title: Ahmad Dhani

texts:
<mask> (born <mask>; 26 May 1972), better known as <mask>, <mask> or <mask>. Manaf, is an Indonesian musician. He was the frontman of Dewa 19 and Ahmad Band, and also a member of the inter-continental band The Rock. He is the owner and chairman of Republik Cinta Management, an artist management company of MNC Media Group. <mask> has worked as a promoter and songwriter for other artists, including <mask>, Agnes Monica, Alexa Key and Mulan Jameela. He has won numerous awards including the Indonesian Music Awards for best musical arrangement. He is one of the most influential musicians in Southeast Asia. In recent years, he has generated controversy after his son killed seven people while driving illegally, and after becoming involved in politics.In January 2019, he was sentenced to 18 months in jail for hate speech. In June 2019, he was sentenced to an additional year in jail for insulting political rivals. He was released in December 2019. Early life
<mask> was born in Surabaya, East Java, the first of three children of Eddy Abdul Manaf, a diplomat of Sundanese origin from Garut, West Java, and Joyce Theresia Pamela Kohler, an Indonesian of German descent. In 2020, <mask> denied reports that his maternal grandfather, Jan Pieter Friederich Kohler, a German born in the then-Dutch-occupied country in 1883, was an Ashkenazi Jew. <mask> said his mother and grandfather were German Catholics. <mask>'s stepbrother, Dadang S. Manaf, is a well-known Indonesian musician and was a strong influence on <mask>'s musical interest from his childhood.<mask>'s father bought him a keyboard when he was young and enrolled him for music lessons, hoping <mask> would excel in classical music. <mask> was influenced by the British rock band Queen. Career

Dewa 19
<mask> formed his first musical group, Dewa, in 1986 with Andra Junaidi, Erwin Prasetya, and Henry Juniarso. <mask> served as the group's vocalist and keyboardist. He skipped school to jam with his friends at Juniarso's house in the Airlangga University complex. While in Dewa, <mask> became interested in jazz, and Dewa changed its name to Down Beat. Down Beat won the Youth Jazz Festival in East Java.It also won the inaugural Festival 90, a high school band competition that was part of the Djarum Super Fiesta Musical. The band, however, resumed playing rock, renaming itself "Dewa 19", with a new vocalist, Ari Lasso. The lack of modern recording studios in Surabaya prompted <mask> to move to Jakarta in 1989 in search of a record deal for Dewa 19. After being rejected by several labels, Dewa 19 was signed to Team Records by Jan Djuhana. Their first album, Dewa 19 (1992), was a huge success with a number of hits such as Kangen and Kita Tidak Sedang Bercinta Lagi. It was the best-selling Indonesian rock album of 1993 and won Best Newcomer at the Indonesian Music Awards. <mask> helped to produce the band's 11 albums, which included Dewa 19 (1992), Format Masa Depan (1994), Terbaik Terbaik (1995), Pandawa Lima (1997), The Best of Dewa 19 (1999), Bintang Lima (2000), Cintailah Cinta (2002), Atas Nama Cinta I & II (2004), Laskar Cinta (2004), Republik Cinta (2006), and Kerajaan Cinta (2007).Dewa 19 went through several personnel changes but remained one of the largest forces in the Indonesian music scene, with <mask> as its driving force, until breaking up in 2011. <mask>'s popular solo album Laskar Cinta (Warriors of Love) was praised because it "challenged militant ideology". Solo projects

After Dewa disbanded, <mask> joined forces with the Australian heavy metal band, Hospital The Musical to form a band named The Rock. The band's first album, Master Mister Ahmad Dhani I, sold more than 150,000 copies in Indonesia. It contained three new songs and seven covers of <mask>'s earlier songs. The hits from the album were "Kamu Kamulah Surgaku" and "Munajat Cinta". <mask> next appeared in a band named TRIAD, an acronym for The Rock Indonesia Ahmad Dhani.Unlike The Rock, TRIAD has five to six members unofficially appearing onstage and even sometimes four members, with <mask> performing as lead singer and rhythm guitarist. Triad's self-titled album sold 500,000 copies. It contained four new tracks, "Selir Hati", "Benar Salah IDolaku", "Mama", and "Sedang Mikirin Kamu", and seven cover tracks, including Queen's Mustapha. In 2010, <mask> sang with Ari Lasso at concerts in Jakarta and Bali, leading to rumors of a Dewa 19 reunion. In Bali, <mask> announced he would form a band with Judika, the winner of Indonesian Idol 2007. A few months later, <mask> declared the new band would be named Mahadewa, which would substitute for Dewa 19, which he said still existed but in a vacuum. He dismissed rumors that Dewa 19 was finished."I will focus on Mahadewa, my new band, and Dewa 19 still exists," he said. In January 2012, Mahadewa announced that its debut album would soon be released, containing five new songs and five covers of Dewa 19 songs. The album's first single, "Cinta Itu Buta", was released in mid-2012. The complete album's release was stalled because <mask> was preoccupied with his role as a judge on Indonesian Idol and X Factor Indonesia. However, he still found time for some reunion shows with former members of Dewa 19 in several big cities in Indonesia. Mahadewa's long-awaited debut album, Past to Present, was released in 2013. Personal life
<mask> married Maia Estianty in 1996, after a long relationship when Maia was still in high school in Surabaya.They have three children named after prominent Sufi leaders whom <mask> admires, namely <mask> Ghazali, <mask> Jalaluddin Rumi, and Abdul Qodir Jaelani. In late 2006, <mask> and Maia made mutual allegations of infidelity, resulting in Maia filing for divorce. Their marriage was annulled on 23 September 2008 by South Jakarta Religious Court. <mask> has been described, as one of the richest performers in Indonesia. In August 2013, <mask> admitted he had fathered a daughter, Saafeya, with singer Mulan Jameela. Legal issues

Child's car crash

On 8 September 2013, <mask>'s 13-year-old son Abdul Qodir Jaelani was illegally driving a Mitsubishi Lancer at 176 km/h and crashed into a Daihatsu Gran Max minivan carrying 13 people on a Jakarta toll road. Seven people were killed and Abdul himself was injured.Police refused to charge <mask> over the accident for allowing his child to drive a car. State prosecutors in June 2014 recommended Abdul be sentenced to two years probation. Involvement in politics

On 21 May 2014, <mask> announced his support to ex-general Prabowo Subianto's campaign for the July 9 presidential election. <mask> claimed, "Almost every manly man (lelaki jantan) votes for Prabowo. If a man doesn't vote for Prabowo, his masculinity (kejantanan) must be questioned." In June 2014, <mask> released a video clip in support of Prabowo and his running mate Hatta Rajasa. The clip featured <mask> and three Indonesian Idol contestants – Husein, Nowela and Virzha – covering Queen's "We Will Rock You," and included the lyrics "who will awaken Indonesia from its misery if not us?Prabowo-Hatta!" The video was widely condemned because <mask> used the music without permission from Queen and he wore a replica of the jacket worn by Nazi Germany's SS and Gestapo chief Heinrich Himmler, who oversaw the genocide of six million Jews. <mask> was criticized for dancing in the clip with a golden Garuda – the mythical bird that is Indonesia's emblem. Time magazine's website ran a critical article headlined "This Indonesian Nazi Video Is One of the Worst Pieces of Political Campaigning Ever". Prabowo thanked <mask>, saying, "This video is boosting our fighting spirit!" However, there were rumors that <mask> was struck by Prabowo for his controversial music video, during a visit to the presidential candidate's residence. On 23 June 2014, a Twitter post allegedly by <mask> stated that he would cut off his penis if presidential contender Joko Widodo and his running mate, former vice president Jusuf Kalla won the election.<mask> later claimed he never made the tweet and filed complaints against online media outlets that carried news of the controversial tweet. 2016 treason allegation
On 2 December 2016, <mask> was arrested at a Jakarta hotel on suspicion of involvement in an alleged plot to overthrow the government. He was released a day later but remained a suspect over alleged defamation of the president. Hate speech convictions
<mask> on 5 March 2017 posted on Twitter: "Siapa saja yg dukung Penista Agama adalah Bajingan yg perlu di ludahi muka nya" (English: Anyone who supports a Blasphemer is a Bastard who needs to be spat on the face). The tweet was a reference to supporters of Jakarta Governor Basuki Tjahaja 'Ahok' Purnama, who was standing for re-election while on trial for insulting Islam. In November 2017, South Jakarta Police declared <mask> a suspect for hate speech. <mask> said he has never felt guilty."In the examination I admitted that I hate those who defend religious blasphemers, I hate those who blaspheme religion, I also hate corruptors, rapists and drug dealers" he said. His trial commenced in April 2018 at South Jakarta District Court. On 28 January 2019, he was found guilty of hate speech and sentenced to one year and six months in jail. Prosecutors had recommended a two-year jail sentence. After the conclusion of his trial, he was sent to Jakarta's Cipinang jail. His lawyer Hendarsam Marantoko said he would appeal the verdict, which he described as an act of revenge for the jailing of Ahok. In a separate case, Surabaya District Court in East Java province on 11 June 2019 sentenced <mask> to one year in jail for referring to his political rivals as "idiots" in an online post.The court ruled he had violated Article 27, Clause 3, of the Information and Electronic Transactions Law. The one-year sentence was reduced to three months and a six-month suspended sentence on appeal. <mask> was released from Cipinang jail on 30 December 2019. His colleague Lieus Sungkharisma said <mask>'s release was thanks to Prabowo Subianto, who was appointed defense minister while <mask> was jailed. <mask> said he would continue to support Prabowo's presidential aspirations. References

