title: Raja Kesavadas

texts:
Kunnathur Kesavan Raman Pillai, also known as <mask> (1745-1799; Sanskrit )  was the Dewan of Travancore during the reign of <mask>. He is well known for his military tactics and administrative acumen. He was the mastermind in developing the Alappuzha town. Early life
<mask>h <mask> was born Kesava Pillai in a Nair family at a small hamlet called Kunnathur village Southern Travancore, in Kanyakumari district on March17, 1745 in the erstwhile Kingdom of Travancore. His full name was Keshav Raman Pillai. The name of his uncle Raman Pillai was added to his name as it was the time of matriarchy. His father Marthandan Thampi was in the Travancore army.Marthandan Thampi was also called the 'Great Master'. His mother's name was Kaliamma Pillai. After relinquishing the position of Commander-in-Chief of the palace, his father returned to Kashi after accepting asceticism and the entire burden of the family fell on Kesavapillai's head. Although he was not properly educated, Poovat Pokumusa Maraikkar, a local businessman, hired Keshav Pillai to look after the accounts in his shop. At a very young age, Keshav Pillai had a special talent. Through Kesava Pillai, the trade of Maraikar flourished. The woodcutter entrusted him with all the responsibilities of his shipping business.He used this opportunity to gain more economic knowledge and to learn Hindustani, Persian and Dutch. In Royal Service

The Maraikars, who were dependents of the then ruling Maharaja Karthika Thirunal (1758-1798: Travancore: 1758–1798), used to visit the king. At one point, Kesava Pillai captured the king's favor with his skills. Subsequently, the king gave him an extension in his palace. Keshava Pillai took full advantage of this golden opportunity. At about twenty-four years of age, Kesava Pillai was appointed as a rayasam (writer) in the palace under the Samprathi (the State Secretary). He became quite knowledgeable and influential that even the prime minister used to consult him.After the Battle of Kulachal, he came to terms with Marthanda Varma, who became the Commander-in-Chief of Travancore, became acquainted with officers such as Dutch Captain Delanoy, mastered war tactics and learned languages such as Portuguese and English. Impressed by Kesava Pillai's intelligence, patriotism and devotion to God, the Maharaja promoted him to the rank of Rayasam in 1765. Keshava Pillai played an important role in boosting trade by constantly corresponding with Dutch companies residing in places like Purakkad and Kulachal and English companies residing in Anchuthengu and others. He rose through the ranks Samprati (1768) and Sovereign (1788) and became Diwan of Travancore on 22 September 1789. He became the Diwan following the resignation of Diwan Chembakaraman Pillai due to old age disability. He did not relish the title of Dalawa. With the sanction of the Maharaja, he changed the old title of Dalawa to that of Dewan eschewing the old designation of Dalawa, as better suited to the times.He was thus the first Dewan of Travancore

When Tippu Sultan of Mysore attacked Travancore, Kesava Pillai was the commandant of the state army. Travancore army fought against the Mysore force under the leadership of Kesava Pillai. Later when Mysore was attacked Tipu Sultan had to retreat to Srirangapatnam. Recognizing his victory over the Mysore, the Karthika Thirunal Maharaja of Travancore appointed Kesava Pillai as Diwan of Travancore. He was glorified by the British Governor Mornington, by the title Raja in appreciation of his administrative talents. As Diwan, <mask> was responsible for shifting the capital of Travancore from Padmanabhapuram to Thiruvananthapuram. Military training
Kesava Pillai received military training under General Eustachius De Lannoy.This training perfected him to take active service as an efficient general. He was well trained in the military art and was competent to command a whole brigade in times of emergency. He learned the Dutch and Portuguese languages under General D’Lanoy and the Persian and Hindustani under the Pattan officers. Reforms
Kesava Das's foremost objective was to develop the economy of Travancore. He developed the economic condition of the people by improving trade. The profits from the trade helped the State to maintain a standing army. It also helped to make other necessary preparations for the struggle with Tippu Sultan.Essentially it was a kind of war finance system. He visited coastal areas from Kanyakumari to Alappuzha and converted two areas such as Alappuzha and Vizhinjam which had the potential to be upcoming ports. Military reforms
Of his military reforms, the most noteworthy is the repair of the old forts and the construction of many new roads. Guns and shorts were speedily manufactured in the arsenal at Udayagiri. Development of Alappuzha port

His all-time contribution is finding an ideal location and constructing a well-planned port city at Alappuzha. He found Alappuzha as the most suitable, because of geographical and oceanic reasons. He constructed two parallel canals for bringing goods to port and offered infrastructural facilities to merchants and traders from Surat, Mumbai and Kutch to start industrial enterprises, trading, and cargo centres.Alappuzha attained progress and became the financial nerve centre of Travancore during his time. Traders from  Bombay, Saurashtra and Surat were attracted to Alleppey. An effort was made to divert the trade of Cochin to Allepey port. The port was opened in 1762, mainly for the export of coir-matting and coir-yarn. <mask> built three ships for trade with Calcutta and Bombay, and Alleppey afforded a convenient depot for the storage and disposal of goods produce in the east. Vizhinjam port
Vizhinjam was developed into a small port by <mask> Das. Construction of MC road
The Main Central Road (MC Road) which is the arterial State Highway in the Travancore region of Kerala state was constructed at the time when <mask> was the Dewan of Travancore.Opening of Chalai Market

Chalai Market was officially established towards end of 18th century by Raja Kesavadas with an intention to make this bazaar a central point for the supply of commodities to the Travancore kingdom. Killi and the Karamana rivers nearby were used to carry goods from different parts of Travancore state. Both of the rivers were bridged. In 1786, Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma shifted to Thiruvananthapuram from Padmanabhapuram in Tamil Nadu. This helped Chalai to flourish. Nedumkotta

The greatest achievement of Kesavadas was his defence of Travancore against Tippu Sultan. When Kesavadas came to power, Tipu was threatening at the gates of Travancore.He bought the Kranganur and Ayakotta forts from the Dutch. He repaired the fort at other places and strengthened the army with well-trained soldiers; In negotiations with the English at Madras, he secured two of the company's troops and stationed them at the fort. He succeeded in the fight against Tipu and expelled him from the borders of Travancore and even his retreat did not give him peace of mind. He followed Tipu until the soldiers travelled a long distance and took heavy lives. Agricultural and Industrial Reforms
Raja Kesava Das took steps to develop Agriculture and related industries. Irrigation was prepared and fresh lands were brought. agriculturists were helped financially with loans and remission of taxes.Thiruvananthapuram city was modernized and beautified. Roads were widened and the fort was repaired. Revenue reforms
Gold coins such as Anantharayen fanam, Chinna fanam and Ananthavarahen were coined in the Travancore mint. A new contribution called Nilavary, upon Sircar pattam lands was raised which yielded a good round sum of money. For proper administration of the State, the Chattavariola (collection of rules and laws) were framed. Dewan succeeded in clearing away the greater part of the State-debt incurred in consequence of many wars and other emergencies. Later Years
His tenure of Diwanship ended with the demise of <mask> Karthika Thirunal in 1798.Balarama Varma, his successor aged sixteen became the crown prince who was too young in the hands of Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri. <mask> was proclaimed as a traitor and kept under house arrest which helped Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri to usurp the post of Diwan. Later his family assets were confiscated and were poisoned to death on 21 April 1799. Memorials
 A swimming pool in Alappuzha was built in 1997 in <mask>'s name. <mask>das N. S. S. Higher Secondary School in Sasthamangalam Thiruvananthapuram. His statue has been erected in Allepey- Changanassery road. Memorial Park in Allepey.A town at the start of M. C. Road is named Kesavadasapuram after him. References

External links
 Reforms of Raja Kesavadas, a journal

Diwans of Travancore
Politicians from Alappuzha
1745 births
1799 deaths
People of the Kingdom of Travancore
18th-century Indian politicians

masks:
Raja Kesavadas
Dharma Raja Karthika Tl Rama Varma
Raja
( Kesavadas
Raja Kesadas
Kesavadas
Raja Kesava
Raja Kesavadas
Dharma Raja
Raja Kesavadas
Raja Kesavadas
Raja Kesava


title: Palladius (Rayev)

type: original

texts:
Metropolitan <mask> (secular name <mask>, , at birth his surname was Pisarev, ; , village Peshalan, Arzamas county, Nizhny Novgorod Governorate – , St. Petersburg) was bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church; 18 October 1892 until his death he served as Metropolitan of St. Petersburg and Ladoga, the first member of the Most Holy Synod. Biography

