title: Rusty Wallace

texts:
Russell William "<mask><mask>. (born August 14, 1956) is an American former NASCAR racing driver. He has won the 1984 NASCAR Cup series Rookie of the Year and the 1989 NASCAR Winston Cup Championship. Over the years, <mask> has been inducted in the NASCAR Hall of Fame (2013), the International Motorsports Hall of Fame (2013), the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America (2014) and the National Motorsports Press Association Hall of Fame (2010). Racing career

Early career
Prior to joining the NASCAR circuit, <mask> made a name for himself racing around in Florida, winning a pair of local track championships and more than 200 short track races. In 1979, he won United States Auto Club's (USAC) Stock Car Rookie of the Year honors, finishing third in points behind A. J. Foyt and Bay Darnell. In 1981, he finished second in the USAC Stock Cars championship standings, behind Joe Ruttman. In 1983, he won the American Speed Association (ASA) championship while competing against some of NASCAR's future stars like Mark Martin, Alan Kulwicki, and Dick Trickle.NASCAR career

In 1980, <mask> made his NASCAR debut at Atlanta, driving the No. 16 Chevrolet for Roger Penske. He ended up finishing second in the race after qualifying seventh. He made nine NASCAR appearances over the next three years, finishing inside the Top 10 in only one more race. In 1984, <mask> joined the Winston Cup circuit full-time, winning NASCAR Rookie of the Year honors and finishing 14th in the final points standings. He drove the No. 88 Gatorade-sponsored Pontiac for Cliff Stewart with a best finish of fourth, along with two fifth-place finishes and four further Top 10s.<mask> stayed with Cliff Stewart for 1985 but this time, he drove the No. 2 Alugard-sponsored Pontiac. In 29 races, <mask> had two Top 5s and eight Top 10s. Blue Max Racing
In 1986, <mask> switched teams to the No. 27 Alugard-sponsored Pontiac for Raymond Beadle's Blue Max Racing team. His first win came at Bristol Motor Speedway on April 6, 1986. He also won at Martinsville on September 21.He finished the year with two wins, four Top 5s, and 16 Top 10s in 29 races. He finished sixth in the points, making this his first Top 10 finish in the standings. In 1987, <mask> gained sponsorship from Kodiak tobacco, establishing the No. 27 Kodiak-sponsored Pontiac livery his early career is most remembered for. He scored victories at Watkins Glen and Riverside, as well as his first series pole at Michigan in June. These results were backed up with nine Top 5s and 16 Top 10s in 29 races. He finished fifth in the final points standings.During practice at Bristol on August 27, 1988, <mask>'s car lost control and slammed on the turn 4 wall before barrel rolling five times on the straightaway. It took rescue officials - including Dr. Jerry Punch - 15 minutes to extract him from the wrecked car. According to <mask>, he nearly choked to death from a ham sandwich he ate before practice. Despite this near-death experience, <mask> developed his career further in 1988, scoring six victories (including four of the final five races of the year). His wins were at Michigan, Charlotte, North Wilkesboro, Rockingham, the final race ever at Riverside, and the season finale at Atlanta. With these six wins as well as 19 Top 5s and four further Top 10s, he finished second to Bill Elliott by 24 points. In 1989, <mask> won the NASCAR Winston Cup Championship with crew chief Barry Dodson, by finishing 15th at the Atlanta Journal 500 at Atlanta to beat out close friend and fierce rival Dale Earnhardt (the race winner) by 12 points.<mask> also won The Winston in a controversial fashion, by spinning out Darrell Waltrip on the last lap. In 1990, Raymond Beadle switched sponsors, to Miller Genuine Draft. The four-year sponsorship deal was tied specifically to <mask>, meaning it went to whichever team <mask> went. The 1989 championship year was reportedly marked with acrimony between him and Beadle. However, <mask> was stuck with the team for 1990 due to his contract. <mask> had 18 wins for Beadle. Penske Racing
In 1991, <mask> took the Miller sponsorship with him to Penske Racing, and he continued in the No.2 Miller Genuine Draft-sponsored Pontiac. He also won the 1991 IROC championship. While 1992 only carried him one win, the win at the Miller 400 was satisfying;  it was the first win for <mask> in a car which arguably was his best known chassis for his career, one affectionately known as "Midnight" after the win. With this nickname, the car raced for six seasons, carrying various race wins before being taken out of the fleet in 1997. The 1993 season was arguably his most successful season despite two major accidents at Daytona and Talladega, in which his car went airborne and flipped several times. He won the second race of the season on February 28, 1993, at North Carolina Motor Speedway. The season was also a sad one, as <mask>'s friend and reigning NASCAR Champion Alan Kulwicki was killed flying into Bristol in April 1993.Because of this, when <mask> won the race at Bristol, in respect to Alan Kulwicki, he did a "Polish victory lap"—turning his car around and driving around the track the wrong way, as made famous by Kulwicki. In every race <mask> won that year he performed a "Kulwicki victory lap". He won all three races in April (Bristol on April 4, North Wilkesboro on April 18, and Martinsville on April 25). Also, he won the first ever race at the New Hampshire Speedway, starting 33rd, on July 11. In 1993, he won 10 of the 30 races, but finished second in the final points standings, 80 points behind Earnhardt. He ended the season strong, finishing in the Top 3 in all but two of the final 10 races of the season. Penske switched to Fords in 1994.In 1996, sponsorship changed from Miller Genuine Draft to Miller beer sponsorship. In 1997, Miller changed the team's sponsorship to Miller Lite, replacing the black and gold with a blue and white scheme. In 1998, <mask> won the Bud Shootout at Daytona, a non-points race for the previous years pole winners and past winners of the race. It was the first win for Ford's new Taurus, and <mask>'s only victory at NASCAR's premier track (as well as his only victory in any restrictor plate race) in a Cup car. In 2000, he secured his 50th career win at Bristol, becoming the 10th driver in NASCAR to win 50+ races. He is also the only driver in NASCAR history to win his 1st and 50th career victories at the same track, and in the same race. He would also score 3 more wins at Pocono, Michigan, and the night race at Bristol (season sweep at Bristol).He finished seventh in the final points standings after some inconsistency in the championship race. The next year, he won at California for his 54th career win. He won on what would have been Dale Earnhardt's 50th birthday and paid tribute to him with an Earnhardt flag. <mask> almost won the 2002 Sharpie 500 after being bumped out of the way by his rival Jeff Gordon. In 2003, Penske Racing switched to Dodge and appropriately, in 2004, <mask> won his 55th (and final) race on a short track: the 2004 spring Martinsville Speedway race. It was also the last win for the track under the ownership of the H. Clay Earles Trust; the death of Mary Weatherford (matriarch of the trust) forced the Trust to sell the track a month later. On August 30, 2004, <mask> announced that the 2005 NASCAR NEXTEL Cup season would be his last as a full-time driver.Although at the time the possibility remained that he may have continued to run a limited schedule after the 2005 season—as semi-retirees Bill Elliott and Terry Labonte also have done, <mask>'s current broadcasting contract forbids him from doing so. Kurt Busch would replace <mask> in the number 2 Miller Lite-sponsored Dodge in 2006–2010. In 2011, Brad Keselowski began driving the number 2. In 2006, <mask> returned to his General Motors roots when he raced a Crawford-Pontiac sportscar, painted black and carrying the familiar stylized No. 2. The car was sponsored by Callaway Golf, in the Rolex 24 at Daytona, teamed with Danica Patrick and Allan McNish, In 2008, his Nationwide Series cars switched from Dodge to Chevrolet. To date, <mask> has had 55 NASCAR Cup wins, which is tied for 8th on NASCAR's all-time wins list.They include victories at Charlotte as well as the series' last three road courses (Riverside, Infineon and Watkins Glen), but none at Daytona, Darlington, Indianapolis or Talladega. He has the most short track wins in NASCAR history with 34, and therefore he is considered among the best short track drivers in NASCAR history. He retired after the 2005 season with a 14.4 career average finish. In 2014, <mask> ran at Daytona for testing before the 2014 Daytona 500 as part of a promotion for Miller Lite's 40th anniversary, marking the first time a NASCAR Hall of Famer has driven in a NASCAR test. When asked about the testing, <mask> stated, "It all started at Homestead. I was standing between the 48 (Jimmie Johnson) and 2 (Brad Keselowski) cars joking around and those guys were egging me on to get back in a car and when Brad got wind of it, he called me up two weeks later and was serious about it and Roger (Penske) was all for it. Everyone in the world has been on me to test.‘Why haven’t you been back in a car?’ This here kind of got me." Major crashes
<mask>'s legacy, besides being a close rival of Dale Earnhardt, was a number of severe wrecks he endured, especially at restrictor plate racetracks. The first one happened in 1983, when <mask> was attempting the Daytona 500 through the Gatorade Twin 125's. He was tapped by Rick Wilson, got airborne, and went on a spectacular series of flips that left him hospitalized. His next flip came at Bristol Motor Speedway in 1988. What started it was unclear, but <mask> somehow managed to climb the wall and did a barrel roll. The roof of his car caved in.ESPN commentator Dr. Jerry Punch was the first responder, and possibly saved his life. In 1993, <mask> had two massive flips – both at plate tracks. The first was at the 1993 Daytona 500, where he was tapped by the crashing cars of Michael Waltrip and Derrike Cope, and barrel rolled multiple times in the grass on the back straightaway several feet in the air. Months later, at Talladega, racing to the checkered flag, <mask> was tagged from behind by Dale Earnhardt, turned backwards, and flew into the air before violently flipping in the grass past the start-finish line, breaking a wrist (the area where <mask>'s car wrecked has since been paved over). Earnhardt was visibly shaken by the incident and did make sure <mask> was okay by checking on him after the race had concluded. <mask> finished 80 points behind Earnhardt in the final points for 1993. He also had an airborne crash in his last Gatorade Twin in 2005 when Dave Blaney clipped his right rear tire and sent his car off the ground.The car never turned over though. Other racing
On April 1, 2015, <mask> tested a Stadium Super Truck owned by former NASCAR driver Robby Gordon, and the following day, he announced he would race in the series' X Games round in Austin. After finishing last in his heat race, he was relegated to the last-chance qualifier. During the LCQ, <mask> rolled his truck, but continued running; he finished sixth in the event but failed to qualify for the feature. In 2016, <mask> returned to racing when he competed in the Ferrari Finali Mondiali at Daytona. Driving for "Ferrari of Houston", <mask> finished tenth overall and third in the Professional, North America class. Broadcast career