External links

 Official website
 "Republic Cinta Management"
 "<mask> Meets With Children at Rumah Belajar", US Department of State
 "Eddy Abdul Manaf Interview"

1972 births
21st-century Indonesian male singers
People from Surabaya
Indonesian people of German descent
Indonesian people of Jewish descent
Indonesian Muslims
Indonesian pop singers
Indonesian rock singers
Indonesian songwriters
Anugerah Musik Indonesia winners
Living people
Dewa 19 members
Sundanese people
Indo people
20th-century Muslims
21st-century Muslims
21st-century criminals
20th-century Indonesian male singers

masks:
Ahmad Dhani Prasetyo
Dhani Ahmad Prasetyo
Ahmad Dhani
Dhani Muhammad Prasetyo
Dhani S
Dhani
Maia Ahmad
Ahmad Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Ahmad Al
Ahmad El
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Ahmad Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Dhani
Ahmad Dhani


title: Pérotin

type: original

texts:
<mask> () was a composer associated with the Notre Dame school of polyphony in Paris and the broader  musical style of high medieval music. He is credited with developing the polyphonic practices of his predecessor, Léonin, with the introduction of three and four-part harmonies. Other than a brief mention by music theorist Johannes de Garlandia in his De Mensurabili Musica, virtually all information on <mask>'s life comes from Anonymous IV, a pseudonymous English student. Anonymous IV names seven titles from a Magnus Liber—including Viderunt omnes, Sederunt principes and Alleluia Nativitas—that have been identified with surviving works and gives him the title Magister Perotinus (Pérotinus the Master) meaning he was licensed to teach. It is assumed that Perotinus was French and named Pérotin, a diminutive of Peter, but attempts to match him with persons in contemporary documents remain speculative. Life, and problems of identification

Pérotin, about whom little is known, most likely lived around the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century and is presumed to have been French. The closest thing to a contemporary account of his life comes from two much later reporters: a brief mention attributed to the music theorist Johannes de Garlandia () in his De Mensurabili Musica, and four mentions in the works of a late 13c English student  known as Anonymous IV, including this paragraph:
These rules were used in many older books; this was so during and after the time of Perotinus the Great.Nevertheless, they did not know how to distinguish these notes from those which will be presented shortly. This was so even since the time of Leo, because two ligated notes were put for the durational value of a brevis longa, and in a similar manner, three ligated notes were quite often used for a longa brevis, longa. People say Maître Leonin was the best composer of Organum (optimus organista), he composed the Great Organum Book for the gradual and antiphonary in order to prolong the divine service. This book remained in use until the time of the great Perotin who abridged it and composed clausules and sections that were many in number and better because he was the best composer of descant (optimus discantor). This Magister Perotinus made the best quadrupla, such as Viderunt and Sederunt, with an abundance of striking musical embellishments [colores armonicae artis]; likewise, the noblest tripla, such as Alleluia, Posui adiutorium and [Alleluia], Nativitas etc. He also made three-voice conductus, such as Salvatoris hodie, and two-voice conductus, such as Dum sigillum summi Patris, and also, among many others, monophonic conductus, such as Beata viscera etc. The book, that is, the books of Magister Perotinus, were in use in the choir of the Paris cathedral of the Blessed Virgin up to the time of Magister Robertus de Sabilone, and from his time up to the present day.There have been many speculative attempts to identify Pérotin with members of the Notre Dame administration, but these have not generally been accepted. Of the several people with that name (Petrus) that have been suggested, the commonest are Petrus Cantor (died 1197), who was a theologian, and another Petrus who was Succentor at Notre Dame ca. 1207–1238. Of these two, Petrus Succentor has been suggested as more probable, in part on chronological grounds, and partly because of the succentor's role in overseeing the celebration of the liturgy in the cathedral (whose choir was dedicated 1182), but this is purely speculative, resting on an assumption that the composer held some important rank in the cathedral hierarchy. Pérotin is considered to be the most important member of the Notre Dame school of polyphony, a group of composers working at or near the cathedral in Paris from about 1160 to 1250, creators of the  style. The dates of Pérotin's life and works have long been a subject of debate, but are generally thought to be from about 1155/60 (or earlier) to around 1200/05 (or later), based on the evolution of French choral writing during this time (see Works), in particular, his apparent absence from the flowering of the French motet that occurred after 1210. <mask> was one of very few composers of his day whose name has been preserved, and can be reliably attached to individual compositions, most of which have been transcribed.Anonymous IV called him Magister Perotinus (Pérotinus the Master). The title, employed also by Johannes de Garlandia, means that Perotinus, like Léonin, earned the degree magister artium, almost certainly in Paris, and that he was licensed to teach. However, only Anonymous IV employed the epithet Perotinus Magnus (Perotinus the Great). The name Perotinus, the Latin diminutive of Petrus, is assumed to be derived from the French name Pérotin, diminutive of Pierre. However "Petrus" was one of the most common names in the Ile de France during the High Middle Ages, making further identification difficult. The diminutive was presumably a mark of respect bestowed by his colleagues. The title Magnus was a mark of the esteem in which he was held, even long after his death.Historical context

Notre Dame School

The reign of Louis VII (1137–1180) witnessed a period of cultural innovation, in which appeared the Notre Dame school of musical composition, and the contributions of Léonin, who prepared two-part choral settings (organa) for all the major liturgical festivals. This period in musical history has been described as a paradigm shift of lasting consequence in musical notation and rhythmic composition, with the development of the organum, clausula, conductus and motet. The innovative nature of the Notre Dame style stands in contrast to its predecessor, that of the Abbey of St Martial, Limoges, replacing the monodic (monophonic) Gregorian chant with polyphony (more than one voice singing at a time). This was the beginning of polyphonic European church music. Organum at its roots involves simple doubling (organum duplum or organum purum) of a chant at intervals of a fourth or fifth, above or below. This school also marked a transition from music that was essentially performance to a less ephemeral entity that was committed to parchment, preserved and transmitted to history. It is also the beginning of the idea of composers and compositions, the introduction of more than two voices and the treatment of vernacular texts.For the first time, rhythm became as important as pitch, to the extent that the music of this era came to be known as musica mensurabilis (music that can be measured). These developments and the notation that evolved laid the foundations of musical practice for centuries. The surviving manuscripts from the thirteenth century together with the contemporaneous treatises on musical theory constitute the musical era of . The Notre Dame repertory spread throughout Europe. In Paris polyphony was being performed in the late 1190s but later sources imply that some of the compositions date back as far as the 1160s. Although often linked to the construction of the cathedral itself, construction commenced in 1163 and the altar consecrated in 1182. However there was evidence of musical creativity there from the early twelfth century.Léonin's work was distinguished by two distinctive organum styles, purum and discantus. This early polyphonic organa was still firmly based on Gregorian chant, to which a second voice was added. The chant was called the tenor (cantus firmus or vox principalis), which literally “holds” (Latin: tenere) the melody. The tenor is based on an existing plainsong melody from the liturgical repertoire (such as the Alleluia, Verse or Gradual, from the Mass, or a Responsory or Benedicamus from the Office). This quotation of plainchant melody is a defining characteristic of thirteenth century musical genres. In organum purum the tenor part was drawn out into long pedal points, while the upper part or duplum contrasted with it in a much freer rhythm, consisting of melisms (melismatic or several notes per syllable, compared to syllabic, a single note per syllable). In the second, discantus, style, the tenor was allowed to be melismatic, and the notes were quicker and more regular with the upper part becoming equally rhythmic.These more rhythmic sections were known as clausulae (puncta). Another innovation was the standardization of note forms, and Léonin's new square notes were quickly adopted. Although he developed the discantus style, Léonin's strength was as a writer of organum purum. The singing of organa fell into disuse by the mid thirteenth century. Associated with the Notre Dame school, was Johannes de Garlandia, whose De mensurabili provided a theoretical basis, for Notre Dame polyphony is essentially musica mensurabilis, music that is measured in time. In his treatise, he defines three forms of polyphony, organum in speciali, copula, and discant, which are defined by the relationship of the voices to each other and by the rhythmic flow of each voice. Magnus liber organi

Léonin compiled his compositions into a book, the Magnus liber organi (Great Organum Book), around 1160.Pérotin's works are preserved in this compilation of early polyphonic church music, which was in the collection of the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. The Magnus liber also contains the work of his successors. In addition to two-part organa, this book contains three- and four-part compositions in four distinct forms: organa, clausulae, conducti and motets, and three distinct styles. In the organum style the upper voices are highly mobile over a tenor voice moving in long unmeasured notes. The discant style has the tenor moving in measured notes, but still more slowly than the upper voices. The third style has all voices moving note on note, and is largely limited to conductus. The surviving sources all commence with a four-voice organal setting of the Christmas Gradual, Viderunt omnes, believed to be Pérotin's, as most likely did the original Liber.However, the manuscripts and

masks: Pérotin Pérotin Pérotin


title: Pérotin

texts:
 fragments that survive date well into the thirteenth century, meaning that they are preserved in a form notated by musicians working several generations following Léonin and Pérotin. This collection of music constitutes the earliest known record of polyphony to have the stability and circulation achieved earlier by monophonic Gregorian chant. Music

