title: Julius Caesar

texts:
 59 BC was unlikely. His objectives prior to the civil war were to secure himself an immediate second consulship and a triumph, having given up his triumph in 60 BC to stand for his first consulship. <mask> feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy, refuse to ratify an election result in which he was a victor, or deny him a triumph for Gaul. On about 10 January 49 BC, <mask> crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, <mask>, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is cast". Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate Latin translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea iacta esto", let the die be cast. Pompey and many of the Senate fled to the south, having little confidence in Pompey's newly raised troops.Pompey, despite greatly outnumbering <mask>, who had only his Thirteenth Legion with him, did not intend to fight. <mask> pursued Pompey, hoping to capture Pompey before his legions could escape. Pompey managed to escape before <mask> could capture him. Heading for Hispania, <mask> left Italy under the control of Mark Antony. After an astonishing 27-day route-march, <mask> defeated Pompey's lieutenants, then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Illyria, where, on 10 July 48 BC in the battle of Dyrrhachium, <mask> barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. In an exceedingly short engagement later that year, he decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, in Greece on 9 August 48 BC. In Rome, <mask> was appointed dictator, with Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); <mask> presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after 11 days, resigned this dictatorship.<mask> then pursued Pompey to Egypt, arriving soon after the murder of the general. There, <mask> was presented with Pompey's severed head and seal-ring, receiving these with tears. He then had Pompey's assassins put to death. <mask> then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, <mask> sided with Cleopatra. He withstood the Siege of Alexandria and later he defeated the pharaoh's forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. <mask> and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC.The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and <mask> was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs. <mask> and Cleopatra were not married. <mask> continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage—in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery—and probably fathered a son called <mask>. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in <mask>'s villa just outside Rome across the Tiber. Late in 48 BC, <mask> was again appointed dictator, with a term of one year. After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, <mask> went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies. On his way to Pontus, <mask> visited Tarsus from 27 to 29 May 47 BC (25–27 Maygreg.), where he met enthusiastic support, but where, according to Cicero, Cassius was planning to kill him at this point. Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He was defeated by Titus Labienus at Ruspina on 4 January 46 BC but recovered to gain a significant victory at Thapsus on 6 April 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide. After this victory, he was appointed dictator for 10 years. Pompey's sons escaped to Hispania; <mask> gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, <mask> was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague). Dictatorship and assassination

While he was still campaigning in Hispania, the Senate began bestowing honours on <mask>.<mask> had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honour <mask>'s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following <mask>'s victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans. On <mask>'s return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian, later known as <mask>) as his principal heir, leaving his vast estate and property including his name. <mask> also wrote that if Octavian died before <mask> did, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus would be the next heir in succession. In his will, he also left a substantial gift to the citizens of Rome. Between his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, <mask> established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together all of the provinces into a single cohesive unit. The first goal was accomplished when <mask> defeated Pompey and his supporters. To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed, so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long-neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar. Dictatorship

When <mask> returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly those over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents.When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity. Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars. At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, — each of 2,000 people, 200 horses, and 20 elephants — fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at <mask>'s wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and stopped only when <mask> had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars. After the triumph, <mask> set out to pass an ambitious legislative agenda.He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and decreed that jurors could come only from the Senate or the equestrian ranks. He passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the repopulation of Italy. Then, he outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term-limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt-restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed. The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built, among many other public works.<mask> also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register. From 47 to 44 BC, he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans. The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The Roman calendar at the time was regulated by the movement of the moon. By replacing it with the Egyptian calendar, based on the sun, Roman farmers were able to use it as the basis of consistent seasonal planting from year to year. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year. To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months after November).Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC. This calendar is almost identical to the current Western calendar. Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms. He appointed officials to carry out his land reforms and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes, which included the construction of an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theatre, and a library on the scale of the Library of Alexandria. He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth.Militarily, he wanted to conquer the Dacians and Parthians, and avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilisation. Shortly before his assassination, the Senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was renamed July in his honour. He was granted further honours, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch: coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult, with Antony as his high priest. Political reforms

The history of <mask>'s political appointments is complex and uncertain. <mask> held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship.His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies. He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed dictator for 10 years. In 48 BC, <mask> was given permanent tribunician powers, which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate, although on at least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and divested of their office. This was not the first time <mask> had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it.After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, <mask>, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College. When <mask> returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900. All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to him. To minimise the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him, <mask> passed a law that subjected governors to term limits. In 46 BC, <mask> gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the censors. Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles and honours upon him.He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator". Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings. <mask> then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed <mask> to reward his supporters. <mask> even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a single cohesive unit. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by <mask>'s successor, the Emperor Augustus. In October 45 BC, <mask> resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder of the year, which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognize a single consul without a colleague. In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator in perpetuity.Under <mask>, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants, mostly because <mask> was frequently out of Italy. Near the end of his life, <mask> began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates, and all consuls and tribunes. This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator. Assassination

On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, <mask> was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Several Senators had conspired to assassinate <mask>. Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified liberator named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head <mask> off.The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to <mask>'s aid, had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just as he approached the portico of the Theatre of Pompey, where the session was to be held, and detain him outside (Plutarch, however, assigns this action of delaying Antony to Brutus Albinus). When he heard the commotion from the Senate chamber, Antony fled. According to Plutarch, as <mask> arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother. The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that <mask> waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down <mask>'s tunic. <mask> then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!").Casca simultaneously produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. <mask> turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("", "adelphe, boethei"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. <mask> attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico.According to Eutropius, around 60 men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times. According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal. The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said <mask>'s last words were the Greek phrase "" (transliterated as "Kai sy, teknon? ": "You too, child?" in English).However, Suetonius' own opinion was that <mask> said nothing. Plutarch also reports that <mask> said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators. The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus? ", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus? "); best known from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: "Et tu, Brute? Then fall, <mask>."This version was already popular when the play was written, as it appears in Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582 and The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke & etc. of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays. According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building. Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. <mask>'s dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it. <mask>'s body was cremated.A crowd which had gathered at the cremation started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. On the site of his cremation, the Temple of Caesar was erected a few years later (at the east side of the

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title: Julius Caesar

type: original

texts:
 main square of the Roman Forum). Only its altar now remains. A life-size wax statue of <mask> was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. In the chaos following the death of <mask>, Antony, Octavian (later <mask>), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would culminate in the formation of the Roman Empire. Aftermath of the assassination

The result, unforeseen by the assassins, was that <mask>'s death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic. The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom <mask> was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion.Antony, who had been drifting apart from <mask>, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. To his surprise and chagrin, <mask> had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his sole heir (hence the name Octavian), bequeathing him the immensely potent <mask> name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic. The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture, and even clothing on to <mask>'s funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats. Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to <mask>'s adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when <mask> died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from <mask>'s war chests, and the legitimacy that <mask>'s name would provide for any action he took against them.With the passage of the lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC, the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and <mask>'s loyal cavalry commander Lepidus. It formally deified <mask> as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and <mask>n henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of the divine"). Because <mask>'s clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate reinstated the practice of proscription, abandoned since Sulla. It engaged in the legally sanctioned killing of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its 45 legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius. Antony and Octavian defeated them at Philippi. Afterward, Antony formed an alliance with <mask>'s lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other.This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium in 31 BC and suicide in Egypt in 30 BC, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name <mask>, a name conveying religious, rather than political, authority. <mask> had been preparing to invade Parthia and Scythia, and then march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination. His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results. Deification