He was born into the family of the priest of the village of Peshelan of the Nizhny Novgorod diocese; studied at the Nizhny Novgorod Theological School and Nizhny Novgorod Theological Seminary (1848). In 1852 he graduated from the Kazan Theological Academy with a master's degree in theology and was appointed a teacher of logic and psychology to the Nizhny Novgorod Theological Seminary, and a teacher of the Tatar language. On 15 August 1856, he was ordained a priest to the church of the intercession of Nizhny Novgorod (not preserved). In 1860, he was a widower, left with his children; 15 January 1861 took monastic vows with the name of Palladium in honor of the Monk Palladius, the desert of Antioch; 18 February 1862, was elevated to the rank of archimandrite. Since 28 August 1863 – Inspector of the St. Petersburg Theological Seminary; from 2 December 1864 – rector of the St. Petersburg Theological Seminary. 18 December 1866 Metropolitan of St. Petersburg Isidore (Nikolsky) in the cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra khirotonisan in the bishop of Ladoga, the first vicar of the St. Petersburg diocese.From 15 July 1869 – Bishop of Vologda and Ustyug. Wanting to see the bell tower of St. Sophia Cathedral of Vologda, the most majestic and high in the diocese, pointed out to build a new cathedral bell tower on the site of the bell tower of the middle of the 17th century. From 13 June 1873, Bishop Tambovsky and Shatsky. Since 9 September 1876 – the Bishop of Ryazan and Zaraisk. 12 April 1881 was elevated to the rank of archbishop. Since 21 August 1882 – Archbishop of Kazan and Sviyazhsky. In 1886, he founded Tsarevo-Kokshaiski Bogorodichno-Sergievsky female Cheremis monastery.Since 29 September 1887 – Archbishop Kartalinsky and Kakheti, Exarch of Georgia. In 1888 he was awarded a Diamond Cross for wearing on a klobuk. The highest rescript of 18 October 1892 was appointed "to the pulpit of the reigning city of St. Petersburg, with the elevation to the rank of Metropolitan and the title of the first member of the Holy Synod". Arrived in St. Petersburg on 19 November of the same year. Lover of solemn, "festive" services with a large number of employees: "in a magnificent setting – fussiness, running, talking". On 14 May 1896, on the day of the  Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, whose commission he headed in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, he received a supreme rescript with a diamond cross for wearing at the mitre (as well as the metropolitans of Kiev  and Moscow ). He managed to significantly expand the refectory of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra – after perestroika it turned into a spacious double-lighted hall with windows in two tiers, decorated with palace luxury.23 March 1897 consecrated in her church of the Intercession and St. Palladium, located on the choir in the eastern part of the refectory. Having fallen ill at the end of 1898, he blessed to perform the sacrament of anointing on himself, and, having communicated sacred secrets, on 5 December, at 2:40 am, quietly and peacefully died. The funeral services were headed by Archbishop of Finland . He was buried in the Isidorovskaya Church of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (closed in 1932). The funeral dinner was given at the lavra's refectory from the two sons of the deceased. One of his sons – Nikolai Raev – later became the last Chief Procurator of the Most Holy Synod of Tsarist Time. In 1932, his remains were transferred to the Brotherhood Cemetery of the Lavra.Published works
 «Признаки истинности православного христианства и лживости мухаммеданства» // «Миссионерский противомусульманский сборник». Вып. 9. — Казань, 1875. «Слова и речи». — Рязань, 1880. «Речь при вступлении в управление Казанской паствою» // «Православный собеседник».— 1882, ноябрь. — С. 191—204. «Речь новопоставленному иноку Александру Вадковскому, постриженному с именем Антония» // «Православный собеседник». — 1883, март. — С. 304—306.«Слово в день Благовещения Пресвятыя Богородицы» // «Православный собеседник». — 1883. — С. 1—8. «Слово в день святителей и чудотворцев Казанских Гурия, Варсонофия и Германа» // «Православный собеседник». — 1883, октябрь, с. 1-8.«Слово в неделю святых праотец» // «Православный собеседник». — 1883, декабрь, с. 1-6. «Речь перед дворянскими выборами 16 января 1884 года» // «Православный собеседник». — 1884, январь, с. 1-4. «Слово в день Сретения Господня» // «Православный собеседник».— 1884, февраль, с. 1-8. «Слово в день тысячелетия со дня блаженной кончины св. Равноапостольного Мефодия» // «Православный собеседник». — 1885, апрель, с. 337—343. «Слово по случаю столетнего юбилея со дня пожалования дворянской грамоты» // «Православный собеседник».— 1885, май, с. 1-3. «Слово в день явления Казанской иконы Божией Матери» // «Православный собеседник». — 1885, июль, с. 1. «Речь, произнесенная в Казанском соборе 23 июня 1887 г.» // «Православный собеседник». — 1887, июль, с.251—252. «Речь по возвращении после присутствования в Свящ. Синоде, произнесенная 14 июня 1887 г.» // «Православный собеседник». — 1887, июль, с. 249—250. «Из поучений Высокопреосв. Палладия, Митрополита СПБ и Ладожского».«Народная Академия», кн. 1 Изд. С. Г. Рункевича. — Saint-Petersburg, 1895. «Доброе слово» // «Церковный вестник». — 1895. — № 47.— С. 1503. «Приветственная речь в Тифлисе» // «Прибавление к „Церковному вестнику“». — 1888. — № 41. — С. 1123.Literature

 "The Church Herald", 10 December 1898, No. 50, stb. 1716–1722 (obituary). See also

 Palladium (Raev-Pisarev) On the site Russian Orthodoxy
 Archpastors of Kazan 1555—2011 on the site of the Kazan Theological Seminary
 Andreevsky Chevalier – Metropolitan of St. Petersburg and Novgorod Palladiy (Raev). Diocese of Vologda

References

1827 births
1898 deaths
Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Burials at the Isidorovskaya Church of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra
Burials at Nikolskoe Cemetery

masks:
Palladius
Pavel Ivanovich Rayev


title: Joy Harjo

texts:
<mask> ( ; born May 9, 1951) is an American poet, musician, playwright, and author. She is the incumbent United States Poet Laureate, the first Native American to hold that honor. She is also only the second Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to serve three terms. <mask> is a member of the Muscogee Nation (Este Mvskokvlke) and belongs to Oce Vpofv (Hickory Ground). She is an important figure in the second wave of the literary Native American Renaissance of the late 20th century. She studied at the Institute of American Indian Arts, completed her undergraduate degree at University of New Mexico in 1976, and earned an MFA degree at the University of Iowa in its creative writing program. In addition to writing books and other publications, <mask> has taught in numerous United States universities, performed internationally at poetry readings and music events, and released seven albums of her original music.<mask> is the author of nine books of poetry, and two award-winning children's books, The Good Luck Cat and For a Girl Becoming. Her books include Poet Warrior (2021), An American Sunrise (2019), Conflict Resolution for Holy Beings (2015), Crazy Brave (2012), and How We Became Human: New and Selected Poems 1975–2002 (2004). She was a recipient of the 2017 Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize, the Academy of American Poets Wallace Stevens Award, two fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts, a Guggenheim Fellowship, and a Tulsa Artist Fellowship, among other honors. In 2019, she was elected a chancellor of the Academy of American Poets. <mask> founded For Girls Becoming, an art mentorship program for young Mvskoke women and is a Founding Board Member and Chair of the Native Arts & Cultures Foundation. Her signature project to date as U.S. Poet Laureate is called "Living Nations, Living Words: A Map of First Peoples Poetry", which focuses on "mapping the U.S. with Native Nations poets and poems".Early life and education

<mask> was born on May 9, 1951, in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Her father, Allen W. Foster, was Muscogee, and her mother, Wynema Baker Foster, was Cherokee and European-American from Arkansas. As a member of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation, Harjo adopted her paternal grandmother's surname. At the age of 16, Harjo attended the Institute of American Indian Arts, which at the time was a BIA boarding school, in Santa Fe, New Mexico, for high school. Harjo loved painting and found that it gave her a way to express herself. Harjo was inspired by her great-aunt, <mask> Ball, who was a painter. Harjo enrolled as a pre-med student the University of New Mexico.She changed her major to art after her first year. During her last year, she switched to creative writing, as she was inspired by different Native American writers. She graduated in 1976. <mask> earned her master of fine arts degree in creative writing from the University of Iowa in 1978. She also took filmmaking classes at the Anthropology Film Center in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Career
<mask> taught at the Institute of American Indian Arts from 1978 to 1979 and 1983 to 1984. She taught at Arizona State University from 1980 to 1981, the University of Colorado from 1985 to 1988, the University of Arizona from 1988 to 1990, and the University of New Mexico from 1991 to 1995.Her students at the University of New Mexico included future Congresswoman and Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland. Harjo has played alto saxophone with the band Poetic Justice, edited literary journals, and written screenplays. In 1995, Harjo received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Native Writers' Circle of the Americas. In 2002, Harjo received the PEN/Beyond Margins Award for A Map to the Next World: Poetry and Tales. In 2008, she served as a founding member of the board of directors for the Native Arts and Cultures Foundation, for which she serves as a member of its National Advisory Council. <mask> joined the faculty of the American Indian Studies Program at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in January 2013. In 2016, <mask> was appointed to the Chair of Excellence in the Department of English at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.In 2019, <mask> was named the United States Poet Laureate. She is the first Native American to be so appointed. She is also the second United States Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to serve three terms. Literature and performance
<mask> has written numerous works in the genres of poetry, books, and plays. <mask>'s works often include themes such as defining self, the arts, and social justice. Harjo uses Native American oral history as a mechanism for portraying these issues, and believes that "written text is, for [her], fixed orality". Her use of the oral tradition is prevalent through various literature readings and musical performances conducted by Harjo.Her methods of continuing oral tradition include story-telling, singing, and voice inflection in order to captivate the attention of her audiences. While reading poetry, she claims that "[she] starts not even with an image but a sound," which is indicative of her oral traditions expressed in performance. Harjo published her first volume in 1975, titled The Last Song, which consisted of nine of her poems. <mask> has since authored nine books of poetry, including her most recent, the highly acclaimed An American Sunrise (2019), which was a 2020 Oklahoma Book Award Winner; Conflict Resolution for Holy Beings (2015), which was shortlisted for the Griffin Prize and named a Notable Book of the Year by the American Library Association; and In Mad Love and War (1990), which received an American Book Award and the Delmore Schwartz Memorial Award. Her first memoir, Crazy Brave, was awarded the PEN USA Literary Award in Creative Non Fiction and the American Book Award, and her second, Poet Warrior, was released from W.W. Norton in Fall 2021. She has published two award-winning children's books, The Good Luck Cat and For a Girl Becoming; a collaboration with photographer/astronomer Stephen Strom; an anthology of North American Native women's writing; several screenplays and collections of prose interviews; and three plays, including Wings of Night Sky, Wings of Morning Light, A Play, which she toured as a one-woman show and was recently published by Wesleyan Press. <mask> is Executive Editor of the anthology When the Light of the World was Subdued, Our Songs Came Through — A Norton Anthology of Native Nations Poetry and the editor of Living Nations, Living Words: An Anthology of First Peoples Poetry, the companion anthology to her signature Poet Laureate project featuring a sampling of work by 47 Native Nations poets through an interactive ArcGIS Story Map and a newly developed Library of Congress audio collection.<mask>'s awards for poetry include the Ruth Lily Prize for Lifetime Achievement from the Poetry Foundation, the Academy of American Poets Wallace Stevens Award, the New Mexico Governor's Award for Excellence in the Arts, a PEN USA Literary Award, Lila Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund Writers’ Award, the Poets & Writers Jackson Poetry Prize, a Rasmuson US Artist Fellowship, two NEA fellowships, and a Guggenheim Fellowship. Her poetry is included on a plaque on LUCY, a NASA spacecraft launched in Fall 2021 and the first reconnaissance of the Jupiter Trojans. Poetry
In the early stages of adolescence is when <mask>'s hardships started fairly quickly. Her family was challenged by her father's struggle with alcohol as well as an abusive stepfather. From this started her journey into the arts. She started painting as a way to express herself. After getting kicked out by her stepfather at the young age of 16, She attended school at the institute of Native American Arts in New Mexico where she worked to change the light in which Native American art was presented.From there, she became a creative writing major in college and focused on her passion of poetry after listening to Native American poets. She began writing poetry at twenty-two, and released her first book of poems called The Last Song, which started her career in writing. Music

