title: Kingsley Fairbridge

texts:
<mask> (5 May 1885 – 19 July 1924) was the founder of a child emigration scheme from Britain to its colonies and the Fairbridge Schools. His life work was the founding of the "Society for the Furtherance of Child Emigration to the Colonies", which was afterwards incorporated as the "Child Emigration Society" and ultimately the "Fairbridge Society". Early life
<mask> was born in Grahamstown, South Africa, and educated at St. Andrew's College, Grahamstown, until the age of 11, when the family moved to Rhodesia. His father was a surveyor in Umtali (the present day Mutare, Zimbabwe) He had no further schooling until he prepared to enter Oxford University in 1908 at the age of 23. At the age of 13 he became a clerk in the Standard Bank of South Africa at Umtali, and two years later, tried to enlist for the Boer War, failing because of malaria, which he had contracted in Mashonaland. <mask> then took up market gardening and early in 1903 visited his grandmother in England for about 12 months. The visit deeply affected him, as he observed the contrast of malnourished and impoverished children living in the London slums with the under-populated open spaces of Rhodesia.On his return to Africa, <mask> worked for two and a half years for a Mr. Freeman who was recruiting locals to work in gold mines near Johannesburg. During this time <mask> started developing the idea of a scheme to bring poor children from London to South Africa where they could be trained as farmers. <mask> applied to the Rhodes trustees for a scholarship, feeling that once in England he would find ways of developing his scheme. He was informed by the Rhodes trustees that if he passed the Oxford entrance examination his application would be favourably considered, and in 1906, he went to England to be privately coached. After his fourth attempt, he succeeded in passing the required examination. In October 1908, <mask> entered Exeter College, Oxford, with a Rhodes Scholarship. While at Oxford, <mask> was awarded a University blue in boxing.In 1909, he published an anthology of poetry entitled Veld Verse and Other Lines. He began to write on child emigration until he was advised by a friend that speaking would be more effective. <mask> was rebuffed by the British South Africa Company, which informed him that they considered Rhodesia too young a country in which to start child emigration. The Premier of Newfoundland, however, provided support for the concept. On 19 October 1909, <mask> addressed a meeting of 49 fellow undergraduates at the Colonial Club at Oxford, and at the end of the meeting a motion was carried that those present should form themselves into a society for the furtherance of child emigration to the colonies. They formed the "Society for the Furtherance of Child Emigration to the Colonies", which later became the Fairbridge Society. The next two years were spent trying to interest people in the project and raising funds.He obtained a diploma in forestry in 1911. While studying at Oxford, <mask> began writing a book on his educational theories. <mask>'s plan was to provide children training in agriculture (for boys) and domestic service (for girls) before putting them out to service. Western Australia
In March 1912, the Fairbridges sailed for Western Australia aboard the Afric, arriving at Albany on 15 April 1912 with capital of £2000. After several months of searching for suitable properties around Albany, Denmark and the Warren River near Manjimup, a property of  was located and purchased near Pinjarra about  south of Perth, with the Western Australian government agreeing to pay £6 for each child towards the cost of the passage money. After several months of frantic clearing of the run-down property, as well as building basic accommodation (mainly tents) for the expected arrivals, the first party of 13 boys, aged between 7 and 13, arrived on board the Australind at Fremantle in January 1913. In July, they were followed by a second party of 22 boys.They endured hardship over the first few years but fell into financial difficulties during World War I until the government provided a grant that tided the school over the war period. At the 1917 state election in Western Australia, <mask> stood for the Country Party in the seat of Murray-Wellington. He was defeated by the sitting member, William George of the Nationalist Party. In August 1919, <mask> went to England on the Ormonde and managed to raise a sum of £27,000 for the development of the school. The British Government's Overseas Settlement Committee provided £20,000 on condition that the Western Australian Government continued its grant of 6 shillings per week per child. A larger property of  of uncleared land was purchased north of Pinjarra and new buildings, including cottages to house the children, a dining hall, a house for his own family, and farm buildings, were erected. Assistance from the Australian Government was also provided.Legacy
The school continued under a principal. At the time of his death, 200 children were at the school, and enrolment gradually reached a peak of 400. After his death six other schools were established by the Child Emigration Society, including the Prince of Wales Fairbridge Farm School at Cowichan Station, near Duncan on Vancouver Island, Canada, in 1935, as well as schools in Australia at Bacchus Marsh, Victoria, Molong, New South Wales (1937), and Drapers Hall, in the Adelaide Hills, South Australia (1962–1981). Towards the end of the Second World War, many Dutch children from Indonesia and Singapore moved to the Pinjarra school, after having been interned in Japanese prisoner-of-war camps. By the 1970s, however, only the original school at Pinjarra survived, a result of reduced demand through improved economic and social conditions in Britain and changed laws that had reduced the flow of unaccompanied children. During World War II, a ship carrying child emigrants from England to Canada had been torpedoed with large loss of life, and this in part had caused the British Government to start bringing the practice to an end. The society then moved to provide Fairbridge Scholarships for British students to attend universities throughout the Commonwealth.With the establishment of the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (UCRN) in 1957, the Kingsley Fairbridge Trust set up a bursary fund to provide finance for suitably qualified students to attend the college. In 1958 three British students were awarded bursaries, and thereafter the number was increased to four per year. This continued until 1965 when Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) declared independence and the scheme terminated. In 1981, the Pinjarra school closed. 1,195 children had come to Pinjarra and were housed and educated under the scheme between 1913 and 1981. The "Kingsley Fairbridge Child Development Unit" was established in Adelaide at the Women's and Children's Hospital in 1981. As well as his autobiography (published posthumously in 1927) and his anthology of poetry, <mask> wrote an unpublished novel called The Afrikander."Redress WA" was a scheme established in 2008 to financially compensate children abused in State care, and applications for ex-gratia payments under the scheme closed in 2010. Payments of more than $1.1 million were made to 205 child migrants who went to Fairbridge Farm School between 1930 and 1981. The suburb of Fairbridge Park in Mutare is named after him. Personal life

Fairbridge's great-grandfather was a member of the Children's Friend Society in 1833. This organisation oversaw a scheme to bring children to South Africa. In December 1911, <mask> married a former nurse, Ruby Ethel Whitmore, who had been encouraging and helping him for some time. <mask> knew and greatly admired Cecil Rhodes, and named his eldest son Rhodes.<mask> (1914–2006) was an eminent geologist and climate scientist. <mask> suffered considerably from malaria, sciatica and lumbago and in the last few years of his life endured pain and general ill-health. He died at the age of 39 on 19 July 1924 in Perth, while recuperating from a minor operation related to a lymphatic tumour. He was buried at Pinjarra and survived by his wife Ruby (d. 1966) and their two sons and two daughters. See also
 Margaret Humphreys

Notes and references

External links
A history of Fairbridge Farm and Kingsley Fairbridge
Website of the Child Migrants Trust
"Key milestones of the Child Migrants Trust", House of Commons

1885 births
1924 deaths
People from Makhanda, Eastern Cape
South African people of British descent
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
History of Western Australia
Education in Western Australia
Alumni of St. Andrew's College, Grahamstown
Deaths from cancer in Western Australia
South African Rhodes Scholars
National Party of Australia politicians
South African emigrants to Australia

masks:
Kingsley Ogilvie Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Fairbridge
Rhodes Fairbridge
Fairbridge