<mask> was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title Divus Iulius (the divine/deified <mask>) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. The appearance of a comet during games in his honour was taken as confirmation of his divinity.Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honours during his lifetime: and shortly before his assassination, Antony had been appointed as his flamen (priest). Both Octavian and Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of <mask>, Octavian, as the adoptive son of <mask>, assumed the title of Divi Filius (Son of the Divine). Personal life

Health and physical appearance

Based on remarks by Plutarch, <mask> is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC. Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a tapeworm. <mask> had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures.He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after <mask> died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that <mask> was a sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in <mask>'s conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination. A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: "Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf". No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with <mask>. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made.By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that <mask>'s behavioral manifestations—headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility—and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in his Natural History that <mask>'s father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes. These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. <mask> possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after <mask>'s death, describes <mask> as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes". Name and family

The name <mask> <mask>

Using the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters J and U, <mask>'s name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of G by C. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling.(The letterform Æ is a ligature of the letters A and E, and is often used in Latin inscriptions to save space.) In Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯sar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was <mask>'s principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during <mask>'s time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser () or Dutch keizer (). In Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong  first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel .Then, the plosive  before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like  in Italian and  in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate  became a fricative  (thus, ) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. <mask>'s cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse "Render unto <mask> the things which are <mask>'s, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became, from the late first millennium, Kaiser in German and (through Old Church Slavic cěsarĭ) Tsar or Czar in the Slavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word <mask> constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in the text corpora of Old High German (keisar), Old Saxon (kēsur), Old English (cāsere), Old Norse (keisari), Old Dutch (keisere) and (through Greek) Gothic (kaisar).Posterity

Wives
 First marriage to Cornelia (Cinnilla), from 84 BC until her death in 69 or 68 BC
 Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC over the Bona Dea scandal
 Third marriage to Calpurnia, from 59 BC until <mask>'s death

Children
 Julia, by Cornelia, born in 83 or 82 BC
 <mask>ion, by Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC, and killed at age 17 by <mask>'s adopted son Octavianus. Posthumously adopted: <mask> <mask>, his great-nephew by blood (grandson of Julia, his sister), who later became Emperor Augustus. Suspected Children
 Marcus Junius Brutus (born 85 BC): The historian Plutarch notes that <mask> believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been <mask>'s lover during their youth. <mask> would have been 15 years old when Brutus was born. Junia Tertia (born ca. 60s BC), the daughter of <mask>'s lover Servilia was believed by Cicero among other contemporaries, to be <mask>'s natural daughter. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born ca.85–81 BC): On several occasions <mask> expressed how he loved Decimus Brutus like a son. This Brutus was also named an heir of <mask> in case Octavius had died before the latter. Ronald Syme argued that if a Brutus was the natural son of <mask>, Decimus was more likely than Marcus. Grandchildren
Grandchild from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Lovers
 Cleopatra, mother of <mask>
 Servilia, mother of Brutus
 Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes

Rumors of passive homosexuality

Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in <mask>'s Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "<mask> may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered <mask>." According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly <mask>'s enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career.The stories were repeated, referring to <mask> as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. <mask> himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion. This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that <mask> and his engineer Mamurra were lovers, but later apologised. Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by <mask> through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus.Literary works

During his lifetime, <mask> was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin —even Cicero spoke highly of <mask>'s rhetoric and style. Only <mask>'s war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his Anticato, a document written to defame Cato in response to Cicero's published praise. Poems by <mask> are also mentioned in ancient sources. Memoirs

 The Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years. The Commentarii de Bello Civili (The Civil War), events of the Civil War from <mask>'s perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.Other works historically have been attributed to <mask>, but their authorship is in doubt:
 De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria;
 De Bello Africo (On the African War), campaigns in North Africa; and
 De Bello Hispaniensi (On the Hispanic War), campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula. These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". They were important in shaping <mask>'s public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings. As a model of clear and direct Latin style, The Gallic Wars traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. Legacy

Historiography

The texts written by <mask>, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction of his biography. However, <mask> wrote those texts with his political career in mind, so historians must filter the exaggerations and bias contained in it.<mask> is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read. The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of <mask>, which described Augustus as <mask>'s political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by the Octavian traditions, such as when <mask>'s epoch is considered a turning point in the history of the Roman Empire. Still, historians try to filter the Octavian bias. Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of <mask>. Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work Histoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the Gallic Wars in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place The Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the Commentaries, and translated them to Turkish language. Henry IV and Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV retranslated the first one afterwards. Politics

<mask> is seen as the main example of Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government. Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Bonaparte did not focus only on <mask>'s military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism.The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions

Battle record

Chronology

See also

 Et tu, Brute? <mask> <mask> (name)
 <mask>, a play by William Shakespeare ( 1599)
 Giulio Cesare, an opera by Handel, 1724
 Veni, vidi, vici
 Caesareum of Alexandria
 Caesar cipher

References

Sources

Primary sources

Own writings

 Dickinson College Commentaries: Selections from the Gallic War
 Forum Romanum Index to <mask>'s works online in Latin and translation

Ancient historians' writings

 Appian, Book 13 (English translation)
 Cassius Dio, Books 37–44 (English translation)
 Plutarch on Antony (English translation, Dryden edition)
 Plutarch: The Life of <mask> (English translation)
 Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony (English translation)
 Suetonius: The Life of <mask>. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe)
 Suetonius: The Life of <mask> Caesar (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified)

Secondary sources

External links

 Guide to online resources
 History of <mask>
 <mask> at BBC History
 Grey, D. The Assassination of Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009. Caesar: Courage and Charisma

100 BC births
44 BC deaths
1st-century BC historians
1st-century BC Roman augurs
1st-century BC Roman consuls
1st-century BC rulers
1st-century BC writers
Ancient Roman dictators
Ancient Roman generals
Ancient Roman writers
Assassinated heads of state
Assassinated military personnel
Assassinated Roman politicians
Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid
Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth
Cleopatra
Correspondents of Cicero
Curule aediles
Deaths by stabbing in Rome
Deified Roman people
First Triumvirate
Flamines Dialis
Golden Age Latin writers
Gaius
Latin-language writers
Male murder victims
Memoirists
People captured by pirates
Pontifices maximi of the Roman Republic
Populares
Roman governors of Hispania
Roman military writers
Roman Republican praetors
Roman

masks:
Caesar
Caesar
Augustus Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar Octavia
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar Augustus
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Julius
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Gaius Julius
Caesar
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Gaius Julius
Caesar Octnus
Caesar
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Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesarion
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Caesar
Gaius Julius
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Julius
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar


title: Tucker Gougelmann

texts:
<mask>n (January 24, 1917 – June 23, 1975) was a United States Marine Corps colonel, World War II veteran, and a Central Intelligence Agency officer in their Special Activities Division who died in Vietnam in 1975. World War II and entry into the CIA
During the war he served in the Pacific, participating in battles such as Guadalcanal. During the Solomon Islands campaign he suffered a severe wound as the result of being shot in the right leg by a Japanese sniper while he was helping to move his fellow soldiers who were wounded out of danger. Although the military doctors told him that his leg would have to be amputated as part of his treatment, Gougelmann was intent on returning to service and therefore refused to give his permission for the doctors to proceed with the amputation. He wound up keeping his leg but as a result his convalescence lasted for two years. During this time he was decorated with a Purple Heart in recognition of his having sustained the injury in combat. By the time he had recovered and was returned to active duty the war was drawing to a close.Regardless, Gougelmann remained in the Corps until his honorable discharge in 1949. Wanting to continue in service to his country, Gougelmann joined the then nascent Central Intelligence Agency, which had been created from the embattled Central Intelligence Group ("CIG") following the National Security Act of 1947 which Truman had signed into law only two years earlier. Although the CIG had a record of difficulty with attracting "the best and the brightest," the newly formed CIA had no such difficulties in its early years. It was in fact a magnet for many of the nation's privileged youth who were recent graduates of top educational institutions, such as Ivy League universities. It was viewed as presenting a unique set of challenges, interesting work, and the opportunity to serve the country at the beginning of the Cold War. Cold War service
Gougelmann's first assignment was to Korea during the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. There he participated in covert operations, including helping agents to infiltrate the North.His experience in covert operations was subsequently put to use in the CIA's attempts to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba during the mid/late 1950s and early 1960s. Gougelmann may have been involved in the botched Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961, although this is not confirmed. Following the CIA's failed attempts to remove Castro from power, and the public relations problems that it caused for the Kennedy Administration, the CIA's role with respect to Cuba was severely curtailed as the Cold War's active theater moved from Cuba back to other parts of the world, including Southeast Asia. Gougelmann's assignments during that time took him to Afghanistan as well as various locations in Europe. Vietnam
In 1962 Gougelmann was assigned to South Vietnam. He continued to specialize in covert paramilitary operations work, coordinating Nasty boat raids against the North using Taiwanese nationals posing as civilians as part of Operation 34A. Following the conclusion of the raiding program, Gougelmann was assigned to the CIA's Saigon Station where his knowledge of covert operations methods was put to use in the domestic counter-intelligence work of a local governmental entity.Being settled in a location for the first time in a long while, Gougelmann began a family life there with a local woman. Gougelmann retired from the CIA in 1972 and had departed South Vietnam before the Fall of Saigon and was living in Bangkok, Thailand as a civilian. When his family could not be evacuated from Saigon prior to the impending North Vietnamese victory, he returned on his own. Once there, he established contact with his family, but had difficulty finding a way to get them out of the country. In the environment of that time, his continued presence was very unsafe, as an American CIA Officer would be a prime catch for the triumphant North Vietnamese. Although he tried his best to hide, including stuffing himself into an alcove behind a refrigerator, he was eventually found during a search conducted by the police on the advice of a local Vietnamese on March 29, 1975. Capture, interrogation and torture
Gougelmann was immediately taken into custody and kept in the main prison of the area, Chí Hòa Prison.A French reporter had witnessed his arrest and he was reportedly seen by Vietnamese prisoners in Wing ED, where he was being kept. The Vietnamese government denied that they were holding him, despite being presented with evidence to the contrary. Details of his imprisonment are limited and unconfirmed, and his treatment by the Vietnamese during his captivity is based on examination of the evidence after the fact. He was removed from the prison several times to be taken for interrogation, and government officials believe he was tortured during this time. The Vietnamese government continued to deny that they were holding Gougelmann for the remainder of 1975 and 1976, but in 1977 they released his remains to U.S. authorities. Postmortem examination by U.S. government officials indicated that Gougelmann was tortured during his captivity, as evidenced primarily by a very large number of broken bones which appeared to have been broken and re-broken after healing. According to Bien Hoa CIA spymaster Orrin DeForrest in his book Slow Burn: The Rise and Bitter Fall of American Intelligence in Vietnam, Gougelmann had been retired and living in Saigon since 1973 with his Vietnamese wife.DeForrest stated:

After death
Before leaving Bangkok for Vietnam, Gougelmann asked a friend to try to get his family, including his youngest son, Edward who was born after Gougelmann's's arrest, out of Vietnam and to America if he ran afoul of the Vietnamese authorities. After contacting American government officials in the CIA, Congress, and other high-ranking government offices, the friend succeeded in obtaining visas which allowed the family to emigrate to the United States. After Gougelmann's remains were returned to the United States, he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. His grave is located next to that of Francis Gary Powers. Though not serving in an official capacity at the time of his arrest in 1975, the CIA decided that Gougelmann's death was a result of the official CIA activity that he had been involved with previously in Vietnam and granted him a star on the CIA Memorial Wall at CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia which commemorates those CIA staff who died in the line of duty. See also

Special Activities Division

References

External links
C.I.A. : Stars on the Wall, a 2002 Discovery Channel documentary on members of the CIA killed while on duty.1917 births
1976 deaths
People of the Central Intelligence Agency
United States Marine Corps officers
Prisoners who died in Vietnamese detention
American people who died in prison custody
American people imprisoned abroad
American torture victims
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
American people of the Korean War
American people of the Vietnam War
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery


title: Didi Kempot

texts:
<mask> (born <mask>; Javanese: ꦝꦶꦝꦶꦏ꧀ꦥꦿꦱꦼꦠꦾ, Dhidhik Prasetyå; 31 December 1966 – 5 May 2020) was an Indonesian singer and songwriter in the campursari style. He wrote some 700 songs, mainly in his native Javanese language. Apart from Indonesia, <mask> was also popular in Suriname and the Netherlands, both of which have significant Javanese diaspora population. Personal life
<mask> was born in Surakarta, Indonesia in 1966. <mask>'s father, Ranto Edi Gudel, was a comedian and singer-songwriter who often performed at the traditional ketoprak tobong theatrical stage. His brother  was also a comedian. According to his brother Eko Gudel, Didi's childhood was full of misbehaviour and often fighting.After dropped out from Junior High School in Surakarta, Didi then moved to his uncle's house in Samarinda but his school seemed not success too. He then returned to his hometown to start busking. Early career
He started working as a street busker in his hometown between 1984 and 1986 before moving to Jakarta. According to him, when he arrived in Jakarta to pursue a career in music, he and eight of his friends slept in a narrow room for Rp15,000 per month. He said that the room is so narrow that they "sometimes could only sleep on their side [because of the lack of space]." The name "Kempot", which is an portmanteau of Kelompok Penyanyi Trotoar (Sidewalk Singer Group), was also coined in Jakarta. Didi said that at the time, they did not earn enough money to save, because every time they earn some amount, the money will be spent on drinks.However, this period was a productive time as he wrote many songs, including "We Cen Yu", "Cidro" (Broken), "Moblong-Moblong" (Perforated), "Lerteler Meneh" (Drunk Again) and "Podo Pintere" (Equally Smart). According to Didi, these songs were popular among fellow buskers, even though he had not yet released them officially. This convinced him to continue pursuing a music career. After busking, Didi usually found time to record songs using blank tapes and tape recorders. When a song had been recorded, Didi handed it directly to various recording studios as a demo. Didi recounted that often the tape only got so far as the security desk. Some of the labels Didi applied for were MSC Plus and Musica Studios.Musica Studios eventually called <mask> because they were interested in his demo tape. <mask> was then assisted by Pompi Suradimansyah, a member of the band No Koes, in arranging music. Slowly but surely, the comedic song "We Cen Yu" which was lined up as a single, became popular with the public, especially in Jakarta. <mask> was offered to make a music video to be aired on TVRI, the only nationwide television channel at that time. This was also his first time to appear on the screen. In 1989, he released the single "Cidro" ("Broken"), which did not immediately become popular at the time. The song's theme did not fit the mainstream comedic, funny songs along the lines of "Jika Bulan Bisa Ngomong" ("If Only the Moon Could Speak") by .Moreover, the campursari style employed by <mask> was not popular in the 1980s; Musica lumped him together with other Javanese pop singers. Concerts in the Netherlands and Suriname
Although "Cidro" had no success in Indonesia at the time of its release, it was a hit in the Netherlands and Suriname, two countries that have a significant Indonesian diaspora, especially those of Javanese descent. <mask> then was invited to hold a concert there. In 1993, <mask> left for the Netherlands. When he arrived in the Netherlands, Didi was surprised that many memorized "Cidro". He returned to the Netherlands in 1996 and also toured Suriname. In the South American country, Didi was even more famous among the many native people and Javanese descendants there.From 1996 to 1998, he recorded 10 albums which were only released in the Netherlands and Suriname, such as Layang Kangen, Trimo Ngalah, and Suket Teki. In total <mask> performed in Netherlands twice and in Suriname 11 times, the latest being the Layang Kangen Tour in 2018 when he received an award from President Dési Bouterse. Success in Indonesia
In the 1990s, Didi released the songs "Sewu Kutho" ("A Thousand Cities") and "Stasiun Balapan" ("Balapan Station"), which became hits in Indonesia. <mask>'s fame in his home country rose after his album Stasiun Balapan (1999) exploded in the market. Print and electronic media began covering <mask>. He paced to various television stations for album promos. The success of the Stasiun Balapan album led Didi to record a second album titled Modal Dengkul.Other albums he released in early 2000s are Tanjung Mas Ninggal Janji, Seketan Ewu, Plong (2000), Ketaman Asmoro (2001), Poko'e Melu (2002), Cucak Rowo (2003), Jambu Alas with Nunung Alvi (2004) and Ono Opo (2005). His popularity briefly waned with the turn of the century, but in the 2010s he regained his prominence especially among younger people. According to music researcher Irfan R. Darajat from Laras Studies of Music in Society, the rise of Didi is part of a recent effort of "hipster-washing" to raise up music that was previously considered "uncool", such as dangdut and qasidah. The rooting, site-specific, exclusivity of Didi's heartbreak songs in Javanese fits with the hipster-washing pattern. However, he added that Didi's rise to mainstream fame should not make him to be seen "[…] weird, cult-like, kitsch or whatever and make Didi’s music seem like something exotic." In April 2020, he streamed a live charity concert from his house and raised a total Rp7.6 billion (~$500,000) to help Indonesians who are affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. He also released a song entitled "Ojo Mudik" ("Don't Go Mudik"), pleading his fans not to go back home during the Eid al-Fitr holiday season to prevent further spread of the coronavirus.Style
Didi worked in a campursari (a Javanese word meaning "mixture of essences") style, producing ballads with influences of pop music and the local styles kroncong and dangdut. The vast majority of his songs are themed around heartbreaks and other sad love stories. Because of this, he earned the nickname "The Godfather of the Broken-Hearted" during his later years. Aldo Sianturi of Billboard Indonesia writes that he is a "genius music conceptor" who are able to express the "depth and bitternes of love" in his lyrics, which are mostly written in Javanese, specifically the low ngoko register which is used as the daily speech by most Javanese speakers. Death
<mask> died of complications from cardiac arrest on 5 May 2020 in Surakarta. He is survived by his wife Yan Vellia and two children. References

