
Bram Stoke
Bram Stoke
Bram Stoke


title: Rich Folkers

type: original

texts:
<mask> (born October 17, 1946) is a former left-handed Major League Baseball pitcher who played from  to  with the New York Mets, St. Louis Cardinals, San Diego Padres and Milwaukee Brewers. He was  tall and weighed . The draft
Even before entering professional baseball, <mask> was a highly touted athlete. He attended both Ellsworth Community College and Parsons College, and was originally drafted by the San Francisco Giants in the fourth round of the  draft. Deciding not to sign, he was drafted by the Chicago White Sox and New York Mets in  at different times. The White Sox chose him in the third round, while the Mets took him in the first. The 20th pick overall of the secondary phase draft of 1967, <mask> decided to sign with the Mets.The minors
Folkers saw a large amount of success in the minors. From 1967 to 1970, for example, his earned run average in a minor league season never rose above 3.19. In , he had perhaps the best season of his entire professional career: Although his record wasn't too outstanding (13–9), he posted an ERA of 2.41 in 27 games, striking out 142 and walking only 48 in 168 innings. He missed the 1969 season while serving in the U.S. military. First glimpse of the majors
Folkers got his first glimpse of the majors in 1970. On June 10, at the age of 23, Folkers pitched two solid innings in relief, giving up only one hit and allowing no runs. The success he witnessed in that game did not carry over to the rest of the games he pitched in that year.In 16 games that year in the majors, his ERA was 6.44. He also walked 25 batters and only struck out 15 in 29.1 innings of work. Back to the minors
He spent all of 1971 and most of 1972 in the minors. After having a lackluster 1971 season (7–11, 4.50 ERA), the Mets traded away their former first round draft pick along with Jim Bibby, Charlie Hudson and Art Shamsky to the Cardinals for Jim Beauchamp, Chuck Taylor, Harry Parker and Chip Coulter on October 18, 1971. He did better overall in 1972 in the minors, posting a 3.10 ERA. He was recalled to the Majors that year, pitching nine games in relief for the Cardinals. This stint in the Majors was much more successful: not only did he collect his first big league win on September 30 against Ron Santo, Rick Monday and the rest of the Chicago Cubs, he also posted a respectable 3.38 ERA.Back to stay in the majors
<mask> was used both as a starter and reliever in 1973, posting a solid 3.61 ERA in 34 games (nine of them started). If 1968 was his best professional season, then  was his second-best professional season. He posted a 6–2 record in 55 relief appearances, which were third most on the team. He also posted a 3.00 ERA, which was 0.59 points better than the league average. Oddly, the 1974 season was <mask>' last in a Cardinals uniform. He was involved in a three-team deal on November 18, 1974 in which he was traded along with Sonny Siebert and Alan Foster from the Cardinals to the Padres for Ed Brinkman who had been sent to San Diego with Bob Strampe and Dick Sharon from the Detroit Tigers for Nate Colbert. Danny Breeden went from the Padres to the Cardinals to subsequently complete the transactions.His tenure with the Padres was not nearly as successful as was his tenure with the Cardinals. His first year with the San Diego team, 1975, ended with him posting a 6–11 record and a 4.18 ERA for a team which went 71–91 overall. He started 15 games that year, six more than his previous highest total. He showed respectable control that year, walking only 39 in 142 innings of work. However, he was also 10th in the league in wild pitches, with nine thrown. His final season with the Padres was 1976. The 29-year-old posted a 5.28 ERA that season in 59 innings of work.He was selected off waivers by the Brewers on March 23, 1977. Overall, he threw just over six innings for the Brewers that year, posting a 4.26 ERA. <mask> was traded with Jim Slaton from the Brewers to the Tigers for Ben Oglivie at the Winter Meetings on December 9, 1977. The Brewers definitely got the better end of that deal—<mask> never appeared in a big league game with the Tigers, while Slaton only pitched one season with them (it was, however, arguably his best season in the Majors. He went 17–11 that year with a 3.89 ERA) before being reclaimed by the Brewers when he entered free agency after the 1978 season. Oglivie, on the other hand, went on to have the best years of his 16-season career while with the Brewers, hitting as many as 41 home runs in a season. <mask> played in his final big league game on June 8, 1977.Career statistics
Overall in the majors, <mask> went 19–23 with a 4.11 ERA in 195 games. He gave up 416 hits in 423 innings of work, along with 170 walks, 40 home runs, 207 runs and 193 earned runs. Of the 28 games he started, he completed five of them. He had seven career saves. He was a poor hitter, batting only .143 in 77 career at bats. Of the 11 hits he collected, only one was for an extra base hit—it was a double off Bob Forsch and his former team the Cardinals on August 8, 1975. He drove in six runs in his career, scored three and walked four times.He struck out 28 times. As a fielder, he committed five errors in his career for a .941 fielding percentage. Personal life
<mask> currently lives in St. Petersburg, Florida. He served as pitching coach at Eckerd College between 1988 and 1992, and later in the St. Louis Cardinals' farm system. He is probably best remembered for a line by the Padres' malaprop-prone broadcaster Jerry Coleman: "<mask>ers is throwing up in the bullpen." References

External links
 or Baseball Gauge or Retrosheet or Venezuelan Professional Baseball League

1946 births
Living people
Arkansas Travelers players
Baseball players from Iowa
Durham Bulls players
Florida Instructional League Mets players
Leones del Caracas players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Major League Baseball pitchers
Memphis Blues players
Milwaukee Brewers players
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Sportspeople from Waterloo, Iowa
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masks:
Richard Nevin Folkers
Folkers
Folkers
Folkers
Folkers
Folkers
Folkers
Folkers
Folkers
Folkers
Rich Folk


title: Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor

texts:
<mask>  (<mask>rd; 5 May 1747 – 1 March 1792) was Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary and Bohemia, and Archduke of Austria from 1790 to 1792, and Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1765 to 1790. Unusually for his time, he opposed capital punishment and abolished it in Tuscany in 1786 during his rule there, making it the first nation in modern history to do so. He was a son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Emperor Francis I, and the brother of  Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, Maria Carolina of Austria, Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma and Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor. <mask> was a moderate proponent of enlightened absolutism. He granted the Academy of Georgofili his protection. Despite his brief reign, he is highly regarded. The historian Paul W. Schroeder called him "one of the most shrewd and sensible monarchs ever to wear a crown".Youth

<mask> was born in Vienna as his parents' third son. Initially selected for a clerical career, he received education with focus on theology. In 1753, he was engaged to Maria Beatrice d'Este, heiress to the Duchy of Modena. The marriage was never consummated and Maria Beatrice instead married <mask>'s brother, Archduke Ferdinand. Upon the early death of his older brother Archduke Charles in 1761, the family decided that <mask> was going to succeed his father as Duke of Tuscany. Tuscany had been envisioned and designated as a Secundogeniture, a territory and title bestowed upon the second born son, which was greater than an Appanage. On 5 August 1765 <mask> married the Infanta Maria Luisa of Spain, daughter of Charles III of Spain and Maria Amalia of Saxony.Upon the death of his father, Francis I on 18 August 1765, he became Grand Duke of Tuscany. Grand Duke of Tuscany