On January 25, 2006, it was announced that <mask> would cover auto racing events for ESPN and ABC.Despite <mask>'s lack of open-wheel racing experience, his assignments began with the IndyCar Series and included the Indianapolis 500 (in a perhaps forgivable lapse, he described a thrilling battle on the last lap as "The most exciting Daytona 500 ever!"). He joined the NASCAR broadcasting team for both networks when they started coverage of the sport in 2007. He signed a six-year deal with ESPN in 2006. He returned to commentate for the 2007 Indianapolis 500 won by Dario Franchitti. He co-hosted NASCAR Angels with Shannon Wiseman. <mask> worked with ESPN from 2007-2014 until their contract with NASCAR expired. Since the 2015 Daytona 500, <mask> has worked with Motor Racing Network as a booth announcer.Car owner

Up until 2012, <mask> owned and operated Rusty Wallace Racing, which fielded the No. 62 Pilot Flying J Toyota Camry driven by Michael Annett and the No. 66 5 Hour Energy Toyota Camry driven by his son <mask>. This operation was temporarily suspended due to the loss of sponsorship. However, <mask> confirmed on his Twitter account that the team would return for the Nationwide Series race at Richmond in May 2012 in a former Roush Fenway Racing Ford Mustang, powered by a Roush-Yates engine in the No. 4 sponsored by LoanMax Title Loans. Due to lack of sponsorship in 2013, <mask>'s team ran one race in a No.66 entry finishing 25th at Charlotte, then closed at the conclusion of the season. <mask>'s brothers, Kenny and Mike, also used to race on the NASCAR circuit. He and his wife Patti have three children — Greg, Katie, and Steven. Stephen raced full-time in the NASCAR Xfinity Series and made his Cup Series debut during the 2011 Daytona 500, making him the fourth member of his family to compete in the Daytona 500 and in NASCAR, behind the Bodines (Geoff, Brett, and Todd), Pettys (Lee, Richard, and Kyle), Earnhardts (Dale, Kerry and Dale Jr.), and the Allisons (Bobby, Donnie, and Davey). <mask>'s father, <mask> Sr., died on October 30, 2011, at age 77. Iowa Speedway
In late 2005, <mask> broke ground on his "Signature Design Speedway" in Newton, Iowa. Iowa Speedway had its first race on September 15, 2006, and hosted many races in 2007 including an IndyCar race.The track is noted for its structural similarity to Richmond International Raceway, where <mask> has won six times. Iowa Speedway hosted its first NASCAR Nationwide Series race in 2009. Endorsements
2003 – Callaway Golf – Callaway Golf Signs NASCAR Driver <mask> to Multiyear Endorsement and Licensing Agreement. 2009 – U.S. Fidelis – USfidelis TV Campaign Debuts, Featuring NASCAR's Steve and <mask>. The March 2010 bankruptcy of US Fidelis lists Rusty Wallace Racing as a creditor owed $535,439. 2009 – Lista International Corporation – Legendary NASCAR Driver <mask> Endorses Lista Products in New Online Video

Other media
<mask> made a cameo appearance in the movie Days of Thunder. He and his brothers all appeared in the Electronic Arts video game NASCAR Rumble.Mike was featured as a Craftsman Truck Series driver, driving the No. 2 ASE Dodge (no specific car makes for the Trucks;  the real truck was a Dodge at the time), Kenny was featured in the game driving the No. 55 Square D Chevrolet (although the game's commercial showed him driving the No. 81 Square D Ford) & <mask> was featured in the game driving his No. 2 Ford, with the exception that the Miller Lite stickers are replaced by Penske Racing stickers similar to current Penske Championship Racing driver Brad Keselowski, whose sponsor is censored by NASCAR's ban on wireless telephone advertising. In the video for “Nowadays” by Lil Skies featuring Landon Cube, Cube can be seen wearing a vintage <mask> jacket. Career achievements

Awards and honors
 1988, 1993 Richard Petty Driver of the Year
 2005 NASCAR Illustrated Person of the Year Award recipient
 2005 Myers Brothers Award recipient
 2014 Inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America

Records and milestones
With 55 career points-paying victories, <mask> is ranked ninth among the all-time NASCAR Cup Series winners; he is ranked seventh (in a tie with Bobby Allison) among those who have competed during the sport's modern era (1972–present).Motorsports career results

NASCAR
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) Nextel Cup Series

Daytona 500

Busch Series

Craftsman Truck Series

International Race of Champions
(key) (Bold – Pole position. * – Most laps led.) References

External links

 <mask> at NASCAR.com
 <mask> at ESPN
 June 2005 interview with <mask>
 <mask> Fans Club

Living people
1956 births
People from Arnold, Missouri
Racing drivers from Missouri
NASCAR drivers
NASCAR Cup Series champions
USAC Stock Car drivers
American Speed Association drivers
International Race of Champions drivers
Stadium Super Trucks drivers
X Games athletes
NASCAR team owners
Team Penske
Motorsport announcers
<mask> family
American radio sports announcers
American television sports announcers
ESPN people
Team Penske drivers

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title: Boyce Watkins

type: original

texts:
<mask><mask> (born June 20, 1971) is an American author, political analyst, and social commentator. During his academic career, <mask> was a visiting scholar with the Barbara Jordan - Mickey Leland School Of Public Affairs at Texas Southern University. <mask> has been a visiting fellow at the Shanghai University of Finance and Economics and the Centre for European Economic Research in Mannheim, Germany. <mask> is a member, by donation, of the College Sports Research Institute at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He has authored several financial advice books, including Financial Lovemaking 101: Merging Assets with Your Partner in Ways that Feel Good, Black American Money, as well as What if George Bush were a Black Man?. His work has also appeared in such publications as the Journal of Small Business Management and the Journal of Economics and Business. In addition to publishing scholarly articles on finance and investing, <mask> is an advocate for education, economic empowerment, and social justice, and has made regular appearances in various national media outlets, including CNN, Good Morning America, MSNBC, Fox News, BET, NPR, Essence, USA Today, Today, ESPN, The Tom Joyner Morning Show, and CBS Sports.He was also a frequent guest on The Wendy Williams Experience radio program, and remains a frequent contributor to the Grio and TheLoop21.com. Early life

<mask> was born in Louisville, Kentucky, to a teen mother. His father left shortly after his birth and only spoke to his son three times. <mask>' mother, Robin Couch, married when <mask> was 3 years old to <mask>, a young Vietnam veteran from Louisville. The family struggled for years but worked hard for economic advancement. <mask>' mother encouraged her children to be the best they could be at anything they did. Larry, who would become <mask>' adopted father, was a tough, stern head of the household who joined the local police force at the age of 30.<mask> struggled in school, earning very poor grades all throughout. His teachers placed him in special education and told him he was not smart enough to go to college. "When I look back on those years as a black boy in a racist state like Kentucky, I get angry", says <mask>. "I almost lost the future that God had in store for me." In high school, <mask> was captain of his track team. He also had a job working for Taco Bell, along with other fast food restaurants. <mask>' teenage years were tough.His father was a good provider, but very tough, leading him to feel abandoned and unloved. His uncle, eight years his senior, was regularly sent to prison, which only added to his feelings of abandonment. "Those were tough years for me", says <mask>. "I honestly think my mind has blocked them out." <mask> received a small scholarship to the University of Kentucky, from a group called "Black Achievers", based in Louisville, which was just enough to pay his tuition. Early adulthood and education

During his senior year in high school, <mask> met his first girlfriend. Six months after high school graduation, she gave birth to their first and only child.He was a freshman in college at the time, and the child was born during winter break. The pressure of fatherhood further motivated <mask> to work hard in school. It was during his first semester at the University of Kentucky that he earned straight As for the first time in his life. <mask> went on to win several honors in college, including Freshman of the Year, Sophomore of the Year, and numerous scholarships including The Wall Street Journal Outstanding Graduating Senior in Finance. In 1993, <mask> completed a Bachelor of Science in economics and Bachelors of Arts in finance and business management (a triple major). After graduation, <mask> continued at the University of Kentucky, where he completed a Master of Science in mathematics in 1998. It was during his time as a graduate student at the University of Kentucky that <mask> became more involved with political activism.The racist language used in his campus newspaper, The Kentucky Kernel, led <mask> to begin writing columns himself. In his work, he challenged the racially divisive foundations of his campus. <mask> also battled with the university president at the time, Charles T. Wethington Jr., referring to him as "Chuck" and claiming that he was racially insensitive and unqualified to be a campus president. Eventually, he went on to pursue his Ph.D. at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. At Ohio State University, <mask> enrolled in the business administration doctoral program, concentrating in finance. He finished his Ph.D. in 2002. The title of <mask>' dissertation was Investor Sentiment, Trading Patterns and Return Predictability, while working under René M. Stulz, David Hirshleifer, and G. Andrew Karolyi.His first academic position was on the finance faculty at Syracuse University. Career beginnings and social activism