External links

1966 births
2020 deaths
20th-century Indonesian male singers
21st-century Indonesian male singers
Campursari
Javanese people
People from Surakarta

masks:
Didi Kempot
Didik Prasetyo
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi
Didi


title: Tadeusz Pełczyński

texts:
<mask> (codenames: Grzegorz, Adam, Wolf, Robak; Warsaw, 14 February 1892 – 3 January 1985, London) was a Polish Army major general (generał brygady), intelligence officer and chief of the General Staff's Section II (the military intelligence section). During World War II, he became chief of staff of the Home Army (ZWZ, Armia Krajowa; July 1941 – October 1944) and its deputy commander (July 1943 – October 1944). Early life and education
<mask> was the son of <mask>, a Sanniki sugar-mill technician, and Maria, née Liczbińska, a teacher, and was a great-grandson of <mask>, a general in the Army of Congress Poland. Pełczyński began school in Łęczyca. In 1905 he participated in a school strike connected with Polish efforts to win independence from the Russian Empire. He continued his schooling in Warsaw at the Gen. Paweł Chrzanowski Gymnasium. In 1911 he began medical studies at Kraków University.As a medical student he was a member of the patriotic-gymnastic Sokół organisation and of the "Zet" Polish Youth Association (Związek Młodzieży Polskiej "Zet"). He completed a military course conducted by Zygmunt Zieliński, a future Polish Army generał broni (lieutenant general). Marriage and family
In 1923 <mask> married Wanda Filipowska, with whom he had a daughter, Maria, and a son, Krzysztof (Christopher, born 1924, who died during the Warsaw Uprising on 17 August 1944, of wounds sustained on 1 August, the first day of the Uprising). World War I

The outbreak of World War I in August 1914 found Pełczyński on vacation near Włocławek. After the area had been occupied by the Germans, he was mobilised by them to work as a medic at a Russian-prisoner-of-war camp. After his release from German service, in June 1915 he joined the Polish Legions. He served as an officer in the 6th Legions Infantry Regiment (6 Pułk Piechoty Legionów) and commanded a platoon and a company.In July 1917, following the Oath Crisis, he was interned at a camp in Beniaminów. In March 1918, after release from internment, he took up work at a social-services agency (Rada Główna Opiekuńcza) while continuing his involvement with "Zet." Interwar period
In November 1918 <mask> was accepted into the Polish Army and placed in command of a company, then a battalion, of the 6th Legions' Infantry Regiment. In March 1920 he was transferred to the Infantry Officer-Cadet School (Szkoła Podchorążych Piechoty) in Warsaw as a company commander, then a battalion commander. From September 1921 to September 1923 he attended the War College (Wyższa Szkoła Wojenna) in Warsaw. After graduating with a General Staff officer's diploma, he returned to the Infantry Officer-Cadet School as a battalion commander. In July 1924 he was posted to the Office of the Inner War Council (Ścisła Rada Wojenna).In May 1927 he began service in the Second Department of Polish General Staff (the intelligence section) as chief of the Information Department (Wydział Ewidencyjny). In January 1929 he was appointed chief of Section II. From March 1932 to September 1935 he commanded the 5th Legions' Infantry Regiment (5 Pułk Piechoty Legionów) in Wilno (it was part of the elite 1st Legions Infantry Division), then returned to again head Section II. As chief of the Second Department of Polish General Staff, Pełczyński, like his predecessor Colonel <mask> Schaetzel and like deputy chief Lt. Col. Józef Englicht, was very supportive of Marshal Józef Piłsudski's Promethean project, aimed at liberating the non-Russian peoples of the Soviet Union. Pełczyński was the longest-serving prewar chief of the Second Department (1929–32, and 1935 – January 1939). In January 1939 he was relieved of this post and placed in command of the 19th Infantry Division (19 Dywizja Piechoty), stationed in Wilno. His tenure as chief of Section II had reportedly been ended by his wife Wanda's political activities against Marshal Edward Śmigły-Rydz and General Felicjan Sławoj-Składkowski.World War II