For five years, <mask> exercised little more than nominal authority, under the supervision of counselors appointed by his mother. In 1770, he made a journey to Vienna to secure the removal of this vexatious guardianship and returned to Florence with a free hand. During the twenty years that elapsed between his return to Florence and the death of his eldest brother Joseph II in 1790, he was employed in reforming the administration of his small state. The reformation was carried out by the removal of the ruinous restrictions on industry and personal freedom imposed by his predecessors of the house of Medici and left untouched during his father's life, by the introduction of a rational system of taxation (reducing the rates of taxation), and by the execution of profitable public works, such as the drainage of the Val di Chiana. As <mask> had no army to maintain, and as he suppressed the small naval force kept up by the Medici, the whole of his revenue was left free for the improvement of his state. <mask> was never popular with his Italian subjects.His disposition was cold and retiring. His habits were simple to the verge of sordidness, though he could display splendour on occasion, and he could not help offending those of his subjects who had profited by the abuses of the Medicean régime. But his steady, consistent, and intelligent administration, which advanced step by step, brought the grand duchy to a high level of material prosperity. His ecclesiastical policy, which disturbed the deeply rooted convictions of his people and brought him into collision with the Pope, was not successful. He was unable to secularize the property of the religious houses or to put the clergy entirely under the control of the lay power. However, his abolition of capital punishment was the first permanent abolition in modern times. On 30 November 1786, after having de facto blocked capital executions (the last was in 1769), <mask> promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land.Torture was also banned. In line with the theories of the Age of Enlightenment, he enlarged La Specola with medical waxworks and other exhibits, aiming to educate Florentines in the empirical observation of natural laws. <mask> also approved and collaborated on the development of a political constitution, said to have anticipated by many years the promulgation of the French constitution and which presented some similarities with the Virginia Bill of Rights of 1778. <mask>'s concept of this was based on respect for the political rights of citizens and on a harmony of power between the executive and the legislative. However, it could not be put into effect because <mask> moved to Vienna to become emperor in 1790, and because it was so radically new that it garnered opposition even from those who might have benefited from it. <mask> developed and supported many social and economic reforms. Smallpox inoculation was made systematically available, and an early institution for the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents was founded.<mask> also introduced radical reforms to the system of neglect and inhumane treatment of those deemed mentally ill. On 23 January 1774, the "legge sui pazzi" (law on the insane) was established, the first of its kind to be introduced in all Europe, allowing steps to be taken to hospitalize individuals deemed insane. A few years later <mask> undertook the project of building a new hospital, the . He used his skill at choosing collaborators to put a young physician, Vincenzo Chiarugi, at its head. Chiarugi and his collaborators introduced new humanitarian regulations in the running of the hospital and caring for the mentally ill patients, including banning the use of chains and physical punishment, and in so doing have been recognized as early pioneers of what later came to be known as the moral treatment movement. During the last few years of his rule in Tuscany, <mask> had begun to be frightened by the increasing disorders in the German and Hungarian dominions of his family, which were the direct result of his brother's strict methods. He and Joseph II were tenderly attached to one another and met frequently both before and after the death of their mother. The portrait by Pompeo Batoni in which they appear together shows that they bore a strong personal resemblance to one another.But it may be said of <mask>, as of Fontenelle, that his heart was made of brains. He knew that he had to succeed his childless eldest brother in Austria, and he was unwilling to inherit his unpopularity. When, therefore, in 1789 Joseph, who knew himself to be dying, asked him to come to Vienna and become co-regent, <mask> evaded the request. He was still in Florence when Joseph II died at Vienna on 20 February 1790, and he did not leave his Italian capital until 3 March 1790. Following the principle of secundogeniture which had allowed him to rule Tuscany, <mask> entrusted the Grand Duchy to his younger son Ferdinand III, who ruled until the French invasion in 1797 and then again from 1814 to 1824. Holy Roman Emperor

<mask>, during his government in Tuscany, had shown a speculative tendency to grant his subjects a constitution. When he succeeded to the Austrian lands, he began by making large concessions to the interests offended by his brother's innovations.He recognized the Estates of his different dominions as "the pillars of the monarchy", pacified the Hungarians and Bohemians, and divided the insurgents in the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium) by means of concessions. When these failed to restore order, he marched troops into the country and re-established his own authority, and at the same time the historic franchises of the Flemings. Yet he did not surrender any part that could be retained of what Maria Theresa and Joseph had done to strengthen the hands of the state. He continued, for instance, to insist that no papal bull could be published in his dominions without his consent (placetum regium). One of the harshest actions <mask> took to placate the noble communities of the various Habsburg domains was to issue a decree on 9 May 1790 that forced thousands of Bohemian serfs freed by his brother Joseph back into servitude. <mask> lived for barely two years after his accession as Holy Roman Emperor, and during that period he was hard pressed by peril from west and east alike. The growing revolutionary disorders in France endangered the life of his sister Marie Antoinette, the queen of Louis XVI, and also threatened his own dominions with the spread of subversive agitation.His sister sent him passionate appeals for help, and he was pestered by the royalist émigrés, who were intriguing to bring about armed intervention in France. From the east he was threatened by the aggressive ambition of Catherine II of Russia and by the unscrupulous policy of Prussia. Catherine would have been delighted to see Austria and Prussia embark on a crusade in the cause of kings against the French Revolution. While they were busy beyond the Rhine, she would have annexed what remained of Poland and made conquests against the Ottoman Empire. <mask> II had no difficulty in seeing through the rather transparent cunning of the Russian empress, and he refused to be misled. To his sister, he gave good advice and promises of help if she and her husband could escape from Paris. The émigrés who followed him pertinaciously were refused audience, or when they forced themselves on him, were peremptorily denied all help.<mask> was too purely a politician not to be secretly pleased at the destruction of the power of France and of her influence in Europe by her internal disorders. Within six weeks of his accession, he displayed his contempt for France's weakness by practically tearing up the treaty of alliance made by Maria Theresa in 1756 and opening negotiations with Great Britain to impose a check on Russia and Prussia. <mask> put pressure on Great Britain by threatening to cede his part of the Low Countries to France. Then, when sure of British support, he was in a position to baffle the intrigues of Prussia. A personal appeal to Frederick William II led to a conference between them at Reichenbach in July 1790, and to an arrangement which was in fact a defeat for Prussia: <mask>'s coronation as king of Hungary on 11 November 1790, preceded by a settlement with the Diet in which he recognized the dominant position of the Magyars. He had already made an eight months' truce with the Turks in September, which prepared the way for the termination of the war begun by Joseph II. The pacification of his eastern dominions left <mask> free to re-establish order in Belgium and to confirm friendly relations with Britain and the Netherlands.During 1791, the emperor remained increasingly preoccupied with the affairs of France. In January, he had to dismiss the Count of Artois (afterwards Charles X of France) in a very peremptory way. His good sense was revolted by the folly of the French émigrés, and he did his utmost to avoid being entangled in the affairs of that country. The insults inflicted on Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, however, at the time of their attempted flight to Varennes in June, stirred his indignation, and he made a general appeal in the Padua Circular to the sovereigns of Europe to take common measures in view of events which "immediately compromised the honour of all sovereigns, and the security of all governments." Yet he was most directly interested in negotiations with Turkey, which in June led to a final peace, the Treaty of Sistova being signed in August 1791. On 25 August 1791, he met the king of Prussia at Pillnitz Castle, near Dresden, and they drew up the Declaration of Pillnitz, stating their readiness to intervene in France if and when their assistance was called for by the other powers. The declaration was a mere formality, for, as <mask> knew, neither Russia nor Britain was prepared to act, and he endeavored to guard against the use which he foresaw the émigrés would try to make of it.In face of the reaction in France to the Declaration of Pillnitz, the intrigues of the émigrés, and attacks made by the French revolutionists on the rights of the German princes in Alsace, <mask> continued to hope that intervention might not be required. When Louis XVI swore to observe the constitution of September 1791, the emperor professed to think that a settlement had been reached in France. The attacks on the rights of the German princes on the left bank of the Rhine, and the increasing violence of the parties in Paris which were agitating to bring about war, soon showed, however, that this hope was vain. <mask> meant to meet the challenge of the revolutionists in France with dignity and temper, however the effect of the Declaration of Pillnitz was to contribute to the radicalization of their political movement. Like his parents before him, <mask> had sixteen children, the eldest of his eight sons being his successor, Emperor Francis II. Some of his other sons were prominent personages in their day. Among them were: Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany; Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen, a celebrated soldier; Archduke Johann of Austria, also a soldier; Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary; and Archduke Rainer, Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia.Mozart's opera La clemenza di Tito was commissioned by the Estates of Bohemia for the festivities that accompanied <mask>'s coronation as king of Bohemia in Prague on 6 September 1791. <mask> died suddenly in Vienna, in March 1792. Issue
His mother Empress Maria Theresa was the last Habsburg, and he was one of 16 children. His brother Joseph II died without any surviving children, but <mask> in turn had also 16 children, just like his mother, and became the founder of the main line of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. Children with his wife Infanta Maria Luisa of Spain (also known as Maria Ludovica of Spain):