In 2004, <mask> completed his first book, Everything You Ever Wanted to Know about College: A Guide for Minority Students. The book was a success and began his work in public scholarship. "I wrote this book for all the young kids like me who were told they can't go to college", said <mask>. A few months later, <mask> created his second book, What if George Bush were a Black Man?, a satirical discussion of President George W. Bush and what he perceives as the presence of white privilege in America. <mask> explores the criminal justice system, the educational system, and the economic systems of America, using statistics and anecdotes to describe likely fates for President Bush and other privileged individuals if they were poor and Black. <mask>' next books were Financial Lovemaking 101: Merging Assets with Your Partner in Ways that Feel Good, The Parental 411: What Every Parent should Know about Their Child in College, and Quick and Dirty Secrets of College Success: A Professor Tells It All.Bill O'Reilly and Juan Williams

<mask> has an ongoing feud with Bill O'Reilly from Fox News. <mask> referred to O'Reilly and Sean Hannity as "UnAmerican borderline Klansmen who graduated from the Rush Limbaugh School of Arrogant Self-righteousness". During one CNN episode, after O'Reilly made controversial statements about African Americans during his visit to Sylvia's Restaurant of Harlem, <mask> referred to Juan Williams as "Bill O'Reilly's happy little Negro", in reference to Williams' insistence that O'Reilly did nothing wrong. In response, Williams wrote a scathing piece about <mask> in Time. O'Reilly spent a week on his show calling for <mask> to be fired from his post at Syracuse University. <mask> referred to O'Reilly, Hannity, and Limbaugh as "The Axis of Ignorance" for what <mask> believed were racist attacks against the Black community. Later in the spring of 2008, <mask> formed an online protest through his website YourBlackWorld.com.In response to Fox News criticism of Senator Barack Obama and Pastor Jeremiah Wright, <mask> asked his supporters to write to Bill O'Reilly's corporate sponsors and complain about O'Reilly's behavior. <mask>' protest led O'Reilly to call for <mask> to be fired and to seek interviews with the chancellor of Syracuse University, Nancy Cantor. He also sent reporters to question Cantor and ask her why she had not challenged <mask> for his words. In his comments, O'Reilly claimed that <mask> had accused him of wanting to lynch Michelle Obama, the wife of then Senator Barack Obama, and that <mask> was "smearing the good name of Syracuse University by spreading these kinds of lies". O'Reilly had made the following remark about Michelle Obama and lynching on February 21, 2008: "I don't want to go on a lynching party against Michelle Obama unless there's evidence, hard facts, that say this is how the woman really feels. If that's how she really feels — that America is a bad country or a flawed nation, whatever — then that's legit." He later apologized, saying, "I'm sorry if my statement offended anybody", on his February 22, 2008, program.Challenge to the NCAA

<mask> is an advocate for the rights of college athletes. In his work as a faculty affiliate for the College Sport Research Institute at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, <mask> has challenged the NCAA on its refusal to compensate college athletes, stating that the NCAA exploits Black families by using young men for their athletic ability and refusing to share the wealth with their families. In his work, <mask> has appeared on several national media outlets, including CNN, ESPN, Fox, and CBS Sports explaining why athletes should be compensated. He has also challenged the tax exempt status of the NCAA, stating that the United States Congress should step in and conduct an anti-trust investigation into the NCAA. In op-ed pieces opposite NCAA President Myles Brand, <mask> has argued that students' rights are being violated on a regular basis by the NCAA and that a fairer compensation model should be used by the league. He cites that the revenues from NCAA March Madness exceed that of the Super Bowl and the World Series combined. <mask> also cites the fact that many coaches are made into millionaires by a system designed to keep star athletes and their families in poverty.At the conference for the North American Society for the Sociology of Sport (NASSS), <mask> cited the work of sociologist Harry Edwards during the 1968 Olympics as a springboard for Black athlete activism. "Like hookers kept dazed on drugs, the Black athlete is kept ignorant by his coaches so they can continue to rob him blind", said <mask>. "Coaches in college are given little incentive to increase graduation rates, and even choose the classes for the athletes. It's a sham." Financial activism

Through his position at Syracuse University and YourBlackWorld.com, <mask> also provides regular financial advice to a largely African-American audience. He argues that African Americans should consider their financial independence to be part of their spiritual and social independence. He also argues that African Americans should find a way to "own the land on which you stand", in order to be truly liberated in America.BET and Lil Wayne

<mask> has been highly critical of hip-hop, Black Entertainment Television and rap artist Lil Wayne. After reading the lyrics to Wayne's song, "We Be Steady Mobbin'", <mask> said that he was "ditching Lil Wayne completely" and that Wayne had "positioned himself as an enemy of the black community" who can be linked to "the holocaust occurring within the black community today". He has also said that Black Entertainment Television has an agenda similar to that of the Ku Klux Klan. Adidas and the "Slave Shoes"

<mask> slammed the sportsgear firm Adidas for its JS Roundhouse Mid shoe created with a shackle design. In an op-ed, <mask> dubbed the design as "slave shoes". Before canceling the shoe, Adidas wrote a statement in support of the designer and the design, indicating: the shoe "is nothing more than the designer Jeremy Scott's outrageous and unique take on fashion and has nothing to do with slavery." Civil rights leader Reverend Jesse Jackson agreed with <mask>, stating: "The attempt to commercialize and make popular more than 200 years of human degradation, where blacks were considered three-fifths human by our Constitution is offensive, appalling and insensitive".Russell Simmons and the war on drugs

<mask> joined hip-hop mogul Russell Simmons to co-author a letter urging President Barack Obama to put an end to Ronald Reagan's war on drugs. The letter acquired more than 175 signatures from celebrities, activists, business and thought leaders, and scholars. Simmons and <mask> outlined specific programs the president could enforce to put an end to the war on drugs, including supporting the Youth Prison Reduction through Opportunities, Mentoring, Intervention, Support, and Education (Youth PROMISE) Act; forming a panel to review requests for clemency that come to the Office of the Pardon Attorney; and increasing transitioning programs for released inmates. Following the release of the letter, President Obama declared an end of the war on drugs with strategies to treat addictions and diverting non-violent drug offenders into treatment instead of prisons. Mountain Dew; Tyler, the Creator; and Lil Wayne

<mask> criticized Mountain Dew for approving what he dubbed to be "the most racist commercial in history", created by Tyler, the Creator. He also slammed the beverage company for paying rapper Lil Wayne a lucrative endorsement deal following his derogatory lyrics about civil rights icon Emmett Till. As a result of a call for the ad to be pulled and calls to be made to Clear Channel by the Mamie Till Mobley Foundation as well as a petition created by other activists and spearheaded by Reena Walker, Mountain Dew was forced to pull the series of commercials created by Tyler, the Creator and pull the plug on Lil Wayne's lucrative endorsement deal.<mask> and Tyler, the Creator engaged in an exchange of Twitter messages, in which <mask> stated he had an "altered perspective" after listening to Tyler, the Creator's music. Media outlets ran with <mask>' statement, claiming he had recanted his initial stance. <mask> later clarified the nature of his Tweet in a YouTube video, stating he does not approve of the commercial. Controversies

<mask> drew controversy on Twitter after condemning Kamala Harris for marrying a white man despite having attended an HBCU, and later for making comments about singer Lizzo that were widely interpreted as fat-shaming. References

External links

African-American academics
Syracuse University faculty
1971 births
Living people
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
University of Kentucky alumni
American social commentators
Academics from Kentucky
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people

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title: Francis II, Duke of Brittany

texts:
<mask> of Brittany (in Breton Frañsez II, in French François II) (23 June 1433 – 9 September 1488) was Duke of Brittany from 1458 to his death. He was the grandson of John IV, Duke of Brittany. A recurring theme in <mask>' life would be his quest to maintain the quasi-independence of Brittany from France. As such, his reign was characterized by conflicts with King Louis XI of France and with his daughter, Anne of France, who served as regent during the minority of her brother, King Charles VIII. The armed and unarmed conflicts from 1465 to 1477 and 1484–1488 have been called the "War of the Public Weal" and the Mad War (la Guerre Folle), respectively. Early life

<mask> was born on 23 June 1433 to Richard of Brittany, Count of Étampes (1395–1438) and his wife, Margaret of Orléans, Countess of Vertus (1406–1466). Richard of Brittany was the youngest son of Duke John IV of Brittany.Richard's older brothers, John V and Arthur III, both succeeded their father as duke, but upon Arthur's death in 1458 (John V's sons <mask> I and Peter II died in 1450 and 1457 respectively, without sons), the only legitimate male heir was his nephew <mask>. Relationship with English royalty