<mask> may have made his greatest contribution to Allied victory in World War II well before the opening of hostilities, when he proposed giving Polish knowledge of the German Enigma machine to the French and British. According to Colonel Stefan Mayer, "From Gen. <mask>, now resident in Great Britain, I know that... he suggested [to the chief of the Polish General Staff, General Wacław Stachiewicz] that in case of [impending] war the Enigma secret... be used as our Polish contribution to the common... defence and divulged to our future allies. [<mask>] repeated [this] to Col. Józef Smoleński when in [the] first days of January 1939 [Smoleński] replaced [him] as... head of [Section II]. That was the basis of [Lt. Col. Langer]'s instructions... when he... represent[ed] the Polish side at the [Paris] conference... in January 1939 and then in Warsaw in July 1939. The Poles' gift, to their British and French allies, of Enigma decryption at Warsaw on 26 July 1939, just five weeks before the outbreak of the war, came not a moment too soon, as it laid the foundations for later British cryptographic breakthroughs that produced the Ultra intelligence that was a key factor during the war. Former Bletchley Park mathematician-cryptologist Gordon Welchman later wrote:  "Ultra would never have gotten off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military... Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use." After the outbreak of war, from 5 September 1939, Pełczyński commanded a force in the rears of the invading German Wehrmacht.After the conclusion of the September Campaign, he went to Warsaw to take up underground work with the Service for Polish Victory (Służba Zwycięstwu Polski), then with the Union for Armed Resistance (Związek Walki Zbrojnej, or ZWZ) and the Home Army (Armia Krajowa, or AK). From July 1940 to April 1941 he commanded the Lublin ZWZ district. As the local Gestapo were closing in, he returned to Warsaw and accepted the post of chief of staff of ZWZ (July 1941). From July 1943, he was also Home Army deputy commander. In November 1943, he was promoted to major general (generał brygady). He commanded sabotage operations carried out by Kedyw units against the German war machine (including disruption of several rail lines). He took part in the decision to begin the Warsaw uprising.Five weeks into the Warsaw Uprising, on 4 September 1944, Pełczyński was gravely wounded when the PKO savings-bank building on Świętokrzyska Street was bombed, and as a result he could no longer carry on the duties of Home Army chief of staff. After the suppression of the Uprising, <mask> was imprisoned by the Germans at the Langwasser camp, then at Colditz. Later years
Following his liberation by the Allies in 1945, he made his way to London in England. Decorations
Gold Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari
Silver Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari
Cross of Independence
Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Cross of Valor (thrice)
Gold Cross of Merit
Home Army Cross

See also
Biuro Szyfrów
Edmund Charaszkiewicz
Prometheism
List of Poles

Notes

References
 Edmund Charaszkiewicz, Zbiór dokumentów ppłk. Edmunda Charaszkiewicza (A Collection of Documents by Lt. Col. Edmund Charaszkiewicz), opracowanie, wstęp i przypisy (edited, with introduction and notes by) Andrzej Grzywacz, Marcin Kwiecień, Grzegorz Mazur, Kraków, Księgarnia Akademicka, 2000, . Edmund Charaszkiewicz, "Referat o zagadnieniu prometejskim" ("Report on the Promethean Question"), in Zbiór dokumentów ppłk. Edmunda Charaszkiewicza (A Collection of Documents by Lt. Col. Edmund Charaszkiewicz).Andrzej Grzywacz et al., introduction to Zbiór dokumentów ppłk. Edmunda Charaszkiewicza (A Collection of Documents by Lt. Col. Edmund Charaszkiewicz), pp. 5–27. <mask> Kryska-Karski and Stanisław Żurakowski, Generałowie Polski Niepodległej (The Generals of Independnent Poland), 2nd ed., Warsaw, Editions Spotkania, 1991, p. 144. Wojciech Baliński, "Gen. bryg. <mask> <mask> (1892–1985). Przywracani pamięci" ("Major General <mask> Pełczyński (1892–1985)—Restored to Memory"), in Polska Zbrojna (Armed Poland).Waldemar Strzałkowski, "Ci, co wierzyli w Polskę. Powrót prochów generała Pełczyńskiego" ("Those Who Believed in Poland: the Return of General <mask>'s Ashes"), in Polska Zbrojna (Armed Poland), no. 215, 1995. Zbigniew Mierzwiński, Generałowie II Rzeczypospolitej (The Generals of the Second Republic), Warsaw, Wydawnictwo Polonia, 1990,  (83-7021-141-0), pp. 209–213. Lista starszeństwa oficerów Legionów Polskich w dniu oddania Legionów Polskich Wojsku Polskiemu (12 kwietnia 1917) [Seniority List of Officers of the Polish Legions on the Day of the Polish Legions' Transfer to the Polish Army (12 April 1917)], Warsaw, 1917, p. 18. Władysław Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War II, edited and translated by Christopher Kasparek, Frederick, MD, University Publications of America, 1984, .Gordon Welchman, The Hut Six Story:  Breaking the Enigma Codes, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1982. External links
http://www.powstanie-warszawskie-1944.ac.pl/biog_pelczynski.htm

1892 births
1985 deaths
Military personnel from Warsaw
People from Warsaw Governorate
Polish generals
Polish intelligence officers
Association of the Polish Youth "Zet" members
Polish legionnaires (World War I)
Polish people of the Polish–Soviet War
People of the Polish May Coup (pro-Piłsudski side)
Home Army officers
Warsaw Uprising insurgents
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom

masks:
Tadeusz Walenty Pełczyński
Tadeusz Pełczyński
Ksawery Pełczyński
Michał Pełczyński
Pełczyński
Pełczyński
Tadeusz
Pełczyński
Pełczyński
Pełczyński
Pełczyński
Tadeusz
Tadeusz
Pełczyński
Tadeusz
Pełczyński


title: Peter Sellers

texts:
<mask>  (born <mask>; 8 September 1925 – 24 July 1980) was an English actor, comedian and singer. He performed in the BBC Radio comedy series The Goon Show, featured on a number of hit comic songs and became known to a worldwide audience through his many film roles, among them Chief Inspector Clouseau in The Pink Panther series. Born in Southsea, Portsmouth, <mask> made his stage debut at the Kings Theatre, Southsea, when he was two weeks old. He began accompanying his parents in a variety act that toured the provincial theatres. He first worked as a drummer and toured around England as a member of the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA). He developed his mimicry and improvisational skills during a spell in Ralph Reader's wartime Gang Show entertainment troupe, which toured Britain and the Far East. After the war, <mask> made his radio debut in ShowTime, and eventually became a regular performer on various BBC radio shows.During the early 1950s, <mask>, along with Spike Milligan, Harry Secombe and Michael Bentine, took part in the successful radio series The Goon Show, which ended in 1960. <mask> began his film career during the 1950s. Although the bulk of his work was comedic, often parodying characters of authority such as military officers or policemen, he also performed in other film genres and roles. Films demonstrating his artistic range include I'm All Right Jack (1959), Stanley Kubrick's Lolita (1962) and Dr. Strangelove (1964), What's New, Pussycat? (1965), Casino Royale (1967), The Party (1968), Being There (1979) and five films of the Pink Panther series (1963–1978). <mask>'s versatility enabled him to portray a wide range of comic characters using different accents and guises, and he would often assume multiple roles within the same film, frequently with contrasting temperaments and styles. Satire and black humour were major features of many of his films, and his performances had a strong influence on a number of later comedians.<mask> was nominated three times for an Academy Award, twice for the Academy Award for Best Actor, for his performances in Dr. Strangelove and Being There, and once for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film for The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film (1959). He won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role twice, for I'm All Right Jack and for the original Pink Panther film, The Pink Panther (1963) and was nominated as Best Actor three times. In 1980 he won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his role in Being There, and was previously nominated three times in the same category. Turner Classic Movies calls <mask> "one of the most accomplished comic actors of the late 20th century". In his personal life, <mask> struggled with depression and insecurities. An enigmatic figure, he often claimed to have no identity outside the roles that he played. His behaviour was often erratic and compulsive, and he frequently clashed with his directors and co-stars, especially in the mid-1970s when his physical and mental health, together with his alcohol and drug problems, were at their worst.<mask> was married four times and had three children from his first two marriages. He died from a heart attack, aged 54, in 1980. English filmmakers the Boulting brothers described <mask> as "the greatest comic genius this country has produced since Charles Chaplin". Biography

Early life (1925–1935)