title: Lous and the Yakuza

type: original

texts:
Marie-Pierra Kakoma (; born 27 May 1996), known professionally as <mask> and the Yakuza, is a Congolese-Belgian singer, rapper, songwriter, model, and artist. She rose to prominence after the release of her debut single "Dilemme" in September 2019, which was followed by "Tout est gore" in December 2019 and "Solo" in March 2020. Her debut album, Gore, produced by El Guincho, was released on 16 October 2020. Early life
Lous was born Marie-Pierra Kakoma in Lubumbashi, Zaire (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) on May 27, 1996. Her parents were prominent doctors in the Democratic Republic of the Congo at the time of her birth. Her Congolese father was a gynecologist, and her Rwandan mother was a pediatrician. Kakoma's mother was imprisoned in the Congo for two months during the Second Congo War in 1998 due to her ethnicity.After her father secured her mother's release, she fled to Belgium with one of Kakoma's sisters. Kakoma and the rest of her siblings joined their mother in Belgium two years later in 2000, while their father remained in the Congo. The family relocated to Rwanda in 2005 before permanently returning to Brussels in 2011. Kakoma's interest in music began at a young age while she was surrounded by music due to her father's interest in the European classical works of Mozart, Chopin, Vivaldi, and Beethoven. She began writing her own music at the age of seven. Upon her family's relocation to Belgium at the age of 15, she began writing letters to Columbia Records in the hopes of being signed to the label. At the age of eighteen, Kakoma was disinherited by her parents for wanting to be a singer, rather than a doctor, and at the age of nineteen, she was kicked out of her home.In the period of homelessness that followed, she lived on the streets for several months before settling in a music studio, where she would sleep and record music, while commuting back and forth between a variety of service jobs. Over three years, Kakoma recorded 52 songs, comprising seven EPs. In 2016, she appeared in the music video for "BruxellesVie" by Belgian artist Damso. Career
Kakoma adopted the moniker Lous and the Yakuza from an anagram for soul, the source of her musical passion, and Yakuza, Japan's organized crime syndicate, the name of which she uses to describe her "crew" of collaborators whom she relies on create her music. Lous was first discovered by her manager, <mask>, after he found her releases on the internet. Beginning in 2017, she realized her passion to create an album, enlisted many of her close friends to form a supporting band, and began performing at bars and nightclubs in the Brussels underground culture. In late 2017, Lous was invited to perform an acoustic set for La ChillZone, after which she was signed to Columbia Records through Sony Music in France, at the age of 22.On June 15, 2018, "Le Ridicule Ne Tue Pas" was released, a collaboration between Lous and the Yakuza and the French electronic group BSSMNT. After a six-month search for a producer that fit her aspirations, Kakoma took notice of Spanish producer El Guincho, following his work on Rosalía's single "Malamente". Lous released her debut single "Dilemme" on September 19, 2019, which was produced by El Guincho and Ponko. The song propelled Kakoma into prominence after it received viral acclaim, accumulating more than 20 million streams on Spotify, 8.9 million views on YouTube, and topping Spotify Italia's Viral 50 chart. The song's music video, directed by Wendy Morgan, captures the various identities that Lous holds in a variety of environments, meant to represent her life transition from Congo to Belgium. A remix featuring Italian rapper Tha Supreme and Italian singer Mara Sattei was released on April 1, 2020. At the 2019 Red Bull Elektropedia Awards, Lous and the Yakuza won the silver medal in the "Fresh on the Scene" category.Lous's second single, "Tout est gore", also produced by El Guincho, was released on December 6, 2019. The song gained popularity after actress Issa Rae shared a clip from the video on social media. On March 20, 2020, Lous released her third single, "Solo", with an accompanying music video directed by Wendy Morgan and Kevin Bago. An associated documentary short film, titled "Solo (Genesis)" was released on April 14, 2020. All three singles were included on her debut album, Gore, which was produced by El Guincho. Originally scheduled to be released on June 5, 2020, the album was later delayed until fall of 2020. On February 27, 2020, Kakoma modeled for French luxury fashion house Chloé during Paris Fashion Week, where she participated in the runway presentation of their fall/winter 2020/21 collection.In March 2020, Lous and the Yakuza was included in Spotify's RADAR initiative, which aims to broaden artists' worldwide reach through marketed social channels and curated playlists. On February 26, 2021, she released her single "Je ne sais pas", featuring Italian rapper Sfera Ebbasta. On March 4, she performed at the Sanremo Music Festival 2021 in a duet with Gaia, with the song Mi sono innamorato di te by Luigi Tenco. On August 8, she joined Woodkid to perform at the handover ceremony from the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games to Paris 2024. Kakoma's music has been described as a "silky" combination of trap, R&B, and pop. Public image
Kakoma is noted for her public image, namely the graphic symbol painted on her forehead, which has been described as the letter 'Y' with a dot in the middle and has drawn comparisons to Prince's Love Symbol #2. Kakoma herself designed the symbol, titled les mains levées vers le ciel (hands lifted toward the sky), as a symbol meant to represent two arms connecting the earth to the sky.Her religious faith and belief in God served as her primary motivation for the creation of the symbol. Lous has also gained recognition for her fashion and style, which draws inspiration from such artists as FKA Twigs and Erykah Badu. Personal life
As a child, Kakoma had a passion for manga and found interest in themes related to the Middle Ages and antiquity, particularly the bravery and heroism of knights, such as those described in the writings of Cicero. During her youth, she was a sprinter and also played American football for seven years due to her interest in Eyeshield 21. Kakoma has explored creative writing as a form of expression since childhood, when her interest in being a novelist inspired her to frequently write novels of over 300 pages in length. In addition to music and fashion, Lous is an avid painter, designer, and artist, frequently designing clothing and creating manga and graphic novel illustrations. Discography

Studio albums

Singles

As lead artist

As featured artist

Other charted songs

Notes

References

Living people
1996 births
Democratic Republic of the Congo emigrants to Belgium
21st-century Belgian women singers
Belgian models
People from Lubumbashi
French-language singers of Belgium
Belgian people of Rwandan descent
Belgian people of Democratic Republic of the Congo descent

masks:
Lous
Miguel Fernandez


title: Marc Lacroix (biochemist)

texts:
<mask> (; born 28 April 1963 in Verviers, Wallonia, Belgium) is a biochemist (educated at University of Liège) and a researcher who specializes in breast cancer biology, metastasis and therapy. He works at Institut Jules Bordet (Brussels, Belgium). He lives in Baelen

Earlier work
Breast cancer cells (BCC) frequently metastasize to the skeleton, where they lead to tumor-induced osteolysis and subsequent morbidity. <mask> has investigated the interrelationships between BCC and bone cells (osteoblasts, the bone-building cells, and osteoclasts, the bone-degrading cells). With colleagues, he discovered that BCC produce soluble factors increasing osteoclast activity, notably interleukin-11, the production of which is reduced by the cyclooxygenase inhibitor aspirin. BCC also reduce the proliferation of osteoblasts and their production of collagen, the main protein component of bone. <mask> also examined the response BCC to the anti-osteolytic agent calcitonin

In close collaboration with Prof.Guy Leclercq (Laboratoire Jean-Claude Heuson de Cancérologie Mammaire, Institut Jules Bordet, Belgium), <mask> has studied various aspects of estrogen receptor biology, ligand-binding and transcriptional activity, and life-cycle. Recent work
The amount of data on breast cancer available for the scientific and medical community is growing rapidly. According to PubMed, a search engine offering access to the MEDLINE database of citations and abstracts of biomedical research articles, 7918 papers containing the expression «breast cancer» were published in 2006. Their number was 3592 in 1996, 1455 in 1986 and only 626 in 1976. In general, the older information is overlaid by more recent data and forgotten to some extent. In 2004, <mask> and colleagues collected and assembled data from hundreds of articles related to the biology, pathology and genetics of in situ, invasive and metastatic breast cancers. These papers were covering a time period of about 25 years.Lacroix et al. concluded that despite undergoing increasing genetic alteration, most individual breast cancers rather surprisingly maintain their phenotype when they evolve from in situ to the metastatic state. This conclusion was in opposition to a progression model widely accepted at that time, which was suggesting that carcinoma in situ could evolve into invasive carcinoma and subsequently produce metastases through an accumulation of molecular abnormalities possibly allowing extensive phenotype changes and subsequent gain of aggressiveness. Bibliography: articles in scientific and medical journals (excerpt)

Bibliography: collaborative books - invited chapters
 Leclercq G, <mask> M, Seo HS, Larsimont D. "Mechanisms regulating oestrogen receptor alpha expression in breast cancer. ", in "Molecular Mechanisms of Action of Steroid Hormone Receptors" 65–75 (2002). Editors: Marija Krstic-Demonacos & Constantinos Demonacos, Research Signpost Publishers, Trivandrum, India, , https://web.archive.org/web/20070217105555/http://www.ressign.com/

 Sotiriou  C, Desmedt C, Durbecq V, Dal Lago L, <mask> M, Cardoso F, Piccart M. "Genomic and molecular classification of breast cancer. ", in "Molecular Oncology of Breast Cancer"  81–95 (2004).Editors: Jeffrey S. Ross and Gabriel N. Hortobagy, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 40 Tall Pine Drive, Sudbury, MA 01776 USA, , http://www.jbpub.com/catalog/0763748102/table_of_contents.htm

Bibliography: books
 Lacroix M. Tumor suppressor genes in breast cancer (2008). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=6866,
 Lacroix M. Molecular therapy of breast cancer: classicism meets modernity (2009). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 	11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=10042,
 Lacroix M. MicroRNAs in breast cancer (2010). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=12776,
 Lacroix M. A concise history of breast cancer (2011, 2013). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?cPath=23_132_105&products_id=18309,  (2011), https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=40565&osCsid=eab93c77d43f686ab6e8108d41306b3c (2013)
 Lacroix M. Coding for disease: genes and cancer (2013). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=41346,
 Lacroix M. Targeted therapies in cancer (2014). Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 400 Oser Ave, Ste 1600, Hauppauge, NY 11788-3635 USA, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=50896,
 Lacroix M. Targeted therapies in cancer: an update (2016).

masks:
Marc Guy Albert Marie Lacroix
Marc Lacroix
Marc Lacroix
Marc Lacroix
Lacroix
Lacroix
Lacroix