As a musician, <mask> has released seven CDs. These feature both her original music and that of other Native American artists. Since her first album, a spoken word classic Letter From the End of the Twentieth Century (2003) and her 1998 solo album Native Joy for Real, <mask> has received numerous awards and recognitions for her music, including a Native American Music Award (NAMMY) for Best Female Artist of the year for her 2008 album, Winding Through the Milky Way. I Pray for My Enemies is <mask>'s seventh and newest album, released in 2021. <mask> performs with her saxophone and flutes, solo and with pulled-together players she often calls the Arrow Dynamics Band.She has performed in Europe, South America, India, and Africa, as well as for a range of North American stages, including the Vancouver Folk Music Festival, the Cultural Olympiad at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, the 2010 Olympics in Vancouver, DEF Poetry Jam, and the U.S. Library of Congress in Washington D.C.

She began to play the saxophone at the age of 40. <mask> believes that when reading her poems, she can add music by playing the sax and reach the heart of the listener in a different way. When reading her poems, she speaks with a musical tone in her voice, creating a song in every poem. Activism

In addition to her creative writing, <mask> has written and spoken about US political and Native American affairs. She is also an active member of the Muscogee Nation and writes poetry as "a voice of the Indigenous people". <mask>'s poetry explores imperialism and colonization, and their effects on violence against women. Scholar Mishuana Goeman writes, "The rich intertextuality of Harjo's poems and her intense connections with other and awareness of Native issues- such as sovereignty, racial formation, and social conditions- provide the foundation for unpacking and linking the function of settler colonial structures within newly arranged global spaces".In her poems, Harjo often explores her Muskogee/Creek background and spirituality in opposition to popular mainstream culture. In a thesis at Iowa University, Eloisa Valenzuela-Mendoza writes about <mask>, "Native American continuation in the face of colonization is the undercurrent of Harjo’s poetics through poetry, music, and performance." <mask>'s work touches upon land rights for Native Americans and the gravity of the disappearance of "her people", while rejecting former narratives that erased Native American histories. Much of <mask>'s work reflects Creek values, myths, and beliefs. Harjo reaches readers and audiences to bring realization of the wrongs of the past, not only for Native American communities but for oppressed communities in general. Her activism for Native American rights and feminism stem from her belief in unity and the lack of separation among human, animal, plant, sky, and earth. Harjo believes that we become most human when we understand the connection among all living things.She believes that colonialism led to Native American women being oppressed within their own communities, and she works to encourage more political equality between the sexes. Of contemporary American poetry, <mask> said, "I see and hear the presence of generations making poetry through the many cultures that express America. They range from ceremonial orality which might occur from spoken word to European fixed forms; to the many classic traditions that occur in all cultures, including theoretical abstract forms that find resonance on the page or in image. Poetry always directly or inadvertently mirrors the state of the state either directly or sideways. Terrance Hayes’s American sonnets make a stand as post-election love poems. Layli Long Soldier’s poems emerge from fields of Lakota history where centuries stack and bleed through making new songs. The sacred and profane tangle and are threaded into the lands guarded by the four sacred mountains in the poetry of Sherwin Bitsui.America has always been multicultural, before the term became ubiquitous, before colonization, and it will be after." Personal life
In 1969 at the Institute of American Indian Arts, Harjo met fellow student Phil Wilmon, with whom she had a son, Phil Dayn (born 1969). Their relationship ended by 1971. In 1972, she met poet Simon Ortiz of the Acoma Pueblo tribe, with whom she had a daughter, Rainy Dawn (born 1973). She raised both her children as a single mother. <mask> is married to Owen Chopoksa Sapulpa, and is stepmother to his children. .
 .
 ; W. W. Norton & Company, 2008, .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 . (shortlisted for the 2016 Griffin Poetry Prize)
 .As editor
 . In anthology
 . Plays

Non-fiction
 .

 .

Children's literature
 .
 .

Discography

Solo albums

 Letter from the End of the Twentieth Century (2003)
 Native Joy for Real (2004)
 She Had Some Horses (2006)
 Winding Through the Milky Way (2008)
 Red Dreams, A Trail Beyond Tears (2010)
This America (2011)
I Pray For My Enemies (2021)

<mask> and Poetic Justice
 Letter from the End of the Twentieth Century (1997)

See also

 List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas
 Native American Studies

Notes

References

 Azfar Hussain. "<mask> and Her Poetics as Praxis: A 'Postcolonial' Political Economy of the Body, Land, Labor, and Language." wicazo sa review: A Journal of Native American Studies 15.2 (2000) 27-61 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/36264

External links

 <mask>, U.S. Poet Laureate: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
<mask>: Academy of American Poet s

 Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture <mask>, <mask>

 Interview with <mask> on BBC Outlook (starting at 26.30)
 Voices of Oklahoma interview. First person interview conducted on November 5, 2020, with <mask>.Interview with <mask> on WHYY Fresh Air

1951 births
Living people
Writers from Tulsa, Oklahoma
Muscogee (Creek) Nation people
Native American musicians
Native American poets
American women poets
Institute of American Indian Arts alumni
Native American children's writers
American children's writers
Writers from New Mexico
American women children's writers
Musicians from Tulsa, Oklahoma
PEN Oakland/Josephine Miles Literary Award winners
American Book Award winners
Native American dramatists and playwrights
American Poets Laureate
Native American women writers
American people of Irish descent
American people of French descent
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
Writers from Oklahoma
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Poets from Oklahoma
20th-century Native Americans
21st-century Native Americans
20th-century Native American women
21st-century Native American women

masks:
Joy Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Lois Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Joy Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Joy Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Harjo
Joy Harjo
Joy Harjo
Joy Harjo
Joy Harjo
– Harjo
Joy
Joe Harjo
Joy Harjo
Joe Harjo