<mask> was born on 8 September 1925, in Southsea, a suburb of Portsmouth. His parents were Yorkshire-born William "Bill<mask> and Agnes Doreen "Peg" (née Marks). Both were variety entertainers; Peg was in the Ray Sisters troupe. Although christened Richard Henry, his parents called him <mask>, after his elder brother, who was stillborn.<mask> had no other siblings. Peg <mask> was related to the pugilist Daniel Mendoza (1764–1836), whom <mask> greatly revered, and whose engraving later hung in his office. At one time <mask> planned to use Mendoza's image for his production company's logo. <mask> was two weeks old when he was carried on stage by Dick Henderson, the headline act at the Kings Theatre in Southsea: the crowd sang "For He's a Jolly Good Fellow", which caused the infant to cry. The family constantly toured, causing much upheaval and unhappiness in the young <mask>'s life. <mask> maintained a very close relationship with his mother, which his friend Spike Milligan later considered unhealthy for a grown man. <mask>'s agent, Dennis Selinger, recalled his first meeting with Peg and <mask>, noting that "Sellers was an immensely shy young man, inclined to be dominated by his mother, but without resentment or objection".As an only child though, he spent much time alone. In 1935 the <mask> family moved to North London and settled in Muswell Hill. Although <mask> was Protestant and Peg was Jewish, <mask> attended the North London Roman Catholic school St Aloysius' College, run by the Brothers of Our Lady of Mercy. The family was not rich, but Peg insisted on an expensive private schooling for her son. According to biographer <mask>, <mask> was fascinated, puzzled, and worried by religion from a young age, particularly Catholicism; Roger Lewis believed that soon after entering Catholic school, <mask> "discovered he was a Jew—he was someone on the outside of the mysteries of faith". Later in his life, <mask> observed that while his father's faith was according to the Church of England, his mother was Jewish, "and Jews take the faith of their mother." According to Milligan, <mask> held a guilt complex about being Jewish and recalls that Sellers was once reduced to tears when he presented him with a candlestick from a synagogue for Christmas, believing the gesture to be an anti-Jewish slur.<mask> became a top student at the school, excelling in drawing in particular. He was prone to laziness, but his natural talents shielded him from criticism by his teachers. <mask> recalled that a teacher scolded the other boys for not studying, saying: "The Jewish boy knows his catechism better than the rest of you!" Early performances (1935–1939)
Accompanying his family on the variety show circuit, <mask> learned stagecraft, but received conflicting encouragement from his parents and developed mixed feelings about show business. His father doubted <mask>'s abilities in the entertainment field, even suggesting that his son's talents were only enough to become a road sweeper, while <mask>'s mother encouraged him continuously. While at St Aloysius College, <mask> began to develop his improvisational skills. He and his closest friend at the time, Bryan Connon, both enjoyed listening to early radio comedy shows.Connon remembers that "<mask> got endless pleasure imitating the people in Monday Night at Eight. He had a gift for improvising dialogue. Sketches, too. I'd be the 'straight man', the 'feed', ... I'd cue <mask> and he'd do all the radio personalities and chuck in a few voices of his own invention as well." Second World War (1939–1945)
With the outbreak of the Second World War, St. Aloysius College was evacuated to Cambridgeshire. Because his mother did not allow Sellers to go, his formal education ended at fourteen.Early in 1940, the family moved to the north Devon town of Ilfracombe, where <mask>'s maternal uncle managed the Victoria Palace Theatre; <mask> got his first job at the theatre, aged fifteen, starting as a caretaker. He was steadily promoted, becoming a box office clerk, usher, assistant stage manager and lighting operator. He was also offered some small acting parts. Working backstage gave him a chance to study actors such as Paul Scofield. He became close friends with Derek Altman, and together they launched <mask>'s first stage act under the name "Altman and Sellers", consisting of playing ukuleles, singing, and telling jokes. During his backstage theatre job, <mask> began practising on a set of drums that belonged to the band Joe Daniels and his Hot Shots. Daniels noticed his efforts and gave him practical instructions.The instrument greatly suited <mask>'s temperament and artistic skills. Spike Milligan later noted that <mask> was very proficient on the drums and might have remained a jazz drummer, had he lacked his skills in mimicry and improvisation. As the war progressed, <mask> continued to develop his drumming skills, and played with a series of touring bands, including those of Oscar Rabin, Henry Hall and Waldini, as well as his father's quartet, before he left and joined a band from Blackpool. <mask> became a member of the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA), which provided entertainment for British forces and factory workers during the war. <mask> also performed comedy routines at these concerts, including impersonations of George Formby, with <mask> accompanying his own singing on ukulele. In September 1943, he joined the Royal Air Force, although it is unclear whether he volunteered or was conscripted; his mother unsuccessfully tried to have him deferred on medical grounds. <mask> wanted to become a pilot, but his poor eyesight restricted him to ground staff duties.He found these duties dull, so auditioned for Squadron Leader Ralph Reader's RAF Gang Show entertainment troupe: Reader accepted him and <mask> toured the UK before the troupe was transferred to India. His tour also included Ceylon and Burma, although the duration of his stay in Asia is unknown, and <mask> may have exaggerated its length. He also served in Germany and France after the war. According to David Lodge, who became friends with <mask>, he was "one of the best performers ever" on the drums and developed a fine ability to impersonate military officers during this period. Early post-war career and The Goon Show (1946–1955)
In 1946, <mask> made his final show with ENSA starring in the pantomime Jack and the Beanstalk at the Théâtre Marigny in Paris. He was posted back to England shortly afterwards to work at the Air Ministry, and demobilised later that year. On resuming his theatrical career, <mask> could get only sporadic work.He was fired after one performance of a comedy routine in Peterborough; the headline act, Welsh vocalist Dorothy Squires, however, persuaded the management to reinstate him. <mask> also continued his drumming and was billed on his appearance at The Hippodrome in Aldershot as "Britain's answer to Gene Krupa". In March 1948 <mask> gained a six-week run at the Windmill Theatre in London, which predominantly staged revue acts: he provided the comedy turns in between the nude shows on offer. <mask> wrote to the BBC in 1948, and was subsequently auditioned. As a result, he made his television debut on 18 March 1948 in New To You. His act, largely based on impressions, was well received, and he returned the following week. Frustrated with the slow pace of his career, <mask> telephoned BBC radio producer Roy Speer, pretending to be Kenneth Horne, star of the radio show Much-Binding-in-the-Marsh.Speer called <mask> a "cheeky young sod" for his efforts, but gave him an audition. This led to his brief appearance on 1 July 1948 on ShowTime and subsequently to work on Ray's a Laugh with comedian Ted Ray. In October 1948, <mask> was a regular radio performer, appearing in Starlight Hour, The Gang Show, Henry Hall's Guest Night and It's Fine To Be Young. By the end of 1948, the BBC Third Programme began to broadcast the comedy series Third Division, which starred, among others, Harry Secombe, Michael Bentine and <mask>. One evening, <mask> and Bentine visited the Hackney Empire, where Secombe was performing, and Bentine introduced <mask> to Spike Milligan. The four would meet up at Grafton's public house near Victoria, owned by Jimmy Grafton, who was also a BBC script writer. The four comedians dubbed him KOGVOS (Keeper of Goons and Voice of Sanity) Grafton later edited some of the first Goon Shows.In 1949, <mask> started to date Anne Howe, an Australian actress who lived in London. He proposed to her in April 1950 and the couple were married in London on 15 September 1951; their son, Michael, was born on 2 April 1954, and their daughter, Sarah, followed in 1958. <mask>'s introduction to film work came in 1950, where he dubbed the voice of Alfonso Bedoya in The Black Rose. He continued to work with Bentine, Milligan, and Secombe. On 3 February 1951, he made a trial tape entitled The Goons, and sent it to the BBC producer Pat Dixon, who eventually accepted it. The first Goon Show was broadcast on 28 May 1951. Against their wishes, they appeared under the name Crazy People.<mask> appeared in The Goons until the last programme of the ten-series run, broadcast on 28 January 1960. <mask> played four main characters—Major Bloodnok, Hercules Grytpype-Thynne, Bluebottle and Henry Crun—and seventeen minor ones. Starting with 370,000 listeners, the show eventually reached up to seven million people in Britain, and was described by one newspaper as "probably the most influential comedy show of all time". For <mask>, the BBC considers it had the effect of launching his career "on the road to stardom". In 1951 the Goons made their feature film debut in Penny Points to Paradise. <mask> and Milligan then penned the script to Let's Go Crazy, the earliest film to showcase <mask>'s ability to portray a series of different characters within the same film, and he made another appearance opposite his Goons co-stars in the 1952 flop, Down Among the Z Men. In 1954, <mask> was cast opposite Sid James, Tony Hancock, Raymond Huntley, Donald Pleasence and Eric Sykes in the British Lion Film Corporation comedy production, Orders Are Orders.John Grierson believes that this was <mask>'s breakthrough role on screen and credits this film with launching the film careers of both <mask> and Hancock. I'm All Right Jack and early years in film (1956–1959)