Forms and style

Louis VII was succeeded by his son Philip II in 1179 and his reign was marked by integration and revision of the cultural shifts that had transpired under his father. It was during this time that the compositions of Pérotin first appeared, and a shift towards a more predominant discantus style. <mask> is best known for his composition of both liturgical organa and non-liturgical conducti in which the voices move note on note. He pioneered the styles of organum triplum and organum quadruplum (three and four-part polyphony) and his Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes, Graduals for Christmas and the feast of St Stephen's Day (December 26) respectively are among only a few organa quadrupla known, early polyphony having been restricted to two-part compositions. With the addition of further parts, the compositions became known as motets, the most important form of polyphony of the period.<mask>'s two Graduals for the Christmas season represent the highest point of his style, with a large scale tonal design in which the massive pedal points sustain the swings between consecutive harmonies, and an intricate interplay among the three upper voices. Pérotin also furthered the development of musical notation, moving it further from improvisation. Despite this, we know nothing of how these works came about. In addition to his own compositions, as noted by Anonymous IV, Pérotin set about revising the Magnus Liber Organi. Léonin's added duplum required skill, and had to be sung fast with up to 40 notes to one of the underlying chant, as a result of which the actual text progressed very slowly. Pérotin shortened these passages, while adding further voice parts to enrich the harmony. The degree to which he did this has been debated due to the phrase abbreviavit eundem by Anonymous IV.Usually translated as abbreviate, it has been surmised that he shortened the Magnus liber by replacing organum purum with discant clausulae or simply replacing existing clausulae with shorter ones. Some 154 clausulae have been attributed to Pérotin but many other clausulae are elaborate compositions that would actually expand the compositions in the Liber, and these stylistically resemble his known works which are on a much grander scale than those of his predecessor, and hence do not represent "abbreviation". An alternative rendering of abbreviavit is to write down, suggesting that he actually prepared a new edition using his better developed system of rhythmic notation, including mensural notation, as mentioned by Anonymous IV. Two styles emerged from the organum duplum, the "florid" and "discant" (discantus). The former was more typical of Léonin, the latter of Pérotin, though this indirect attribution has been challenged. Anonymous IV described Léonin as optimus organista (the best composer of organa) but Pérotin, who revised the former's Magnus Liber Organi (Great Organum Book), as optimus discantor referring to his discant composition., In the original discant organum duplum, the second voice follows the cantus firmus, note on note but at an interval, usually a fourth above. By contrast, in the florid organum, the upper or vox organalis voice wove shorter notes around the longer notes of the lower tenor chant.Compositions

Anonymous IV mentions a number of compositions which he attributes to Pérotin, including the four-voice Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes, and the three-voice Alleluia "Posui adiutorium" and Alleluia "Nativitas". Johannes de Garlandia states that the Magnus Liber commences with Perotin's four-part organa, and makes specific reference to the notation in the three-part Alleluya, Posui adiutorium. Other works are attributed to him by later scholars, such as Heinrich Husmann, on stylistic grounds, all in the organum style, as well as the two-voice Dum sigillum summi Patris and the monophonic Beata viscera in the conductus style. (The conductus sets a rhymed Latin poem called a sequence to a repeated melody, much like a contemporary hymn.) By tradition, the four-part pieces of the Notre Dame school have been attributed to Pérotin, leaving the two-part pieces to Léonin. The former include the three-part conductus Salvator hodie. The latter is placed in the Mass for the Circumcision in a 13th century French manuscript.Of these, the best known works are his Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes. These have been described as representing the peak of musical development of the time. Most of Pérotin's works are in polyphonic form of discant, including the quadrupla and tripla. Here the upper voices move in discant, as rhythmic counterpoint above the sustained tenor notes. This is consistent with Anonymous IV's description of him as optimus discantor. However, like Léonin, he is likely to have composed in every musical genre and style known to Notre Dame polyphony. Pérotin's dates of activity have been approximated from some late 12th century edicts (Statuta et donationes piae) of the Bishop of Paris, Odo (Eudes de Sully) (1196–1208), in 1198 and 1199.Rebuked by Peter of Capua, the papal legate of the time, the bishop sought to reform the rituals around the Christmas season, forbidding the boistrous costumed performances that existed at the time, in particular, the Feast of Fools. His preference was for elaborate music in its stead, calling for performance in organa triplo vel quadruplo for the Responsory and Benedicamus and other settings. The bishop's edicts are quite specific, and suggest that <mask>'s organum quadruplum Viderunt omnes was written for Christmas 1198, and his other organum quadruplum Sederunt Principes was composed for Saint Stephen's Day 1199, for the dedication of a new wing of the Notre Dame Cathedral. If written after this, they could not have been written till late 1200 or 1201, since for most of 1200 France lay under an interdict of Pope Innocent III which suppressed the celebration of church services. Hans Tischler dates the revision of the Magnus Liber to around 1180/90. Between the accounts of Anonymous IV, the episcopal edicts and the arrangements in the Magnus liber, the key compositions appear to be corroborated and assigned to this period. Pérotin composed music to at least five of the poems of the Chancellor of the cathedral, Philippe le Chancelier (Philip the Chancellor).Philip, also a canon there, held that title at the cathedral from 1218 till his death in 1236, suggesting a possible later date for Pérotin's setting of the former's Beata viscera (ca. 1220), or at least a terminus ante quem. Others believe this poem was written much earlier, and hence place Pérotin's death as no later than 1205, the bishop's edicts implying that Pérotin's work was well before this. Philip appears to have written a number of poems with the intention of them being set to music by Pérotin, and with him is given credit for the development of the motet. List of works

Anonymous IV identified seven works, that he presumably considered worthy of singling out, and these represent the only direct attribution. Subsequent authors have attributed works on stylistic and chronological grounds. These include Friedrich Ludwig (1910), Heinrich Husmann (1940), Hans Tischler (1950) and Ethel Thurston (1970).Husmann added an additional nine three-part organa, and five clausula to which Ludwig added numerous other clausula. Other authors have attributed all the three-part organa in the Magnus Liber to Pérotin, which is unlikely. Nevertheless, two of the only three known four-part organa can be attributed to him. Key: Anonymous IV (A), Johannes de Garlandia (G), Tischler (Ti), Thurston (Th), Husmann (H). Numbers refer to folios in the F manuscript of the Magnus liber. <mask>'s music has influenced modern minimalist composers such as Steve Reich, particularly in Reich's work Proverb. List of selected recordings

 for discography, see

  (audio and visual)
 Gothic Revolution – Sacred MusicThe Sixteen, Harry Christophers, Simon Russell Beale CORO DVD
Messe de la Nativité de la Vierge.Ensemble Organum, Marcel Pérès. Harmonia Mundi 901538 (1995). Perotin. The Hilliard Ensemble, CD ECM New Series, 837–751–2
Sacred Music From Notre-Dame Cathedral, Tonus Peregrinus; Antony Pitts, CD NAXOS 8.557340 (2005)

Notes

References

Bibliography

Books

 , also available here on the Internet Archive
  (English trans. Rob C. Wegman)

Historical sources

 , see also
 , English translation available as,
  (full text available on) Internet Archive

  (attributed) (full text: Volume 1 Volume 2)

Chapters

 , in
 , in
 , in
 . in
 , in

Dictionaries and encyclopedias

  (subscription access)

 , later edition available on line at Oxford Music (subscription access)

 , reprinted in

  , in
 , see also The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians

Articles

Audiovisual

Websites

 , (subscription access) see also Oxford Companion to Music

  includes access to complete text of Magnus Liber

  (2nd quarter of the 13th century, probably between 1227 and 1234)

Further reading

Books

  (full text on Internet Archive)

   see also Musik-Konzepte

 , reprinted in

Articles

Audiovisual
 Hillier, Paul (1989). "Perotin".program notes to The Hilliard Ensemble: Perotin. CD ECM New Series 1385 (837-751-2). Munich: ECM Records. Websites

External links
Pérotin

Magnus Liber Organi

Ars antiqua composers
French classical composers
French male classical composers
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
12th-century French composers
13th-century French composers
Medieval male

masks: Pérotin Pérotin Pérotin Pérotin


title: Neel Kashkari

texts:
<mask> (born July 30, 1973) is an American banker, economist, and politician who is the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. As interim Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability from October 2008 to May 2009, he oversaw the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) that was a major component of the U.S. government's response to the Financial crisis of 2007–2008. A Republican, he unsuccessfully ran for Governor of California in the 2014 election. Born and raised in Ohio, and educated at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, <mask> worked initially as an aerospace engineer. After attending business school at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, he became an investment banker, covering the information technology security sector for Goldman Sachs. Henry Paulson, the former head of Goldman, and then Secretary of the Treasury, hired <mask> on as an aide. <mask> was eventually named Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for International Economics and Development.At Treasury, he played a number of roles in the response to the financial crisis and the subprime mortgage crisis that preceded it, most notably administering the TARP. <mask> left government and began working for Pimco in 2009, leading that company's push into the equities market. Following little success in that endeavour, he resigned from Pimco in January 2013 to explore a run for public office. One year later, he announced his candidacy for Governor of California. He came in second in California's nonpartisan blanket primary but lost the general election to incumbent governor Jerry Brown. He was named the new president of the Minneapolis Federal Reserve November 10, 2015, succeeding Narayana Kocherlakota who announced his resignation in June. Minneapolis, which was last an FOMC voting member in 2017, will next be a voting member in 2020.Early life and education