title: Darsono

texts:
<mask>, more commonly known simply as <mask>, (born in Pati, Dutch East Indies 1897, died 1976 in Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia) was a journalist and editor of Sinar Hindia, an activist in the Sarekat Islam and chairman of the Indonesian Communist Party from 1920 to 1925. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born in Pati, Central Java, Dutch East Indies in 1897. Despite his later prominence, he only had a primary school education, a fact which was later held against him by his critics. Involvement in Indonesian National Awakening
<mask> was converted to the cause of socialism when he attended the trial of Henk Sneevliet. He was impressed that a Dutch person would be willing to lose everything in order to side with the little person. He became a member of the Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging and became secretary of the Semarang branch in 1918. The Sarekat Islam (Malay: Islamic Union) was the first mass organization of Indigenous people in the Indies, who organized themselves loosely around the identity of Islam.But the organization contained quite a lot of ideological diversity, with Islamic nationalism (led by Cokroaminoto, Agus Salim and Abdul Muis), communists (led by Semaoen, <mask> and Alimin), and a synthesis of the two by Haji Misbach. In 1918, Darsono became a paid propagandist for the SI and became well known for his tireless effort to drive that organization to the left. Although the leaders of the "Central Sarekat Islam" based in Batavia were skeptical of the move towards communism, they appointed Semaoen to their board as well as making Darsono propagandist. For this the central organization tried to make a deal with them to not publicly split with the organization or propagandize against them. During this time he was skeptical of the Insulinde party which had been founded by E.F.E. Douwes Dekker, Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo and Soewardi Soerjaningrat. He expressed in meetings and articles that he believed that party mainly represented Indo people and that if they came to power they would relegate native Indonesians to a subservient position.In May 1920, Semaoen refounded the ISDV as the Partai Komunis di Hindia (Malay: Communist Party in the Indies), which 9 months later would be renamed the Partai Komunis Indonesia (Indonesian Communist Party). At that time <mask> was still in prison in Surabaya. In October 1920 the Semarang wing of the Sarekat Islam, and <mask> in particular, came into conflict with the central group of the organization in Batavia. <mask> was accused of breaking the truce with the central Sarekat Islam that had been agreed upon in 1917. In the pages of Sinar Hindia, he accused Sarekat Islam leader Cokroaminoto of embezzling money from the organization. Of course, Cokroaminoto took it as a stab in the back. Soviet Union and Europe
Darsono left the Indies to travel through Siberia to Western Europe during 1921-23.During that trip, in 1921, he represented the PKI at the third Congress of the Comintern in Moscow. After that he worked for the Comintern in Berlin. He also spoke at a congress of the Dutch Dutch Communist Party in Groningen in 1921. In that speech he called for closer collaboration between the Dutch and Indonesian communist parties in the interest of reducing racial hatred. <mask> returned to Moscow in 1922. While he was abroad the Dutch authorities in the Indies discussed that he should be treated similarly to Semaoen and not allowed to reenter the colony when he came back from Europe. However, he did manage to reenter the Indies in 1923.In 1923 the Semarang authorities and the Governor General debated whether <mask> and Semaoen should be deported from the Indies, but decided against it for the time being. Although they were aggressively organizing strikes and spreading the communist message, the authorities thought that deporting them might not change anything. During this time, <mask> was relatively moderate as a communist compared to Semaoen, in that he did not believe in the use of bombings, terror or other methods. <mask> was finally arrested in 1925 and expelled from the Indies in 1926 If he was a more moderate figure, with him and the other PKI founders gone, the party became far more radical. The ill-fated 1926 PKI revolt happened while he and Semaoen were out of the country, and even though they tried to negotiate on the Indonesian communists' behalf with the Soviet party, they were increasingly out of touch and unable to be of help from where they were. Adolf Baars, a Dutch communist who had been involved in the early years of the ISDV but had been deported from the Indies early on, mentioned Semaoen and <mask> in a 1928 book he published about life in the Soviet Union. He wrote that foreign representatives working in the country often had very limited social circles, and that people like Semaoen and <mask> worked in an office, received foreign letters and press clippings, and lived in a hotel, knowing little about the country they were living in.He returned to the Soviet Union via Singapore and China; under the pseudonym of Samin, he worked for the Comintern for a number of years. He was even elected as an alternate member of the Executive Committee of the Communist International in 1928. In 1929 he also ran for office on the Dutch Communist Party list. However, he was expelled from the Comintern in 1931. <mask> was still in Berlin in 1935 when the Nuremberg Laws were passed. At this time many communists fled Germany, but he was unable to escape for a time, and so he left his son Alam <mask> to stay with Bran Bleekrode, a Jewish violinist living in Amsterdam whose cousin Bram Bleekrode was organizing places to stay for communists fleeing Germany. However, <mask> was apparently able to rejoin his son in Amsterdam later in 1935, where he stayed for a number of years.;

After Indonesian independence
Upon Indonesia's independence from the Netherlands, <mask> finally returned to the country in 1950, after twenty years of being barred from entry. He broke with his previous communist views and became an advisor at the Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs until 1960. <mask> died 1976 in Semarang. References

Dutch East Indies
Indonesian communists
Executive Committee of the Communist International
Indonesian exiles
Indonesian revolutionaries
Javanese people
Indonesian journalists
1897 births
1976 deaths
20th-century journalists
Indonesian newspaper editors
Newspaper editors from the Dutch East Indies
Sarekat Islam politicians

masks:
Raden Darsono Notosudirdjo
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
Darsono
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Darsono


title: Francis Delafield

texts:
<mask> (August 3, 1841 – July 17, 1915) was an American physician, born in New York City. His father, Dr<mask>, was the son of the prominent <mask> who had emigrated to America from London, England in 1783 carrying the provisional peace treaty between England and The United States. While his father Edward graduated Yale in 1812, <mask> graduated at Yale (1860) and at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University (1863), and after further study abroad practiced medicine in New York. <mask> was appointed to the staff of Bellevue Hospital (1874), and to the chair of pathology and practice of medicine in the College of Physicians and Surgeons (1875–82). <mask> resided for many years at 5 West 50th Street in Manhattan, New York. In 1886, he became the first president of the Association of American Physicians. Early life
<mask> was born in New York City, the son of <mask> by his second marriage to Julia Floyd.Julia Floyd was the granddaughter of William Floyd, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. She was born, raised and married on the Floyd estate in Mastic, Long Island. <mask>'s mother Julia Floyd married Dr <mask> in 1839 on the Floyd family's property in Long Island (currently the William Floyd House museum). She kept an extensive journal of her life during the Civil war until her death. She was one of a few women invited to attend Lincoln's 2nd inauguration. Julia Floyd was also the first woman in New York to use ether to ease pain during childbirth. She endured hardship.Julia Floyd <mask> watched all of her husband's six children die of tuberculosis (his first wife had died of it also). Some of her five biological children also suffered from tuberculosis and died. And even her son [<mask>] became gravely sick and nearly died. <mask>' brother Augustus Floyd <mask> travelled extensively around Scotland and brought back a set of golf clubs in 1880s. The sport became popular in Darien and Augustus founded the Wee Burn Country Club in 1893. From London, <mask>' grandfather (John Delafied) emigrated to New York City. The ship upon which he took passage bore letters of marque, and captured a French vessel.<mask> volunteered in the action, and shared the prize money to the extent of £100. He landed in New York City on April 5, 1783, and found himself especially welcomed as the bearer of a manuscript copy of the text of the treaty of peace, which had been handed him at the moment of sailing by an official in the British service. The conditions of peace were known, but the text had not yet been made public in England; and, although the official copy had been forwarded, the "Vigilant" had outstripped the bearer of the government dispatches by some days. <mask> was a founder and director of the Mutual insurance company, established on June 15, 1787, that being the first company organized to take risks against fire in the City of New York after the Revolution. On January 12, 1792, he was appointed director of the branch of the U. S. bank, and was afterward elected to the same office. He was one of forty gentlemen who subscribed $10,000 each, and founded (February 1, 1796) the United insurance company, also acting as a director, and serving as president for many years. His summer residence on the East River, opposite Blackwell's Island, known as" Sunswick," built in 1791, was one of the largest and best appointed private houses near New York.<mask> had nine sons and four daughters. Two of his sons died young. <mask> was fitted for college in private schools in New York City, and at Yale received a dissertation appointment in junior year and was a member of Phi Beta Kappa. In 1863, he graduated from the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia, and then for some months continued his medical studies abroad — in Paris, Berlin and London. Career
Upon his return to the U.S. in 1865, he became surgeon in the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary, and physician and pathologist in 1871 to the Roosevelt Hospital (now Mount Sinai West). He was the founder of the first pathological laboratory in US, and his writings upon pathological subjects were accepted as standard authorities. His first important literary work, "A Handbook of Post-Mortem Examination and Morbid Anatomy" (1872) was later rewritten and enlarged into "A Handbook of Pathological Anatomy and Histology" (1885) and became a textbook for medical colleges.In 1878, appeared his "Manual of Physical Diagnosis," and in 1895 "Diseases of the Kidneys". Another achievement was his classification of the group of diseases generally treated under pulmonary consumption. Probably his most important contribution to medicine was "Studies in Pathological Anatomy," published in 1882. Since 1868, when he became a lecturer on pathological anatomy in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, <mask> had been a member of the Faculty of Columbia University. In 1875, he was appointed adjunct professor of medicine under Professor Alonzo Clark, and upon the latter's retirement in 1882 was elected his successor, as professor of pathology and the practice of medicine, being made professor emeritus in 1901. For a number of years since 1874, he was attached to the staff of Bellevue Hospital, at first as a member of the house staff, later as attending physician, and finally as consulting physician. He had served also as pathologist and attending physician to Roosevelt Hospital and as surgeon to the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary.In 1890, he was honored with the degree of LL.D. from Yale, and, in 1904, Columbia conferred a similar degree upon him. He held membership in the New York County Medical Society, the New York Academy of Medicine, the Pathological Society, and the Association of American Physicians, becoming the first president of the latter organization in 1886. The Delafield Commission

<mask> was the nephew of Major <mask>. In 1855, Secretary of War Jefferson Davis dispatched Maj. <mask>, Maj. Alfred Mordecai, and Capt. George B. McClellan to the battlefields of Crimea to observe the European military in action. American military commanders had studied European armies before, but the Delafield Commission was the most ambitious military observation mission up to that time and the first to observe an ongoing war.Major <mask> procured illustrations of Crimean weaponry that informed designs for the United States Civil War. Attended William McKinley
<mask> was the primary physician who was consulted following the shooting of United States President William McKinley in September 1901. While <mask> argued to use the X-Ray machine to photograph McKinley's organs and assess the damage, he met opposition from others unwilling to use the new technology. Some attribute this inaction to contributing to McKinley's ultimate demise. Legacy
In 1948, in recognition for his career in medicine, the Francis Delafield Hospital opened as a cancer research center for Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center. The six-story building was located at 163rd Street and Fort Washington Avenue in Manhattan. Its 2,000,000 volt roentgen ray installation was the second ever in New York City.Terms
 Delafield's hematoxylin — a strong solution of hematoxylin crystals, 4 cc. ;  95% alcohol, 25 cc. ;  saturated aqueous solution of ammonia alum, 400 cc. ;  expose in an unstoppered bottle to sun and air three or four days;  filter and add 100 cc. of glycerin and 100 cc. of 95% alcohol. Dorland's Medical Dictionary (1938)