Protector of the House of Lancaster

Duke <mask> II unexpectedly became the protector of England's House of Lancaster in exile from 1471 to 1484. During the latter half of the 15th century, civil war existed in England as the House of York and House of Lancaster fought each other for the English throne. In 1471, the Yorkists defeated their rivals in the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. The Lancastrian king, Henry VI of England and his only son, Edward of Westminster, died in the aftermath of the Battle of Tewkesbury. Their deaths left the House of Lancaster with no direct claimants to the throne. Subsequently, the Yorkist king, Edward IV of England, was in complete control of England.He attainted those who refused to submit to his rule, such as Jasper Tudor and his nephew Henry Tudor (later King Henry VII of England), naming them as traitors and confiscating their lands. The Tudors tried to flee to France but strong winds in the English Channel forced them to land at Le Conquet in Brittany, where they were taken into the custody of Duke <mask>. Henry Tudor, the only remaining Lancastrian noble with a trace of royal bloodline, had a weak claim to the throne, and King Edward IV regarded him as "a nobody". However, <mask> II viewed Henry as a valuable tool to bargain for England's aid, when in conflicts with France, and therefore kept the Tudors under his protection. He housed Jasper Tudor, Henry Tudor, and the core of their group of exiled Lancastrians at the Château de Suscinio in Sarzeau, where they remained for 11 years. There, <mask> II generously supported this group of exiled Englishmen against all the Plantagenet demands that he should surrender them. In October 1483, Henry Tudor launched a failed invasion of England from Brittany.Duke <mask> II supported this invasion by providing 40,000 gold crowns, 15,000 soldiers, and a fleet of transport ships. Henry's fleet of 15 chartered vessels was scattered by a storm, and his ship reached the coast of England in company with only one other vessel. Henry realized that the soldiers on shore were the men of the new Yorkist king, Richard III of England, and so he decided to abandon the invasion and return to Brittany. As for Henry's main conspirator in England, Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, he was convicted of treason and beheaded on 2 November 1483, way before Henry's ships landed in England. For Henry's conspiracy against King Richard III had been unravelled, and without the Duke of Buckingham or Henry Tudor, the rebellion was easily crushed. Survivors of the failed uprising then fled to Brittany, where they openly supported Henry Tudor's claim to the throne. On Christmas Day in 1483 at the Rennes Cathedral, Henry swore an oath to marry King Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York, and thus unite the warring houses of York and Lancaster.Henry's rising prominence made him a great threat to King Richard III, and the Yorkist king made several overtures to Duke <mask> II to surrender the young Lancastrian. <mask> II refused, holding out for the possibility of better terms from the King. In mid-1484, <mask> was incapacitated by one of his periods of illness, and while recuperating, his treasurer, Pierre Landais, took over the reins of government. Landais reached an agreement with King Richard III to send Henry and his uncle Jasper back to England in exchange for a pledge of 3,000 English archers to defend Brittany against a threatened French attack. John Morton, a bishop of Flanders, learned of the scheme and warned the Tudors in time. The Tudors then managed to separately escape, hours ahead of Landais' soldiers, across the nearby border into France. They were received at the court of King Charles VIII of France, who allowed them to stay and provided them with resources.Shortly afterwards, when <mask> II had recovered, he offered the 400 remaining Lancastrians, still at and around the Château de Suscinio, safe-conduct into France and even paid for their expenses. For the French, the Tudors were useful pawns to ensure that King Richard III did not interfere with French plans to acquire Brittany. Thus, the loss of the Lancastrians seriously played against the interests of <mask> II. Titular Earl of Richmond

Circa 1136, King Stephen of England named Alan of Penthièvre of Brittany (also known as Alan the Black) the 1st Earl of Richmond. After Alan, the title and its possessions (the Honour of Richmond) were typically bestowed upon the Dukes of Brittany, with a few interruptions, through the ducal reign of John IV, which ended in 1399. After John IV, the English kings would bestow the title Earl of Richmond on nobles other than the Dukes of Brittany, including Edmund Tudor, Henry Tudor's father. However the dukes of Brittany from John V through <mask> II would continue to use the titulary Earl of Richmond.It is possible that <mask> willed whatever remained of his claims to the earldom and the Honour of Richmond to Henry Tudor. On successfully gaining the English crown after the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, Henry VII merged the earldom and its possessions into the crown. Relationship with French royalty

King Louis XI
Louis XI was renowned as a cunning adversary and a master at diplomacy, if not the military arts. His contemporary nickname was "The Universal Spider," reflecting his constant political plotting. <mask> became a member of the League of the Public Weal. This was an alliance of feudal nobles organized in 1465 in defiance of the centralized authority of King Louis XI of France, whose declared aim was to enlarge the French royal domain by annexing all of the duchies – Burgundy, Berry, Normandy, Orléans, Brittany, etc. It was masterminded by Charles the Bold, Count of Charolais, son of the Duke of Burgundy, with the king's brother Charles, Duke of Berry, as a figurehead.In 1467 Charles the Bold inherited the Duchy of Burgundy, which held fiefs in France that included the counties of Artois and Flanders, and the Imperial lands of Holland, Brabant, and Luxembourg. As Duke of Burgundy, Charles aspired to forge a kingdom of his own between France and Germany, approximating the former domains of the Frankish Emperor Lothair I. In pursuit of this goal, Charles was killed in 1477 at the Battle of Nancy against René II, Duke of Lorraine and a hired army of Swiss mercenaries, and Louis was saved from his greatest adversary. The great Duchy of Burgundy was then absorbed into the Kingdom of France, and the League of the Public Weal was essentially defeated, although several members would re-ally for the Mad War in 1485. The fortunes of <mask> and Brittany would continue to deteriorate after Louis XI's death in 1483, as his daughter Anne of France would serve as regent for putative successor Charles VIII. Regency of Anne of France
<mask> II was anxious to maintain his duchy's autonomy during the minority of Charles VIII of France. He aligned himself with Louis, the Duke of Orléans (the future Louis XII) and Charles, Count of Angoulême, against the regency of Anne of France.She had been pursuing the same underhand politics towards Brittany as her father Louis XI. In focusing on relations with his neighbour France, however, <mask> neglected his own realm. His corrupt and oppressive prime minister, Guillaume Chauvin, who was overthrown by treasurer general Pierre Landais in 1477, died in prison on 5 April 1484. A large part of the nobility had been bribed by Anne and Charles and supported them in their eagerness to subjugate Brittany. These nobles performed a coup d'état ousting Landais, who was eventually hanged in 1485. In 1486, the Estates of Brittany confirmed <mask>' daughter Anne and heir and successor to further assure the Duchy's autonomy from France. The Treaty of Chateaubriant was signed with France in 1487 and reaffirmed Brittany's autonomy.Despite the Treaty of Chateaubriant, however, the French continued to harass the Duchy. Under the leadership of Louis II de la Trémoille, the French royal army struck against Vannes and Fougères, controlling access to Brittany. La Guerre Folle (The Mad War)

<mask> then allied with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, against France. Alain d'Albret, a rebel lord, believing he would marry <mask>' daughter Anne, reinforced the Breton army with 5000 troops supplied by the king of Spain. Maximilian I of Austria also sent 1500 men, and Edward Woodville, Lord Scales, brought over a force of archers from Britain. However Brittany was defeated 28 July 1488 in the Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier. This battle also destroyed the power-base of the warring noble leaders as Edward Woodville was killed, and Louis of Orléans and Jean, Prince of Orange were captured.Alain d'Albret and the Maréchal de Rieux succeeded in escaping, and played an important part in continuing the conflict. A few days later, on 10 August, <mask> was forced to sign the Treaty of Verger. Under the terms of the treaty, the duke was compelled to submit himself and his duchy as a vassal of the king of France, and to expel foreign princes and troops from Brittany. It also restricted his ability to marry his children to suitors of his choosing and required that he cede territory in Saint-Malo, Fougères, Dinan, and Saint-Aubin to the king as a guarantee that in the absence of a male successor the king would determine the succession. <mask> died a few months later as a result of a fall from his horse during a leisurely ride. He left only a daughter, Anne of Brittany, so the treaty was used to force her, as his successor, to marry Charles VIII, and later Louis XII. Despite the French victory and the signing of the treaty, la Guerre Folle dragged on beyond <mask>'s death for three more years until December 1491, when Anne married Charles VIII.<mask> II is interred in an elaborate tomb in the Nantes Cathedral. His tomb was commissioned by his daughter Anne, and is an important early example of Renaissance sculpture in France. Family
<mask> was married twice. His first wife was Margaret of Brittany, the eldest daughter of <mask>, Duke of Brittany (his first cousin) and Isabella of Scotland. They had one son who died shortly after his birth:
 John, Count of Montfort (29 June – 25 August 1463)

His second wife was Margaret of Foix, Princess of Navarre, daughter of Gaston IV, Count of Foix and Queen Eleanor of Navarre. They had two children:
 Anne of Brittany (1477–1514), his only legitimate heir to reach adulthood. Isabeau of Brittany (1478–1490), betrothed to Jean d'Albret in 1481, died young, and was buried at the Rennes Cathedral.<mask> II also had five illegitimate children with Antoinette de Maignelais, the former mistress of King Charles VII of France. Legacy
Breton nobles acted to safeguard Anne as their Duchess and to protect the Duchy's autonomy for which <mask> had fought so hard. In 1489 these nobles signed the Treaty of Redon with Henry VII; that treaty between Brittany and England was intended to prevent the annexation of Brittany by France. However, in 1491 Charles VIII of France invaded Brittany and forced Anne to marry him, thereby gaining control of the duchy. Then in 1492 Henry VII signed the Treaty of Etaples with France, effectively removing England's defense of Breton autonomy in return for promises from the French to no longer support Perkin Warbeck, pretender to the English throne, and to pay a war indemnity. The duchy's autonomy was all but lost as the process of merging it into the French crown began, and Brittany's strongest ally was neutralized. Anne, however, became a formidable queen consort and fought to preserve Brittany's autonomy and <mask> II's legacy for herself, the Breton people, and her descendants.Ancestry

Notes

See also
Dukes of Brittany family tree
Henry VII of England
War of the Roses
Other politically important horse accidents