<mask> was born on July 30, 1973, in Akron, Ohio, to <mask>, a pathologist at Akron City Hospital, and Chaman <mask>, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Akron. His parents are Kashmiri Hindus who were born and raised in Srinagar in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir and immigrated to the United States in 1964. They settled in Stow, a suburb of Akron, where <mask> <mask> grew up. His parents were well known within the local community of Indian Hindus. His older sister, Meera <mask> Kelley, is a physician specializing in infectious diseases. Growing up, <mask>'s parents and sister were liberal, but his free-market views led him to identify more with the Republican Party. <mask> attended Stow–Munroe Falls High School before transferring to the Western Reserve Academy.He graduated in 1991 with honors in mathematics and was elected graduation speaker. In 2009, he described his high school grades as not good enough to apply to top-tier universities. <mask> earned bachelor’s (1995) and master’s (1998) degrees in mechanical engineering from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He was the team leader for the mechanical engineering component of the school's entry in the 1997 Sunrayce, a solar-powered vehicle race. Career

Private sector
After completing his master's degree, <mask> moved to Redondo Beach, California, and worked as an engineer for TRW Inc., a contractor for NASA. There he worked on a stabilizing component for the James Webb Space Telescope. <mask> left TRW to enter the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, earning an MBA in 2002.At Wharton he was president of the Finance Club and was part of the student organizing team for the annual Wharton Finance Conference. <mask> interned at the investment bank Goldman Sachs during the summer between his two academic years at Wharton. After graduating from Wharton in 2002 he joined Goldman's San Francisco office as an Associate covering software companies in the investment banking division. In this role he was part of the team that advised clients on mergers and acquisitions and other financial matters, until leaving the firm in 2006. He was a Regional Finalist for the White House Fellows program but was ultimately rejected. Treasury Department

In May 2006 President George W. Bush announced his intention to appoint Paulson as Secretary of the Treasury. <mask> contacted Paulson and asked to join him at Treasury.Despite not knowing <mask> well, Paulson agreed to meet with him, and much later offered him a job as a policy generalist. <mask> accepted, and then Paulson remembered to confirm that <mask> was a Republican. After the U.S. Senate confirmed Paulson, he and <mask> started at Treasury on the same day. <mask> was one of several Goldman employees who followed Paulson to Treasury. <mask> began as a special assistant to Paulson working on energy policy. He and Allan B. Hubbard developed Bush's "Twenty in Ten" plan to promote energy conservation. He also worked on issues related to India, particularly infrastructure development.In November 2007, Bush nominated <mask> to be Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for International Economics and Development. The U.S. Senate confirmed the nomination in June 2008, and <mask> was sworn in the following month. 2008 financial crisis
By the summer 2007, concerns over the credit quality of private-label securitizations, underwriting standards and institutional solvency accelerated. The value of unconventional financial instruments backed by U.S. subprime mortgages declined sharply as it became clear that many of the borrowers would continue to default on the mortgages. This caused a housing glut and crisis as the banks holding the mortgages saw their assets decline in value and rushed to foreclose the loans. This ultimately intensified into a global financial crisis with broad implications. <mask> played important roles in several episodes of the crisis.He led Treasury's participation in the Hope Now Alliance, a mortgage industry initiative coordinated by the federal government that aimed to reduce foreclosures by modifying loan terms on a loan-by-loan basis. In March 2008 he represented Treasury at negotiations that led ultimately to the federally sponsored takeover and rescue of the investment bank Bear Stearns by JPMorgan Chase. He was in charge of Treasury's (ultimately unsuccessful) efforts to create a market in the U.S. for covered bonds, whose value would continue to be guaranteed by the issuing bank after the bank had sold them. He also worked closely with Paulson on Treasury's takeover of the government-sponsored enterprises Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac on September 6, 2008, and the federal bailout of American International Group on September 16. In March 2008, <mask> began to worry that, if the Bush administration never received the authority it needed to deal with the growing crisis, the next administration would blame them for everything wrong in the economy. Paulson scoffed at this idea, particularly <mask>'s speculation that Barack Obama, then a candidate in that year's presidential election, would win the presidency and use the crisis to ride to popularity just as former President Ronald Reagan had following the Iran hostage crisis. TARP
In early 2008, Paulson directed <mask> and fellow Treasury aide Phillip Swagel to write a plan to recapitalize the banking system in case the crisis worsened.The plan called for Congress to authorize Treasury to spend $500 billion to buy mortgage-backed securities from troubled banks, replacing them on banks' balance sheets with safe, liquid Treasury bills. This would prevent runs on the banks and encourage them to lend. The plan was conceived as an alternative to proposals from the staff of the House Financial Services Committee, then led by Democratic Representative Barney Frank. Following the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008, the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (EESA) was enacted on October 3. Both Democrats and Republicans in Congress voted for the law. <mask> was one of several Paulson aides who was heavily involved in the crafting the legislation. Based in large part on <mask> and Swagel's recapitalization plan, the EESA created the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), a $700 billion bailout fund for financial institutions threatened with collapse.<mask> initially proposed a $1 trillion fund, but Paulson vetoed that number as too large. <mask> came up with the lesser figure of $700 billion by taking 5% of the $14 trillion in then-outstanding mortgages in the United States. To administer TARP, the EESA created within the Treasury Department a new Office of Financial Stability to be headed by an Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability, who would be nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. However, it also specified that the Treasury Secretary could designate an interim Assistant Secretary to run the office. <mask> first came to widespread public attention on October 6, 2008, when Paulson named him to this position. During his time running TARP he retained his title as Assistant Secretary for International Economics and Development, but his international affairs responsibilities were delegated to another Treasury official. Noticing a lack of necessary expertise in investment within Treasury, <mask> recruited new staff for the program, some from government and others from industry, ultimately hiring about 100 people by January 2009.<mask> also chaired the five-member investment committee within Treasury that decided which banks would receive TARP money. With Bush scheduled to leave office on January 20, 2009, following the November 2008 election, <mask>'s appointment was initially viewed as temporary. There were even plans to replace him before Bush left office. However, after Obama won the election, his transition team asked <mask> to remain at Treasury after the inauguration for a limited period. He left the Treasury Department on May 1, 2009, replaced at the helm of TARP by Herbert M. Allison. During his time heading TARP, <mask> was frequently called to testify before Congressional oversight panels. The House members would often question him hostilely over the politically unpopular program, but at least one, Representative Dennis Kucinich, assured <mask> privately that he thought <mask> was doing a great job.Another public critic, Representative Gregory Meeks, later thanked <mask> for his service. <mask> also won praise from Paulson and Timothy Geithner, Paulson's successor as Treasury Secretary and <mask>'s boss under the Obama administration. Neil Barofsky, who oversaw TARP within Treasury as a special inspector general, commended <mask>'s commitment to the job but criticized his actions. Elizabeth Warren, who headed TARP's Congressional Oversight Panel, later criticized <mask> for allegedly promising to focus on smaller banks shortly before Treasury announced additional measures to bail out Citigroup. <mask> later said that Bush not running for reelection allowed the government to "do things that were deeply unpopular but we knew were the right thing." Return to California
One week

masks:
Neel Tushar Kashkari
Kashkari
Kashkari
Kashkari
Kashkari
Kashkari
Sheila Kashkari
Kashkari
Neel
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Neel
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title: Neel Kashkari

texts:
 after his resignation, he and his wife moved to a cabin in rural Northern California near Lake Tahoe as part of what he called a "detox" from Washington. He worked on home improvement projects and helped Paulson write a memoir.In December 2009 <mask> was named a managing director at the investment firm Pimco, in charge of new investment initiatives. Pimco, which had traditionally focused on bonds, hired him to broaden its focus into equities; Pimco later named him global head of equities. <mask> had met Bill Gross, Pimco's co-founder, in December 2007 as part of his work at Treasury. <mask>'s move to Pimco attracted attention because Pimco benefited from the government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, though it did not receive TARP funds. The six equity mutual funds Pimco launched under <mask> all underperformed benchmarks in 2012. <mask> attributed this to the funds hedging risk, which decreases returns when stock prices increase. <mask> resigned from Pimco in January 2013, citing a desire to return to public service.He was expected to announce a campaign for elected office. In 2015, the Wall Street Journal said that "the performance of [Pimco equity] funds Mr. <mask> launched was spotty [and] the firm has since closed some of" them. Politics

2014 California gubernatorial campaign

<mask> has said he first considered running for Governor of California after Republican nominee Mitt Romney lost the 2012 presidential election to Obama. He spent the year after his resignation from Pimco preparing to campaign in the 2014 gubernatorial election, touring the state, hiring a staff, and meeting with potential donors. He announced his candidacy on January 21, 2014, citing jobs and education as his top priorities. It was his first run for elected office. He finished second to incumbent governor Jerry Brown in the nonpartisan blanket primary and lost to Brown in the November general election.After the campaign, <mask> published "Lessons from the Trail," a firsthand account of what he learned from his gubernatorial campaign to help future candidates. Primary election