Personal life
On January 17, 1870 in Mulenburgh's church (6th avenue and 20th)  <mask> married Katherine Van Rensselaer (1849–1901), the daughter of Henry Bell Van Rensselaer and the granddaughter of Stephen Van Rensselaer III.Together, they were the parents of one son and three daughters:

 Elizabeth "Bessie" Ray <mask> (1872–1923), who was active in the missions of the Episcopal Church and worked with the wounded during World War I.
 Julia Floyd <mask> (1874–1952), who married Frederick S. Crosby. They were the grandparents of the musician David Crosby. Cornelia Van Rensselaer <mask> (b. 1876)
 Edward Henry <mask> (1880–1955)

<mask> died in Noroton, Connecticut while visiting his sister. For some time he had been in poor health, and a week before his death suffered an attack of apoplexy. He was buried in Grace Church Cemetery at Jamaica, Long Island. Delafield Island
Between 1859 and 1865, his father Dr. <mask>, assembled a  tract of land in Darien, Connecticut.After his parents died, in the summer of 1879, <mask> inherited the  entirety of the property in Darien then called "Delafield Farm". After the death of <mask>, the property was looked after by his spinster sister Emma Harriot <mask>. When she died in 1921, the property then went to the only son of <mask>: Edward Henry <mask>. After the 1929 stock market crash, Edward partitioned and parcelled off the land over the ensuing years. In an effort to sell land, the name was changed to "Delafield Wood" then "Delafield Estates" until Edward settled on the current name "Delafield Island". Edward Henry <mask> was a graduate of Yale college. He married Winifred Folsom and had four daughters.He lived on Delafield Island until his death in 1955. His daughter Elizabeth Van Rensselaer <mask> (1908–1983) lived on Delafield Island for many years. She had two children from her first marriage to the architect Robert Spurgeon; And two children from her second marriage to the attorney Frank A. Zunino Jr.

Lineage
<mask>ield was of the family of Count de la Feld, which dates back to the darkest period of the Middle Ages (about the sixth century) and seated at the Chateaux of La Feld, in Alsace (extensive ruins still remain). Hubertus De La Feld from Alsace-Lorraine near Colmar, was the first of the family that emigrated to England. Because of his service in Hastings during the 1066 invasion of England,  Hubertus De La Feld received large grants of land from William the Conqueror and settled near Halifax. In England, the family rose in stature when <mask> distinguished himself in the imperial service against the Turks: having taken a standard from the enemy at the Battle of Zenta in Hungary was in 1697 created a Count of the Holy Roman Empire by Emperor Leopold I. See also
 Pathology
 List of pathologists

References

Further reading
Irish and Anglo-Irish Landed Gentry, by John O'Hart
Reflections, by Edward V.R Spurgeon, 2001
The Delafields and Delafield Island, by Robert W. Baylis, 1981
Encyclopedia of Heraldry or General Armor, Edition of 1844 by John Burke
A Genealogical & Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage & Baronetage of the British Empire, 1853

External links

1841 births
1915 deaths
American science writers
Yale College alumni
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons alumni
Columbia Medical School faculty
American pathologists
Cornell family
People included in New York Society's Four Hundred
Scientists from New York (state)
People from Manhattan
Delafield family

masks:
Francis Delafield
. Edward Delafield
John Delafield
Francis
Francis
Francis Delafield
Francis Delafield
Edward Delafield
Francis Delafield
Edward Delafield
Delafield
Francis Delafield
Francis
Delafield
Francis
John Delafield
John Delafield
John Delafield
Francis Delafield
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Francis Delafield
Richard Delafield
Richard Delafield
Delafield
Francis Delafield
Francis
Francis Delafield
Delafield
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Delafield
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Edward Delafield
Francis Delafield
Francis
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Francis
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Francis Delaf
John Delafield


title: Edith Stein

texts:
<mask> (religious name Saint Teresia Benedicta a Cruce ; also known as Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross or <mask>; 12 October 1891 – 9 August 1942) was a German Jewish philosopher who converted to Christianity and became a Discalced Carmelite nun. She is canonized as a martyr and saint of the Catholic Church; she is also one of six patron saints of Europe. She was born into an observant Jewish family, but had become an agnostic by her teenage years. Moved by the tragedies of World War I, in 1915, she took lessons to become a nursing assistant and worked in an infectious diseases hospital. After completing her doctoral thesis at the University of Freiburg in 1916, she obtained an assistantship there. From reading the life of the reformer of the Carmelite Order, Saint Teresa of Ávila, <mask> was drawn to the Christian faith. She was baptized on 1 January 1922 into the Catholic Church.At that point, she wanted to become a Discalced Carmelite nun but was dissuaded by her spiritual mentor, the abbot of Beuron Archabbey. She then taught at a Catholic school of education in Speyer. As a result of the requirement of an "Aryan certificate" for civil servants promulgated by the Nazi government in April 1933 as part of its Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, she had to quit her teaching position. <mask> was admitted as a postulant to the Discalced Carmelite monastery in Cologne on 14 October, on the first vespers of the feast of Saint Teresa of Avila, and received the religious habit as a novice in April 1934, taking the religious name Teresia Benedicta a Cruce (Teresia in remembrance of Saint Teresa of Avila, Benedicta in honour of Saint Benedict of Nursia). She made her temporary vows on 21 April 1935, and her perpetual vows on 21 April 1938. The same year, Teresa Benedicta a Cruce and her biological sister Rosa, by then also a convert and an extern (tertiary of the Order, who would handle the community's needs outside the monastery), were sent to the Carmelite monastery in Echt, Netherlands, for their safety. In response to the pastoral letter from the Dutch bishops on July 26, 1942, in which they picked up the treatment of the Jews by the Nazis as a central theme, all baptized Catholics of Jewish origin (according to police reports 244 people) were arrested by the Gestapo on the following Sunday, 2 August 1942.They were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp, where they were murdered in a gas chamber on 9 August 1942. Early life

<mask> was born in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), Lower Silesia, into an observant Jewish family. She was the youngest of 11 children and was born on Yom Kippur, the holiest day of the Hebrew calendar, which combined to make her a favorite of her mother. She was a very gifted child who enjoyed learning, in a home where her mother encouraged critical thinking, and she greatly admired her mother's strong religious faith. By her teenage years, however, <mask> had become an agnostic. Though her father died while she was young, her widowed mother was determined to give her children a thorough education and consequently sent <mask> to study at the Schlesische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Breslau. At age 19, <mask> moved with her family to Breslau to a house bought by her mother, which she later described in her Autobiography.Today <mask> Stein House hosts a museum dedicated to the history of the <mask> family. Academic career
In April 1913, <mask> arrived at the University of Göttingen in order to study for the summer semester with Edmund Husserl. By the end of the summer, she had decided to pursue her doctoral degree in philosophy under Husserl and chose empathy as her thesis topic. Her studies were interrupted in July 1914 because of the outbreak of World War I. She then served as a volunteer wartime Red Cross nurse in an infectious diseases hospital at Mährisch Weißkirchen in 1915. In 1916, <mask> moved to the University of Freiburg in order to complete her dissertation on Empathy. Shortly before receiving her degree from Freiburg she agreed to become Husserl's assistant there.Her dissertation entitled Das Einfühlungsproblem in seiner historischen Entwicklung und in phänomenologischer Betrachtung (The Empathy Problem as it Developed Historically and Considered Phenomenologically) was awarded a doctorate in philosophy with the summa cum laude honor. <mask> then became a member of the faculty at Freiburg, where she worked until 1918 as a teaching assistant to Husserl, who had transferred to that institution. The University of Göttingen rejected her habilitation thesis in 1919. Although <mask> passed her doctoral examination with distinction, her attempts to habilitate failed due to the fact that <mask> was a woman. Her rejected habilitation thesis, Beiträge zur philosophischen Begründung der Psychologie und der Geisteswissenschaften (Contributions to the Philosophical Foundations of Psychology and the Human Sciences), was published in the Jahrbuch für Philosophie und phänomenologische Forschung in 1922. She is categorized as a realistic phenomenologist. While <mask> had earlier contacts with Catholicism, it was her reading of the autobiography of the mystic Teresa of Ávila during summer holidays in Bad Bergzabern in 1921 that prompted her conversion and eventually the desire to seek the life of a Discalced Carmelite.Baptized on 1 January 1922, and dissuaded by her spiritual advisers from immediately seeking entry to the enclosed and hidden life of a Carmelite nun, <mask> obtained a position to teach at the Dominican nuns' school in Speyer from 1923 to 1931. While there, <mask> translated Thomas Aquinas' De Veritate (Of Truth) into German, familiarized herself with Catholic philosophy in general and tried to bridge the phenomenology of her former teacher, Husserl, to Thomism. She visited Husserl and Heidegger at Freiburg in April 1929, the same month that Heidegger gave a speech to Husserl on his 70th birthday. In 1932 she became a lecturer at the Catholic Church-affiliated Institute for Scientific Pedagogy in Münster, but antisemitic legislation passed by the Nazi government forced her to resign the post in 1933. In a letter to Pope Pius XI, she denounced the Nazi regime and asked the Pope to openly denounce the regime "to put a stop to this abuse of Christ's name." Her letter received no answer, and it is not known for certain whether the Pope ever saw it. However, in 1937 the Pope issued an encyclical written in German, Mit brennender Sorge (according to it's German first words, lit."With deep anxiety"), in which he criticized Nazism, listed violations of the Concordat between Germany and the Church of 1933, and condemned antisemitism. Discalced Carmelite nun and martyr
<mask> entered the Discalced Carmelite monastery St. Maria vom Frieden (Our Lady of Peace) in Cologne-Lindenthal in October 1933 and took the religious name Teresia Benedicta a Cruce (Teresa Benedicta of the Cross). In Cologne she wrote her metaphysical book Endliches und ewiges Sein (Finite and Eternal Being), which attempted to combine the philosophies of St. Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus and Husserl. To avoid the growing Nazi threat, the Order transferred <mask> and her sister, Rosa, who was also a convert and an extern sister of the Carmel, to the Discalced Carmelite monastery in Echt, Netherlands. There she wrote Studie über Joannes a Cruce: Kreuzeswissenschaft ("Studies on John of the Cross: The Science of the Cross"). In her testament of 9 June 1939 she wrote:

<mask>'s move to Echt prompted her to be more devout and even more observant of the Carmelite rule. After having her teaching position revoked by the implementation of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, <mask> quickly eased back into the role of instructor at the convent in Echt, teaching both fellow sisters and students within the community Latin and philosophy.Even prior to the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands, <mask> believed she would not survive the war, going so far as to write the Prioress to request her permission to "allow [<mask>] to offer [her]self to the heart of Jesus as a sacrifice of atonement for true peace" and made a will. Her fellow sisters would later recount how <mask> began "quietly training herself for life in a concentration camp, by enduring cold and hunger" after the Nazi invasion of the Netherlands in May 1940. Ultimately, she would not be safe in the Netherlands. The Dutch Bishops' Conference had a public statement read in all churches across the nation on 20 July 1942 condemning Nazi racism. In a retaliatory response on 26 July 1942 the Reichskommissar of the Netherlands, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, ordered the arrest of all Jewish converts who had previously been spared. Along with two hundred and forty-three baptized Jews living in the Netherlands, <mask> was arrested by the SS on 2 August 1942. <mask> and her sister Rosa were imprisoned at the concentration camps of Amersfoort and Westerbork before being deported to Auschwitz.A Dutch official at Westerbork was so impressed by her sense of faith and calm, he offered her an escape plan. <mask> vehemently refused his assistance, stating: "If somebody intervened at this point and took away [her] chance to share in the fate of [her] brothers and sisters, that would be utter annihilation." On 7 August 1942, early in the morning, 987 Jews were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp. It was probably on 9 August that Sister Teresa Benedicta of the Cross, her sister Rosa, and many more Jewish people were killed in a gas chamber. Philosophy

<mask>'s development as a philosopher is frequently divided into three periods: an early, phenomenological (1916-25), a middle, comparative (1925-33) and a late, Christian (1935-42). In reality the same factors work themselves out throughout her work and propels it forward: 1. a profound understanding of and commitment to the phenomenological method as taught by Husserl and Reinach; 2. a deep sense of responsibility to the other for what we believe and 3. an acceptance of my own inability to form a complete, meaningful worldview without divine assistance. The three periods are best understood as stages of integration of these three factors, with <mask>'s baptism New Year's Day 1922, marking a decisive step on the way and her entering Carmel 14 October 1933 marking another.The early phenomenological period (1916-25)
<mask>'s dissertation on empathy was according to her own account an attempt to fill a gap in Husserl's work. In her autobiographical Life in a Jewish Family, she recalled that he took empathy to be the crucial act in which intersubjectivity was established, but nowhere detailed exactly what was meant by it. She therefore wanted to undertake this task and thereby clarify this crucial idea for the development of the phenomenological movement. While working as Husserl's assistant (1916-18) she edited Husserl's manuscripts of what was later to be published as Ideas II and III, and in the process came to understand the extraordinary importance this act has for our constitution of the intersubjective world, and in particular for the objects studied by psychology and the humanities. When she resigned from her position as Husserl's assistant, the phenomenological constitution of those objects: the psyche and the spirit, it was thus the first work she undertook. The result was the two treatises of Philosophy of Psychology and the Humanities, published in Husserl's Jahrbuch 1922: Psychic Causality and

masks:
Edith Stein
Saint Edith Stein
Edith Stein
Edith Stein
Edith Stein
Stein
Edith
Stein
Edith
Stein
Stein
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title: Edith Stein

texts:
 Individual and Community. From this period also dates Introduction to Philosophy, An Investigation Concerning the State, and very importantly Freedom and Grace.The middle comparative period (1925-33)
Encouraged to study and compare Thomas Aquinas' philosophy with that of the phenomenological movement, <mask> embarked on a translation project of Aquinas' De Veritate, which was to be published in two volumes in 1932. The work, which translates Aquinas' way of thinking into a modern German idiom and restyles it as a contemporary academic treatise, occasioned that <mask> engaged with Aquinas' thought as a phenomenologist, i.e. as someone interested in the matters discussed by Aquinas, as distinct from providing an interpretation of Aquinas' thought or writing in prolongation of it as a thomist. The most important works from this period are 'Husserl and Aquinas: A Comparison', in which she discusses the differing methodologies of Husserl and Aquinas and accounts for their differences, Potency and Act, in which she attempts a phenomenological investigation of 'potency' and 'act' and the twin work of anthropology: The Structure of the Human Person. Philosophical Anthropology and What is the Human Being? Theological Anthropology (the second volume remains a highly developed draft rather than a completed work, since <mask>'s lectures were canceled in 1933). During this period she also lectures on women's education and vocation and on education in general to very large audiences and to great acclaim.In these lectures, published in ESGA 13 and ESGA 16, she works out for herself the important questions concerning social type and essence, which find a fuller development in The Structure of the Human Person. The later Christian period (1934-42)
The first task <mask> was assigned in the monastery was the writing of her incomplete autobiography, Life in a Jewish Family, a confession of her life as much as an apology in the literal sense for being of Jewish descent. Her next assignment was to prepare Potency and Act for publication, a task she accomplished by writing a new book: Finite and Eternal Being – An Ascent to the Meaning of Being. This work proposed a phenomenological doctrine of being (Seinslehre), which knows itself to be Christian, i.e. as taking Christian Revelation to contribute towards the view of the world in which it looks for and finds the meaning of being in being's unfolding. <mask> also worked on Dionysius the Areopagite, translating his works into German and writing (for him) a work supposed to be lost on symbolic theology. <mask>'s final work, the Science of the Cross, was a commentary on St. John of the Cross, which developed the specifically Carmelite understanding of the depths of the soul, already of interest to <mask> in her early work.Legacy and veneration

Teresa Benedicta of the Cross was beatified as a martyr on 1 May 1987 in Cologne, Germany, by Pope John Paul II and then canonized by him 11 years later on 11 October 1998 in Rome. The miracle that was the basis for her canonization is the cure of Benedicta McCarthy, a little girl who had swallowed a large amount of paracetamol (acetaminophen), which causes hepatic necrosis. The young girl's father, Emmanuel Charles McCarthy, a priest of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, immediately called together relatives and prayed for Teresa's intercession. Shortly thereafter the nurses in the intensive care unit saw her sit up, completely healthy. Ronald Kleinman, a pediatric specialist at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston who treated the girl, testified about her recovery to Church tribunals, stating: "I was willing to say that it was miraculous." McCarthy would later attend Sr. Teresa Benedicta's canonization. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross is one of the six patron saints of Europe, together with Benedict of Nursia, Cyril and Methodius, Bridget of Sweden, and Catherine of Siena.Today there are many schools named in tribute to her, for example in her hometown, Lubliniec, Poland  Darmstadt, Germany, Hengelo, Netherlands, and Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. Also named for her are a women's dormitory at the University of Tübingen and a classroom building at The College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts. Lubliniec in Poland hosts Edith Stein Museum (Muzeum Pro Memoria Edith Stein) localised on the first floor of the Courant family house (<mask>'s grandparents' family home). Wroclaw hosts a museum called Edith Stein House localised in the house <mask>'s mother bought for the family in 1919 on the street then called Michaelisstrasse 38 (today Nowowiejska 38). The philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre published a book in 2006 titled <mask>: A Philosophical Prologue, 1913–1922, in which he contrasted her living of her own personal philosophy with Martin Heidegger, whose actions during the Nazi era, according to MacIntyre, suggested a "bifurcation of personality." Playwright Arthur Giron wrote <mask>, a play that was inspired by <mask>'s life. It was produced at the Pittsburgh Public Theater in 1988.In 1988, <mask> was pictured on a German postage stamp with Rupert Mayer SJ in honor of their beatification. In 1995, Hungarian film director Márta Mészáros made a movie about the life and death of <mask> with the title A hetedik szoba (The Seventh Room/Chamber), starring Maia Morgenstern. In 1999, a memorial statue by German sculptor Bert Gerresheim was dedicated in Cologne, Germany. The statue comprises three different views of <mask> reflecting her Jewish and Christian faith, and a pile of empty shoes representing the victims of the holocaust. In 2007, <mask>'s life and work was dramatised in the novel Winter Under Water (Picador, London) by author James Hopkin. In 2008, the first Stolperstein () that was ever laid in Poland was placed near <mask>'s childhood home at 38 ul. Nowowiejska (formerly the Michaelisstraße) in Wrocław.Other Stolpersteine for her are in Cologne (several) and Freiburg. In 2009, her bust was installed at the Walhalla Memorial near Regensburg, Germany. In June 2009 the International Association for the Study of the Philosophy of Edith Stein (IASPES) was founded, and held its first international conference at Maynooth University, Ireland, in order to advance the philosophical writings of <mask>. On 6 June 2014, the 70th anniversary of D-Day, a bell dedicated to her was named by Prince Charles at Bayeux Cathedral. Also in 2014, the book <mask> and Regina Jonas: Religious Visionaries in the Time of the Death Camps, by Emily Leah Silverman, was published. Controversy as to the cause of her murder
The beatification of St. Teresa Benedicta as a martyr generated criticism. Critics argued that she was murdered because she was Jewish by birth, rather than for her Christian faith, and that, in the words of Daniel Polish, the beatification seemed to "carry the tacit message encouraging conversionary activities" because "official discussion of the beatification seemed to make a point of conjoining <mask>'s Catholic faith with her death with 'fellow Jews' in Auschwitz."The position of the Catholic Church is that St. Teresa Benedicta also died because of the Dutch episcopacy's public condemnation of Nazi racism in 1942; in other words, that she died because of the moral teaching of the Church and is thus a true martyr. Gallery