Illegitimate children
With Livia Raimondi, a ballerine, he had:
Luigi von Grün (1788–1814)

Ancestors

See also
 Kings of Germany family tree

References

 Attribution

Bibliography
 Vovk, Justin C. (2010). In Destiny's Hands: Five Tragic Rulers, Children of Maria Theresa. iUniverse: Bloomington, Ind.  .
 Gentlemen's Magazine, London, March 1792, pp.281–282, detailed account of the death at Vienna of his Imperial Majesty <mask> II. External links

 Work describing <mask>'s coronation: Beschreibung der königl. hungarischen Krönung als Seine Apostolische Majestät Leopold der Zweyte zu Pressburg zum hungarischen Könige gekrönt wurde ... Wien: Hieronymus Löschenkohl, 1790. 57 p. Available at ULB´s Digital Library

Regnal titles

1747 births
1792 deaths
18th-century Holy Roman Emperors
18th-century archdukes of Austria
Grand Dukes of Tuscany
Grand Masters of the Order of the Golden Fleece
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria
Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Nobility from Vienna
Burials at the Imperial Crypt
18th century in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
Dukes of Carniola
Children of Maria Theresa

masks: Peter Leopold Josef Anton Joachim Pius Gottha


title: Candace Bushnell

texts:
<mask> (born December 1, 1958) is an American author, journalist, and television producer. She wrote a column for The New York Observer (1994–96) that was adapted into the bestselling Sex and the City anthology. The book was the basis for the HBO hit series Sex and the City (1998–2004) and two subsequent movies. <mask> followed this with the international bestselling novels 4 Blondes (2001), Trading Up (2003), Lipstick Jungle (2005), One Fifth Avenue (2008), The Carrie Diaries (2010) and Summer and the City (2011). Two of her novels have been adapted for television: Lipstick Jungle (2008–09) on NBC, and The Carrie Diaries (2013-2014) on The CW. One Fifth Avenue has been optioned by the Mark Gordon Company and ABC for another television show. Early life
<mask> was born in Glastonbury, Connecticut.She is the daughter of Calvin L<mask> and Camille Salonia. Her father was one of the inventors of the air cooled hydrogen fuel cell that was used in the Apollo space missions in the 1960s. Her Bushnell ancestors in the United States can be traced back to <mask>, one of the signatories of the Guilford Covenant, who emigrated from Thatcham, Berkshire, England in 1639. Her mother was of Italian descent. While attending high school in Glastonbury, <mask> was accompanied to her senior prom by Mike O'Meara, now a nationally syndicated radio host, who also dated <mask>'s sister, "Lolly." She attended Rice University and New York University. She moved to New York in the late 1970s and often frequented Studio 54.In 1995, she met publishing executive Ron Galotti, who became the inspiration for Sex and The City'''s Mr. Big. Career
At the age of 19, <mask> moved to New York City and sold a children's story (which was never published) to Simon & Schuster. She continued writing and worked as a freelance journalist for various publications, struggling to make ends meet for many years. <mask> began writing for The New York Observer in 1993. She created a humorous column for the paper (1994–96) called "Sex and the City". The column was based on her own personal dating experiences and those of her friends. In 1997, <mask>'s columns were published in an anthology, also called Sex and the City, and soon after became the basis for the popular HBO television series sharing the same name.The series aired from 1998 through 2004, and starred Sarah Jessica Parker as Carrie Bradshaw, a socially active New York City sex and lifestyles columnist, a character whom <mask> has stated was her alter ego. The series is now in syndication and was made into two film adaptations, released in 2008 and 2010. A third film was announced in December 2016, but was ultimately cancelled and replaced by the sequel miniseries, And Just Like That…, on HBO Max. <mask> went on to publish several international and New York Times Bestselling novels, including Four Blondes, Trading Up, Lipstick Jungle and One Fifth Avenue. In 2005, <mask> served as one of three judges for the reality television show Wickedly Perfect on CBS. <mask> began hosting a live weekly talk show on Sirius Satellite Radio in 2007. The show, called "Sex, Success and Sensibility," was canceled in late 2008 after the merger of Sirius and XM Satellite Radio, when <mask> was asked to continue the show with a 50% pay cut and refused.She is the winner of the 2006 Matrix Award for books, and a recipient of the Albert Einstein Spirit of Achievement Award. In 2009 she wrote a web series, The Broadroom, a comedic series about women over 40 dealing with workplace issues, starring Jennie Garth which was created in partnership with the magazine publisher Meredith Corporation's Meredith 360 division. <mask>'s 2005 novel, Lipstick Jungle, was adapted for television and aired on NBC in 2008. The series Lipstick Jungle starred Brooke Shields in the leading role, and ran for 20 episodes. In 2009, she wrote articles for Meredith's More magazine. <mask> was contracted by HarperCollins in 2008 to write a series of two books for young adults, about the high school years of Sex and the City character Carrie Bradshaw. The first of these, The Carrie Diaries, was published in April 2010.The other, Summer and the City (Carrie Diaries Series #2), was published in April 2011. The Carrie Diaries was a number one New York Times Bestseller. Personal life
From 2002 to 2012, <mask> was married to Charles Askegard, a principal dancer with the New York City Ballet who was ten years her junior, and whom she had met eight weeks before.Don't mention Sex and the City. By Carl Quinn, www.theage.com, September 28, 2003. They decided to divorce in 2011. She found the experience disorienting, telling The Guardian, "When I got divorced, I couldn’t get a mortgage; I didn’t fit into a computer model. All of a sudden, I was invited to no more couple things.Being single is hard and there’s something a bit heroic about it." She owned a co-op in Greenwich Village until 2015. From 2005 to 2016 she owned an historic Victorian farmhouse in Roxbury, CT. In 2016, she bought a co-op on East 74th Street in Manhattan. Bibliography
 (1996) Sex and the City,
 (2000) 4 Blondes,  nur 302
 (2003) Trading Up (2005) Lipstick Jungle,
 (2008) One Fifth Avenue (2010) The Carrie Diaries (2011) Summer and the City (2015) Killing Monica (2019) Is There Still Sex in the City? '',

References

External links

Official website

TehelkaTV interview – In conversation with Pragya Tiwari on being a woman and writing about it, Jan 2011
Limited online archive of <mask>'s column in The Observer

1958 births
Living people
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
American columnists
American women columnists
American chick lit writers
People from Glastonbury, Connecticut
New York University alumni
Rice University alumni
American women essayists
American women novelists
Sex and the City
20th-century American essayists
21st-century American essayists

masks:
Candace Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
. Bushnell
Francis Bushnell
Candace
Candace
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell
Bushnell


title: John Cranston (governor)

texts:
<mask> (1625–1680) was a colonial physician, military leader, legislator, deputy governor and governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations during the 17th century. Biographical summary