Brown was widely expected to finish first in the primary, so <mask>'s principal opponent at this stage was his main rival for second place, Republican state assemblyman Tim Donnelly. <mask> was seen as a fiscal conservative and social moderate, while Donnelly identified with the right-wing Tea Party movement. <mask> enjoyed a significant funding advantage over Donnelly. He raised $1 million within two weeks of announcing his candidacy and went on to raise a total of US$4.1 million, including $2 million of his own money. Republican donors Charles Munger Jr. and Robert Addison Day also spent $400,000 supporting <mask> through an independent expenditure committee. Donnelly raised only $447,000 in 2014.For most of the race, <mask> trailed Donnelly in public opinion polls. <mask>'s moderate views on social issues, involvement with TARP, and vote for Obama in 2008 were unpopular with many Republican voters, who were more enthusiastic about Donnelly. Other Republicans feared that if Donnelly advanced to the general election he would not only lose to Brown but also hurt other Republicans running for office because of his narrow appeal to white conservatives, staunch right-wing views, inflammatory rhetoric, and criminal record. The perceived threat from Donnelly attracted endorsements for <mask> from national Republicans including Romney, Jeb Bush, Condoleezza Rice, and Karl Rove, as well as California Republicans including Pete Wilson and Darrell Issa. These advantages allowed <mask> not to campaign farther right than he wanted to. <mask>'s fundraising advantage allowed him pay for more advertising in the last weeks of the race. The first poll showing him ahead of Donnelly came out days before the election.In the June 3 primary, <mask> came in second with 19% of the vote, and Donnelly came in third with 15%. Brown beat them both, with 55%. General election

Brown, a Democrat, was long considered the favorite to win the general election. His approval ratings were high, and as of the end of the primary his campaign had US$21 million. <mask>, by contrast, spent almost all his campaign money to beat Donnelly, and additional financial support from the national or state Republican Parties was unlikely. <mask> cited George W. Bush's upset victory over Ann Richards in the 1994 election for Governor of Texas as a model for an upset against a popular Democratic governor. <mask> lost the November 4, 2014 general election to Governor Jerry Brown by approximately 1.4 million votes, with Brown winning 60% of the vote.Brown won the largest gubernatorial victory since 1986 despite running a low-key campaign. Record of voting

The San Francisco Chronicle reported in January 2014 that, since 1998, <mask> had been eligible to vote in 23 elections in California and Pennsylvania but had only voted in 13 (i.e., 57%) of them. His campaign disputed some aspects of the reporting and said that <mask>'s Treasury Department service proves his commitment to civic life. <mask> later acknowledged his imperfect voting record. Political positions
<mask> has been a Republican his whole life. In a 2008 speech to the American Enterprise Institute, <mask> described himself as "a free-market Republican." In 2013, he described himself as a "pro-growth Republican".He opposes most of Obama's economic agenda and supports cutting business regulations. He has called for cutting Social Security and Medicare and replacing the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. In 2012, he voted against California's Proposition 30, which raised taxes in the state, and for Proposition 32, which would have weakened labor unions' political influence. In a March 2014 interview, he praised Wisconsin governor Scott Walker's controversial policies limiting collective bargaining. On social issues, he has described himself as libertarian and "a different kind of Republican", supporting abortion rights, same-sex marriage, and a path to legal status for illegal immigrants. He voted against California's Proposition 8, which banned same-sex marriage in 2008. In 2013, he was one of 131 Republicans who signed a pro-marriage equality amicus curiae brief submitted to the U.S. Supreme Court as part of Hollingsworth v. Perry, the case in which the final appeal against the previously-found unconstitutionality of Proposition 8 was rejected for lack of standing.<mask> owns four guns and considers waiting periods and background checks before purchasing a firearm to be reasonable. On environmental issues, he voted against California's Proposition 23, which would have suspended the state law that limits greenhouse gas emissions. He believes climate change is real and man-made. He has spoken positively of fracking and offshore oil drilling and negatively of California's cap-and-trade program. <mask> cites Paulson, Mitch Daniels, and Jeb Bush as political mentors. He voted for Obama in the 2008 presidential election and Romney in the 2012 election. In March 2014, <mask> proposed waiving state income taxes for 10 years for businesses that move to California with at least 100 jobs; waiving state income taxes for California companies that build new manufacturing plants in the state; expanding hydraulic fracturing (fracking) of oil deposits; reducing environmental regulation; and increasing water storage in response to the state's ongoing drought.Economists and political experts interviewed by the Los Angeles Times were skeptical of the plan's chances in the Democratic-dominated California Legislature and of its potential effectiveness were it to be passed. In January 2020, <mask> and Alan Page proposed amending a portion of the Minnesota State Constitution to read, "All children have a fundamental right to a quality public education that fully prepares them." At a January 2021 Minneapolis Federal Reserve event on racism and the economy, <mask> commented on the contrast between how the rioters at the U.S. Capitol were treated compared to black Americans, saying, "If those were Black militants, armed militants, storming the U.S. Capitol, I think they’d all be dead right now [ . . .] That is the most stark example of racism and disparities in our society.”

Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis

In early November 2015 <mask> was named president and CEO of the Minneapolis Fed. He was chosen by the Minneapolis bank board (excepting representatives from the financial industry), approved 5–0 by the Federal Reserve Board in Washington and assumed the Minneapolis position on January 1, 2016. With the presidents of the New York (William C. Dudley), Dallas (Robert Steven Kaplan) and Philadelphia (Patrick T. Harker) regional Fed banks, <mask> will become the fourth sitting regional Fed chief to have Goldman Sachs on his resume. Kaplan and Harker both assumed their positions in 2015.On February 16, 2016 while giving a speech at the Brookings Institution, <mask> recommended that in order to stave another potential financial meltdown, the big banks should be broken up, saying, "I believe the biggest banks are still too big to fail and continue to pose a significant, ongoing risk to our economy." Personal life
<mask> is a practicing Hindu. He said in 2009 that he began praying while working on TARP, having been especially affected when a colleague had a heart attack at work. <mask> met his ex-wife Minal Jeshanker (now Kotterman) in college at the University of Illinois. They married in a traditional North Indian Hindu ceremony in Chicago, and she supported him through his time at Wharton while working as an engineer at Lockheed Martin <mask> filed for divorce in November 2011 and later described the split as amicable. They have no children. <mask> married Christine Ong in California’s Sugar Pine Point State Park in August 2015.In February 2019, <mask> and Ong welcomed their first child, a baby girl named Ulysses Sabine. See also
 List of Indian Americans
 List of U.S. executive branch czars
 List of Wharton School alumni

References

Works cited
 Andrew Ross Sorkin. Too Big to Fail. Penguin Books, 2009, 2010. External links

 Sunrayce 97 results

1973 births
American aerospace businesspeople
Engineers from California
American Hindus
American investment bankers
American politicians of Indian descent
American people of Kashmiri descent
Businesspeople from Akron, Ohio
California Republicans
Economy of Minneapolis
Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis presidents
George W. Bush administration personnel
Goldman Sachs people
Living people
Obama administration personnel
Ohio Republicans
Politicians from Akron, Ohio
People from Akron, Ohio
People from Irvine, California
People from Laguna Beach, California
People from Redondo Beach, California
People from Stow, Ohio
People from Truckee, California
Troubled Asset Relief Program
United States Department of the Treasury officials
Grainger College of Engineering alumni
Western Reserve Academy alumni
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni
Asian-American people in Ohio politics
California politicians of Indian

masks: Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari Kashkari


title: Sobhuza II

texts:
<mask> II,  (; also known as Nkhotfotjeni, Mona; 22 July 1899 – 21 August 1982) was the Paramount Chief and later Ngwenyama of Swaziland for 82 years and 254 days, the longest verifiable reign of any monarch in recorded history. <mask> was born on 22 July 1899 at Zombodze Royal Residence, the son of Inkhosikati Lomawa Ndwandwe and King Ngwane V. When he was only four months old, his father died suddenly while dancing incwala. <mask> was chosen king soon after that and his grandmother Labotsibeni and his uncle Prince Malunge led the Swazi nation until his maturity in 1921. <mask> led Swaziland through independence until his death in 1982. He was succeeded by <mask>, his young son with Inkhosikati Ntfombi Tfwala, who was crowned in 1986. Early life and education

<mask> was born in Zombodze on 22 July 1899. He ascended to the throne after the death of his father, Ngwane V, as King of Swaziland on 10 December 1899, when he was only four months old.He was educated at the Swazi National School, Zombodze, and at the Lovedale Institution in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, before assuming the Swazi throne as paramount chief at the age of twenty-two. His grandmother, Labotsibeni Mdluli, served as regent throughout his youth, formally transferring power to the Ngwenyama on 22 December 1921. Before assuming his royal duties, he studied anthropology in England. Kingship