title: Ninian

texts:
Ninian is a Christian saint, first mentioned in the 8th century as being an early missionary among the Pictish peoples of what is now Scotland. For this reason he is known as the Apostle to the Southern Picts, and there are numerous dedications to him in those parts of Scotland with a Pictish heritage, throughout the Scottish Lowlands, and in parts of Northern England with a Northumbrian heritage. He is also known as Ringan in Scotland, and as Trynnian in Northern England. Ninian's major shrine was at Whithorn in Galloway, where he is associated with the Candida Casa (Latin for 'White House'). Nothing is known about his teachings, and there is no unchallenged authority for information about his life. The nature of Ninian's identity is uncertain, and historians have identified the name "Ninian" with other historical figures. A popular hypothesis proposed by Thomas Owen Clancy, a researcher and professor of Celtic studies, posits that Ninian can be identified with three other historical figures: Saint Finnian of Moville, Saint Finnian of Clonard, and Saint Finbarr of Cork.Linguistic variations across the territories associated with each saint have provided evidence that the Ninian preserved in literary tradition originated from this individual. This article discusses the particulars and origins of what has come to be known as the "traditional" stories of Saint Ninian. Background
The Southern Picts, for whom Ninian is held to be the apostle, are the Picts south of the mountains known as the Mounth, which cross Scotland north of the Firths of Clyde and Forth. That they had once been Christian is known from a 5th-century mention of them by Saint Patrick in his Letter to Coroticus, where he refers to them as 'apostate Picts'. Patrick could not have been referring to the Northern Picts who were converted by Saint Columba in the 6th century because they were not yet Christian, and thus could not be called 'apostate'. Northumbria had established a bishopric among the Southern Picts at Abercorn in 681, under Bishop Trumwine. This effort was abandoned shortly after the Picts defeated the Northumbrians at the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685.Christianity had flourished in Galloway in the 6th century. By the time of Bede's account in 731, the Northumbrians had enjoyed an unbroken relationship with Galloway for a century or longer, beginning with the Northumbrian predecessor state of Bernicia. The full nature of the relationship is uncertain. Also at this time, Northumbria was establishing bishoprics in its sphere of influence, to be subordinate to the Northumbrian Archbishop of York. One such bishopric was established at Whithorn in 731, and Bede's account serves to support the legitimacy of the new Northumbrian bishopric. The Bernician name hwit ærn is Old English for the Latin candida casa, or 'white house' in modern English, and it has survived as the modern name of Whithorn. There is as yet no unchallenged connection of the historical record to the person who was Bede's Ninian.However, the unlikelihood that the reputable historian Bede invented Ninian without some basis in the historical record, combined with an increased knowledge of Ireland's early saints and Whithorn's early Christian connections, has led to serious scholarly efforts to find Bede's basis. James Henthorn Todd, in his 1855 publication of the Leabhar Imuinn (The Book of Hymns of the Ancient Church of Ireland), suggested that it was Finnian of Moville, and that view has gained traction among modern scholars. Traditional story
The earliest mention of Ninian of Whithorn is in a short passage of The Ecclesiastical History of the English People by the Northumbrian monk Bede in c. 731. The 9th-century poem Miracula Nyniae Episcopi records some of the miracles attributed to him. A Life of Saint Ninian (Vita Sancti Niniani) was written around 1160 by Ailred of Rievaulx, and in 1639 James Ussher discusses <mask> in his Brittanicarum Ecclesiarum Antiquitates. These are the sources of information about <mask> of Whithorn, and all provide seemingly innocuous personal details about his life. However, there is no unchallenged historical evidence to support any of their stories, and all sources had political and religious agendas that were served by their accounts of Saint Ninian (discussed below).Tradition holds that <mask> was a Briton who had studied in Rome, that he established an episcopal see at the Candida Casa in Whithorn, that he named the see for Saint Martin of Tours, that he converted the southern Picts to Christianity, and that he is buried at Whithorn. Variations of the story add that he had actually met Saint Martin, that his father was a Christian king, and that he was buried in a stone sarcophagus near the altar of his church. Further variations assert that he left for Ireland, and died there in 432. Dates for his birth are derived from the traditional mention of Saint Martin, who died in 397. Bede (c. 731)

Bede says that <mask> (whose name he only renders in the ablative case Nynia) was a Briton who had been instructed in Rome; that he made his church of stone, which was unusual among the Britons; that his episcopal see was named after Saint Martin of Tours; that he preached to and converted the southern Picts; that his base was in a place called " Ad Candidam Casam", which was in the province of the Bernicians; and that he was buried there, along with many other saints. Aelred (c. 1160)
Leaving aside the stories regarding miracles, in the Vita Sancti Niniani Aelred includes the following incidental information regarding Saint <mask>: that his father was a Christian king; that he was consecrated a bishop in Rome and that he met Saint Martin in Tours; that Saint Martin sent masons with him on his homeward journey, at his request; that these masons built a church of stone, situated on the shore, and that on learning of Saint Martin's death, Ninian dedicated the church to him; that a certain rich and powerful "King Tuduvallus" was converted by him; that he died after having converted the Picts and returned home, being buried in a stone sarcophagus near the altar of his church; and that he had once travelled with his brother, named "Plebia". Aelred said that in addition to finding information about Ninian in Bede, he took much additional information for his Life of S. Ninian from a source written in a "barbarous language"; there is no further information about this text.Aelred wrote his Life of S. Ninian sometime after spending ten years at the Scottish court and thus had close connections both to the Scottish royal family and to Fergus of Galloway (who would resurrect the Bishopric of Galloway), all of whom would have been pleased to have a manuscript with such a glowing description of a Galwegian and Scottish saint. His work is what Thomas Heffernan refers to as a "sacred biography," probably intended for a politically ambitious audience. Ussher (1639)

Ussher wrote that <mask> left Candida Casa for Cluayn-coner in Ireland, and eventually died in Ireland; that his mother was a Spanish princess; that his father wished to regain him after having assented to his training for an ecclesiastical state; that a bell comes from heaven to call together his disciples; that a wooden church was raised by him, with beams delivered by stags; and that a harper with no experience at architecture was the builder of the church. He adds that a smith and his son, named respectively "Terna" and "Wyn", witnessed a miracle by Ninian and that the saint was granted lands to be called "Wytterna". In addition, Skene attributes the "traditional" date of Ninian's death (16 September 432) ultimately to Ussher's Life of Ninian, noting that the date is "without authority." Ussher's contribution is often disparaged, as he both invented fictitious histories and misquoted legitimate manuscripts to suit his own purposes. Still, he had access to legitimate manuscripts, and he has contributed to some versions of the traditional stories.Other sources
Others who wrote of Saint Ninian used the accounts of Bede, Aelred, or Ussher, or used derivatives of them in combination with information from various manuscripts. This includes John Capgrave (1393–1464), John of Tinmouth (fl. c. 1366), John Colgan (d. c. 1657), and many others, up to the present day. The anonymously written 8th century hagiographic Miracula Nynie Episcopi (Miracles of Bishop Ninian) is discounted as a non-historical account, and copies are not widely extant. Dedications to St Ninian

Dedications to Saint Ninian are expressions of respect for the good works that are attributed to him, and the authenticity of the stories about him are not relevant to that point. Almost all of the dedications have their origins in the medieval era, after Aelred wrote his account. The dedications are found throughout the lands of the ancient Picts of Scotland, throughout Scotland south of the Firths of Clyde and Forth, in Orkney and Shetland, and in parts of northern England.Ss Ninian and Triduana's Church, Edinburgh is a Roman Catholic church dedicated to Ninian. Dedications on the Isle of Man date from the time of medieval Scottish dominance, and are not natively inspired. There are dedications to St. Ninian in East Donegal and Belfast; and a spot formerly on the shore of Belfast Lough was traditionally known as St. Ninian's point, where the missionary reputedly landed after a voyage from Scotland. These connections reflect a strong Ulster-Scots heritage in both areas of Ulster. There are also dedications elsewhere in the world where there is a Scottish heritage, such as Nova Scotia. St. Ninian's Cathedral is located in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. There is a noticeable lack of dedications in the Scottish Highlands and Isles, save for Kilninian and the Holy Spring of St Ninian of the Orthodox Mull Monastery on the Isle of Mull.In Scotland the date 16 September is celebrated as St. Ninian's Feast Day. In the modern era, Ss Ninian and Triduana's Church, Edinburgh is a Roman Catholic church constructed in 1932 that is dedicated to St. Ninian. St Martin and St Ninian is a Catholic church in Whithorn, Wigtownshire constructed in 1959–60 in the Diocese of Galloway. The architect was Harry Stuart Goodhart-Rendel, (1887–1959). Ninian is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 16 September. Gallery

See also

 Isle of Whithorn
 St Ninian's Isle
 St Ninian's Well
 Vita Sancti Niniani ("Life of Saint Ninian")

References

Bibliography

 — many references to, and comments upon, sources of information

Further reading

External links

360 births
432 deaths
Bishops of Galloway (Pre-Reformation)
People from Cumberland
Northern Brythonic saints
Pictish people
Romano-British saints
5th-century Christian saints
5th-century Scottish bishops
Christian missionaries in Scotland
Anglican saints

masks: Ninian Ninian Ninian Ninian Ninian Ninian


title: Martin Sandberger

texts:
<mask>  (17 August 1911 – 30 March 2010) was a German SS functionary during the Nazi era and a convicted Holocaust perpetrator. He commanded Sonderkommando 1a of  Einsatzgruppe A, as well as the Sicherheitspolizei and SD in Estonia. <mask> perpetrated mass murder of the Jews in the Baltic states. He was also responsible for the arrest of Jews in Italy, and their deportation to Auschwitz concentration camp. <mask> was the second-highest official of the Einsatzgruppe A to be tried and convicted. Background and early career
<mask> was born in Charlottenburg, Berlin as a son of a director of IG Farben. <mask> studied law at the Universities of München, Köln, Freiburg and Tübingen.At the age of 20 he joined the Nazi Party and the SA. From 1932 - 1933 <mask> was a Nazi student activist and student leader in Tübingen. On 8 March 1933 <mask> and fellow student Erich Ehrlinger raised the Nazi flag in front of the main building at the University of Tübingen. (Like <mask>, Ehrlinger would take charge of an Einsatzkommando in 1941, and  in so doing, commit thousands of murders.) By 1935 he had obtained his doctorate degree. As a functionary of the Nazi student League he eventually became a university inspector. In 1936 he became an enlisted member of the SS and under the command of Gustav Adolf Scheel for the SD in Württemberg.He began a career with the SD and by 1938 he had risen to the rank of SS Sturmbannführer (major). <mask> worked as an assistant judge in the Interior Administration of Württemberg and became a government councillor in 1937. Activities during the Second World War