<mask> was sent to New England as a boy; he was put under the care of Jeremiah Clarke, who became an early president of the colony, and he eventually married Clarke's daughter, Mary. Elected a drummer in the militia of Portsmouth while a teenager, <mask> had several military positions of authority throughout his life, and during King Philip's War he commanded the colony's militia. He also became the colony's first licensed physician and surgeon in March 1663. Later in life <mask> was elected to a variety of offices, including attorney general, deputy, assistant and commissioner. In 1672 he was elected for the first time to the office of deputy governor, for a year, and then in 1676 during King Philip's War was elected again to that office. In 1678, following the deaths of two colonial governors in rapid succession, <mask> was elected to the office of governor, which position he held for nearly two years until his own death in March 1680.Family background

Born in Scotland or England, <mask> was the son of Rev. <mask>, the rector of St. Mary Overie Church in Southwark, London, later known as St. Saviour's Church, and now called Southwark Cathedral. <mask> was also one of the chaplains of King Charles I. The details of how <mask> came to New England were provided by his son, Governor <mask>, who wrote in a 26 December 1724 letter to his cousin <mask> in Edinburgh, Scotland, "My father being a sprightly youth of a roving fancy, my Grandfather Recommended him to the care and tuition of one Capt. Jeremiah Clarke, Merchant and Cittysen of London, with whome he came into this country and Setled on this Island." Jeremy Clarke came to New England in 1637 and in 1638 became an inhabitant of Aquidneck Island, later called Rhode Island. Rev.<mask> was the son of <mask> of Bold, or Bool, Peebles County, Scotland, and the family descends from one Andrew de <mask> who died before 1338. Early career

<mask> first appears on the public record in March 1644 when he was elected to be a drummer in the military company of Portsmouth in the Rhode Island colony. Ten years later he was on the mainland, and was the attorney general for Providence and Warwick, when these two towns were separated from the island towns of Portsmouth and Newport. In 1654 the four towns re-united under one government, and he was then attorney general for the entire colony from that year until 1656. In 1655 he was made a freeman and during the same year he was on one committee to build a prison, and on another committee to prevent the sale of ammunition to the Indians. During most years from 1655 to 1663 he was a Commissioner from Newport, and in 1658 he married Mary, the daughter of Jeremy Clarke who had brought him to New England. Physician, legislator and military commander

<mask> became proficient as a medical practitioner during his early life, and was recognized for his skills by the General Assembly.On 1 March 1664, the Assembly wrote, "Whereas the court have taken notice of the great blessing of God on the good endeavours of Captain <mask>, of Newport, both in physic and chirurgery [surgery], to the great comfort of such as have had occasion to improve his skill and practice." It was therefore unanimously enacted in March 1663/4 that he should be licensed "to administer physic, and practice chirurgery throughout this whole colony, and is by the court styled and recorded Doctor of Physic and Chirurgery." <mask> was deputy to the General Assembly each year from 1664 to 1668, was a governor's assistant from 1668 to 1672, and then in 1672 was elected as deputy governor of the colony for a year. During all of this time he remained active in the military affairs of the colony. In July 1667 he was commissioned as the captain in command of the "Train Band upon the Island" (i.e. Aquidneck Island). That same year, he and two others were required with all possible speed to mount the great guns upon such carriages to allow for their easy conveyance from place to place.In 1671 he was allowed compensation for voyages he made to both New York and to Seekonk, likely for military matters. In May 1673 he was commissioned as the "Captain in Chief of the Colony Military Force". In May 1675 he was promoted to the rank of major and retained this position until May 1679 when he was succeeded by Major Peleg Sanford. In 1675 the New England colonies became embroiled in a major war with members of several native tribes. King Philip's War, named for the Wampanoag chief, Metacomet, or King Philip, was the most devastating event to visit the Rhode Island colony prior to the American Revolutionary War. In April 1676 the General Assembly had provided for the naval defense of Aquidneck Island, adjourned for one week. They then elected Captain <mask>, with a promotion to the rank of major (not, as some sources state, major-general), to command all of the colony's militia companies.He simultaneously served as deputy governor for the following two years. Governor

<mask> had been deputy governor under his brother-in-law, Walter Clarke for the year beginning in May 1676, but the following year the "War Party" was put in power with Benedict Arnold elected as governor. In May 1678 Arnold was once again elected as governor of the colony, and <mask> again elected as deputy governor. In a few weeks, however, Arnold was dead, and William Coddington was elected as governor, with <mask> continuing as his deputy. The tax law was modified at this time, requiring the governor to give legal notice to every town before levying a tax. The population of the colony was deemed to be about 1000 to 1200 freemen able to bear arms. At the beginning of November 1678, Coddington had also died in office.On 4 November Conanicut Island was incorporated as a township and called Jamestown in honor of the Duke of York, who soon became king (as James II & VII.) During a special session of the General Assembly held from 8 to 15 November, <mask> was elected governor of the colony, with James Barker elected as his deputy. The Charter and other papers were obtained from Mrs. Coddington and put into the custody of the new governor. Many of the agenda items during his administration dealt with financial issues, and several finance or taxation laws were passed or repealed. One of the first acts was to pass the first tax levy since the recent war. A rate of 300 pounds was assessed, broken down by town as follows:  Newport, 136; Portsmouth, 68; New Shoreham (Block Island), 29; Jamestown, 29; Providence, 10; Warwick, 8; Kingston, 16 (reduced to 8); Greenwich, 2; and Westerly, 2. Never, in the history of the colony, had there been such a disproportionate share in taxation, and the numbers clearly show the relative degree to which the various towns had suffered as a result of the war.In 1679 the Crown confirmed the jurisdiction of Rhode Island over the Narragansett country, within which were the recent settlements of Westerly, Kings Town, and Greenwich. A letter of thankful acknowledgment was sent to King Charles II, but also with a request that the area around Mount Hope be added to the colony. However, disputes with the Connecticut Colony had not ended, and in his final official act, <mask> sent a letter to the King dated 6 January 1679/80, concerning disputed lands in the Narragansett county still claimed by Connecticut. Death

<mask> died in office on 12 March 1680 and was succeeded as governor by Peleg Sanford, the son of a former governor of Newport and Portsmouth, <mask>. He was buried in Newport's Common Burying Ground. His white marble gravestone (dating from the late 17th century) is still in place and is one of the oldest grave markers extant in the United States. Legacy

Rhode Island historian and Lieutenant Governor Samuel G. Arnold wrote of him, "Governor <mask> had borne a distinguished part in the history of the Colony, and filled the highest military and civil positions in its gift.He was the first who ever held the place of major-general, having been selected to command all the militia of the Colony during Philip's War, and he was the father of a future governor, who became more distinguished for his protracted public service." (Note – Arnold's use of the term "major-general" means an officer with the rank of major having general authority and is not to be confused with the military rank of major general.) Family

Gary Boyd Roberts gives the paternal grandmother of <mask> as Christian Stewart, and through her shows a descent from King Robert III of Scotland. However, he also adds that another researcher, Andrew B. W. MacEwen, has doubts about Cranston's immediate ancestry. <mask>'s wife, Mary, was the daughter of former Rhode Island President Jeremy Clarke and his wife Frances, and sister of Rhode Island Governor Walter Clarke. The Clarkes are descendants of King Edward I of England, and therefore all of Cranston's descendants are royally descended through the Clarkes, if not through the <mask>s as well. Together, <mask> and Mary Cranston had ten children, the oldest of whom, Samuel Cranston, became the longest-serving governor in the history of both the colony and the state of Rhode Island

Following Cranston's death, his widow married the widower Captain <mask>, son of Robert and Avis Stanton of Newport, with whom she had one more child.See also

 List of colonial governors of Rhode Island
 List of lieutenant governors of Rhode Island
 Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

References

Bibliography

External links
Grave of <mask> at Find-a-grave
Chronological list of Rhode Island leaders