<mask>'s direct reign would endure more than 60 years (1921–82), during which he presided over Swaziland's independence from the United Kingdom in 1968, after which the British government recognised him as King of Swaziland (Eswatini). Early in his reign, <mask> sought to address the problem of land partition and deprivation instituted by the British authorities in 1907. He did so by first leading a delegation to London to meet with King George V and petition him to restore the lands to the Swazi people. He again took his case on the land issue in 1929 to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.He was defeated by the terms of the Foreign Jurisdictions Act 1890, which effectively placed the actions of British administrations in protectorates beyond the reach of the British courts. <mask>'s role during this colonial period was for the most part ceremonial, but he still had major influence as a traditional head of the Swazi nation. In 1934, he received the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski. In 1953, he attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London. In the early 1960s <mask> played a major role in events that led to independence for his country in 1968. He opposed the post-colonial Westminster constitution proposed by the British government, in which he was assigned the role of constitutional monarch. As a consequence, acting through his advisory council, he formed the Imbokodvo National Movement, a political party, which contested and won all seats in the 1967 pre-independence elections.He became recognized by the British as King of Swaziland in 1967 when Swaziland was given direct rule. Independence was achieved on 6 September 1968. Following this, <mask> skilfully blended appeal to tribal custom with a capacity to manage economic and social change for his kingdom. On 12 April 1973, the king repealed the constitution and dissolved parliament, henceforth exercising power as an absolute ruler. In 1978 a new constitution was promulgated which provided for an elaborate reversion to a tribal mode of rule involving an electoral college of eighty members chosen by forty local councils known as tinkhundla, dominated by tribal elements. The Swazi economy prospered under <mask>'s leadership. Swaziland is rich in natural resources, and much of the land and mineral wealth originally owned by non-Swazi interests was brought under indigenous control during <mask>'s reign.Later life and death

<mask> celebrated his Diamond Jubilee in 1981. At this time, he had successfully restored and indeed strengthened the monarch's role as the chief arbiter of decision-making in his kingdom. In the early 1980s King <mask> attempted to acquire control over KaNgwane, a Bantustan set up by the South African government in an attempt to reunite all Swazi people separated by the colonial boundary. He died on 21 August 1982 at Embo State house at the age of 83. <mask>'s official incumbency of 82 years and 254 days is the longest precisely dated monarchical reign on record and the world's longest documented reign of any sovereign since antiquity. Only Pepi <mask> of Ancient Egypt and Taejo of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo are claimed to have reigned longer, though these claims are disputed. Family and succession

Known by the honorific "Bull of Swazi" by virtue of his numerous progeny, King Sobhuza continued the tribal practice of maintaining many consorts.According to the Swaziland National Trust Commission, King <mask> II had 70 wives, who gave him 210 children between 1920 and 1970. About 180 children survived infancy, and 97 sons and daughters were reported living as of 2000. At his death he had more than 1,000 grandchildren. <mask> died in 1982, having appointed Prince Sozisa Dlamini to serve as 'Authorized Person', advising a regent. Selection of a successor was confirmed only after King <mask>'s death, a regent being necessary if the heir remained under age at that time. By tradition, the regent would be one of the queens consort who had borne the late king a son. The first regent was Queen Dzeliwe, but after a power struggle Sozisa deposed her and she was replaced by Queen Ntfombi.During this period Andy Warhol boosted her renown, and that of Swaziland, by including her portrait along with those of <mask> of the Commonwealth Realms, Beatrix of the Netherlands and Margrethe <mask> of Denmark in his Reigning Queens series. Ntombi reigned on behalf of her young son by King <mask>, Prince Makhosetive Dlamini, who was designated as Crown Prince or Umntfwana. He was crowned King Mswati III in 1986. One of <mask>'s sons-in-law was the late Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu, King of the Zulus of South Africa, who married the Swazi king's daughter, Princess Mantfombi (born at Siteki in 1956, betrothed in 1973), at Nongoma in June 1977. Another in-law is Zenani Mandela, the daughter of former South African President Nelson Mandela, who belonged to a cadet branch of the Thembu dynasty which reigns as paramount chiefs in the Transkei. She wed <mask>'s son, Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini who, although an older half-brother of Mswati and Mantfombi, did not inherit the Swazi throne, instead launching, with his wife, an enterprise in the United States. Honours

National honours

  Grand Master of the Royal Order of the King <mask> II (Kingdom of Swaziland, 1975).Foreign honours

  Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, Civil Division (KBE) (United Kingdom, 1 January 1966). (Hon. CBE: 8 June 1950, Hon. OBE: 11 May 1937). Supreme Companion of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo [posthumous] (Republic of South Africa, 20 April 2006). See also

 Politics of Swaziland
 List of people with the most children

References

External links

 History of His Majesty, King Sobuza II
 King <mask> II—portrait of <mask> II of Swaziland by South African artist Neville Lewis

1899 births
1982 deaths
19th-century monarchs in Africa
Child rulers from sub-Saharan Africa
Flag designers
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Recipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo
Swazi monarchs
World War II political leaders

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title: Clare Mulley

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<mask> (born 1969) is an English award-winning author and broadcaster. Her first book, The Woman Who Saved the Children: A Biography of Eglantyne Jebb (Oneworld, 2009) republished in 2019 to mark the centenary of Save the Children, won the Daily Mail Biographer's Club Prize. The Spy Who Loved: The Secrets and Lives of Christine Granville, Britain's First Female Special Agent of the Second World War (Macmillan, 2013) led to Mulley receiving Poland's National cultural honour, the Bene Merito, and has been widely translated. <mask>'s third book, The Women Who Flew for Hitler (Macmillan, 2017), a joint biography of two women at the heart of the Third Reich but who ended their lives on opposite sides of history, was long listed for the Historical Writers Association Non-Fiction Crown. All the books have been optioned for film or TV. Mulley is a regular contributor to TV history series for the BBC, Channel 5, Channel 4 and the History Channel, while also contributing to Newsnight, Songs of Praise, various news programmes, and radio including the Today Programme, Woman's Hour and Great Lives and PM. A seasoned public speaker and literary chair, she has given aTEDx at Stormont, and spoken at the House of Lords, Imperial War Museum, National Army Museum, Special Forces Club, British Library and Warsaw Uprising Museum.She is an honorary patron of the Wimpole History Festival, and also lectures on the women of SOE for the Andante group travel company Historical Trips. Mulley writes and reviews non-fiction for The Spectator, BBC History magazine, The Telegraph and other titles. She has served as Chair of the Judges for the Historical Writers Association Non-Fiction Crown in 2017, and again in 2021. <mask> <mask> was born in 1969 in Luton, England. In 2006 she graduated from the University of London with a distinction for her master's degree in Social and Cultural History. Her dissertation was on Affection or Affectation: The Role and Rhetoric of Maternalism in the Development of Women's Social Action in Victorian Britain. Before writing, Mulley worked with Save the Children and Sightsavers International.She has also served as a member of the advisory board of the World Development Movement, a British NGO which campaigns on issues of global justice and development in southern countries identified according to the global North–South divide, and as a trustee of the national charity, Standing Together against Domestic Violence. Mulley is a member of the Historical Writers Association, Women's History Network, Royal Society of Literature, Biographer's Club, Society of Authors, English PEN, Fawcett Society, Writers Against Racism and National Secular Society. <mask> lives in Essex, England, with her husband, the artist Ian Wolter, their three daughters & hairy lurcher. Works

The Woman Who Saved the Children (Eglantyne Jebb)
While working for Save the Children, Mulley was introduced to the life of Victorian-era British social reformer Eglantyne Jebb. Her biography The Woman Who Saved the Children: A Biography of Eglantyne Jebb (Oneworld, 2009). It was 1919 when Eglantyne Jebb was arrested in Trafalgar Square for distributing humanitarian leaflets, and few in London were sympathetic to a woman hoping to help the children of Britain’s former enemies. Nevertheless within weeks Jebb secured the first donation to her ‘Save the Children’ fund from the public prosecutor at her trial.Five years later, she drafted the pioneering statement of children’s human rights that has since evolved into the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the most universally accepted human rights instrument in history. Yet she was never particularly fond of individual children, ‘the little wretches’ as she once called them. Eglantyne’s story is one of passion, compassion and pioneering leadership in the face of national opposition. The biography was published in 2009, to coincide with the 90th anniversary of Save the Children and the 20th anniversary of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. The book was published to critical acclaim and then-UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown called it a "truly brilliant book". Reportedly, Brown read the book while away on holiday and was moved to offer the unsolicited review. The biography won the Daily Mail Biographer's Club prize.The book was republished to mark the centenary of Save the Children in 2019, has been translated into Korean and Spanish, and is under option. As noted on the copyright page of the book, all of the author's royalties are donated to Save the Children's international programmes. The Spy Who Loved (Krystyna Skarbek a.k.a. Christine Granville)
In 2012 Macmillan published <mask>'s biography, The Spy Who Loved: the Secrets and Lives of Christine Granville, Britain's First Female Special Agent of World War II. Churchill called her his favourite spy, and part-Jewish, Polish-born Countess Krystyna Skarbek, aka Christine Granville, was Britain’s first and longest serving female special agent of the Second World War. Despite being arrested more than once, Skarbek used her guile to save not only her own life, but also those of many of her male colleagues in three different theatres of the war. It was her service behind enemy lines in Nazi-occupied France that made her legendary among the special forces however.Not only did she make the first contact between the French resistance and the Italian partisans on opposite sides of the Alps in preparation for D Day in the south, she also secured the defection of an entire German garrison on a strategic pass in the mountains. Awarded the OBE, the George Medal, and French Croix de Guerre, her tragic early death made the papers around the world, yet her true story was kept hidden. The book received excellent reviews in the British, American, Canadian and Polish press. Nigel Jones