Following the German invasion and occupation of Poland in September 1939, Heinrich Himmler embarked on a program, known as Heim ins Reich (approximate translation: Return to the Nation) which involved driving out the native population in areas of Poland and replacing them with ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) from various countries, such as the Baltic states and Soviet-occupied eastern Poland. On 13 October 1939 Heinrich Himmler appointed <mask> the boss of the Northeast Central Immigration Office (Einwandererzentralstelle Nord-Ost) and tasked with the  "racial valuation" (rassische Bewertung) of the various Volksdeutsche immigrants. In June 1941 <mask> was appointed chief of Sonderkommando 1a of Einsatzgruppe A. During the first two weeks of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, which began on June 22, 1941, <mask> traveled with Franz Walter Stahlecker, the commander of Einsatzgruppe A. <mask> was involved since March 1941 in the distribution of a business plan for the RSHA and a director of the curriculum organization of the schools (Lehrplangestaltung der Schulen). Knowledge of the Führer Order
The Nazi organization most responsible for carrying out The Holocaust in the Baltic states was the Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst), generally referred to by its initials SD.The SD, which organized the Einsatzgruppen, conducted itself in accordance with the understanding that a fundamental order, sometimes called a Führer Order (Führerbefehl) existed to kill the Jews. <mask> received his knowledge of the Führer order from Bruno Streckenbach, an official with Department IV of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA). According to <mask>'s testimony as an accused in the Einsatzgruppen trial after the war, Streckenbach gave a speech (at the Gestapo headquarters in Berlin on Prince Albertstrasse) about the Führer order, which <mask> attended. Streckenbach also gave <mask> explicit instructions in a personal conversation:

Transfer to Estonia

<mask> entered Riga with Einsatzkommando 1a and 2. These organizations then engaged in
destruction of synagogues, the liquidation of 400 Jews, and the setting up of groups for the purpose of fomenting pogroms. After the war, when on trial for war crimes, <mask>'s effort to evade  responsibility was rejected by the tribunal:  "Although it has been demonstrated that not only he was in Riga at the time they occurred, but he actually had a conversation about them with the Einsatzgruppe Chief Stahlecker before he left Riga." In early July 1941, <mask> was sent to Estonia on the orders of Stahlecker.According to <mask>'s later testimony, Stahlecker made it clear that <mask> was being sent to Estonia to carry out the Führer order in that country. A variety of shooting actions of Jews, Gypsies, Communists and the mentally-ill began once <mask> and his kommando entered Estonia. A report dated 15 October 1941 on executions in Ostland during <mask>'s tenure included one item under Estonia of 474 Jews and 684 Communists. Others were arrested and sent to concentration camps. Report No. 17, dated 9 July 1941 carried the item —

On 10 September 1941, <mask> promulgated a general order for the internment of Jews which resulted in the internment of 450 Jews in a concentration camp at Pskov, Russia. The Jews were later executed.Sandburger was highly recommended for promotion in the SS:

On 3 December 1941 he became commander of the Security Police and SD for Estonia. Actions in Italy
<mask> returned to Germany in September 1943. In the fall of 1943, <mask> was appointed the Gestapo chief for the Italian city of Verona. In this capacity he was involved in arresting the Jews of Northern Italy and organizing their transportation to Auschwitz concentration camp. Espionage activity
In January 1944 <mask> became head of the Department A in the Reich Security Main Office Amt. VI (Ausland-SD, the foreign intelligence service); in this position he reported directly to Walter Schellenberg. He kept the domestic and foreign accounts and financial records of the organization.As the first assistant to Schellenberg, <mask> acted as his liaison man with Heinrich Himmler. With all the access he had had to highly secret information, after the war, under British interrogation, <mask> tried to delay or avoid prosecution by disclosing what he knew. Until internal reports of the Einsatzgruppen were discovered, <mask> was able to convince the British interpreters that his account of his activities in Tallinn as the Kommandeur der Sicherheitspolizei (or KdS) had involved "'no evidence of any particular criminal actions on his part.'" Trial
In the Einsatzgruppen trial, <mask> was charged with crimes against humanity, war crimes, and membership in a criminal organization, that is, the SS. At his trial, <mask> denied responsibility for the killings described in the 15 October report and sought to blame the German field police and Estonian home guard. This was rejected by the tribunal, which found that the Estonian home guard was under <mask>'s jurisdiction and control for specific operations, as shown by the same report. Similarly, <mask> claimed he had arrested the Jews sent to Pskov to protect them, hoping that during the internment the Führer order might be revoked or meliorated and he was not in general responsible for their execution at the Pskov detention camp.<mask> said he was responsible for "only a fraction" of the killings. <mask> estimated this "fraction" at 300 to 350 persons. <mask> claimed the execution of the Jews at Pskov happened in his absence and without his knowledge. The tribunal found that <mask>'s own testimony convicted him:

<mask> testified that he had protested against the inhumanity of the Führer order, but his account was not accepted by the Nuremberg Military Tribunal which was conducting the trial: "Despite the defendant's protestations from the witness stand, it is evident from the documentary evidence and his own testimony, that he went along willingly with the execution of the Fuehrer Order." Death sentence and reprieve
<mask> was found guilty on all counts. In September 1947,
Judge Michael Musmanno pronounced the tribunal's sentence:

Despite political pressures, General Lucius D. Clay confirmed <mask>'s death sentence in 1949. In 1951, <mask>'s sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by the "Peck Panel" clemency board acting under the authority of John J. McCloy, the U.S. High Commissioner for Germany.McCloy had received political pressure to grant the reprieve from William Langer, U.S. Senator from North Dakota. Many of Langer's constituents were of German descent, and Langer felt that trial of anyone other than the highest Nazis was contrary to American legal tradition and helped Communism. <mask>'s father, a retired production director of IG Farben, used his connections with West German president Theodor Heuss. Heuss in turn contacted the US Ambassador at that time James B. Conant with the request for pardon. Numerous pleas for leniency from influential individuals including Minister of Justice Wolfgang Haußmann and Landesbischof (bishop) <mask> were made. The renowned lawyer and vice-president of the West German parliament Carlo Schmid worried about <mask>'s conditions in Landsberg prison and spoke out in favor of a commutation.Over time these and other well-connected people lobbied for <mask>'s early release. By late 1957, there were only four war criminals held in prison in West Germany. One of them was <mask>, who, on January 9, 1958, was himself released from Landsberg prison. Subsequently, through the mediation of Bernhard Müller, he received a position as legal counsel in the Lechler Group. Until 1972, <mask> was repeatedly called as a witness in Nazi war crimes trials, such as in 1958 in the trial against the "Einsatzkommando Tilsit", the so-called Einsatzgruppen trial, in Ulm. A prosecution by the public prosecutor's offices in Munich (1962) and Stuttgart (1971/72) for his responsibility for the "shooting of numerous persons, including communists, Jews and parachutists in the years 1941 – 1943" (investigation of the public prosecutor's office at the Regional Court of Stuttgart in June 1971, p. 1 – the group of gypsies is not mentioned here) was discontinued. The reason was that <mask> had already been convicted in 1948 in the trial before the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg.This excludes prosecution by German judicial authorities in accordance with the 1955 Treaty on the Regulation of Questions of War and Occupation, the so-called Transition Treaty(see Bundesarchiv B 162/5199 p. 26). <mask> died on 30 March 2010, at the age of 98. Notes

References

Historiographical
  Birn, Ruth Bettina: Die Sicherheitspolizei in Estland 1941-1944. Eine Studie zur Kollaboration im Osten. Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2006, . Breitman, Richard, and Goda, Norman, U.S. intelligence and the Nazis, Cambridge University Press 2005
 Conclusions of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity
 Ezergailis, Andrew, The Holocaust in Latvia 1941-1944—The Missing Center, Historical Institute of Latvia (in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) Riga 1996
  Frei, Norbert: "Vergangenheitspolitik. Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und die NS-Vergangenheit", München 1996,
 Kahn, David, Hitler's spies
  Klee, Ernst: „<mask>berger" Eintrag in ders.: Das Personenlexikon zum Dritten Reich. Wer war was vor und nach 1945. Aktualisierte Ausgabe. Fischer-Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main 2005, , S. 43
  Ruck, Michael: Korpsgeist und Staatsbewußtsein. Beamte im deutschen Südwesten 1928 bis 1972. Oldenbourg, München 1996,
 Smelser, Ronald M., and Davies, Edward J., The Myth of the Eastern Front, Cambridge University Press 2007
  Wildt, Michael Wildt: Generation der Unbedingten – Das Führungskorps des Reichssicherheitshauptamtes. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2003, .War crimes trials and evidence
 Stahlecker, Franz W., "Comprehensive Report of Einsatzgruppe A Operations up to 15 October 1941", Exhibit L-180, translated in part and reprinted in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality, Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Volume VII, pages 978–995, USGPO, Washington DC 1946 ("Red Series")
 Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, Nuernberg, October 1946 - April 1949, Volume IV, ("Green Series) (the "Einsatzgruppen case") also available at Mazel library (well indexed HTML version)

External links

 "The Quiet Death of a Nazi." ABC News. 4-15-2010. Biography and image of Sandberger
  Jost Nolte von, "Das Lächeln der SS: Der Fall des Lektors Hans Rößner und andere Fälle: Wie Täter mit gutem Benehmen nach 1945 durchs Netz schlüpften", June 2002 (English:  "The Smiling SS: The cases of lecturer Hans Rossner and others: How Perpetrators Slipped through the Net on good behavior")
  Vorlesung von Prof. Michael Wildt über die Tübinger Exekutoren der Endlösung (Sandberger u.a.) Videoaufzeichnung