Bibliography

For a detailed chronology of <mask>'s writings see IASPES' website. Primary literature

In German

 1917, Zum Problem der Einfühlung Halle: Buchdruckerei des Waisenhauses. (Doctoral Thesis). 1916-1220, Einführung in die Philosophie, lectures taught at a proseminar in Freiburg in 1916-1918 and, later, privately in Breslau in Edith Stein House in 1920
 1921, Freiheit und Gnade. This work has for years been wrongly identified and quoted as Die ontische Struktur der Person und ihre erkenntnistheoretische Problematik, a title that appeared in print after WWII due to an incorrect connection between title page and work. 1922, Beiträge zur philosophischen Begründung der Psychologie und der Geisteswissenschaften, in Jahrbuch für Philosophie und phänomenologische Forschung 5, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1-284.1924, Was ist Phänomenologie? 1924, Was ist Philosophie? Ein Gespräch zwischen Edmund Husserl und Thomas von Aquino
 1925, Eine Untersuchung über den Staat, in Jahrbuch für Philosophie und phänomenologische Forschung 7, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1-123. 1929, Husserls Phänomenologie und die Philosophie des heiligen Thomas von Aquino. Versuch einer Gegenüberstellung, in Festschrift Edmund Husserl zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet, (Jahrbuch für Philosophie und phänomenologische Forschung 10), Ergänzungsband, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 315–338. 1930/1931, Die weltanschauliche Bedeutung der Phänomenologie
1931, Potenz und Akt.Studien zu einer Philosophie des Seins
1932, Der Aufbau der menschlichen Person. Vorlesung zur philosophischen Anthropologie
1933, Was ist der Mensch? Theologische Anthropologie. Das Menschenbild unseres Glaubens
1928-1933, Die Frau. Fragestellungen und Reflexionen
1935/1936, Endliches und ewiges Sein. Versuch eines Aufstiegs zum Sinn des Seins, written with two supplements:
Die Seelenburg zu Endliches und ewiges Sein
Martin Heidegger’s Existenzphilosophie
1940/1941, Wege der Gotteserkenntnis. Studie zu Dionysius Areopagita
1941/1942, Kreuzeswissenschaft.Studie über Johannes vom Kreuz

Contemporary critical edition
(<mask> Gesamtausgabe, Herder 2000-2020) with English and Polish translations available
 ESGA 1: <mask>., Aus dem Leben einer jüdischen Familie und weitere autobiographische Beiträge, Herder, Freiburg 2002. English translation: CWES 1: Life in a Jewish Family: Her Unfinished Autobiographical Account, trans. Josephine Koeppel in: The Collected Works of <mask>. Volume 1, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 1986;
 Polish translation: ESGA PL 1: Dzieje pewnej rodziny żydowskiej, trans. Immakulata J. Adamska, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2005. ESGA 2: <mask>., Selbstbildnis in Briefen I. Erster Teil 1916-1933, Herder, Freiburg 2000. English translation: CWES 5: Self-portrait in Letters 1916-1942, trans.Josephine Koeppel in: The Collected Works of <mask>. Volume 1, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 1993. Polish translation: Autoportret z listów I, trans. Immakulata J. Adamska, Anna Talarek, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2003. ESGA 3: <mask>., Selbstbildnis in Briefen II. Zweiter Teil 1933-1942, Herder, Freiburg 2000. Polish translation: ESGA PL 3: Autoportret z listów II, trans.Immakulata J. Adamska, Anna Talarek, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2003. ESGA 4: <mask>., Selbstbildnis in Briefen III. Briefe an Roman Ingarden, Herder, Freiburg 2005. English translation: CWES 12: Self-Portrait in Letters, trans. Hugh Candler Hunt, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 2001. Polish translation ESGA PL 4: Autoportret z listów. Cz.3. Listy do Romana Ingardena trans. Małgorzata Klentak-Zabłocka, Andrzej Wajs, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2003; an older Polish translation: PL 4: Spór o prawdę istnienia. Listy <mask> do Romana Ingardena, trans. Małgorzata Klentak-Zabłocka, Andrzej Wajs, Wydawnictwo M, Warsaw 1994. ESGA 5: <mask>., Zum Problem der Einfühlung, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2008. English translation: CWES 3: On the problem of empathy, trans.Waltraut <mask>, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 1989. Polish translation: O zagadnieniu wczucia, trans. Danuta Gierulanka, Jerzy F. Gierula, Znak, Cracow 1988. ESGA 6: <mask>., Beiträge zur philosophischen Begründung der Psychologie und der

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title: Edith Stein

texts:
 Geisteswissenschaften, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2010. English translation: CWES 7: Philosophy of Psychology and the Humanities, trans. Mary Catharine Baseheart, Marianne Sawicki, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 2000;
 Polish translation: ESGA PL 6: Filozofia psychologii i humanistyki, trans. Piotr Janik SJ, Marcin Baran SJ, Jolanta Gaca, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2016.ESGA 7: <mask>., Eine Untersuchung über den Staat, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2006. English translation: CWES 10: An Investigation Concerning the State, trans. Marianne Sawicki, ICS Publication, Washington D.C. 2006. ESGA 8: <mask>., Einführung in die Philosophie, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2004. No translation is available. ESGA 9: <mask>., ‘Freiheit und Gnade’ und weitere Beiträge zu Phänomenologie und Ontologie, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2014. English translation: CWES 8: Husserl and Aquinas.A Comparison, in: CWES 8: Knowledge and Faith, trans. Walter Redmond, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 2000, pp. 1-64. Older translation is available in: M. C. Baseheart, Person in the World: Introduction to the Philosophy of <mask>, Kluwer, Dordrecht 1997, pp. 129-144, transl. by M. C. Baseheart. Polish translation of Was Ist Philosophie?Ein Gespräch zwischen Edmund Husserl und Thomas von Aquino is Co to jest filozofia? Rozmowa między Edmundem Husserlem a Tomaszem z Akwinu, in: PL 9: Światło rozumu i wiary. Duchowa droga Edyty Stein św. Teresy Benedykty od Krzyża, Totaldruk, Poznań 2002, pp. 29-77. ESGA 10: <mask>., Potenz und Akt. Studien zu einer Philosophie des Seins, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2005.English translation: CWES 11: Potency and Act, Studies Toward a Philosophy of Being, trans. Walter Redmond, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 2009. ESGA 11/12: <mask>., Endliches und ewiges Sein. Versuch eines Aufstiegs zum Sinn des Seins. Anhang: Martin Heideggers Existenzphilosophie. Die Seelenburg, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2006. English translation: CWES 9: Finite and eternal being, trans.K. F. Reinhardt, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 2002. Polish translation: PL 11/12a: Byt skończony a byt wieczny, trans. Immakulata J. Adamska OCD, W drodze, Poznań 1995. The appendixes (Die Seelenburg and Martin Heideggers Existenzphilosophie) are translated in: PL 11/12b: Twierdza duchowa, trans. Immakulata J. Adamska, Zysk i S-ka, Poznań 2006, 93-122 and 135-203. ESGA 13: <mask>., Die Frau. Fragestellungen und Reflexionen, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2000, Herder.English translation: CWES 2: The Collected Works of <mask>. Volume II. Essays on Woman, trans. F. M. Oben, Washington D.C. 1996, ICS Publications. Polish translation: ESGA PL 13: Kobieta. Pytania i refleksje, trans. Wiesław Szymona, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2015.ESGA 14: <mask>., Der Aufbau der menschlichen Person. Vorlesung zum philosophischen Anthropologie, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 1994, Herder, Freiburg 2004. Polish translation: ESGA PL 14: Budowa osoby ludzkiej. Wykład z antropologii filozoficznej, trans. Grzegorz Sowinski, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2015. ESGA 15: <mask>., Was is der Mensch? Theologische Anthropologie, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2005, Herder.Polish translation: ESGA PL 15: Czym jest człowiek? Antropologia teologiczna, trans. Grzegorz Sowinski, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2012. ESGA 16: <mask>., Bildung und Entfaltung der Individualität. Beiträge zum christlichen Erziehungsauftrag, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2001. ESGA 17: <mask>., Wege der Gotteserkenntnis. Studie zu Dionysius Areopagita und Übersetzung seiner Werke, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2013.Polish translation: Drogi poznania Boga: studium o Dionizym Areopagicie i przekład jego dzieł, trans. Grzegorz Sowinski, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2006. ESGA 18: Kreuzeswissenschaft. Studie über Johannes vom Kreuz, Herder, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2003. English translation: CWES 6: The Science of the Cross, trans. Josephine Koeppel, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 2002;
 Polish translation: Wiedza Krzyża. Studium o św.Janie od Krzyża, trans. Immakulata J. Adamska, Grzegorz Sowinski, Wydawnictwo Karmelitów Bosych, Cracow 2013. ESGA 19: Geistliche Texte I, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2009, Herder. English translation: The Hidden Life: Essays, Meditations, Spiritual Texts, trans. Waltraut <mask> in: The Collected Works of <mask>. Volume IV, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 2014. ESGA 20: Geistliche Texte II, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2007, Herder.English translation: ESGA EN 4: The Hidden Life: Essays, Meditations, Spiritual Texts, trans. Waltraut <mask> in: The Collected Works of <mask>. Volume IV, ICS Publications, Washington D.C. 2014. ESGA 21: Übersetzung von John Henry Newman, Die Idee der Universität, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2014, Herder. ESGA 22: Übersetzung von John Henry Newman, Briefe und Texte zur ersten Lebenshälfte (1801–1846), Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2004, Herder. ESGA 23: Übersetzung: Des Hl. Thomas von Aquino Untersuchungen über die Wahrheit - Quaestiones disputatae de veritate 1, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2014, Herder.ESGA 24: Übersetzung: Des Hl. Thomas von Aquino Untersuchungen über die Wahrheit - Quaestiones disputatae de veritate 2, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2002, Herder. ESGA 25: Übersetzung von Alexandre Koyré, Descartes und die Scholastik, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2008, Herder. ESGA 26: Übersetzung: Thomas von Aquin, Über das Seiende und das Wesen - De ente et essentia - mit den Roland-Gosselin-Exzerpten. Eingeführt und bearbeitet von Andreas Speer und Francesco Valerio Tommasi, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2008, Herder. ESGA 27: Miscellanea thomistica, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2013, Herder. See also
 St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross OCD, patron saint archive