The biography has now been published in Britain, the USA (St Martin's 2013), Poland, Hungary, Russia, China and Italy, and is under option. In 2013 Mulley was awarded with the Bene Merito honorary distinction by the then Foreign Minister of the Republic of Poland, Radoslaw Sikorski. In September 2020, after a six year campaign, <mask> unveiled an English Heritage Blue Plaque to Krystyna Skarbek at her last London address, 1 Lexham Gardens Hotel, South Kensington, London. The Women Who Flew for Hitler (Hanna Reitsch and Melitta von Stauffenberg)
Mulley's most recent work, "The Women Who Flew for Hitler" was published by Macmillan in the UK and St Martin's Press in the USA, in 2017, and since in Poland, Finland, the Czech Republic and China.The books was long listed for the Historical Writers Association Non-fiction Crown, and is under option. Hanna Reitsch and Melitta von Stauffenberg defied gender expectation to become leading test pilots for the Third Reich during the Second World War. Both became Honorary Flight Captains, and both were awarded the Iron Cross for their service. Yet although both were motivated by deeply held convictions about honour and patriotism, their contrasting views on the Nazi regime meant they ended their lives on opposites sides of history. 'Vividly drawn... this is a thrilling story' wrote Anne Sebba in The Telegraph, while The Times called the book 'popular history of a high order', and The Spectator thought it was 'well researched and beautifully written'. A critic for The Literary Review judged it 'Superb and beautifully written, well paced and full of drama', . Awards and Honours
 Winner of the Daily Mail Biographers Club Prize for biography of Eglantyne Jebb, The Woman Who Saved the Children (2007).Awarded the Bene Merito cultural honour of the Republic of Poland (2014). Long listed for the Historical Writers Association Non-Fiction Crown for The Women Who Flew for Hitler (2018). Bibliography
 <mask>, The Woman Who Saved the Children: A Biography of Eglantyne Jebb (Oneworld Publications, 2009) . <mask>, contribution to: Carole Angier and Sally Cline, eds., The Arvon Book of Life Writing: Writing Biography, Autobiography and Memoir (Methuen Drama, 2010) . <mask>, The Spy Who Loved: the Secrets and Lives of Christine Granville, Britain's First Female Special Agent of World War II (Macmillan, 2012) . <mask>, 'Introduction', Xan Fielding, Hide and Seek: Story of a Wartime Agent (Folio, 2014)
 <mask>, 'Remembering the contribution of the Jewish Female Special Agents of the Second World War' in Jewish Lives, Public Service (Jewish Museum, London, 2017)
 <mask>, The Women Who Flew for Hitler: The True Story of Hitler's Valkyries (Macmillan, 2018)
 <mask>, 'Introduction', Bradl (Warsaw uprising Museum, 2019)
 <mask>, 'Introduction', Forgotten Force, Polish Women in the Second World War (The Piłsidski Institute, London, 2020)
 <mask>, 'Historical Context', Lili Stern-Pohlmann (Holland House, 2020)

Notes

External links
 <mask> official website
 New York Times review of The Spy Who Loved
 The Spectator review of The Spy Who Loved
 The Telegraph review of The Spy Who Loved

1969 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of London
British non-fiction writers
British women writers
People from Luton
21st-century British non-fiction writers

masks:
Clare Margaret Mulley
Mulley
Life Clare
Mulley
Clare Mulley
Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley
Clare Mulley


title: Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat

texts:
<mask> bin <mask> (Jawi: ; 10 January 1931 – 12 February 2015) was a Malaysian politician and Muslim cleric. He was the Menteri Besar of Kelantan from 1990 to 2013 and the Mursyidul Am or Spiritual Leader of the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) from 1991 until his death in 2015. Overall, his career as an elected politician lasted for some 48 years following his election to the Parliament of Malaysia in 1967. Early life
<mask> was born in Kota Bharu in 1931 as the second of five siblings. He was raised by a single father (Tok Kura) who was an aspiring blacksmith. <mask>'s Islamic studies began in pondok schools in Kelantan and Terengganu. He went on to study at Darul Uloom Deoband in Uttar Pradesh, India for five years.He obtained his Bachelor of Arts in Arabic Studies and Master of Arts in Islamic jurisprudence from Al-Azhar University, Egypt. During his university studies, he was one of the witnesses and a civilian to have lived in the heat of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Having returned from Egypt, <mask> worked as a teacher at various religious schools in Kelantan including his father's pondok (religious school). <mask> started to teach at various mosques and Pondok within Kelantan and other states. He became a respected Islamic scholar earning the nickname "Tok Guru." (means 'Master/sifu of Scholar or teacher' in Malay)

Political career
<mask> joined PAS in 1967. He contested and won the Kelantan Hilir parliamentary seat by-election in that same year, and held the seat (later renamed Pengkalan Chepa) until 1986.In 1982, he was part of a movement by young members to bring change to the party leadership. PAS had lost the Kelantan state elections in 1978 and, as PAS state commissioner, <mask> began to question president Asri Muda's leadership. Finally, in the PAS Muktamar (General Assembly) that year, Asri was forced to resign. After stepping aside from federal politics, <mask> won a seat in the Kelantan State Assembly in the 1986 general elections. In 1990, PAS managed to wrest control of Kelantan back from Barisan Nasional. In his capacity as party leader in the state, <mask> became Menteri Besar of Kelantan. He succeeded Yusof Rawa as spiritual leader of PAS in 1991.<mask>'s government was re-elected on four occasions (1995, 1999, 2004, 2008), until his retirement in 2013. During the 1990s, his administration in Kelantan frequently clashed on the role of Islam in Malaysia with the then Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad. In contrast with the racially exclusive ruling party UMNO, he openly rejected communal politics. <mask> commanded support from a large number of non-Muslims in Malaysia and played a leading role during PAS' increase in popularity among non-Muslims. In May 2013, <mask> publicly stated that he did not consent on any co-operation between United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) and Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) as long as he was alive. However, in September 2019, when PAS and UMNO signed the formal charter of alliance, PAS president <mask> Awang claimed that <mask> had already consented to the cooperation while he was alive. Issues

Hardline views
<mask> drew some criticism for his hardline Islamic views.His advocacy of Islamic shariah law for all Malay Muslims drew criticism. According to Fox News, <mask> suggested that women would be at a lower risk of being raped if they abandoned using their lipstick and perfume. He was also recorded once stating that fashionable and sexy-dressing women deserved to be raped during a speech. The "Allah" issue
In 2012, there was an issue of Catholics in Malaysia using the Arabic term for "God"; "Allah" in their Christian Bible. Initially, <mask> stated that the word "Allah" can be used by non-Muslims as the origin of the word itself is evidently pre-Islamic. The issue caused a stir in the Muslim community. The PAS party was almost divided into two blocs; one that supported the use of the word, and one that did not.Aiming to restore unity in PAS, <mask> took back his words and disapproved of the word "Allah" being used by non-Muslims. Son detained under ISA
His son <mask> was held under the Malaysian Internal Security Act in 2001 for alleged terrorist activities including planning jihad, possession of weapons, and membership in the Kumpulan Mujahidin Malaysia (KMM), an Islamist extremist group. After 5 years in detention without trial, he was released. Retirement and death
During the 2013 election, PAS once again won a majority of seats to form a Kelantan state government. <mask> announced his retirement as Chief Minister of Kelantan, the post he held since 1990. His successor is <mask>'s former deputy Chief Minister Ahmad Yaakob, who took over his office to replace him as Kelantan's Chief Minister. Over the ensuing two years, <mask> became increasingly ill with prostate cancer, and died on  at 9.40 p.m. Malaysia Standard Time (UTC+08:00); at his residence in Kampung Pulau Melaka, Kota Bharu.The following day, more than 10,000 people attended his funeral at Masjid Tok Guru, his local mosque. His death triggered the Kelantan State Assembly seat of 2015 Chempaka by-election. Election results

Note: 1  PAS were in the Alliance (1972–1973) and later Barisan Nasional (1973–1978) coalition government. Honours

Honours of Malaysia
  :
  Officer of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (KMN) (1974)
  :
  Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Life of the Crown of Kelantan (SJMK) – Dato' (1995)