References

Bibliography

 Volume 2

1433 births
1488 deaths
15th-century dukes of Brittany
15th-century Roman Catholics
15th-century peers of France
Dukes of Brittany
Deaths by horse-riding accident in France
House of Dreux
French people of Breton descent
Counts of Étampes
French people of Italian descent
People from Loire-Atlantique
French Roman Catholics
Montfort of Brittany

masks:
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis II
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis
Francis
Francis II
Francis
Francis II
Francis I
Francis
Francis
Francis


title: Alan Collins (writer)

texts:
<mask> (1928–2008) was a Jewish Australian author. <mask> wrote short stories, fiction, poetry, a radio play, and a memoir of his childhood in Sydney. Life
<mask> was one of a small group of Jewish writers of his generation who were born in Australia. He wrote extensively about the Anglo-Jewish community and his work reflects their struggles to survive in two disparate, and sometimes hostile, worlds. <mask> was unusual in that his family had been in Australia for generations. Both parents emanated from Western, rather than Eastern, European backgrounds. The <mask> side derives from the Van Kollum family who were Amsterdam printers in the 17th century.One branch moved to London and, in the 1840s, Mark and <mask> emigrated with their three sons to Sydney. <mask> was their great-great-grandson. Alva Davis was his mother and a branch of the Davis family – the Cortissos line – can be traced back to Barcelona at the time of the Spanish Inquisition in the 15th century. There is a young convict in the Davis tree, Samuel Davis, who was transported to Sydney in 1831. Both families must have moved to England in the late 18th century and would have left the London of Charles Dickens to seek a better life in Australia. Author Judah Waten said in his introduction to Troubles (1983) (a critically acclaimed collection of 21 short stories), that "<mask> ... has recorded movingly, the lives of Jews without money [without being] cynical or misanthropic". <mask>' mother died the day she gave birth to him in Sydney.Relatives were unable or unwilling to care for him, and he was sent to a number of children's homes until he was returned to his father, who subsequently remarried. The archetypal cruel stepmother ill-treated the boy to such a degree that a magistrate ordered that he be sent to the Isabella Lazarus Home that had been established to accommodate Jewish refugee children. <mask>' appalling childhood is described graphically in his confronting yet surprisingly funny memoir Alva's Boy. He reconstructs his early life in the Scarba Baby Home and the Ashfield Infants Home. His chaotic life as an urchin on the streets of Bondi is vividly recalled, as is the description of the social life of working-class Jews at the end of the Great Depression and the beginning of World War II. The novel The Boys from Bondi is based on his time in the Isabella Lazarus Home. It is here that the meeting of the two Jewish cultures – the 'reffos' and the 'anglos' – is so graphically described.When he was 14, <mask> was sent out into the world as an apprentice printer, living on lowly wages in crude rooming houses – and worse followed when he left to work in what he succinctly described as the 'inferno' of a glass factory. He had a talent for writing and, after working at Nock and Kirby (a hardware store) in their advertising department, he joined the Sydney Sun as a young reporter, and later became editor of the Sydney Jewish News. He gave himself an education by reading in public libraries and through second-hand books. In 1953, he left Sydney for Melbourne, where he became advertising manager for Rockmans Stores. Like many young Australians in the 1950s, he travelled overseas. He met and married Rosaline Fox in London in 1957 and they returned to Melbourne where he resumed work at Rockmans. Home was a rented flat in the beach-side suburb Elwood, where their eldest son, Daniel, was born.With the dream of having a real home for the first time in his life, he took the family to the raw outer-Melbourne suburb of Box Hill, where his sons Peter and Toby were born, and where he and Ros later fostered a young boy named John from a war-torn background. <mask> worked in advertising agencies as a copywriter and then formed his own business, Collins Advertising, in a home-made office he built in his garden. In the short story The Value of a Nail (Meanjin, 1984), <mask> eulogised that great Australian institution the hardware store, and in real life he gained creative pleasure from woodworking, establishing the 'Toby Toys' range for preschool children. He wrote articles and short stories for magazines and newspapers, many of which are published in anthologies, and a radio play called Shabbatai!, which is an irreverent take on a bizarre character in Jewish history. A prize-winning short story, The Balconies, provided the impetus for The Boys from Bondi, published by the University of Queensland Press in 1987. But readers wanted to know what happened next. The sequel, Going Home, was published in 1993, and Joshua (1995) completed the trilogy.The three titles were published in 2001 as the single-volume A Promised Land? The book was described as one of the significant family sagas of Australian youth. <mask> chose the title to reflect the complex feelings his central characters have towards Australia and Israel. The sea, beach and sun were always the restorative elements in his life. As a neglected child, the beach had been his haven from the often confusing world around him. In Melbourne, he and Ros returned to Elwood for their last 20 years together with their family and another of his great pleasures, sailing. In 1999, they became members of the newly formed Kehilat Nitzan congregation, founded on the egalitarian principles of Conservative Judaism (Masorti).He also became an enthusiastic student at the Florence Melton Adult Education School where he attended courses in Jewish history, philosophy, literature, and culture. He considered himself a secular Jew but also wrote:

Am I a Jewish fiction writer or a writer of Jewish fiction? They are, for me, one and indivisible – without my sense of Jewish history, I would not be a writer… I believe, too, that my writing….has its genesis in our Australian ethos; it would be most peculiar if it did not… It is the Australian–Jewish environment that takes priority and provides the parameters for my work…

<mask> is outlived by his wife Ros; sons Daniel, Peter and Toby; daughter-in-law Rhonda; grandsons Joshua, Eli and Isaac; and foster son John. Selected works
 Troubles: 21 short stories
 The Boys from Bondi
 Jacob's ladder (US edition of The Boys from Bondi)
 Going home
 Joshua
 A Promised land? Alva's boy: an unsentimental memoir

References

Levi, John S. These are the names: Jewish lives in Australia, 1788–1850, (Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 2006)
Levi, John S. and G. F. J. Bergman. Australian Genesis: Jewish convicts and settlers 1788–1860 (Melbourne University Press, Carlton, 2002)

External links
 Author's official site

1928 births
2008 deaths
20th-century Australian novelists
20th-century Australian male writers
21st-century Australian novelists
Australian male novelists
Australian male short story writers
Australian people of Dutch-Jewish descent
Jewish Australian writers
Writers from Sydney
Poets from Sydney
Australian male poets
Australian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Australian poets
20th-century Australian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Australian short story writers
21st-century Australian short story writers
21st-century Australian male writers

masks:
Alan Alva Collins
Collins
Alan Collins
Collins
Collins
Lydia Collins
Alan Collins
Alan Collins
Collins
Collins
Alan
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins


title: Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee

texts:
<mask>, <mask> Woodhouselee FRSE (15 October 17475 January 1813) was a Scottish advocate, judge, writer and historian who was a Professor of Universal History, and Greek and Roman Antiquities at the University of Edinburgh. Life
Tytler was born in the Old Town of Edinburgh, the eldest son of Ann Craig of Costerton (1722–1783) and her husband William Tytler of Woodhouselee (author of Inquiry into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots). He was educated at Edinburgh High School and Kensington Academy in London (1763/64), and then studied law at the University of Edinburgh, qualifying as an advocate in 1770. In 1773 he was living and working with his father, also an advocate, at Campbells Close on the Royal Mile. In 1780 he was appointed joint professor of Civil History at the University of Edinburgh. He then moved to Browns Square. He became sole professor in 1786.In 1790 he became Judge Advocate of Scotland. In 1802 he became a Lord of Session in the Scottish Courts, with the judicial title Lord Woodhouselee. Tytler's other positions included Senator of the College of Justice and George Commissioner of Justiciary in Scotland. Tytler was a friend of Robert Burns, and prevailed upon him to remove lines from his poem "Tam o' Shanter" which were insulting to the legal and clerical professions. In 1811 he retired from his role as Senator of the College of Justice his place being filled by David Williamson, Lord Balgray. He died at his townhouse at 65 Princes Street in Edinburgh and was buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard. The vault lies on the west side of the section known as the Covenanter's Prison which is generally closed to public view.Family

In 1776 he married <mask> of Balnain. Their children included <mask> Tytler, traveller and historian, <mask> Tytler, a lawyer, <mask> Tytler, Assistant Judge and author in Bengal, India, and <mask> Tytler, a lawyer and historian. Translation
Tytler wrote a treatise that is important in the history of translation theory, the Essay on the Principles of Translation (London, 1791). It has been argued in a 1975 book by Gan Kechao that Yan Fu's famous translator's dictum of fidelity, clarity and elegance came from Tytler. Tytler said that translation should fully represent the 1) ideas and 2) style of the original and should 3) possess the ease of original composition. Quotations on democracy

In his Lectures, Tytler expressed a critical view of democracy in general and representative democracies such as republics in particular. He believed that "a pure democracy is a chimera", and that "All government is essentially of the nature of a monarchy".In discussing the Athenian democracy, after noting that a great number of the population were actually enslaved, he went on to say, "Nor were the superior classes in the actual enjoyment of a rational liberty and independence. They were perpetually divided into factions, which servilely ranked themselves under the banners of the contending demagogues; and these maintained their influence over their partisans by the most shameful corruption and bribery, of which the means were supplied alone by the plunder of the public money". Speaking about the measure of freedom enjoyed by the people in a republic or democracy, Tytler wrote, "The people flatter themselves that they have the sovereign power. These are, in fact, words without meaning. It is true they elected governors; but how are these elections brought about? In every instance of election by the mass of a people—through the influence of those governors themselves, and by means the most opposite to a free and disinterested choice, by the basest corruption and bribery. But those governors once selected, where is the boasted freedom of the people?They must submit to their rule and control, with the same abandonment of their natural liberty, the freedom of their will, and the command of their actions, as if they were under the rule of a monarch". Tytler dismisses the more optimistic vision of democracy by commentators such as Montesquieu as "nothing better than an Utopian theory, a splendid chimera, descriptive of a state of society that never did, and never could exist; a republic not of men, but of angels", for "While man is being instigated by the love of power—a passion visible in an infant, and common to us even with the inferior animals—he will seek personal superiority in preference to every matter of a general concern". "Or at best, he will employ himself in advancing the public good, as the means of individual distinction and elevation: he will promote the interest of the state from the selfish but most useful passion of making himself considerable in that establishment which he labors to aggrandize. Such is the true picture of man as a political agent". However, Tytler does admit that there are individual exceptions to the rule, and that he is ready to allow "that this form of government is the best adapted to produce, though not the most frequent, yet the most striking, examples of virtue in individuals", paradoxically because a "democratic government opposes more impediments to disinterested patriotism than any other form. To surmount these, a pitch of virtue is necessary which, in other situations, where the obstacles are less great and numerous, is not called in to exertion. The nature of a republican government gives to every member of the state an equal right to cherish views of ambition, and to aspire to the highest offices of the commonwealth; it gives to every individual of the same title with his fellows to aspire at the government of the whole".Tytler believed that democratic forms of government such as those of Greece and Rome have a natural evolution from initial virtue toward eventual corruption and decline. In Greece, for example, Tytler argues that "the patriotic spirit and love of ingenious freedom ... became gradually corrupted as the nation advanced in power and splendour". Tytler further states: "Patriotism always exists in the greatest degree in rude nations, and in an early period of society. Like all other affections and passions, it operates with the greatest force where it meets with the greatest difficulties ... but in a state of ease and safety, as if wanting its appropriate nourishment, it languishes and decays". ... "It is a law of nature to which no experience has ever furnished an exception, that the rising grandeur and opulence of a nation must be balanced by the decline of its heroic virtues". Debatable attribution