Notes

References

Further reading

 Maskulak, Marian, ed.2016. <mask>: Selected Writings. New York: Paulist

masks:
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title: Thompson Capper

texts:
Major General <mask>,  (20 October 1863 – 27 September 1915) was a highly decorated and senior British Army officer who served with distinction in the Second Boer War and was a divisional commander during the First World War. At the Battle of Loos in 1915, <mask> was shot by a sniper as he reconnoitered the front line during an assault by his division on German positions. He died the next day in a casualty clearing station from wounds to both lungs; his grave is in the nearby Lillers Communal Cemetery. <mask> was an active and vigorous soldier who had been wounded just six months before his death in an accidental grenade detonation. Shortly before this wound he had been knighted by King George V for his service in command of his division during the First Battle of Ypres. Field Marshal Sir John French commented upon his death that "he was a most distinguished and capable leader and his death will be severely felt." He was also a keen military historian and his collected papers are currently stored at the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives at King's College London.Early career
<mask> was born in October 1863 to William and <mask> (née Copeland). <mask> was a civil servant with the Bengal Civil Service and Sarah was the daughter of industrialist William Copeland. <mask> and his elder brother John were born in Lucknow but at a young age were sent to England for their education. <mask> attended Haileybury and Imperial Service College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst before being commissioned into the East Lancashire Regiment as a lieutenant on 9 September 1882. He was employed on home service for the next ten years and whilst serving as regimental adjutant was promoted to captain on 22 April 1891, attending Staff College before being transferred with his unit to India. It was in India that <mask> saw his first action, when in 1895 his regiment was attached to a force sent to the Indian-Afghan border to relieve a trapped British force in Chitral. Three years later he was again in action as an advisor to an Egyptian unit of the Anglo-Egyptian army under Horatio Kitchener which travelled down the Nile in the final campaign of the Mahdist War.During these operations, <mask> participated in the battle of Atbara and was with the force which fought in the culminating Battle of Omdurman. He received a brevet promotion as major on 16 November 1898. South African service
The following year, 1899, <mask> and his regiment were again engaged in Africa, being transported to South Africa to serve in the Second Boer War. There <mask> performed his duties with distinction for the next three years, being heavily engaged at the defeat of Spion Kop and participating in the relief of Ladysmith in early 1900. He remained in South Africa engaged in guerilla operations against the Boer forces until the armistice of May 1902, commanding a flying column in the Cape Colony. During the war, he received a brevet appointment as lieutenant colonel on 29 November 1900, and was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 5 December 1901. Following the war's conclusion in June 1902, <mask> was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) on his return home.He was also awarded the Queen's South Africa Medal with six clasps and the King's South Africa Medal with two clasps in recognition of his service during the war, and was twice Mentioned in Despatches. <mask> returned to the United Kingdom in the SS Dunottar Castle, which arrived at Southampton in July 1902. Staff career
After his return, <mask> was initially selected as a deputy-assistant adjutant-general on the divisional staff of the 1st Army corps at Aldershot, but as an experienced staff officer, he was shortly thereafter given a post as a professor at the Staff College, Camberley from December 1902 to 1904. He was promoted to brevet colonel on 11 December 1904. He was then transferred to the Staff College, Quetta in India as commandant (and substantive colonel). It has been suggested that this move was initiated by jealous colleagues at the college due to his ability as a teacher and tactician. He retained this position until 1911, teaching the lessons of the Russo-Japanese War and emphasising the importance of "attacking dash" as the best means of overcoming entrenched positions.He came into contact with numerous important figures of the First World War through this work, including Douglas Haig, with whom he did not get on and Hubert Gough, who admired his "spirit of self-sacrifice and duty, instead of the idea of playing for safety and seeking only to avoid getting into trouble". He also amassed a prodigious collection of military literature during his research and teaching. In 1906 he was promoted to temporary Brigadier–General and in 1908 he married Winifride Mary, with whom he would have one son. In 1910 his work at the staff college was recognised with the award of the Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in the King's Birthday Honours. In 1911, after a brief period of half-pay in his permanent rank of Colonel, <mask> was transferred from India to Ireland, where he commanded the 13th Infantry Brigade until 1913. He returned to Ireland briefly a year later in the aftermath of the Curragh Incident, to support his friend Hubert Gough. During early 1914, <mask> was briefly the Inspector of Infantry but in the emergency of the summer of 1914 he was promoted to substantive Major-General and posted to the regular 7th Division, which was sent to the Western Front.First World War
During the opening months of the war, <mask> busied himself with organising the new division placed under his command; the work involved in this task meant that the division was not ready for action until October 1914. On 6 October 7th Division arrived at Zeebrugge just as the German forces began to push into that area as part of the "Race for the Sea". Initially forced back, <mask>'s division covered the Belgian withdrawal to the Yser and then held the line near the town of Ypres. For the next two months, the 7th Division was embroiled in bitter fighting at the First Battle of Ypres, when they were crucial in stopping the German advance but lost over 10,000 men. The Times later stated that "no one but <mask> himself could, night after night, by the sheer force of his personality, have reconstituted from the shattered fragments of battalions a fighting line that could last through tomorrow". For the service he and his men provided during the battle, <mask> was awarded a knighthood as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in early 1915. Remaining on the front lines during the winter of 1914–1915, <mask>'s men held the German advance and were given some respite in early 1915 with the arrival of territorial divisions.It was during one of these rest periods that <mask> was seriously wounded when in April 1915 he was struck in the shoulder by shrapnel from a "Jam-tin bomb" during a demonstration of improvised grenades being held behind the lines. He was temporarily replaced by General Gough and returned to England to convalesce, but was back with the 7th Division on 19 July 1915. Battle of Loos

In late September 1915, the division was assigned to participate in the Battle of Loos against fortified German positions at Loos-en-Gohelle and Hulluch. Advancing on 26 September against furious German opposition, the 7th Division was held up several times and <mask> visited the frontline to view the enemy for himself from the captured trenches. Urging his men into a final assault, <mask> stayed behind to view the field and was struck by a sniper's bullet fired from houses along the line of advance which were thought to have been abandoned. The assault failed and <mask> was discovered by his retreating units and taken to Number 6 Casualty Clearing Station at Lillers to the rear of British lines personally by Captain O'Reilly, a medical officer. O'Reilly had gone out at 8pm to bring <mask> in from the battlefield (the war diary suggests that <mask> had been wounded at 5.50pm) and had arranged for the wound to be dressed at the Divisional Collecting Station before onward transfer to the CCS – O'Reilly was subsequently recommended for the Military Cross.The bullet had penetrated both lungs, and doctors gave no hope of survival. Major-General Sir <mask> died the following day, on 27 September 1915 in the casualty clearing station. His division had lost over 5,200 men killed or wounded in just three days of fighting. Following his death, a rumour abounded that he had been killed charging the German lines on horseback. This story has persisted despite eye-witness accounts to the contrary. <mask> was buried in Lillers Communal Cemetery behind British lines and his grave is marked by a Commonwealth War Graves Commission headstone bearing the inscription TOMMY. He is also commemorated on the War Memorial in Rayne, Essex, where he spent much of his boyhood with his uncle, the Rector of Rayne, Rev W S Hemming.His collected papers were donated to King's College in 1971, where they are still available to researchers and contain a wide selection of primary materials concerning the warfare of the early twentieth century. Notes

References

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1863 births
1915 deaths
People educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
East Lancashire Regiment officers
British military personnel of the Chitral Expedition
British Army personnel of the Mahdist War
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
British Army generals of World War I
British military personnel killed in World War I
Military personnel from Lucknow
People from Braintree District
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
Commandants of the Staff College, Quetta
British Army generals
Academics of the Staff College, Camberley

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