1911 births
2010 deaths
Einsatzgruppen personnel
German prisoners sentenced to death
Holocaust perpetrators in Italy
Holocaust perpetrators in Lithuania
Nazi Party officials
Nazis convicted of war crimes
People convicted by the United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals
Prisoners sentenced to death by the United States military
SS-Standartenführer
Holocaust perpetrators in Estonia
Holocaust perpetrators in Latvia
Holocaust perpetrators in Russia
People from Charlottenburg
German people convicted of crimes against humanity
Reich Security Main Office personnel
Lawyers in the Nazi Party
Jurists from Berlin
German people convicted of war crimes

masks:
Martin Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Martin Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
Sandberger
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Sandberger
Sandberger
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Martin Haug
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Martin Sand


title: Jakob Ammann

texts:
<mask> (also Jacob Amman, Amann; 12 February 1644 – between 1712 and 1730) was an Anabaptist leader and namesake of the Amish religious movement. Personal life
<mask> was born on 12 February 1644 in Erlenbach im Simmental, Canton of Bern, Switzerland, to Michael and Anna (née Rupp) <mask>. Erlenbach church records note the baptism of a <mask> on 12 February 1644, who was probably the <mask> from whom the Amish received their name. His grandfather has been identified as <mask>. All three Ammanns were tailors. <mask> was third in a family of six children. He probably received limited formal education.On 37 official documents signed by <mask>, only his initials appear, with most of them having a nearby note that <mask> was not able to write, so he only "made his mark". However, on three documents, his signed name does appear, although twice it was probably written for him by someone else; once, with the same style of writing as his initials, appear the poorly formed letters "J. AMME", which is assumed to be his own writing. Because he asked for letters to be read in one meeting, it is assumed he was not able to read, or possibly only poorly. He did better financially than the average person of his time. <mask> was married to Verena Stüdler, but very little is known of her beyond her name. They had at least one daughter and one son, Baltz. <mask>’s father and one of his sisters also joined the Anabaptist movement.His brother Ulli, 18 years his junior, was also an Anabaptist and is known for his moderating tone in the attempts at reconciliation between the Amish and Reist sides. Conversion to Anabaptism
On 12 March 1671 he is noted as the sponsor for a baptism in the state church. In June 1680, government correspondence from Oberhofen asked counsel from authorities in Bern on how to deal with a <mask> who had "become infected with the Anabaptist sect". This is the first known reference to Ammann as an Anabaptist. This indicates a conversion to Anabaptism sometime between 1671 and 1680. Sometime between his conversion and 1693 he was ordained to the ministry, possibly by Hans Reist, who would later become one of his greatest opponents. By 1693, <mask> had moved from Switzerland to Heidolsheim, Alsace, where his father died and was buried in the neighboring village of Baldenheim.Apparently shortly after the death of his father, he moved to the head of the valley at La Petite Lièpvre (Klein Leberau), near Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines (Markirch), Alsace, remaining there until October 1712 when all the Anabaptists in the area were expelled by an edict  of Louis XIV. After this date, no more records concerning <mask> have been found. He probably went to live with friends or relatives somewhere in Lower Alsace. Death
The date and place of <mask>'s death are unknown, but in 1730 his daughter requested baptism in the Reformed Church in Erlenbach and stated that her father had died. It is not recorded when or where the death had occurred. <mask>'s involvement in church matters had dropped off considerably before his disappearance from the records in 1712, possibly from old age, since he would have been approaching 70 years of age when he moved away from the Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines area. Theology and practice
Because of scarcity of materials, very little is known of <mask>’s teaching and day-to-day life.Three letters comprise the whole of his first-hand accounts of his thoughts. Other letters accuse <mask> of teaching or holding various viewpoints, but since many of these letters were written by his opponents it is not clear how much bias the accusations contain. From <mask>’s letters, it can be learned that he was a firm disciplinarian, uncompromising in what he believed, and expected others to "conform to the teachings of Christ and His apostles". His rejection of the "good-hearted" stemmed from his belief that whoever accepted the "true saving faith" would be baptized upon that faith, cost what it may. They would "forsake the world" and practice a very practical separation in their everyday life. <mask> was willing to disregard longstanding customs and practices if they were not founded on God’s Word. He denied that he was trying to start a "new faith".He believed in a new birth experience that would radically change a person. He wrote:

In practical matters, he stood opposed to long hair on men, shaved beards, and clothing that manifested pride. Liars were to be excommunicated. <mask>, unlike most Amish married men of today, however, had a mustache, which is largely forbidden today in the faith. Schism
<mask> is known because of his prominent involvement in a schism among the Swiss Brethren that began in 1693. Until recent decades, he was often heavily blamed for the division, being portrayed as an angry, harsh, and demanding leader who imposed his views on others. With the publication of some of the correspondence from the period (beginning in 1950, with Mast’s "Amish Letters") and the uncovering of new evidence, <mask>’s reputation has received a more positive appraisal among some researchers.Because of their prominent roles, <mask> and Hans Reist have been used to characterize the two sides of the schism, but the issues were broader than the two most prominent men involved. Background
In the mid-1600s, a fresh influx of converts came into Swiss Anabaptism. The Reformed pastor at Burgdorf even complained that half of the people in the villages in his area were either Anabaptist or deeply sympathetic to their cause. These fresh converts—zealous for their new faith—were in fact a sort of new movement within Swiss Anabaptism. Of the nearly 200 surnames among the Amish in the 1690s, only a very few were found in the Reist side, indicating that the two sides formed mostly around two groups of people with different origins. Because of persecution, many Swiss Brethren families had emigrated or been evicted from Swiss territory into the Alsace and Palatinate before the division. The civil authorities tended to be more lenient in the new locations, and in some cases welcomed the newcomers as they were looking for people to develop their lands.This emigration tended to create a different environment than the Swiss who had not emigrated were experiencing, making some of the issues come to the fore. Another important aspect in the schism was a conference held at Ohnenheim, Alsace, by several Swiss Brethren ministers and elders in 1660, in which they formally adopted the Dordrecht Confession of Faith that had been drawn up by Dutch Mennonites. Until this time, the Swiss Brethren (who did not use the name "Mennonite" for themselves) had no official confession of faith beyond the Schleitheim Confession. The Dordrecht Confession contained two points that the Swiss Brethren had not historically practiced: foot washing (Article XI) and social avoidance (including not eating meals with those who had been shunned, Article XVII). Swiss Brethren had practiced excommunication and a refusal to "eat" the [Lord's Supper] with those banned, but their avoidance did not include refraining from eating regular meals with those in the bann. These two issues, foot washing and not eating "physical" meals with the excommunicated, would be at the core of the schism. Beginning
In 1693, <mask>, "together with the ministers and elders," sent a general letter to people within the Swiss Brethren congregations, asking for a meeting in which he wanted clarification about where they stood on three issues: 1) Shunning those who had been banned, 2) whether liars should be excommunicated, and 3) if people could be saved who did not follow God’s word.This last issue was referring to the "good-hearted", meaning those who sympathized with the Anabaptists and even helped them materially in times of persecution, but who would not take the step of rebaptism. Those siding with Ammann felt that these "good-hearted" people should not be looked upon and consoled as "saved" unless they took up the cross and followed Christ in rebaptism and obedience to his teachings. Along with feetwashing, these three issues were at the core of the division. However, other issues surfaced during the discussions in the following years, including frequency of communion and how church discipline should be conducted. Another issue mentioned during the time of the schism was the establishment of stricter regulations concerning dress and beard styles. However, social avoidance of banned individuals was the most controversial of all the issues, and thus it has sometimes been erroneously considered as the only cause of the schism. Excommunications
<mask> and Nicolas Augsburger were chosen by a ministerial committee to travel to Switzerland for a meeting with church leaders to find out where the Swiss congregations stood on the disputed issues.At first, a few of the Swiss ministers agreed with <mask>’s view, but in a later meeting Hans Reist would not agree with social avoidance, using Matthew 15:17 as a basis for "what enters the mouth is no sin." Another meeting was called, in which Hans Reist did not show up, saying he was busy. At this point, <mask> became irritated (verdreiszlich) and then proceeded to announce that Hans Reist was excommunicated on six points. When Ammann questioned some of the other Swiss ministers at the meeting where they stood on the issues, they pleaded for time to consult with their congregations. <mask> saw this as a turning back, since some of them had previously expressed agreement with his side. He then proceeded to announce the excommunication of six of the present ministers. Amman and the four men with him then left "without shaking hands with anyone."These excommunications created a definite breach within the Swiss Brethren movement. The Reist side eventually excommunicated the Ammann side as well. Attempts at reconciliation
Within a few years, several attempts were made at reconciliation. In February 1700, <mask> and several of his co-ministers removed the ban from the Swiss ministers and excommunicated themselves in recognition that they had acted too rashly and had "grievously erred." They did not feel that they were in error concerning the issues they had brought up, but rather that they had not given sufficient time for the Reist side to consider the issues before excommunicating them. Also, they felt that they should not have excommunicated the Swiss ministers on the spot, but should have consulted with the whole congregation before proceeding. However, while Hans Reist and some of the Swiss ministers appear to have accepted the repentance of <mask> and his co-workers, they held firm to their position of not accepting social shunning.Some of the other issues had been accepted by the Swiss ministers, but the main body of Amish and the Reist side were never able to reconcile on the issue of social shunning. Today in North America, the Amish and Mennonites (the Reist side became known as Mennonites after the schism; in a paradox, it was the Amish side that was pushing for the introduction of Dutch Mennonite ideas, but those opposing the ideas eventually became known as Mennonites) live side by side in many communities and work together peacefully in publishing, businesses, and charitable aid projects. However, official sharing of ministry and communion is rare among the most conservative groups of Old Order Amish and Mennonites. In more moderate groups, there remains little to no effect from the schism, with the exception of names of churches. Notes

References

Further reading
 Steven M. Nolt, A History of the Amish, rev. ed. (Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 2003)