<mask> pursued a film career and took a number of small roles such as a police officer in John and Julie (1955). He accepted a larger part in the 1955 Alexander Mackendrick-directed Ealing comedy The Ladykillers in which he starred opposite his idol Alec Guinness, in addition to Herbert Lom and Cecil Parker. <mask> portrayed Harry Robinson, the Teddy Boy; biographer <mask> considers this <mask>'s first good role. The Ladykillers was a success in both the UK and the US, and the film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The following year <mask> appeared in a further three television series based on The Goons: The Idiot Weekly, Price 2d; A Show Called Fred; and Son of Fred. The shows aired on Britain's new ITV channel.In 1957 film producer Michael Relph, impressed with <mask>'s portrayal of an elderly character in Idiot Weekly, cast the 32-year-old actor as a 68-year-old projectionist in Basil Dearden's The Smallest Show on Earth, supporting Bill Travers, Virginia McKenna and Margaret Rutherford. The film was a commercial success and is now thought of as a minor classic of post-war British screen comedy. Following this, <mask> provided the growling voice of Winston Churchill to the BAFTA award-winning film The Man Who Never Was. Later in 1957 <mask> portrayed a television star with a

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title: Peter Sellers

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 talent for disguises in Mario Zampi's offbeat black comedy The Naked Truth, opposite Terry-Thomas, Peggy Mount, Shirley Eaton and Dennis Price. <mask>'s difficulties in getting his film career to take off, and increasing problems in his personal life, prompted him to seek periodic consultations with astrologer Maurice Woodruff, who held considerable sway over his later career. After a chance meeting with a North American Indian spirit guide in the 1950s, <mask> became convinced that the music hall comedian Dan Leno, who died in 1904, haunted him and guided his career and life-decisions. <mask> was a member of the Grand Order of Water Rats, the same exclusive theatrical fraternity founded by Leno in 1890.In 1958 <mask> starred with David Tomlinson, Wilfrid Hyde-White, David Lodge and Lionel Jeffries as a chief petty officer in Val Guest's Up the Creek. Guest later claimed that he had written and directed the film as a vehicle for <mask>, and thus had started <mask>'s film career. To practise his voice, <mask> purchased a reel-to-reel tape recorder. The film received critical acclaim in the United States and Roger Lewis viewed it as an important practice ground for <mask>. Next, <mask> featured with Terry-Thomas as one of a pair of comic villains in George Pal's Tom Thumb (1958), a musical fantasy film, opposite Russ Tamblyn, Jessie Matthews and <mask>. Terry-Thomas later said that "my part was perfect, but <mask>'s was bloody awful. He wasn't difficult about it, but he knew it".The performance was a landmark in <mask>'s career and became his first contact with the Hollywood film industry. <mask> released his first studio album in 1958 called The Best of Sellers; a collection of comic songs and sketches, including Balham, Gateway to the South, where he plays a variety of comic characters. Produced by George Martin and released on Parlophone, the album reached number three in the UK Albums Chart; The same year, <mask> made his first film with John and Roy Boulting in Carlton-Browne of the F.O., a comedy in which he played a supporting role for the film's lead, Terry-Thomas. Before the release of that film, the Boultings, along with <mask> and Thomas in the cast, started filming I'm All Right Jack, which became the highest-grossing film at the British box office in 1960. In preparation for his role as Fred Kite, <mask> watched footage of union officials. The role earned him a BAFTA, and the critic for The Manchester Guardian believed it was <mask>'s best screen performance to date. In between Carlton-Browne of the F.O.and I'm All Right Jack, <mask> starred in The Mouse That Roared, a film in which Jean Seberg also appeared, and was directed by Jack Arnold. He played three distinct leading roles: the elderly Grand Duchess, the ambitious Prime Minister and the innocent and clumsy farm boy selected to lead an invasion of the United States. The film received high praise from critics. After completing I'm All Right Jack, <mask> returned to record a new series of The Goon Show. Over the course of two weekends, he took his 16mm cine-camera to Totteridge Lane in London and filmed himself, Spike Milligan, Mario Fabrizi, Leo McKern and Richard Lester. Originally intended as a private film, the eleven-minute short film The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film was screened at the 1959 Edinburgh and San Francisco film festivals. It won the award for best fiction short in the latter festival, and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Short Subject (Live Action).In 1959 <mask> released his second album, Songs For Swinging Sellers, which—like his first record—reached number three in the UK Albums Chart. <mask>'s last film of the fifties was The Battle of the Sexes; a comedy directed by Charles Crichton. The Millionairess, Lolita, The Pink Panther and divorce (1960–1963)
In 1960 <mask> portrayed an Indian doctor, Dr Ahmed el Kabir, in Anthony Asquith's romantic comedy The Millionairess, a film based on a George Bernard Shaw play of the same name. <mask> was not interested in the role until he learned that Sophia Loren would be his co-star. When asked about Loren, he explained to reporters, "I don't normally act with romantic, glamorous women ... She's a lot different from Harry Secombe." <mask> and Loren developed a close relationship during filming, culminating in <mask> declaring his love for her in front of his wife. <mask> also woke his son at night to ask: "Do you think I should divorce your mummy?"There is uncertainty if the relationship was anything more than platonic: a number of people, including Spike Milligan, consider it an affair, while others, including Graham Stark, think it remained only a strong friendship. <mask>'s wife at the time, Anne, afterwards commented, "I don't know to this day whether he had an affair with her. Nobody does." Roger Lewis observed that <mask> immersed himself completely in the characters he enacted during productions, that "He'd play a role as an Indian doctor, and for the next six months, he'd be an Indian in his real [daily] life." The film inspired the George Martin-produced novelty hit single "Goodness Gracious Me", with <mask> and Loren, which reached number four in the UK Singles Chart in November 1960. A follow-up single by the duo, "Bangers and Mash", reached number 22 in the UK chart. The songs were included on an album released by the couple, Peter & Sophia, which reached number five in the UK Albums Chart.That year he also appeared in Never Let Go (1960) playing a straight villain part. In 1961 <mask> made his directorial debut with Mr. Topaze, in which he also starred. The film was based on the Marcel Pagnol play Topaze. <mask> portrayed an ex-schoolmaster in a small French town who turns to a life of crime to obtain wealth. The film and <mask>'s directorial abilities received unenthusiastic responses from the public and critics, and <mask> rarely referred to it again. The same year, he starred in the Sidney Gilliat-directed Only Two Can Play, a film based on the novel That Uncertain Feeling by Kingsley Amis. He was nominated for the Best British Actor award at the 16th British Academy Film Awards for his role as John Lewis, a frustrated Welsh librarian whose affections swing between the glamorous Liz (Mai Zetterling) and his long-suffering wife Jean (Virginia Maskell).In 1962 <mask> played a retired British army general in John Guillermin's Waltz of the Toreadors, based on the play of the same name. The film was widely criticised for its slapstick cinematic adaption, and director Guillermin himself considered the film "amateurish". However, <mask> won the San Sebastián International Film Festival Award for Best Actor and a BAFTA award nomination for his performance, and it was well received by the critics. Stanley Kubrick asked <mask> to play the role of Clare Quilty in the 1962 film Lolita, opposite James Mason and Shelley Winters. Kubrick had seen <mask> in The Battle of the Sexes and listened to the album The Best of Sellers, and was impressed by the range of characters he could portray. <mask> was apprehensive about accepting the role, doubting his ability to successfully portray the part of a flamboyant American television playwright who was according to <mask> "a fantastic nightmare, part homosexual, part drug addict, part sadist". Kubrick encouraged <mask> to improvise and stated that he often reached a "state of comic ecstasy".Kubrick had American jazz producer Norman Granz record portions of the script for <mask> to listen to, so he could study the voice and develop confidence, granting <mask> a free artistic licence. <mask> later claimed that his relationship with Kubrick became one of the most rewarding of his career. Writing in The Sunday Times, Dilys Powell commented that <mask> gave "a firework performance, funny, malicious, only once for a few seconds overreaching itself, and in the murder scene which is both prologue and epilogue achieving the macabre in comedy". Towards the end of 1962, <mask> appeared in The Dock Brief, a legal satire directed by James Hill and co-starring Richard Attenborough. <mask>'s behaviour towards his family worsened in 1962; according to his son Michael, <mask> asked him and his sister Sarah "who we love more, our mother or him. Sarah, to keep the peace, said, 'I love you both equally'. I said, 'No, I love my mum.'"This prompted <mask> to throw both children out, saying that he never wanted to see them again. At the end of 1962, his marriage to Anne broke down. In 1963, <mask> starred as gang leader "Pearly Gates" in Cliff Owen's The Wrong Arm of the Law, followed by his portrayal of a vicar in Heavens Above! After his father's death in October 1962, <mask> decided to leave England and was approached by director Blake Edwards who offered him the role of Inspector Clouseau in The Pink Panther, after <mask>v had backed out of the film. Edwards later recalled his feelings as "desperately unhappy and ready to kill, but as fate would have it, I got Mr. <mask> instead of Mr. Ustinov—thank God!" <mask> accepted a fee of £90,000 (£ in  pounds) for five weeks' work on location in Rome and Cortina.The film starred David Niven in the principal role, with two other actors—Capucine and Claudia Cardinale—having more prominent roles than <mask>. However, <mask>'s performance is regarded as being on par with that of Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, according to biographer <mask>. Although the Clouseau character was in the script, <mask> created the personality, devising the costume, accent, make-up, moustache and trench coat. The Pink Panther was released in the UK in January 1964 and received a mixed reception from the critics, although Penelope Gilliatt, writing in The Observer, remarked that <mask> had a "flawless sense of mistiming" in a performance that was "one of the most delicate studies in accident-proneness since the silents". Despite the views of the critics, the film was one of the top ten grossing films of the year. The role earned <mask> a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy at the 22nd Golden Globe Awards, and for a Best British Actor award at the 18th British Academy Film Awards. Dr. Strangelove, health problems, a second marriage and Casino Royale (1964–1969)