1625 births
1680 deaths
Colonial governors of Rhode Island
Kingdom of England emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
Politicians from Newport, Rhode Island
Rhode Island Attorneys General
Burials at Common Burying Ground and Island Cemetery
Clarke family (Rhode Island)

masks:
John Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
John Cranston
James Cranston
Reverend Cranston
Cranston
Samuel Cranston
Elizabeth Cranston
James Cranston
John Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
John Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
John Sanford
John Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
Cranston
John
John Stanton
John Cranston


title: Edith Wilson

texts:
<mask> ( Bolling, formerly <mask>; October 15, 1872 – December 28, 1961) was the first lady of the United States from 1915 to 1921 and the second wife of President <mask>. She married the widower <mask> in December 1915, during his first term as president. <mask> played an influential role in President <mask>'s administration following the severe stroke he suffered in October 1919. For the remainder of her husband's presidency, she managed the office of the president, a role she later described as a "stewardship," and determined which communications and matters of state were important enough to bring to the attention of the bedridden president. Early life
<mask> was born October 15, 1872, in Wytheville, Virginia, to circuit court judge William Holcombe Bolling and his wife Sarah "Sallie" Spears (née White). Her birthplace, the Bolling Home, is now a museum located in Wytheville's Historic District. Bolling was a descendant of the first settlers to arrive at the Virginia Colony.Through her father, she was also a descendant of Mataoka, better known as Pocahontas, the daughter of Wahunsenacawh, the paramount weroance of the Powhatan Confederacy. On April 5, 1614, Mataoka (then renamed as "Rebecca" following her conversion to Christianity the previous year) married John Rolfe, the first English settler in Virginia to cultivate tobacco as an export commodity. Their granddaughter, Jane Rolfe, married Robert Bolling, a wealthy slave-owning planter and merchant. John Bolling, the son of Jane Rolfe and Robert Bolling, had six surviving children with his wife, Mary Kennon; each of those children married and had surviving children. Additionally, she was related, either by blood or through marriage, to Thomas Jefferson, Martha Washington, Letitia Tyler and the Harrison family. <mask> was the seventh of eleven children, two of whom died in infancy. The Bollings were some of the oldest members of Virginia's slave-owning, planter elite prior to the American Civil War.After the war ended and slavery abolished, <mask>'s father turned to the practice of law to support his family. Unable to pay taxes on his extensive properties, and forced to give up the family's plantation seat, William Holcombe Bolling moved to Wytheville, where most of his children were born. The Bolling household was a large one, and <mask> grew up within the confines of a sprawling, extended family. In addition to eight surviving siblings, <mask>'s grandmothers, aunts and cousins also lived in the Bolling household. Many of the women in <mask>'s family lost husbands during the war. The Bollings had been staunch supporters of the Confederate States of America, were proud of their Southern planter heritage, and in early childhood, taught <mask> in the post-Civil War South's narrative of the Lost Cause. As was often the case among the planter elite, the Bollings justified slave ownership, saying that the persons that they owned had been content with their lives as chattel and had little desire for freedom.Education

<mask> had little formal education. While her sisters were enrolled in local schools, <mask> was taught how to read and write at home. Her paternal grandmother, Anne Wiggington Bolling, played a large role in her education. Crippled by a spinal cord injury, Grandmother Bolling was confined to bed. <mask> had the responsibility to wash her clothing, turn her in bed at night, and look after her 26 canaries. In turn, Grandmother Bolling oversaw <mask>'s education, teaching her how to read, write, speak a hybrid language of French and English, make dresses, and instilled in her a tendency to make quick judgments and hold strong opinions, personality traits <mask> would exhibit her entire life. William Bolling read classic English literature aloud to his family at night, hired a tutor to teach <mask>, and sometimes took her on his travels.The Bolling family attended church regularly, and <mask> became a lifelong, practicing Episcopalian. When <mask> was 15, her father enrolled her at Martha Washington College (a precursor of Emory and Henry College), a finishing school for girls in Abingdon, Virginia. William Holcombe Bolling chose it for its excellent music program. <mask> proved to be an undisciplined, ill-prepared student. She was miserable there, complaining of the school's austerity: the food was poorly prepared, the rooms too cold, and the daily curriculum excessively rigorous, intimidating, and too strictly regimented. <mask> left after only one semester. Two years later, <mask>'s father enrolled her in Powell's School for Girls in Richmond, Virginia.Years later, <mask> noted that her time at Powell's was the happiest time of her life. Unfortunately for <mask>, the school closed at the end of the year after the headmaster suffered an accident that cost him his leg. Concerned about the cost of <mask>'s education, William Bolling refused to pay for any additional schooling, choosing instead to focus on educating her three brothers. While visiting her married sister in Washington, D.C., <mask> met Norman Galt (1864–1908), a prominent jeweler of Galt & Bro. The couple married on April 30, 1896, and lived in the capital for the next 12 years. In 1903, she bore a son who lived only for a few days. The difficult birth left her unable to have more children.In January 1908, Norman Galt died unexpectedly at the age of 43. <mask> hired a manager to oversee his business, paid off his debts, and with the income left to her by her late husband, toured Europe. First Lady of the United States

Re-marriage and early First Ladyship
In March 1915, the widow Galt was introduced to recently widowed U.S. President <mask> at the White House by Helen Woodrow Bones (1874–1951). Bones was the president's first cousin and served as the official White House hostess after the death of <mask>'s wife, <mask>. <mask> took an instant liking to Galt and proposed soon after meeting her. However, rumors that <mask> had cheated on his wife with Galt threatened the burgeoning relationship. Unsubstantiated gossip that <mask> and Galt had murdered the First Lady further troubled the couple.Distressed at the effect such wild speculation could have on the authenticity of the presidency and respectability of his personal reputation, <mask> proposed that <mask> Galt back out of their engagement. Instead, <mask> insisted on postponing the wedding until the end of the official year of mourning for Ellen Axson <mask>. <mask> married Galt on December 18, 1915, at her home in Washington, D.C. Attended by 40 guests, the groom's pastor, Reverend Dr. James H. Taylor of Central Presbyterian Church, and the bride's, Reverend Dr. Herbert Scott Smith of St. Margaret's Episcopal Church, Washington, D.C., performed the wedding jointly. Hostessing and the First World War

As First Lady during World War I, <mask> <mask> observed gasless Sundays, meatless Mondays, and wheatless Wednesdays to set an example for the federal rationing effort. Similarly, she set sheep to graze on the White House lawn rather than use manpower to mow it, and had their wool auctioned off for the benefit of the American Red Cross. Additionally, <mask> became the first First Lady to travel to Europe during her term.She visited Europe with her husband on two separate occasions, in 1918 and 1919, to visit troops and to sign the Treaty of Versailles. During this time, her presence amongst the female royalty of Europe helped to cement America's status as a world power and propelled the position of First Lady to an equivalent standing in international politics. Though the new First Lady had sound qualifications for the role of hostess, the social aspect of the administration was overshadowed by war in Europe and abandoned after the United States formally entered the conflict in 1917. <mask> submerged her own life in her husband's, trying to keep him fit under tremendous strain, and accompanied him to Europe when the Allies conferred on terms of peace. Increased role after husband's stroke