External links

 <mask> at the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online

1644 births
18th-century deaths
People from Frutigen-Niedersimmental District
Swiss Christian religious leaders
Swiss Christian pacifists
17th-century Swiss people
18th-century Swiss people
17th-century Anabaptist ministers
18th-century Anabaptist ministers
Christian radicals
Swiss Amish people
Year of death unknown

masks:
Jakob Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Ammann
Jacob Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Ulrich Ammann
Jakob
Jakob
Jakob
Jakob
Jakob
Jakob Ammann
Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Ammann
Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Jakob
Jakob
Jakob
Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Jakob Ammann
Jakob Ammann
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Jakob Ammann
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Jakob Ammann
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Jakob Ammann


title: Rod Clements

texts:
<mask> (born 17 November 1947 in North Shields, Northumberland) is a British guitarist, singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist. He formed the folk-rock band Lindisfarne with Alan Hull in 1970, and wrote "Meet Me on the Corner", a UK Top 5 hit in March 1972, which won Clements an Ivor Novello Award. Lindisfarne broke up in 1973 and Clements became a founding member of Jack the Lad, also working with Ralph McTell and Bert Jansch. Lindisfarne reformed in 1977 and Clements continued to be part of the line-up until 2003. <mask> rejoined Lindisfarne in 2015 and is currently touring and performing with the band. Career
Clements was an only child, and grew up in a household in which neither parent was especially active musically, though his mother did play the piano. His father was a lover of classical music and he encouraged his son to attend concerts.Clements attended The King's School, Tynemouth after which, at the age of 12, he was sent to Durham School. He subsequently attended Durham University (St. Cuthbert's Society), graduating with a BA in ancient history and anthropology. From an early age he had been able to pick up a tune and play it and his first inspiration to play the guitar came from hearing the hits of Duane Eddy, The Shadows and The Ventures. By 1965 he had formed an R&B group called Downtown Faction. As a bass guitarist, Clements teamed up with local musicians in North Shields to form a blues band (also called the Downtown Faction). The band was later renamed Brethren, and became regular performers at folk clubs in the North East. Clements befriended a Newcastle singer/songwriter called Alan Hull, and formed the folk-rock band Lindisfarne with him and several members of Brethren in 1970.Although Hull was Lindisfarne's main songwriter, <mask> provided the band with its first hit in "Meet Me on the Corner", a UK Top 5 hit in March 1972. Clements won a Certificate of Honour at the Ivor Novello Awards for the song. Lindisfarne broke up in 1973 and Clements became a founding member of Jack the Lad, which also included two other former Lindisfarne members, on whose debut album It's Jack The Lad he played a significant role as multi-instrumentalist and songwriter. In 1974 he played bass on Ralph McTell's "Streets of London", which topped the UK charts at Christmas that year. <mask> went on to tour and record several albums with McTell. He also worked with Bert Jansch, touring Britain and Europe and working as Producer on Bert's comeback album A Rare Conundrum. <mask> and Jansch also recorded a Woody Guthrie tribute album, Woody Lives!, and the jointly credited Leather Launderette.Lindisfarne reformed in 1977 and <mask> continued to be part of the line-up, contributing many songs to albums such as Back and Fourth, The News, Sleepless Nights and Dance Your Life Away. Following Alan Hull's death in 1995 <mask> became the band's main songwriter who, in partnership with producer and co-writer Nigel Stonier, provided the bulk of material for Lindisfarne's two last albums, Here Comes The Neighbourhood (1998) and Promenade (2002). The band finally broke up following a concert in Newcastle Opera House in November 2003. <mask>' main role in Lindisfarne was that of bassist until 1990, when he moved to slide guitar and mandolin; his former role was filled thereafter by Steve Cunningham and latterly Ian Thomson. Clements also played violin from time to time, most notably in the instrumental break of "Fog on the Tyne", both on stage and on disc. Clements has also toured and recorded with Rab Noakes and Michael Chapman and performed on albums by Peter Hammill, Wizz Jones and Kathryn Tickell amongst others. He has also supplied bass, dobro, and guitar parts to albums by singer/songwriter Thea Gilmore, who has herself appeared on <mask>'s solo albums.Clements released the album One Track Mind in 1994, and followed this with Stamping Ground in 2000, having written or co-written each of the tracks. Another album, Odd Man Out was released in 2006. It was produced by Nigel Stonier. Spring 2008 saw the reissue with bonus tracks of One Track Mind. He continues to tour regularly, performing a mixture of Lindisfarne songs and his solo efforts. Songs written by Clements have been covered by artists including Melanie Safka and Joe Brown; and a <mask>/Stonier composition, "Can't Do Right For Doing Wrong", was a British Top 30 hit for Erin Rocha at Christmas 2003. (Woody Guthrie tribute album) (1987)
 People on the Highway (Bert Jansch tribute album) (2000)

References

External links

 Discography
 Odd Man Out

1947 births
Living people
English folk musicians
British folk rock musicians
English folk guitarists
English male guitarists
English blues musicians
English blues guitarists
Slide guitarists
English bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
English multi-instrumentalists
Folk fiddlers
British mandolinists
English male singers
English songwriters
People from North Shields
People educated at The King's School, Tynemouth
Alumni of St Cuthbert's Society, Durham
Pentangle (band) members
Lindisfarne (band) members
21st-century violinists
21st-century British male musicians
British male songwriters

masks:
Roderick Parry Clements
Rod
Clements
Clements
Clements
Clements
Rod
Clements
Rod
Clements


title: Julius Caesar (judge)

texts:
Sir <mask> (1557/155818 April 1636) was an English lawyer, judge and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1589 and 1622. He was also known as <mask>. Early life and education
<mask> was born near Tottenham in Middlesex, the son of Cesare Adelmare who was originally from Treviso, Italy, and his wife Margery Perient or Pirry (died c. 1583). Cesare Adelmare, like many of his ancestors, studied at the University of Padua, where he was made doctor in 1547. He was registered as a doctor in his native Treviso in 1542. In England in 1544 he was found to be working unlicensed and then licensed. He was naturalised in 1558, and was a physician to Queens Mary I and Elizabeth I. Cesare's father Pietro Maria Adelmare was also a graduate of Padua, and was a judge and ambassador for Treviso.His mother, Paola Cesarini, was said to be descended from the well-known Cesarini family of Rome. <mask> was baptised in the Church of St. Dunstan's-in-the-East in February 1558, his sponsors being the Lord Treasurer, William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester; the Earl of Arundel; and Lady Montagu representing the queen. After his father's death, his mother married, as her second husband, Michael Lok. He was possibly educated at Winchester College and matriculated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, on 10 January 1575, aged 16, and was awarded BA on 17 May 1575 and MA on 18 February 1578. He then studied at the Faculty of Law of Paris (University of Paris), where he was made LLB and LLD on 22 April 1581. Career
<mask> was noted for his persistent striving for advancement and for financial reward in the time of Queen Elizabeth. He was a general commissioner on piracy in October 1581.In 1583 he was counsel to the City of London and commissary of his friend John Aylmer, the Bishop of London in Middlesex, Hertfordshire and Essex. On 5 March 1584 he was awarded a law degree at Oxford, and became doctor of canon law. In 1584, he was appointed Judge of the High Court of Admiralty until 1605, and was an advocate of Doctors' Commons in 1586. In 1588 he became a master in chancery. He was elected MP for Reigate in 1589. He became Bencher of the Inner Temple in 1590 and was Master of Requests Extraordinary of Court of Requests in 1591. He became JP from 1592 and was governor of mineral and battery works in 1593.Also in 1593 he was elected MP for Bletchingley. He was treasurer of the Inner Temple in 1593. He became Master of Requests Ordinary of Court of Requests in 1595 and Master of St Katherine's Hospital in 1596. In 1597 he was elected MP for Windsor and was re-elected MP for Windsor in 1601. Queen Elizabeth, on her way to Nonsuch Palace, paid him a visit at his house at Mitcham on 12 September 1598. She spent the night of the 12th there, and dined with him the next day. In the reign of King James, <mask> acquired extensive property, particularly in Hertfordshire, and achieved greater influence and political importance.He was knighted at Greenwich by King James in May 1603. He also became ecclesiastical commissioner for the Province of Canterbury in 1603. In 1606 he was elected MP for Middlesex. He was Chancellor and Under Treasurer of the Exchequer from 1606 to 1614. In 1607 he was appointed to the Privy Council. In 1614 he was appointed Master of the Rolls, an office which he held till his death in 1636. He was re-elected MP for Middlesex in 1614.In 1621 he became first commissioner for the great seal and was elected MP for Maldon. He was commissioner to inquire into operation of the poor law from 1631 to 1633. Death
<mask> died at the age of 79 and was buried at Great St. Helen's, Bishopsgate. Legacy
<mask> was a remarkable civil servant and left many volumes of papers relating to his official work, and others relating to the mint, of which his first father-in-law was master. He worked on the history of the Exchequer, and presented to Burghley a history of the Court of Requests "to defend it against the slights of the common lawyers". In 1625 he wrote a treatise on the constitution and functions of the privy council, entitled Concerning the Private Council of the Most High and Mighty King of Great Britain, France, Scotland, and Ireland. His manuscripts, many of which are now in the British Museum, were sold by auction in 1757 for a sum of around £500.Personal life