The following quotation has been attributed to Tytler, although it has also been occasionally attributed to Alexis de Tocqueville:

A democracy is always temporary in nature; it simply cannot exist as a permanent form of government. A democracy will continue to exist up until the time that voters discover that they can vote themselves generous gifts from the public treasury.From that moment on, the majority always votes for the candidates who promise the most benefits from the public treasury, with the result that every democracy will finally collapse due to loose fiscal policy, which is always followed by a dictatorship. The average age of the world's greatest civilizations from the beginning of history has been about 200 years. During those 200 years, these nations always progressed through the following sequence: From bondage to spiritual faith; From spiritual faith to great courage; From courage to liberty; From liberty to abundance; From abundance to selfishness; From selfishness to complacency; From complacency to apathy; From apathy to dependence; From dependence back into bondage. This text was popularized as part of a longer piece commenting on the 2000 U.S. presidential election, which began circulating on the Internet during or shortly after the election's controversial conclusion. There is no reliable record of <mask>'s having written any part of the text. In fact, it actually comprises two parts which did not begin to appear together until the 1970s. The first paragraph's earliest known appearance is in an op-ed piece by Elmer T. Peterson in the 9 December 1951 The Daily Oklahoman, which attributed it to Tytler:

Two centuries ago, a somewhat obscure Scotsman named Tytler made this profound observation: "A democracy cannot exist as a permanent form of government.It can only exist until the majority discovers it can vote itself largess out of the public treasury. After that, the majority always votes for the candidate promising the most benefits with the result the democracy collapses because of the loose fiscal policy ensuing, always to be followed by a dictatorship, then a monarchy". The list beginning "From bondage to spiritual faith" is commonly known as the "Tytler Cycle" or the "Fatal Sequence". Its first known appearance was in a 1943 speech by Henning W. Prentiss, Jr., president of the Armstrong Cork Company and former president of the National Association of Manufacturers, delivered at the February 1943 convocation of the General Alumni Society of the University of Pennsylvania. The speech was subsequently published under the titles "The Cult of Competency" and "Industrial Management in a Republic". Works
 (1771). Piscatory Eclogues, with other Poetical Miscellanies of Phinehas Fletcher.(1778). The Decisions of the Court of Sessions, from its First Institution to the Present Time, supplementary volume to Lord Kames's Dictionary of Decisions. (1782). Plan and Outline of a Course of Lectures on Universal History. (1784). Essay on the Life and Character of Petrarch, with Translation of Seven Sonnets. (1788).Life and Writings of Dr John Gregory. (1791). Essay on the Principles of Translation. (1792). The Robbers: A Tragedy, translation of Schiller's Die Räuber. (1798). A Critical Examination of Mr. Whitaker's Course of Hannibal over the Alps.(1799). Ireland Profiting by Example, a political pamphlet. (1800). Essay on the Military Law and the Practice of Courts-Martial. (1801). Elements of General History, Ancient and Modern (an extended version of his 1782 lectures). (1801).Essay on Laura and Petrarch. (1807). Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Honourable Henry Home of Kames. See also
 Playfair cycle
 Translation theory
 Strauss–Howe generational theory
 Dynastic cycle, Chinese history

General:
 Cyclical theory
 Social cycle theory
 Societal collapse

Notes

External links

Tytler, <mask>, <mask> (1747–1813)
Significant Scots <mask> Tytler
Bartleby quotation
The New International Encyclopædia
A Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen

1747 births
1813 deaths
British translation scholars
Academics from Edinburgh
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Founder Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Members of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh
Burials at Greyfriars Kirkyard
Members of the Faculty of Advocates
Scottish historians
Woodhouselee
Scottish political philosophers
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Scottish legal writers
Historians of Scotland
Scottish biographers
Scottish classical scholars
Legal historians
Writers from Edinburgh
Lawyers from Edinburgh

masks:
Alexander Fraser Tytler
Lord
Ann Fraser
Patrick Fraser
James Fraser
Alexander Fraser
William Fraser
Alexander Tytler
Alexander Fraser
Lord Woodhouselee
Alexander Fraser


title: Wellesley Bailey

texts:
<mask><mask> (1846–1937) was the founder of international charity The Leprosy Mission. In India in the 1860s he witnessed the severe consequences of the disease and vowed to make caring for those with leprosy his life work. The Mission he established all those years ago is still active today. Early life
<mask> was born in Ireland in 1846. He grew up in Abbeyleix, Queens County where his father was an estate manager for the Cosby family. The <mask>s earned enough to send <mask> and his three brothers to boarding school at Kilkenny College. Ireland in the 1840s and '50s was a tough environment to grow up in – the country was immersed in the Great Famine.Over one million people emigrated from Ireland during the late 1840s. North America and the colonies were the favoured destinations of those who could afford to leave. It is not surprising then that <mask> himself dreamed of finding a new, more promising life, in distant lands. In 1866 he set out to find his fortune in the goldfields of Australia. Three years later he returned to Dublin, his ambitions unfulfilled. But it wasn't long before he was setting sail again. One of his brothers was serving in the police force in India and invited Wellesley to join him.Always on the look out for a challenge, <mask> departed for Faizabad, North East India, in 1869. <mask> <mask>'s Christian faith
Although <mask> <mask> had gone to a Church of Ireland church as a child, he'd never particularly taken the Christian faith seriously. That was until he found himself at the start of a voyage that was to take him a long way from home. In Gravesend, fog delayed the departure of his ship bound for Australia. Remembering his childhood girlfriend's request to him before he left to attend church whenever he could, he stopped by one Sunday at Gravesend Parish church. There, he says he had a sense of God's presence in a way he'd never known before and he committed his life to Christ. First visit to India
When Wellesley reached India in 1869, his brother had been moved to the north west of the country and he found himself alone in a strange land.He put aside his original intention to join the police and instead focused his energies on learning Hindi. He lodged with an old German Lutheran missionary who was able to teach him the local language. At this time he began to feel that God was calling him to missionary work. So he applied to work with the American Presbyterian Mission. They accepted him and sent him as a teacher to one of their schools in Ambala in the Punjab in north India. The leader of the American Mission in Ambala was Dr JH Morrison. Wellesley began to hear from his colleagues about how Dr Morrison looked after some 'beggars who were lepers'.Wellesley had no idea what this meant. He had only heard about leprosy and 'lepers' from Bible stories. One day Dr Morrison invited him to visit the beggars' huts with him. Wellesley was quite shocked by what he saw. Many of them had clawed hands, some were blind, some had disfigured faces. Afterwards, <mask> wrote: 'I almost shuddered, yet I was at the same time fascinated, and I felt that if there was ever a Christlike work in the world it was to go amongst these poor sufferers and bring them the consolation of the gospel.' All the while <mask> had been in India, he had been corresponding with the childhood girlfriend, Alice Grahame, who'd encouraged him to go to church.<mask> proposed in one letter and they became engaged. In 1870 Alice sailed to India and that year they were married in Bombay Cathedral. The dry heat of the Punjab had a bad effect on Alice's health. Two years after she arrived it was clear that she would be not be able to maintain a good quality of life in India, and so <mask> resigned from the American Mission and together they returned to Ireland. The 'Mission to Lepers' is born
Having to return to Ireland was a deep disappointment for <mask>. But it provided him with plenty of opportunities to talk to people about the problems faced by those with leprosy in India. In 1874 friends of <mask> and Alice, the Pim sisters, invited them to stay with them in Dublin.The sisters then invited some of their friends over and asked <mask> to describe his work with leprosy-affected people. The stories that Wellesley told captured the imagination; very little had ever been communicated before to people in the West about leprosy. A larger venue than the Pims' sisters living room was found and Wellesley talked about his work to a wider audience. He explained to people about some of the financial needs: 'For as little as £5 an adult leper can be cared for in an asylum, and a child for much less than that.' <mask>'s talks were also produced in booklet form, entitled Lepers in India. It soon sold out and had to be reprinted. The Pim sisters hesitantly agreed to try and raise £30 a year for leprosy work in India.Alice's health had significantly improved and they were able to return to India in 1875. <mask> had been appointed a lay-missionary with the Church of Scotland. Initially, he was preaching and then in his spare time doing whatever he could for leprosy sufferers, using some of the funds sent over to India by the Pim sisters to build shelters. His divided loyalties caused tension between <mask> and the Scottish Mission who wanted him to focus more on his teaching and preaching work. In 1878 he was given permission to take a month's leave and he returned to Ireland. Once <mask> was back in his home country The Mission to Lepers became properly formalised. <mask> reported that they were caring for about 100 leprosy-affected people, mostly in north India.Charlotte Pim informed the new committee that they were raising about £900 a year. <mask> <mask> was appointed the first secretary and treasurer to work from India. The <mask>s and their three children went back to India in 1879. At this stage, <mask> was still trying to combine his work for the Church of Scotland Mission with his unpaid work as secretary for the Mission to Lepers. Alice's health again became fragile. In 1882, the Scottish Mission board ordered them home and took Wellesley off their missionary lists. Later that year the <mask>s moved to Edinburgh where Wellesley took up position as secretary of a charity that worked with women in India.Still he continued his work with the Mission to Lepers. As the income continued to increase, it became possible to extend the work further. In 1886, <mask> <mask> gave up his post with the Scottish charity and was appointed full-time secretary of The Mission to Lepers in India. That same year, <mask> and Alice set off for a tour of India to see for themselves the vast needs of those with leprosy throughout the whole country. They did not return until the spring of 1887. The growth of the Mission
Wellesley's tour of India had highlighted to him how great the need for The Mission to Lepers work was. He had witnessed other missionaries' attempts to care for those with leprosy, often without the support of their Mission organisation.When he visited projects, <mask> was seen as the expert and also a source of financial support. Where possible, he provided the funds necessary to keep the asylums or shelters going. Steadily, income to the Mission to Lepers grew. Three 'auxiliaries', or fundraising bases, sprung up in England – in Brighton, Cheltenham and Bolton. <mask> and Alice returned to Scotland in 1887 and Wellesley began to concentrate on growing the Mission. Letters were arriving from different centres in India asking for support for leprosy work. Up until this point, Wellesley had focused solely on India.But then came a letter from Mandalay in Burma asking for help. The Mission to Lepers responded by providing funds for the building of a home for those with leprosy. By 1891, China was added to the list of countries that The Mission to Lepers was working in. In the last decade of the century the <mask>s were travelling East and West. In 1892 <mask> toured the US and Canada speaking about his work with leprosy sufferers. <mask> <mask> was becoming a key figure in Mission circles, and his knowledge and experience of leprosy work was sought after. In 1893 he was invited to Chicago to speak at the World Congress of Missions.In 1906 <mask> <mask> set off again for a tour of the East. Then in 1913 <mask> embarked on what was to be his last voyage to visit the work that The Mission to Lepers had started. Wellesely and <mask> journeyed through China, then on to New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, Japan, Korea, back to China and then on to Malaysia, Singapore and India. During this tour he gave over 150 addresses, met with many government officials and visited leprosy homes everywhere. The situation they returned to in Scotland, and Europe, was difficult to bear. The workload for the Mission increased significantly. They lost a couple of key members of staff within a short space of time.Then war broke out in 1914 and one of <mask>'s sons, Dermot, was killed in the fighting. Retirement
In 1917, at the age of 71, <mask> <mask> made the decision to retire from his work with the Mission. He had spent the best part of 50 years dedicated to serving those with leprosy. By the time of his retirement, The Mission to Lepers was working with over 14,000 leprosy-affected people in 12 countries. His granddaughter later wrote about him: 'He was not a saint, nor even a clever man... But I do not ever remember hearing from him an ungenerous remark, or seeing him angry apart from minor irritations. His great gift was single-mindedness, and a simplicity that perhaps could not see the difficulties which a more sophisticated mind might see.'<mask> <mask> died in 1937, aged 91. <mask> <mask>'s impact on leprosy work
Before the birth of the Mission to Lepers, support for leprosy work was not very high on people's agendas. <mask> <mask> saw a huge need when he first visited the leprosy huts in Ambala and set about raising awareness of the plight of those with leprosy, which subsequently raised financial support allowing the work to grow and continue. The Leprosy Mission exists to this day. In one of his last speeches before his retirement, <mask> said: 'The Mission has been born and cradled in prayer. It has been brought up on prayer; it has been nourished on prayer; and prayer has been at the bottom of its success since the first moments of its life.' References