Following his attendance at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, <mask> returned to the United States to campaign for Senate approval of the peace treaty and the League of Nations Covenant. However, he suffered a stroke in October 1919 which left him bedridden and partially paralyzed. The United States never did ratify the Treaty of Versailles nor join the League of Nations, which had initially been <mask>'s concept.At the time, non-interventionist sentiment was strong. <mask> and others in the President's inner circle hid the true extent of the President's illness and disability from the American public. <mask> also took over a number of routine duties and details of the Executive branch of the government from the onset of <mask>'s illness until he left office almost a year and a half later. From October 1919 to the end of <mask>'s term on March 4, 1921, <mask>, acting in the role of First Lady and shadow steward, decided who and which communications and matters of state were important enough to bring to the bedridden president. <mask> later wrote: "I studied every paper sent from the different Secretaries or Senators and tried to digest and present in tabloid form the things that, despite my vigilance, had to go to the President. I, myself, never made a single decision regarding the disposition of public affairs. The only decision that was mine was what was important and what was not, and the very important decision of when to present matters to my husband."<mask> became the sole communication link between the President and his Cabinet. She required they send her all pressing matters, memos, correspondence, questions, and requests. <mask> took her role very seriously, even successfully pushing for the removal of Secretary of State Robert Lansing after he conducted a series of Cabinet meetings without the President (or <mask> herself) present. She also refused to allow the British ambassador, Edward Grey, an opportunity to present his credentials to the president unless Grey dismissed an aide who was known to have made demeaning comments about her. She assisted President <mask> in filling out paperwork, and would often add new notes or suggestions. She was made privy to classified information, and was entrusted with the responsibility of encoding and decoding encrypted messages. Controversy
In My Memoir, published in 1939, <mask> justified her self-proclaimed role of presidential "steward," arguing that her actions on behalf of <mask>'s presidency were sanctioned by <mask>'s doctors; that they told her to do so for her husband's mental health.<mask> maintained that she was simply a vessel of information for President <mask>; however, others in the White House did not trust her. Some believed that the marriage between <mask> and Woodrow was hasty and controversial. Others did not approve of the marriage because they believed that Woodrow and <mask> had begun communicating with each other while Woodrow was still married to <mask>. In 1921, Joe Tumulty (<mask>'s chief of staff) wrote: "No public man ever had a more devoted helpmate, and no wife a husband more dependent upon her sympathetic understanding of his problems ... Mrs. <mask>'s strong physical constitution, combined with strength of character and purpose, has sustained her under a strain which must have wrecked most women". In subsequent decades, however, scholars were far more critical in their assessment of <mask>'s tenure as First Lady. Phyllis Lee Levin concluded that the effectiveness of <mask>'s policies were unnecessarily hampered by his wife, "a woman of narrow views and formidable determination". Judith Weaver opined that <mask> underestimated her own role in <mask>'s presidency.While she may not have made critical decisions, she did influence both domestic and international policy given her role as presidential gatekeeper. Dr. Howard Markel, a medical historian, has taken issue with <mask>'s claim of a benign "stewardship". Markel has opined that <mask> "was, essentially, the nation's chief executive until her husband's second term concluded in March of 1921". While a widow of moderate education for her time, she nevertheless attempted to protect her husband and his legacy, if not the presidency, even if it meant exceeding her role as First Lady. This period of her life was dramatized in the 2021 historical fiction podcast Edith! starring Rosamund Pike. Later years
In 1921, <mask> retired with the former president to their home on S Street NW in Washington, D.C., nursing him until his death three years later.In subsequent years, she headed the Woman's National Democratic Club's board of governors when the club opened formally in 1924 and published her memoir in 1939. On December 8, 1941, one day after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, Franklin D. Roosevelt asked Congress to declare war, taking pains to draw a link with <mask>'s April 1917 declaration of war. <mask> <mask> was present during Roosevelt's address to Congress. Twenty years later, in 1961, Mrs. <mask> attended the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy. <mask> died of congestive heart failure at age 89, on December 28, 1961. She was to have been the guest of honor that day at the dedication ceremony for the Woodrow Wilson Bridge across the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia, on what would have been her husband's 105th birthday. She was buried next to the president at the Washington National Cathedral.Legacy
<mask> left her home to the National Trust for Historic Preservation, with a condition that it be made into a museum honoring her husband. The Woodrow Wilson House opened as a museum in 1964. To the Library of Congress, Mrs. <mask> donated first President <mask>'s presidential papers in 1939, then his personal library in 1946. The <mask> Bolling <mask> Birthplace Foundation & Museum in Wytheville, Virginia was established in 2008. The foundation has stabilized the First Lady's birthplace and childhood home; it had been identified in May 2013 by Preservation Virginia as an Endangered Historic Site. The foundation's programs and exhibits aspire to build public awareness "honoring Mrs. <mask>'s name, the contributions she made to this country, the institution of the presidency, and for the example she sets for women." The Foundation shares First Lady Mrs. <mask>'s journey "From Wytheville to The White House".In 2015, a former historic bank building in Wytheville, located on Main Street, was dedicated to the First Lady and bears her name. Adapted as the Bolling Wilson Hotel, it serves Wytheville residents and travelers alike. References

Bibliography
Caroli, Betty Boyd. First Ladies: From Martha Washington to Michelle Obama. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010. Foster, Gaines. Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause, and the Emergence of the New South, 1865 to 1913.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1988. Gould, Lewis L. American First Ladies: Their Lives and Their Legacy. Florence, Ky.: Taylor and Francis, 2001. Hagood, Wesley O. Presidential Sex: From the Founding Fathers to Bill Clinton. Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Pub., 1998. Hatch, Alden.<mask> <mask>. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1961. Hazelgrove, William Elliott. Madam President : The Secret Presidency of <mask>. Washington, D.C.: Regency Publishing, 2016. Klapthor, Margaret Brown and Black, Allida M. The First Ladies. Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association, 2001.Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. Indians & English: Facing Off in Early America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000. Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. Settling with the Indians: the Meeting of English and Indian Cultures in America, 1580–1640. New York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980. Kupperman, Karen Ordahl.The Atlantic in World History. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012. Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. The Jamestown Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Markel, Howard. "When a secret president ran the country," PBS News Hour (October 2, 2015)
Miller, Kristie.Ellen and <mask>: <mask>'s First Ladies. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2010. Lamb, Brian. Who's Buried in Grant's Tomb? : A Tour of Presidential Gravesites. New York: Public Affairs, 2010. Levin, Phyllis Lee.<mask> and Woodrow: The Wilson White House. New York: Scribner, 2001. Maynard, W. Barksdale. <mask>: Princeton to the Presidency. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008. Mayo, <mask>. The Smithsonian Book of the First Ladies: Their Lives, Times, and Issues.New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1994. McCallops, James S. <mask> Galt <mask>: The Unintended President. New York: Nova History Publications, 2003. Nordhult, J.W. Schulte. Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1991.Phifer, Gregg. Speech Monographs, Vol. 38 Issue 4 (Nov 1971). Robertson, Wyndham. Pocahontas: Alias Matoaka, and Her Descendants through Her Marriage at Jamestown, Virginia, in April 1614, with John Rolph, Gentleman. Richmond, VA: J W Randolph & English, 1887. Schneider, Dorothy and Schneider, Carl J.First Ladies: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Facts On File, 2010. Townshend, Camilla. Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma. New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 2004. Tribble, Edwin. ed.A President in Love : The Courtship Letters of <mask> and <mask> Galt. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1981. Tumulty, Joseph Patrick. <mask> as I Know Him. New York, NY:, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1921. Waldrup, Carole Chandler. Wives of the American Presidents.Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2006. Weaver, Judith L. "<mask>, <mask> as First Lady: A Study in the Power of Personality, 1919–1920," Presidential Studies Quarterly 15, No. 1 (Winter, 1985), pp. 51–76
Wertheimer, Molly Meijer. Inventing a Voice: The Rhetoric of American First Ladies of the Twentieth Century. Lanham, Md. : Rowman & Littlefield, 2004.<mask>, <mask> Galt. My Memoir. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1939. Young, Dwight and Johnson, Margaret. Dear First Lady: Letters to the White House: From the Collections of the Library of Congress & National Archives. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2008. External links