<mask> married three times. He married firstly Dorcas Lusher (1561 – 16 June 1595), widow of Richard Lusher of the Middle Temple and daughter of Sir Richard Martin, master of the mint and later Lord Mayor of London, with whom he had four sons and a daughter. He married secondly on 10 April 1596 Alice Dent (June 1569 – 23 May 1614), widow of John Dent, Alderman of London, and daughter of Christopher Grant of Manchester, Lancashire, with whom he had three more sons. He married thirdly Anne Hogan, widow of Henry Hogan and William Hungate, both of East Bradenham, Norfolk, and daughter of Henry Woodhouse of Waxham, Norfolk on 19 April 1615. His third wife Anne was a granddaughter of Nicholas Bacon. Francis Bacon, his wife's uncle, died in his arms. His son, also named <mask> (14 February 1587 – 8 January 1607), was sent to study at the University of Padua.He was wounded while fencing with Antonia Brochetta and sought revenge. He lay in wait for him with a pistol, but his shot missed. He then fell while attempting to draw his sword and was set upon by Brochetta who ran him through and killed him. His son Sir <mask> (27 January 1590 – 6 December 1642) was a member of Parliament, as well as Master of the Rolls from 1639 to 1642, which he purchased for £15,000 and a £2,000 loan. His son Sir <mask> (20 October 1597 – 23 May 1647) of Hyde Hall, Hertfordshire, a country gentleman, was knighted in Scotland on 20 June 1617. His son <mask> D.D. (17 March 1601 – 1633) was rector of Llanrhuddlad Anglesey, Wales of whom a memorial graces the chancel of Beaumaris parish church, Anglesey.His son <mask> (9 October 1602 – 27 October 1637) was one of the Six Clerks of Court of Chancery and a member of Parliament. Notes

References

1558 births
1636 deaths
English judges
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
University of Paris alumni
Knights Bachelor
Members of the Inner Temple
Chancellors of the Exchequer of England
Masters of the Rolls
English people of Italian descent
People from Treviso
17th-century English judges
16th-century English judges
English MPs 1589
English MPs 1593
English MPs 1597–1598
English MPs 1601
English MPs 1604–1611
English MPs 1614
English MPs 1621–1622
Canon law jurists
Members of the Privy Council of England
People from Tottenham
Julius
Members of Parliament for Maldon
Kingdom of England expatriates in France

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Julius Caesar
Julius Adelmare
Caesar
Julius
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
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Julius Caesar
Charles Caesar
John Caesar
Thomas Caesar
Robert Caesar


title: Judy Pfaff

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<mask> (born 1946) is an American artist known mainly for installation art and sculptures, though she also produces paintings and prints. Pfaff has received numerous awards for her work, including a John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 2004 and grants from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (1983) and the National Endowment for the Arts. Major exhibitions of her work have been held at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, the Denver Art Museum and Saint Louis Art Museum. In 2013 she was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Video interviews can be found on Art 21, Miles McEnery Gallery, MoMa, Mount Holyoke College Art Museum and other sources. Early life and education

Pfaff was born in London in 1946. Her father, a Royal Air Force pilot, was absent from her life.Pfaff's mother moved to Detroit soon after Pfaff's birth, leaving Pfaff and her brother to be raised by their grandparents. Post-war London was bleak; Pfaff has described playing in bombed out and abandoned buildings, gathering "raw materials for fantasy buildings." A reunion in 1956 with her mother in Detroit, where she  attended Cass Technical High School, did not end well. At age 15, Pfaff left home and eventually married a U.S. Air Force officer. She attended Wayne State University and Southern Illinois University, completing a BFA at Washington University in 1971. Pfaff enrolled in the MFA program at Yale University School of Art, where she embraced the use of heavy equipment and outsized materials. Other disciplines, such as physics, medicine, zoology and astronomy, also influenced her work.At Yale, Pfaff studied with Al Held, who became her mentor. With Held's encouragement, she created an installation for her final project. She completed her MFA in 1973 and then moved to New York City. Teaching
Pfaff taught at the California Institute of the Arts from 1976 to 1979. She joined the faculty at Bard College in New York in 1994, where she is currently the co-director of the Studio Arts program. Style
Since the 70s, Pfaff has helped redefine contemporary notions of sculpture and has been recognized for her innovative approach to space. While others at the time subscribed to minimalist art forms, Pfaff began making colorful, visually active environments that encompassed an entire gallery and complicated the relationship between sculpture and the architecture that contained it.Spanning across mediums such as painting, printmaking, sculpture and installation, it can be described as "painting in space". Pfaff draws upon spiritual, botanical, and art historical imagery, and "explores issues of creativity and the complexity of life by using strings, vines, spheres, and other objects arranged in a seemingly haphazard way". Although, Pfaff has so far refused to give narrative meaning to her work, which shows an "urgent and ferocious need to labor for the visual and tactile […] in an era where language dominates artistic activity". Pfaff incorporates a range of everyday and industrial materials into her installations such as wire, plastic tubing, fabric, steel, fiberglass, and plaster as well as salvaged signage and tree roots. Her interest in natural motifs extends to a series of prints integrating vegetation, maps, and medical illustrations. She has also used her dramatic sculptural abilities to make set designs for several theatrical stage productions. In recent years, she has incorporated photographic and digital imagery into her installations and prints.Process
Pfaff enters an exhibition space not knowing exactly what will happen. Rice Gallery describes her working process is intuitive and highly physical; she relies on her knowledge, skill, and experience to carry her through. Her art is site-specific; each one of her installations considers the specific spatial geometries of the room so no two shows are ever alike. Pfaff and her crew may labor for months or years on shows that last day or weeks; the work is deconstructed and sections are discarded after a show comes down. Pfaff's studio in upstate New York is filled with winches, welding equipment, a forklift, and pressure washers. When she and her assistants arrive to set up an installation, they bring with them a truck full of tools, welders, pre-cut installation components, as well as raw material, and begin to experiment. Pfaff is used to working in large spaces; her permanent installation at the Philadelphia Convention Center, cirque, CIRQUE, is reputed to be the largest suspended sculpture in the world.Installation art
In New York, Pfaff created her first large-scale installation piece, J.A.S.O.N--J.A.S.O.N., at the nonprofit Artists Space in 1975. Pfaff describes her site-specific installations as abstract narratives based on personal experiences. Art critic Benjamin Genocchio commented that Pfaff's installation work can seem disordered, but with a closer look an order seems to reveal itself. In 2006, Pfaff's Buckets of Rain was exhibited at the Ameringer & Yohe Fine Art gallery in New York. Pfaff's installation work has influenced other artists, including Jessica Stockholder and Sarah Sze. Other media
In addition to her installations, Pfaff creates paintings, sculpture and prints. "I've always done prints and drawings," Pfaff says."If you get an installation of mine, you inherit [my assistant] Ryan, myself, a crew, the dog, the noise, the dirt. We wreck the house. So if you don't want that, then you get prints and drawings." Pfaff has also done scenic design. In 2010 Ameringer/McEnery/Yoke showed a retrospective from her oeuvre  ranging from the late 1970s to recent work. In a review in The Brooklyn Rail, Kara L. Rooney wrote of the survey's cohesion, "somehow, Pfaff's eclectic interpretation of '80s flamboyance, '90s insecurity, and the aughts' incessant optimism succeeds." Solo exhibitions and installations
During her prolific career, Pfaff has mounted over 100 solo exhibitions and installations in galleries and museums worldwide.She has had major exhibitions at Elvehjem Museum of Art, University of Wisconsin, Madison (2002); Denver Art Museum (1994); St. Louis Art Museum (1989); and Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo (1982). Her work is also included in the permanent collections of The Museum of Modern Art, the Whitney Museum of American Art, Tate Gallery, Brooklyn Museum of Art, and Detroit Institute of Arts, among others. Furthermore, she represented the United States in the 1998 Bienal de Sao Paolo. Pfaff's work is not restricted to Installation Art pieces. Her other notable works include Botanica, a mixed media on paper piece owned by the Orlando Museum of Art and Imperial Hotel, a relief print using the intaglio technique owned by the Tampa Museum of Art. Grants and awards
Pfaff has received several notable awards and grants including the Lifetime Achievement Award from the International Sculpture Center (2014), the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Award (2004), a Bessie (1984), and fellowships from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (1983) and the National Endowment for the Arts (1986). She was also elected to become a member of the American Academy of Arts in 2009.2017: Francis J. Greenburger Award, Art OMI
 2017: Jack Wolgin Annual Visiting Artist Award, Tyler School of Art, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA
 2015: National Academy Award for Excellence in Sculpture, National Academy Museum and School, New York
 2014: Lifetime Achievement Award, International Sculpture Center
 2013: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2013 Class of New Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members, field of Visual and Performing Arts
 2013: Anonymous Was a Woman, A Foundation of Philanthropic Funds, New York, NY
 2010: Southern Graphics Council International Conference Lifetime Achievement Award 2010, Mark/Remarque, Philagraphika, Philadelphia, PA
 2009: USA Fellowship, Los Angeles, CA
 2009: Member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, New York, New York
 2009: Dean’s Medal, Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts, Washington Univ., St. Louis, MO
 2006: Barnett and Annalee Newman Foundation Fellowship
 2004: MacArthur Fellowship
 2003: Nancy Graves Foundation Grant
 2002: Award of Merit Medal for Sculpture, American Academy of Arts and Letters, New York
 2002: American Academy of Design, New York
 1999: Honorary Doctorate, Pratt Institute. New York
 1998: U.S. Representative for the Bienal de Sao Paulo
 1998: Distinguished Alumni Award, Washington University, St. Louis
 1997: Fellow of the Saint Gaudens Memorial
 1986: National Endowment for the Arts, Sculpture
 1984: Bessie Award, Set Design for “Wind Devil,” BAM Production by Nina Weiner Dance Company
 1983: Guggenheim Fellowship, Sculpture
 1979: National Endowment for the Arts, Sculpture
 1976: Creative Artist Public Services, Sculpture

Recent life
Pfaff is the Richard B. Fisher Professor in the Arts and co-director of the studio arts program at Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York. She continues to produce work for sale and for exhibition, including installations and prints. She currently lives and works in Tivoli, NY. See also
 Inside the Artist's Studio, Princeton Architectural Press, 2015. ()