External links
 The Leprosy Mission International

1937 deaths
1846 births
Irish Christian missionaries
People educated at Kilkenny College
Anglican missionaries in India
Christian medical missionaries
Irish expatriates in India
Irish evangelicals
Evangelical Anglicans

masks:
Wellesley C
. Bailey
Wellesley Bailey
Bailey
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Bailey
Bailey
Wellesley
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Bailey
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Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
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Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley
Wellesley
Bailey
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Bailey
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Alice Bailey
Bailey
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Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
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Bailey
Wellesley
Bailey
Wellesley


title: Carmine Galante

texts:
<mask> (; February 21, 1910 – July 12, 1979) was an American mobster. Galante was rarely seen without a cigar, leading to the nickname "The Cigar" and "Lilo" (a Sicilian term for cigar). Galante had a long career in organized crime and rose to acting boss (unofficial) of the Bonanno crime family. He was assassinated in 1979 while dining in a restaurant. Biography

Background
<mask> was born on February 21, 1910, in a tenement building in the East Harlem section of Manhattan. His parents, Vincenzo "James" <mask> and Vincenza Russo, had emigrated from Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, to New York City in 1906, where Vincenzo was a fisherman. <mask> had two brothers, Samuel and <mask>, and two sisters, Josephine and <mask>.On February 10, 1945, Galante married Helen Marulli, by whom he had three children; <mask>, <mask>, and <mask>. For the last 20 years of his life, <mask> lived with Ann Acquavella; the couple had two children together. He was the uncle to Bonanno crime family capo <mask> <mask>. While in prison in 1931, doctors diagnosed Galante as having a psychopathic personality. Galante owned the Rosina Costume Company in Brooklyn, New York  and was associated with the Abco Vending Company of West New York, New Jersey. Early years
At the age of 10, Galante was sent to reform school due to his criminal activities. He soon formed a juvenile street gang on New York's Lower East Side.By the age of 15, Galante had dropped out of seventh grade. As a teenager, Galante became a Mafia associate during the Prohibition era, becoming a leading enforcer by the end of the decade. During this period, Galante also worked as a fish sorter and at an artificial flower shop. On December 12, 1925, the 15-year-old Galante pleaded guilty to assault charges. On December 22, 1926, Galante was sentenced to at least two and a half years in state prison. In August 1930, Galante was arrested for the murder of police officer Walter DeCastilla during a payroll robbery. However, Galante was never indicted.Also in 1930, New York Police Department (NYPD) officer Joseph Meenahan  caught Galante and other gang members attempting to hijack a truck in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. In the ensuing gun battle, Galante wounded Meenahan and a six-year-old bystander, both survived. On February 8, 1931, after pleading guilty to attempted robbery Galante was sentenced to 12 and a half years in state prison. On May 1, 1939, Galante was released from prison on parole. By 1940, Galante was carrying out "hits" for Vito Genovese, the official underboss of the Luciano crime family. Galante had an underworld reputation for viciousness and was suspected by the NYPD of involvement in over eighty murders. Galante reportedly had a cold, dead-eyed stare with eyes that betrayed an utter indifference to human life, scaring both law enforcement officers and other Mafia members.Ralph Salerno, a former NYPD detective, once said, "Of all the gangsters that I've met personally, and I've met dozens of them in all of my years, there were only two who, when I looked them straight in the eye, I decided I wouldn't want them to be really personally mad at me. Aniello Dellacroce was one and <mask> was the other. They had bad eyes, I mean, they had the eyes of killers. You could see how frightening they were, the frigid glare of a killer." In 1943, <mask> allegedly murdered Carlo Tresca, the publisher of an anti-fascist newspaper in New York. Genovese, living in exile in Italy, offered to kill Tresca as a favor to Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. Genovese allegedly gave the murder contract to <mask>.On January 11, 1943, <mask> allegedly shot and killed Tresca as he stepped outside his newspaper office in Manhattan, and then got in a car and drove away. Although Galante was arrested as a suspect, no one was ever charged in the murder. After the Tresca murder, <mask> was sent back to prison on a parole violation. On December 21, 1944, <mask> was released from prison. Later years

In 1953, boss Joseph Bonanno sent Galante to Montreal, Quebec to supervise the family drug business there. He worked with Vincenzo Cotroni of the Cotroni crime family in the French Connection. The Bonannos were importing huge amounts of heroin by ship into Montreal and then sending it into the United States.Police also estimated that Galante was collecting gambling profits in Montreal worth about $50 million per year. In April 1956, due to <mask>'s strong-arm extortion tactics, the Canadian Government deported him back to the United States. In October 1957, Bonanno and <mask>, now a consigliere, held a hotel meeting in Palermo, Sicily on plans to import heroin into the United States. Attendees included Lucky Luciano and other American mobsters, with a Sicilian Mafia delegation led by Giuseppe Genco Russo. As part of the agreement, Sicilian mobsters would come to the U.S. to distribute the narcotics. Galante brought many young men, known as Zips, from his family home of Castellammare del Golfo, Trapani, to work as bodyguards, contract killers and drug traffickers. In 1958, after being indicted on drug conspiracy charges, Galante went into hiding.On June 3, 1959, New Jersey State Police officers arrested <mask> after stopping his car on the Garden State Parkway close to New York City. Federal agents had recently discovered that Galante was hiding in a house on Pelican Island off the South Jersey shore. After posting $100,000 bail, he was released. On May 18, 1960, <mask> was indicted on a second set of narcotics charges; he surrendered voluntarily. <mask>'s first narcotics trial started on November 21, 1960; one of his co-defendants was William Bentvena. From the beginning, the first trial was characterized by jurors and alternates dropping out and coercive courtroom displays by the defendants. On May 15, 1961, the judge declared a mistrial.The jury foreman fell down some stairs at an abandoned building in the middle of the night and was unable to continue the trial due to injury. <mask> was sentenced to 20 days in jail for contempt of court. On July 10, 1962, after being convicted in his second narcotics trial, <mask> was sentenced to 20 years in federal prison. Power grab