<mask> <mask> Birthplace

<mask> at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image

1872 births
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19th-century American women
20th-century American women
American people of English descent
American people of Powhatan descent
Bolling family of Virginia
Burials at Washington National Cathedral
First Ladies of the United States
People from Wytheville, Virginia
<mask> family
Washington, D.C. Democrats
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title: Robert Furman

texts:
<mask> (August 21, 1915 – October 14, 2008) was a civil engineer who during World War II was the chief of foreign intelligence for the Manhattan Engineer District directing espionage against the German nuclear energy project. He participated in the Alsos Mission, which conducted a series of operations with the intent to place all uranium in Europe into Allied hands, and at the end of the war rounded up German atomic scientists to keep them out of the Soviet Union. He personally escorted half of the uranium-235 necessary for the Little Boy atomic bomb to the Pacific island of Tinian. He was also a key figure overseeing the construction of The Pentagon building. After the war he founded Furman Builders Inc., a construction company that  built hundreds of structures, including the Potomac Mills shopping mall in Woodbridge, Virginia. Early life
<mask> was born on August 21, 1915, in Trenton, New Jersey, one of five sons of William and <mask>. His father was a bank teller, and his mother worked as a riveter during World War II.He attended Princeton University and graduated in 1937 with a degree in civil engineering. He then worked for the Pennsylvania Railroad and a construction company in New York. World War II
In December 1940, <mask> was activated as a member of the United States Army Reserve and assigned to the Quartermaster Corps Construction Division, where he worked for Colonel Leslie R. Groves, Jr., supervising the day-to-day construction of The Pentagon. When the building was completed in 1943, Groves was reassigned to the "Manhattan Project" and brought his aide, <mask>, with him. In August 1943 <mask> was put in charge of an intelligence effort formed by Groves in response to concerns raised by atomic bomb project scientists about the German nuclear energy project. As director of intelligence, <mask> was responsible for ascertaining the progress the Germans were making. In December 1943, Groves sent <mask> to Britain to discuss the establishment of a London Liaison Office for the Manhattan Project and the British government, and to confer over coordinating the intelligence effort.<mask> sent the spy Moe Berg to Switzerland to meet the head of the German project, Werner Heisenberg. After chatting with Heisenberg at a cocktail party, Berg concluded that the Germans were a long way behind the Allied effort. <mask> travelled to Rome in June 1944, where he interviewed Italian scientists about the German project. When the Alsos Mission found documentation in office of Union Minière in Antwerp that indicated over 1,000 tons of refined uranium had been sent to Germany, but about 150 tons still remained at Olen, Belgium, Groves sent <mask> back to Europe with orders to secure the Olen cache. The Alsos Mission located 68 tons there, but another 80 tons was missing, having been shipped to France in 1940 ahead of the German invasion of Belgium. Groves had the Olen uranium shipped to England and, ultimately, to the United States. Documentation indicated that the missing uranium had been sent to Toulouse.An Alsos Mission team under Boris Pash's command reached Toulouse on October 1 and inspected a French Army arsenal with a Geiger counter. When the needle jumped near some barrels, they were inspected and found to be the 31 tons of uranium from Belgium. The 3342nd Quartermaster Truck Company was released from the Red Ball Express to retrieve the shipment. The barrels were collected and transported to Marseilles, where <mask> supervised their loading on a ship bound for the United States. In April 1945, Furman participated in Operation Harborage. The Alsos Mission and the 1269th Engineer Combat Battalion occupied  Haigerloch, where they found and destroyed a German experimental nuclear reactor, and recovered uranium and heavy water. The Alsos Mission took Heisenberg into custody on May 2.<mask> supervised his detention and that of nine other German scientists, who were taken to Rheims, then Versailles, and finally to the country estate of Farm Hall in England, where their conversations were monitored and where they could not defect to the Soviet Union. In July 1945, <mask> personally escorted half of the uranium-235 necessary for the Little Boy atomic bomb to the Pacific island of Tinian. Accompanied by Captain James F. Nolan, a radiologist with Project Alberta, <mask> set out by car from Santa Fe to Albuquerque on July 14, then travelled by air to Hamilton Field, California. The men boarded the cruiser  at Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, and crossed the Pacific to Tinian, arriving on July 26. A few days after leaving Tinian, the Indianapolis was torpedoed and sunk by a Japanese submarine with the loss of over 800 men. Later life
<mask> left the army the year after the war ended and founded Furman Builders Inc. in Rockville, Maryland. The firm built hundreds of homes, schools and commercial buildings, including the Potomac Mills shopping mall in Woodbridge, Virginia, the Metropolitan Baptist Church in Washington, D.C., and the United States embassy in Nicaragua.He married Mary Eddy in 1952. They had four children: a son, David, and three daughters, Martha Keating, Julia Costello and Serena Furman. For the most part, <mask> kept quiet about his exploits during the war. He served as president of the local Rotary Club and sang baritone in a barbershop quartet. He retired in 1993, and died of metastatic melanoma on October 14, 2008 at Buckingham's Choice retirement community in Adamstown, Maryland at the age of 93. Notes

References

External links
2008 Video Interview with <mask> by Cynthia C. Kelly Voices of the Manhattan Project

1915 births
2008 deaths
Deaths from melanoma
Manhattan Project people
Businesspeople from Trenton, New Jersey
Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
United States Army officers
American military engineers
United States Army personnel of World War II
Engineers from New Jersey
20th-century American engineers
Deaths from cancer in Maryland
20th-century American businesspeople
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title: James Chuter Ede