References

External links

Official Blog of Tok Guru Nik Aziz Nik Mat

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Chief Ministers of Kelantan
Malaysian academics
Sunni Muslim scholars
1931 births
2015 deaths
Kelantan state executive councillors
Members of the Kelantan State Legislative Assembly
Al-Azhar University alumni
Malaysian Muslims
Members of the Dewan Rakyat
Malaysian Islamic Party politicians
Malaysian people of Malay descent
People from Kelantan
People from Kota Bharu
Deaths from prostate cancer
20th-century Malaysian politicians
21st-century Malaysian politicians

masks:
Nik Abdul Aziz
Nik Mat
Nik Abdul Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Abdul Hadi
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Adli
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz
Nik Aziz


title: Asghar Qadir

texts:
<mask> ( born 23 July 1946) HI, SI, FPAS, is a Pakistani mathematician and a prominent cosmologist, specialised in mathematical physics and physical cosmology. He is considered one of the top mathematicians in Pakistan. He is the chairman of the Mathematics Department, and the director of School of Natural Sciences (SNS) at the National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST). He is a distinguished student of English mathematical physicist Roger Penrose. He made extraordinary efforts and published numerous papers in the fields of Mathematical physics, Cosmology and Mathematics. Qadir has made important and significant contributions to the fields of differential equations, theoretical cosmology and the mathematical physics. He has written and edited a number of books, mainly focusing on mathematical sciences and mathematical physics.<mask> is author of the book "Relativity: An Introduction to the Special Theory" which has been translated in several different languages and is widely read by science students in colleges throughout Asia. He has attended more than 100 International and National Conferences and Seminars in the fields of Mathematics, Physics, Economics and the History and Philosophy of Science. He has published more than 140 research papers. He is the author of 12 books, 22 research level articles, 7 teaching journal papers, 32 popular articles, and 48 research preprints. He is noted for his work in mathematics and mathematical physics, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. <mask> <mask> is the son of Manzur Kadir who was the famous Pakistani jurist in 1960s and served as foreign minister in Ayub khan’s cabinet from 1958 to 1962. He is thus the grandson of Sir <mask>.From his mother’s side he is related to Sir Fazal Hussain another famous politician from Punjab and founder of Unionist Party. His mother’s name was <mask>. Biography
<mask> <mask> was born in Simla (now Shimla) of British Indian Empire in 1946 to a middle-class family. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, <mask>'s family migrated to Lahore, West Pakistan, where they were settled in a house provided by the Government of Pakistan. In 1963, Qadir travelled to United Kingdom on a Commonwealth scholarship which he applied and qualified for. In 1963, Qadir attended the University of London and received his BSc(Hons) in Mathematics from the University of London in 1967 under the direction of mathematician Professor Oliver Penrose. The same year, he became an A.R.S.C and also obtained his BS in Physics and DIC in Mathematics.In 1969, Qadir pursued his MSc in Mathematics, followed by PhD in Mathematical physics and Theory of relativity with the specialisation in Twistor theory, under the supervision of Roger Penrose in 1971. He pioneered the mathematical contributions to the development of Special relativity and the twistor theory, which is the approach to the problems of fundamental physics pioneered by Roger Penrose. Rutherford High Energy Laboratory
Qadir became a research associate and fellow at the Rutherford High Energy Laboratory (it is now known as Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (RAL)) where he continued his research in the field of advanced computational mathematics. There, he worked in a complex mathematical applications arise in the theory of nuclear fission at the ISIS neutron source – a neutron scattering facility that mathematically studies the structure and behaviour of nuclear materials in a fission process. However, in early 1971, he came back to Pakistan and joined Quaid-e-Azam University as a research associate. In 1982, he became associate professor and then subsequently became a chairman of the department of mathematics in 1986. Academic career
While in Pakistan, in the midst of the Indo-Pak War of 1971, Qadir was serving as a senior research associate at the University of Islamabad.After the Multan meeting, held on 20 January 1972, Qadir's colleagues and peers had quietly disappeared from campus. Qadir's close friend Riazuddin invited by him to Nilore to continue and carry out his advanced research at the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). As an eminent and noted mathematician, Qadir was given the task to calculate critical mass and the physics cross-section calculations. Qadir, at first, adopted the Monte Carlo method for evaluating complicated mathematical integrals that arise in the theory of nuclear chain reactions. The mathematical calculations were brought up to Riazuddin, but Riazuddin already adopted the method earlier. Despite Riazuddin's and his calculations, Qadir then approached a better method to develop the fission device. He then suggested adopting the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm using the Monte Carlo integration that arises in the theory of nuclear fusion and thermonuclear fission that can improve the intensity and frequency of the highly compressed shock waves, using the uranium reflector in a nuclear device.Then, Qadir opted the Pati–Salam model for solving the fission problem and suggested that the Salam's model can be used to develop an effective boosted fissionable reflector in a device. Qadir then continued to develop mathematical models and to evaluate critical mass problems. Riazuddin introduced Qadir to Salam where Salam encourages Qadir to research in mathematical physics in more depth. Under Riazuddin and Salam, Qadir specialized in the theory of Special relativity, mathematics of particle physics, and mathematical economics including quantum economics. In 1976, Qadir joined Quaid-e-Azam University's Department of Mathematics as an associate professor. In 1983, Qadir became chairman of the Department of Mathematics at the Quaid-i-Azam University. In 1986, Riazuddin invited Qadir to Trieste, Italy to join International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) where he carried out his research in special and general theory of relativity.At ICTP, he taught the advanced course of differential equations, Special functions, Upper and lower bounds on Entropy and the Number Theory. In 1988, after researching at ICTP under Abdus Salam, Qadir re-joined Qau and became full professor of Mathematics. In 1989, Qadir published a book on Special relativity through World Scientific. Qadir provided simple representation of details of calculations and its extension into theory of motion. Through his text book, Qadir briefly discussed and introduced the Special Relativity for extension into General Relativity. In 1993, he was asked by the President, Ghulam Ishaq Khan (late), to teach in the then newly founded research institute at Topi, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology. In 1994, he went to Saudi Arabia where he visited his lifelong friend Riazuddin where, on his friend's recommendation, joined King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals where he served as a chairman of Department of Mathematics and Statistics.In 1998, Qadir came back to Pakistan and re-joined Quaid-e-Azam University as an associate professor of mathematics. The same year, Qadir joined the PAEC and became director-general of the Mathematical Physics Group where he was instrumental for leading the mathematical studies in the foundation of mathematical physics. Qadir became involved in a team preparing the nuclear device in Chagai and eye-witnessed the country's first nuclear tests (See Chagai-I and Chagai-II) where he was the director of the team leading the mathematical calculations to determine the yield. As part of his contribution, the Government of Pakistan conferred Qadir with civilian award, Sitara-e-Imtiaz, and earned the national fame. In 1999, Qadir became the Dean of Faculty of Natural Sciences which he continued till 2000. In 2004, he served as the head of the Department of Mathematics at the Quaid-e-Azam University. Recently, he moved to Rawalpindi and joined the National University of Sciences and Technology as the director of Center for Advanced Mathematics and Physics.Awards and honours
Hilal-i-Imtiaz, Government of Pakistan (2008)
 Sitara-i-Imtiaz, Government of Pakistan (1999)
 Gold Medal, Pakistan Academy of Sciences (1996)
 Khwarizmi First Prize, by Government of Iran (1995)
 Prize, National Book Council of Pakistan, (1991)
 Senior Fulbright Fellowship, University of Texas at Austin, Texas, USA, (1987)
 Fulbright Hayes Award (1979)
 First prize in General Knowledge Contest for High School Students (1961);
ISESCO Award for Mathematics (2003)

Fellowships and memberships
 Senior research fellow at Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE), from 1980 to 1994
 Joint secretary at Al-Kindi Society for the Advancement of the Philosophy of Science, Islamabad, Pakistan, (1980)
Associate member and senior associate of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, Italy, 1980–1999
 Life member and vice-president, Albert Einstein Society (Pakistan Chapter) (1985 to date)
 Life member, joint secretary and secretary, Pakistan Physical Society. (1992 and 1993)
 Life member and president, Fulbright Alumni Association, (1992–1993)

Books
International Symposium on Experimental Gravitation (1994) by Munawar Karim and <mask> Qadir
5th International Summer College on Physics and Contemporary Needs (1990)
Relativity: An Introduction to the Special Theory by <mask> <mask>
 12th Regional Conference On Mathematical Physics (2008) by Aslam, M Jamil, Hussain, Faheem, <mask>, Asghar
 Gravitational Wave Sources May Be "Further" Than We Think by <mask> Qadir
 On Quantum Effects Near a Black Hole Singularity (2008) by <mask> <mask>, <mask>, Azad A. Siddiqui
 Mathematical physics: proceedings of the 12th Regional Conference by Riazuddin, Asghar Qadir, Faheem Hussain, Hamid Saleem, M. Jamil Aslam. See also
 Roger Penrose
 Riazuddin
 Oliver Penrose
 Partial Differential Equation
 University of Islamabad
 National University of Sciences and Technology
 Muhammad Sharif
Ismat Beg

References

External links
 MIT Page of Asghar Qadir
 Pakistan Academy of Sciences page on Professor Asghar Qadir
 Pakistan Mathematical Society

1946 births
Pakistani Muslims
Project-706
Pakistani relativity theorists
Academics of Imperial College London
Alumni of the University of London
PDE theorists
Living people
Muhajir people
Pakistani textbook writers
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission people
Monte Carlo methodologists
Fellows of Pakistan Academy of Sciences
Scientists from Lahore
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology faculty
21st-century Pakistani mathematicians
20th-century Pakistani mathematicians
Pakistani cosmologists
National University of Sciences & Technology faculty
Quaid-i-Azam University faculty
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals faculty
University of Texas at Austin faculty
Recipients of Sitara-i-Imtiaz

masks:
Asghar Qadir
Qadir
Asghar
Qadir
Abdul Qadir
Asghari
Asghar
Qadir
Qadir
Asghar
Asghar
Qadir
Qadir
Asghar
Asghar
Qadir
Asghar