In 1963, Stanley Kubrick cast <mask> to appear in Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb alongside George C. Scott, Sterling Hayden, Keenan Wynn and Slim Pickens.<mask> and Kubrick got along famously during the film's production and had the greatest of respect for each other, also sharing a love of photography. The director asked <mask> to play three roles: US President Merkin Muffley, Dr. Strangelove and Group Captain Lionel Mandrake of the RAF. <mask> was initially hesitant about taking on these divergent characters, but Kubrick prevailed. According to some accounts, <mask> was also invited to play the part of General Buck Turgidson, but turned it down because it was too physically demanding. Kubrick later commented that the idea of having <mask> in so many of the film's key roles was that "everywhere you turn there is some version of <mask> holding the fate of the world in his hands". <mask> was especially anxious about successfully enacting the role of Kong and accurately affecting a Texan accent. Kubrick requested screenwriter Terry Southern to record in his natural accent a tape of Kong's lines.After practising with Southern's recording, <mask> got sufficient control of the accent, and started shooting the scenes in the aeroplane. After the first day's shooting, <mask> sprained his ankle while leaving a restaurant and could no longer work in the cramped cockpit set. Kubrick then re-cast Slim Pickens as Kong. The three roles <mask> undertook were distinct, "variegated, complex and refined", and critic Alexander Walker considered that these roles "showed his genius at full stretch". <mask> played Muffley as a bland, placid intellectual in the mould of Adlai Stevenson; he played Mandrake as an unflappable Englishman; and Dr. Strangelove, a character influenced by pre-war German cinema, as a wheelchair-using fanatic. The critic for The Times wrote that the film includes, "three remarkable performances from Mr. <mask>, masterly as the President, diverting as a revue-sketch ex-Nazi US Scientist ... and acceptable as an RAF officer," although the critic from The Guardian thought his portrayal of the RAF officer alone was, "worth the price of an admission ticket". For his performance in all three roles, <mask> was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor at the 37th Academy Awards, and the Best British Actor award at the 18th British Academy Film Awards.Between November 1963 and February 1964, <mask> began filming A Shot in the Dark, an adaptation of a French play, L'Idiote by Marcel Achard. <mask> found the part and the director, Anatole Litvak, uninspiring; the producers brought in Blake Edwards to replace Litvak. Together with writer <mask> Blatty, they turned the script into a Clouseau comedy, also adding Herbert Lom as Commissioner Dreyfus and Burt Kwouk as Cato. During filming, <mask>'s relationship with Edwards became strained; the two would often stop speaking to each other during filming, communicating only by the passing of notes. <mask>'s personality was described by others as difficult and demanding, and he often clashed with fellow actors and directors. Upon its release in late June 1964, Bosley Crowther noted the "joyously free and facile way" in which <mask> had developed his comedy technique. Towards the end of filming, in early February 1964, <mask> met Britt Ekland, a Swedish actress who had arrived in London to film Guns at Batasi.On 19 February 1964, just ten days after their first meeting, the couple married. <mask> soon showed signs of insecurity and paranoia; he would become highly anxious and jealous, for example, when Ekland starred opposite attractive men. Shortly after the wedding, <mask> started filming on location in Twentynine Palms, California for Billy Wilder's Kiss Me, Stupid, opposite Dean Martin and Kim Novak. The relationship between Wilder and <mask> became strained; both had different approaches to work and often clashed as a result. On the night of 5 April 1964, prior to having sex with Ekland, <mask> inhaled amyl nitrites (poppers) as a sexual stimulant in his search for "the ultimate orgasm", and suffered a series of eight heart attacks over the course of three hours as a result. His illness forced him to withdraw from the filming of Kiss Me, Stupid and he was replaced by Ray Walston. Wilder was unsympathetic about the heart attacks, saying that "you have to have a heart before you can have an attack".After some time recovering, <mask> returned to filming in October 1964, playing King of the Individualists alongside Ekland in A Carol for Another Christmas, a feature-length United Nations special broadcast in the United States on the ABC channel on 28 December 1964. <mask> had been concerned that his heart attacks might have caused brain damage and that he would be unable to remember his lines, but he was reassured that his memory and abilities

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