In January 1974, <mask> was released from prison on parole. Following his release from prison, <mask> allegedly ordered the bombing of the doors to the private mausoleum of his enemy Frank Costello in St. Michael's Cemetery, who had died in 1973. On February 23, 1974, at a meeting at the Americana Hotel in Manhattan, the Commission named Philip "Rusty" Rastelli as boss. When Rastelli was sent to prison in 1976, Galante seized control of the Bonannos as unofficial acting boss.During the late 1970s, <mask> allegedly organized the murders of at least eight members of the Gambino family, with whom he had an intense rivalry, in order to take over a massive drug-trafficking operation. On March 3, 1978, <mask>'s parole was revoked by the United States Parole Commission for allegedly associating with other Bonanno mobsters, and he was sent back to prison. However, on February 27, 1979, a judge ruled that the government had illegally revoked <mask>'s parole and ordered his immediate release. Death

The New York crime families were alarmed at <mask>'s brazen attempt to take over the narcotics market. Genovese crime family boss Frank Tieri began contacting Cosa Nostra leaders to build a consensus for <mask>'s murder, even obtaining approval from the retired Joseph Bonanno. In 1979, they received a boost when the official boss, Rastelli, sought Commission approval to kill Galante. Joseph Massino, a Bonanno soldier loyal to Rastelli, relayed the request to the Commission, which swiftly approved a contract on <mask>.On July 12, 1979, <mask> was killed just as he finished eating lunch on an open patio at Joe and Mary's Italian-American Restaurant at 205 Knickerbocker Avenue in Bushwick, Brooklyn. He was dining with Leonard Coppola, a Bonanno capo and staunch Galante loyalist, and restaurant owner/cousin Giuseppe Turano, a Bonanno soldier. Also sitting at the table were <mask>'s Sicilian bodyguards, Baldassare Amato and Cesare Bonventre. At 2:45 pm, three ski-masked men entered the restaurant, walked into the patio, and opened fire with shotguns and handguns. <mask>, Turano, and Coppola were killed instantly. A picture of the murdered Galante showed a cigar still in his mouth. Amato and Bonventre, who had done nothing to protect <mask>, were left unharmed.The gunmen then ran out of the restaurant. Aftermath
The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York refused to allow a funeral mass for <mask> due to his notoriety. <mask> was buried at Saint John's Cemetery in Middle Village, Queens. In 1984, Bonventre was found murdered in a New Jersey warehouse, allegedly to guarantee his silence in the Galante murder. On January 13, 1987, Anthony Indelicato was sentenced to 40 years in prison, as a defendant in the Commission trial, for the <mask>, Coppola, and Turano murders. <mask> is depicted in the first episode of the UK history TV channel Yesterday's documentary series Mafia's Greatest Hits. References

Books
 Pistone, Joseph D.; & Woodley, Richard (1999) Donnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia, Hodder & Stoughton. .
 Pistone, Joseph D.; & Brandt, Charles (2007).Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business, Running Press. .
 DeStefano, Anthony. The Last Godfather: Joey Massino & the Fall of the Bonanno Crime Family. California: Citadel, 2006. External links
"FBI Files <mask>nte 1 through 12"
Seize the Night: <mask>
<mask> "Lilo" <mask> at Find A Grave

1910 births
1979 deaths
1979 murders in the United States
American drug traffickers
American crime bosses
American people convicted of murder
Bonanno crime family
Bosses of the Bonanno crime family
Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens)
Catholics from New York (state)
Deaths by firearm in Brooklyn
Fugitives
Mafia hitmen
Male murder victims
Murdered American gangsters of Sicilian descent
People from East Harlem
People murdered by the Bonanno crime family
People murdered in New York City
People with antisocial personality disorder

masks:
Carmine Galante
Camillo Carmine Galante
Galante
Carmine Galante
Peter Galante
Angelina Galante
James Galante
Camille Galante
Angela Galante
Carmine Galante
James Carmine
Galante
Carmine Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
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Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Galante
Carmine Gala
Carmine Galante
Carmine
Galante


title: Anna Milder-Hauptmann

texts:
<mask>tmann (13 December 1785 – 29 May 1838) was an operatic soprano. Early life
Milder was born in Constantinople where her father, Felix Milder from Salzburg, was employed by the Austrian ambassador Baron Herbert von Rathkeal as pastry chef; her mother was lady-in-waiting to the ambassador's wife. When <mask> was five years old the family left for Bucharest, where Felix worked as translator until they had to leave because of the Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791). After he had briefly worked for the ambassador again, the family returned to Bucharest, only to be forced to flee again when pestilence broke out there. After quarantine in Herrmannstadt, the family settled in Vienna. Here <mask>, now aged 10, received her first formal education which included the German language she had not spoken before despite being fluent in French, Italian, modern Greek and Romanian. She became exposed to opera and church music, and begged her parents to let her receive a musical education.After some initial, and inadequate, teaching by the local schoolmaster, Sigismund von Neukomm heard her and began teaching the 16-year-old for two years. On Schikaneder's advice, she also studied with Salieri. Early career

Schikaneder had opened the Theater an der Wien in 1801 and Josepha Weber, Mozart's sister-in-law, negotiated on Neukomm's behalf for a position for <mask> in that theatre. Milder was engaged for 500 gulden, and made her stage debut there as Juno in Süßmayr's opera Der Spiegel von Arkadien on 9 April 1803, aged 19. Soon she gained major roles and changed to the Theater am Kärntnertor for a contract worth 2,000 gulden. In 1805, she sang the title role in the first performance of Beethoven's Leonore, and again in the second and third versions in 1806 and 1814, when in the final revision its title was permanently changed to Fidelio. Luigi Cherubini wrote his German opera Faniska for her in 1806.She was intended to sing Beethoven's concert aria , Op. 65, at his momentous Academy Concert on 22 December 1808 (when the Fifth and Sixth Symphonies, Fourth Piano Concerto and Choral Fantasia were heard for the first time under the composer's direction), but following a quarrel between Beethoven and Peter Hauptmann, Milder's soon-to-be husband, she refused and was replaced by a Dem. Josephine Killitschky. 1809–1813
In 1809, Napoleon was so impressed by her performance in Martin's opera Una cosa rara and other works that he invited her to Paris, but she refused due to her impending marriage to Viennese jeweler Peter Hauptmann in 1810. The couple had a daughter in 1811. She contributed to the success of Joseph Weigl's Das Waisenhaus (1808) and, as Emmeline, Die Schweizer Familie (1809). Her performance in Gluck's Iphigénie en Tauride in 1812 was largely responsible for the Gluck revival in Vienna and Berlin.She sang in the first Vienna performance of Cherubini's Médée in 1812. In 1812 and 1813, she toured Breslau, Berlin, Karsruhe, Stuttgart and Frankfurt. 1814–1838

The Austrian currency fell sharply around 1814, and Milder-Hauptmann received offers for roles at the Berlin Court Opera. Accompanied by her sister Jeanette Antonie Bürde (b. 1799), an accomplished composer and pianist, she travelled to Berlin in May 1815 where she would stay for the next 14 years. Gaspare Spontini was music director at the Berlin Court Opera, and she sang the role of Statira in the first Berlin performance of his highly underrated opera Olimpie in 1821 as well as in the premieres of his operas Nurmahal (as Namouna) in 1822 and Agnes von Hohenstaufen (as Irmengard) in 1827. She again sang in operas by Gluck and Weigl in Berlin, was appointed prima donna assoluta and became a member of the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin in 1821.On 11 March 1829,  she sang in Mendelssohn's momentous revival of Bach's St Matthew Passion. Mendelssohn wrote the concert aria Tutto è silenzio in 1829 for her. Following a quarrel with Spontini, she left Berlin in 1829 and visited Russia, Sweden and Denmark. She then returned to Berlin, where she made her last public appearance in 1836. She died in Berlin, and is buried on the Alter Domfriedhof St. Hedwig. Other dedications
Joseph Haydn, whose pupil Neukomm was, remarked on Milder's voice, "it's like a house", and Georg August Griesinger described it "like pure metal". Johann Friedrich Reichardt said Milder's voice was the most beautiful he had heard since Elisabeth Mara's.Goethe was deeply moved by Milder's performance when he heard her in 1823 in Marienbad; on the occasion of Milder's 25th stage anniversary on 9 April 1828, he sent her a dedicated copy of his play Iphigenia in Tauris. Similarly, after a successful production of Gluck's Alceste, the composer's nephew presented Milder with a miniature painting of Gluck and the score of Alceste. Milder was however criticised for a lack of vocal agility. Schubert said: "her voice is the best, her trills are the worst." Generally, her performances of works by Rossini were disliked by critics. Many composers dedicated works to Milder-Hauptmann, including Bernhard Klein, Neukomm, Carl Blum, Conradin Kreutzer, Joseph Wolfram, . Among the more notable works are:

Kreutzer wrote his monodrama Adele von Budoy (1821, in 1823 revived as Cordelia with Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient) for Milder.Franz Schubert wrote the lied "Der Hirt auf dem Felsen", D. 965, for Milder-Hauptmann which she premiered in Riga on 10 February 1830 and later that year also sang in Berlin. Milder had previously premiered Schubert's song "Die Forelle" and he had in 1824 dedicated the lied "Suleika II", D. 717, to her; the role of Estrella in his opera Alfonso und Estrella was designed for her, but the opera was never performed during Schubert's lifetime. The Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (XVI, 1814, col. 315) wrote: "Happy those for whom works are written!" ("Wohl denen, für die eigens componiert wird!"). Notes

References

: Tonkünstler-Lexicon Berlin's, Berlin, 1861, p. 375

1785 births
1838 deaths
19th-century German women opera singers
Austrian operatic sopranos
19th-century Austrian women opera singers

masks:
Pauline Anna Milder Haup
Anna
Anna
Anna