texts:
<mask>, <mask>,  (11 September 1882 – 11 November 1965), was a British teacher, trade unionist and Labour politician. He served as Home Secretary under Prime Minister Clement Attlee from 1945 to 1951, becoming the longest-serving Home Secretary of the 20th century. Early life
<mask> was born in Epsom, Surrey, the son of <mask>, a grocer of Nonconformist religious convictions, and his wife Agnes Mary (née <mask>). He was educated at Epsom National School, Dorking High School for Boys, Battersea Pupil Teachers' Centre, and Christ's College, Cambridge, where he studied natural sciences. He attended Cambridge through a Surrey county scholarship, which did not cover his living expenses, and he ran out of funds at university, dropping out without a degree at the end of his second year. Either through his family background or by a decision when a student, he became a Unitarian, and his religion consumed much of his time and effort later in life. Had he graduated from Cambridge, Ede might have pursued a career as a science master in the grammar or public school systems, but instead he became an assistant master at council elementary schools in Surrey from 1905 to 1914, mainly in Mortlake.He took an active part in the Surrey County Teachers’ Association (SCTA), part of the National Union of Teachers. He was active in the Liberal Party, and in 1908 was elected as a member of Epsom Urban District Council, as the youngest councillor in Surrey, and probably the youngest urban district councillor in the country. In 1914, <mask> stood for election to Surrey County Council and, as a council employee, had to resign his teaching post before the poll. He was elected, and never worked as a teacher again. Much of his council work concentrated on education, as the SCTA wanted teacher representation on the Education Committee, to which, after a struggle, he was appointed. During the First World War he served in the East Surrey Regiment and Royal Engineers, reaching the rank of Acting Regimental Sergeant Major. He spent most of the War in France, probably working with poison gas.Early political career
During the war, <mask> joined the Labour Party, having been critical for some time of senior Liberal figures and of wartime establishment attitudes, and believing Labour better represented working people. He was selected as Labour candidate for Epsom in 1918, but was soundly defeated by a candidate who had been given the "Coalition Coupon". He was appointed assistant secretary of the SCTA, which provided some Union sponsorship for his county council work. He retained this post until he became a Government minister, and he gradually took over running the Association, as well as dominating education policy in Surrey, a county where population increases brought about the need for much new school building. <mask> chaired Epsom UDC in 1920. <mask> was first elected to the House of Commons as Member of Parliament (MP) for Mitcham, at a by-election in March 1923, which caused a considerable stir in the media. However, he lost the seat in December at the 1923 general election, and was defeated there again in 1924.<mask> eventually left Epsom UDC in 1927, having lived for some years in Mitcham. He returned to Parliament at the 1929 general election, for the Tyneside seat of South Shields. In the short-lived Labour government of 1929-31, <mask> was appointed in 1930 to chair a government committee on educational standards in private schools. This reported in 1932, and <mask> gradually became the Labour Party's main specialist in the field of education, following the retirement from active politics of Charles Trevelyan, whose encouragement Ede had received, including through this appointment. <mask> had again lost his seat in Parliament at the 1931 election. He rejoined Epsom UDC (by now Epsom and Ewell UDC) in 1933, and chaired Surrey CC the same year. In 1934 <mask> became chairman of the London and Home Counties Joint Electricity Authority, of which he had been a member since 1928.He held this post until 1940. <mask> was re-elected to Parliament for South Shields at the 1935 general election, and held the seat until his retirement from the Commons at the 1964 general election. When Epsom and Ewell were awarded borough status in 1937, he was chosen as the "Charter Mayor", and led the activities celebrating the new Borough’s charter. He was appointed a deputy lieutenant for the county of Surrey. <mask> also became chairman of the British Electrical Development Association in 1937. <mask> showed great interest in the sciences and the uses to which they could be put, being also a keen photographer. He also contributed greatly to environmental protection in Surrey, encouraging extension of green belt, the purchase of property to prevent development, and building bypasses to restrict traffic in town centres.Education Minister
In the wartime coalition, <mask> was appointed on 15 May 1940 to junior ministerial office as Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education, and served under two Conservative Presidents, first Herwald Ramsbotham, and then RA Butler. He adopted the work initiated by the Board’s civil servants under Sir Maurice Holmes to reform education and, with Butler, published a white paper on the subject. This covered several areas, including raising the school-leaving age to 15 or 16, abolishing parallel systems of elementary and secondary schooling from age 11, whether there should be separate schools for pupils with different aptitudes, how to assimilate public schools into the system, and the ‘dual system’ of state and religious schools in the public sector. With Butler, <mask> steered the Education Act 1944 through Parliament, and it is clear that his detailed knowledge of state education, which Butler lacked, was crucial to the success of this measure. The Act set the school-leaving age at 15 with effect from April 1947, with the long-term aim of raising it to 16, and made secondary education free, abolishing the term "elementary school". It established nursery schools and classes, along with provision for children needing special educational treatment. It provided for further education, medical treatment in schools, school meals and milk, and social, religious and physical education.Independent schools were put under a programme of inspection, a compulsory act of worship introduced, and the rôle and requirements of local education authorities made clear. There remained considerable cross-party respect between <mask> and Butler during their various later political activities. Home Secretary and later career
Although he had expected to be appointed Minister of Education following the post-war Labour victory, <mask> was appointed Home Secretary in the 1945 Labour government of Clement Attlee, and remained in that post throughout. He was concurrently Leader of the House of Commons in 1951. He was responsible for restructuring several public services, through the Police Act 1946, the Fire Services Act 1947, the Civil Defence Act 1948, and the Justices of the Peace Act 1949. In addition, he was closely involved in the Children Act 1948, the British Nationality Act 1948, the Representation of the People Act 1948, and the Criminal Justice Act 1948. He used his experience in local government and education to decide the right level of local authority control for services he reconstituted – the Fire Service, Civil Defence and the police, which he organised into a more professional force, with training centres developing consistent standards.Inheriting child care services and magistrates’ courts operating piecemeal throughout the country, his reforms set up consistent procedures and practices. Changes to the electoral system in the Representation of the People Act finally established the principle of "one person, one vote" and single-member constituencies, for which in <mask>'s view there had been pressure from the time of the Civil War and through the era of Chartism to his own period. He abolished university seats, along with the business vote, two-member constituencies and the privileged electoral status of the City of London. The British Nationality Act established the single status of "Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies", without regard to race or colour, so that all citizens of the UK and its colonies (there were few independent Commonwealth members at the time) continued to be equally able to live and work in the UK. The Criminal Justice Act abolished the sentences of hard labour, penal servitude and whipping, and established new arrangements for probation and the treatment of young offenders. It also ended the right of peers to be tried by the House of Lords. Attempts to amend it to abolish capital punishment were unsuccessful (see below).Ede established the Lynskey tribunal under Sir George Lynskey in 1948 to investigate allegations of corruption among ministers and civil servants. Changes he also brought about included ending the tradition that the Home Secretary attends royal births, which started following the rumours that <mask> II’s son was an impostor, smuggled into the royal birth chamber. Ede helped change the date of the Grand National horse race to a Saturday, and proposed that Remembrance Sunday be moved to a date in the summer, reflecting the different days on which the World Wars ended (this was not taken up). He arranged the naturalisation of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and was involved in the choice of Mountbatten as his British surname. <mask>'s diaries (largely neither transcribed nor published) give an account of his wartime activities from 1941 to 1945 in great detail, as well as shorter memoirs from his time as Home Secretary, which illustrate the wide range of duties and concerns which went with that office in the mid-20th century. At the suggestion of an historian who used them, with his permission, in her research, he left most of them to the British Museum, of which he became a trustee – initially ex officio as Home Secretary, and then in his own right when he lost office. <mask> ceased to be in government when Labour lost the 1951 United Kingdom general election, and pursued other interests during his remaining 15 years in opposition.As well as his British Museum work, he became an active member of the BBC’s General Advisory Council, and held a leading rôle in the Unitarian church. In 1964 he left the Commons and was created a life peer as <mask>-<mask>, of Epsom in the County of Surrey on 1 January 1965. Unitarian Church
When Home Secretary, Ede expanded his activities in the Unitarian Church, addressing its General Assembly in 1947, and arranging for the Church to be represented at the Cenotaph memorial on Remembrance Sunday. He also spoke to various Unitarian congregations, and increased this activity after he left office in 1951. He attended congresses of the International Association for Liberal Christianity and Religious Freedom (IARF), and in 1955 was elected its President. In that connection, he paid more than one visit to North America. From 1957 to 1958, <mask> was President of the Unitarian General Assembly, and for a year he travelled tirelessly around the country, addressing different congregations.Capital punishment
In 1938, <mask> voted for a motion in favour of abolishing the death penalty for murder. This did not result in any change in the law but, when he was Home Secretary, his own Criminal Justice Bill in 1948 was successfully amended by MPs who wished to abolish hanging. However, by this time <mask>, in line with the policy of the Attlee Government, opposed the reform. A person sentenced to hang was entitled to appeal to the Monarch for mercy, so in practice the Home Secretary, to whom the task was delegated, decided whether each execution should proceed. For a while he agreed to commute every death sentence to life imprisonment, but the House of Lords then rejected the amendment, and the Criminal Justice Act 1948 did not abolish capital punishment. He permitted hangings to continue. In 1950 Timothy Evans was convicted of murdering his own daughter, and Ede approved his death sentence.In 1953, after John Christie had been convicted and hanged for a murder committed in the same house (and it was clear he had committed several others), <mask> eventually concluded that he had made the wrong decision in regard to Evans. He took part in the campaign for a pardon for Evans, and ended his career supporting the cause of abolition. In November 1965, capital punishment for murder was abolished by the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965, and Evans's body was transferred to consecrated ground, shortly before Ede's death. His campaign was described as "the last struggle of a liberal nonconformist of the old school". Family
Ede married Lilian Mary, daughter of Richard Williams, in 1917. They had no children, and she died in 1948, having been ill for some years. Lord Chuter-Ede survived her by 17 years and died at Ewell, Surrey, in November 1965, aged 83.Memorials
Chuter Ede Education Centre in South Shields is named after him. It was formerly a comprehensive school. There are also a ward in Epsom Hospital and a primary school near Newark-on-Trent which bear his name. The Labour Party headquarters in South Shields is at Ede House, opened and named shortly before he ceased to be its MP. See also
List of Unitarians, Universalists, and Unitarian Universalists
Home Secretary

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1882 births
1965 deaths
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
British Army personnel of World War I
Members of Surrey County Council
Deputy Lieutenants of Surrey
East Surrey Regiment soldiers
English Unitarians
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