References

External links
Official website

Further reading

1946 births
Living people
Cass Technical High School alumni
American women installation artists
American installation artists
Bard College faculty
MacArthur Fellows
20th-century American women artists
20th-century American artists
21st-century American women artists
21st-century American artists
Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts alumni
Yale School of Art alumni
Artists from London
English emigrants to the United States


title: Sandy Berger

texts:
Samuel Richard "<mask>" <mask> (October 28, 1945 – December 2, 2015) was a political consultant who served as the 19th United States National Security Advisor for President Bill Clinton from 1997 to 2001. Before that he served as the Deputy National Security Advisor for the Clinton Administration from 1993 to 1997. In 2005, he was fined and sentenced to two years of probation plus community service for unauthorized removal of classified material from the National Archives. He gave up his license to practice law. Early life
<mask> was born to a Jewish family in Millerton, New York, where his parents ran an Army-Navy store. He graduated from Webutuck High School in 1963, earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in government from Cornell University in 1967, and his earned Juris Doctor degree from Harvard Law School in 1971. At Cornell, <mask> was a member of the Quill and Dagger society with Paul Wolfowitz and Stephen Hadley.Opposed to the Vietnam War, <mask> began working for Senator George McGovern's presidential campaign in 1972. While there, he met Bill Clinton, forming a friendship that lasted for decades. <mask> later urged Clinton to run for President of the United States. After the McGovern campaign, <mask> gained experience working in a variety of government posts, including serving as Special Assistant to Mayor of New York City John Lindsay and Legislative Assistant to U.S. Senator Harold Hughes of Iowa and Congressman Joseph Resnick of New York. He was also Deputy Director of Policy Planning for the U.S. Department of State from 1977 to 1980 under Secretary of State Cyrus Vance during the Carter administration. After leaving the State Department, <mask> went on to join the law firm Hogan & Hartson where he helped expand the firm's international law practice.As a partner, he opened the firm's first two international offices, in London and Brussels. "<mask>", Nancy Pelosi said in 1997, "was the point-man at ... Hogan & Hartson ... for the trade office of the Chinese government. He was a lawyer-lobbyist." Clinton administration

<mask> served as Senior Foreign Policy Advisor to Governor Clinton during the campaign, and as Assistant Transition Director for National Security of the 1992 Clinton-Gore Transition. <mask> served eight years on the National Security Council staff, first from 1993 - 1997 as deputy national security advisor, under Anthony Lake, whom <mask> had recommended for the role, and then succeeding Lake as Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs from 1997 to 2001. <mask> was a central figure in formulating the foreign policy of the Clinton Administration, and played an integral role advancing the administration's self-described objectives of advancing "democracy, shared prosperity, and peace." In President Clinton's words, "Nobody was more knowledgeable about policy or smarter about how to formulate it.He was both great in analyzing a situation and figuring out what to do about it. His gifts proved invaluable time and time again, in Latin America, the Balkans, Northern Ireland, and the Middle East." Key achievements during <mask>'s NSC tenure included the 1995 peso recovery package in Mexico, NATO enlargement, Operation Desert Fox, the Dayton Accords that ended the civil conflict in Bosnia, the NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia, the Good Friday Agreement that helped bring about peace in Northern Ireland, and the administration's policy of engagement  with the People's Republic of China. In a March 2005 oral history interview at the University of Virginia's Miller Center, <mask> noted, "I think during the '90s we took China from outside the international system and brought it inside the international system, partly through trade, and economics, and otherwise." On July 4, 1999, in what South Asia expert Bruce Reidel called <mask>'s "finest hour," <mask> advised President Clinton through a pivotal negotiation with Pakistan's prime minister Nawaz Sharif to pull that country's troops back from Kashmir, averting a potentially cataclysmic nuclear war with India. <mask> also advised the President regarding the Khobar Towers bombing and responses to the terrorist bombings of American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. In the final years of the Clinton administration, combating terrorism was the paramount foreign policy priority; <mask> said in his March 2005 oral history interview at UVA's Miller Center, "I said to Condoleezza Rice during the transition ... that the number-one issue that she would deal with as national security advisor was terrorism in general and al-Qaeda specifically."Controversies

Stock ownership
In November 1997, <mask> paid a $23,000 civil penalty to settle conflict of interest allegations stemming from his failure to sell his stock of Amoco Corporation as ordered by the White House. <mask> was advised by the White House to sell the stock in early 1994. He said he had planned to sell the stock, but then forgot. He denied knowingly participating in decisions in which he had a financial interest. With no evidence that <mask> intended to break the law, the United States Department of Justice determined a civil penalty was adequate for a "non-willful violation" of the conflict of interest law. Chinese nuclear espionage

In 1999, <mask> was criticized for failing to promptly inform President Clinton of his knowledge that the People's Republic of China had managed to acquire the designs of a number of U.S. nuclear warheads. <mask> was originally briefed of the espionage by the Department of Energy (DOE) in April 1996, but did not inform the president until July 1997.A number of Republicans, including then presidential hopeful Lamar Alexander, called for <mask>'s resignation. They accused him of ignoring the allegations of Chinese espionage. "For his unwillingness to act on this serious matter, Mr. <mask> should resign", Alexander said. "If he does not, he should be relieved of his duties by President Clinton." President Clinton rejected the calls: "The record is that we acted aggressively," Clinton said. "Mr. <mask> acted appropriately." Unauthorized removal and destruction of classified material

On July 19, 2004, it was revealed that the United States Department of Justice was investigating <mask> for unauthorized removal of classified documents in October 2003 from a National Archives reading room prior to testifying before the 9/11 Commission.The documents were five classified copies of a single report commissioned from Richard Clarke covering internal assessments of the Clinton Administration's handling of the unsuccessful 2000 millennium attack plots. An associate of <mask> said <mask> took one copy in September 2003 and four copies in October 2003, allegedly by stuffing the documents into his socks and pants. <mask> subsequently lied to investigators when questioned about the removal of the documents. In April 2005, <mask> pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor charge of unauthorized removal and retention of classified material from the National Archives in Washington, D.C.

<mask> was fined $50,000, sentenced to serve two years of probation and 100 hours of community service, and stripped of his security clearance for three years. The Justice Department initially said <mask> only stole copies of classified documents and not originals, but the House Government Reform Committee later revealed that an unsupervised <mask> had been given access to classified files of original, uncopied, uninventoried documents on terrorism. During the House Government Reform Committee hearings, Nancy Kegan Smith — who was the director of the presidential documents staff at the National Archives and Records Administration — acknowledged that she had granted <mask> access to original materials in her office. On December 20, 2006, Inspector General Paul Brachfeld reported that <mask> took a break to go outside without an escort."In total, during this visit, he removed four documents ... Mr. <mask> said he placed the documents under a trailer in an accessible construction area outside Archives 1 (the main Archives building)". <mask> acknowledged having later retrieved the documents from the construction area and returned with them to his office. On May 17, 2007, <mask> relinquished his license to practice law as a result of the Justice Department investigation. Saying, "I have decided to voluntarily relinquish my license. ... While I derived great satisfaction from years of practicing law, I have not done so for 15 years and do not envision returning to the profession. I am very sorry for what I did, and I deeply apologize."By giving up his license, <mask> avoided cross-examination by the Bar Counsel regarding details of his thefts. Post-government

After leaving the Clinton Administration, <mask> became chairman of Stonebridge International, an international advisory firm he co-founded in 2001 which focused on aiding companies in their expansion into emerging markets such as Brazil, China, India, and Russia. Stonebridge International merged in 2009 with The Albright Group, a similar firm founded by former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, to form Albright Stonebridge Group. In late 2003, <mask> was called to testify before the 9/11 Commission regarding steps taken against terrorism during his tenure and the information he provided to his successor, Condoleezza Rice. At the time, <mask> was also acting as an informal foreign policy advisor to Senator John Kerry during his campaign for the presidency. He quit his advisory role after controversy arose regarding his preparations for testifying before the September 11 committee. <mask> was also Chairman of the D.B.Zwirn Global Advisory Board, an international investment fund and merchant capital provider founded in 2001 and with offices throughout North America, Europe and Asia. <mask> was an advisory board member for the Partnership for a Secure America, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to recreating the bipartisan center in American national security and foreign policy. He also served on the International Advisory Council of the Brookings Doha Center. <mask> served as a foreign policy adviser to Senator Hillary Clinton in her 2008 presidential campaign. <mask> served on the Board of Directors of the International Crisis Group and World Food Program USA, and also on the Advisory Boards of the National Security Network, and America Abroad Media. Personal life and death
<mask> lived in the American University Park neighborhood of Washington, D.C., was married to Susan Harrison <mask>, and had three children. <mask> died of cancer in Washington, D.C., on December 2, 2015, at the age of 70, more than a year after being diagnosed.President Barack Obama released the following statement on learning of <mask>'s death:

Awards
In November 2015, <mask> was awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun by the Japanese government for his contributions to promotion of a strong and friendly relationship between the United States and Japan, particularly in his role as National Security Adviser to President Clinton. He also provided legal and commercial advice to the Embassy of Japan in Washington, D.C.

On December 1, 2015, World Food Program USA announced that it has given its inaugural Global Humanitarian Award to Samuel R<mask> in recognition of his decades of leadership helping families in need across the globe. Additionally, the World Food Program USA established the Samuel R. Berger Humanitarian Fund, which will support humanitarian organizations as they work to eradicate hunger around the world. In 2000, <mask> was presented with an honorary degree  from Tel Aviv University in Israel. See also
 History of the United States National Security Council 1993–present
 Iraq disarmament timeline 1990–2003
 Mary McCarthy (CIA)

References

External links

 United States National Security Council page at the White House website
 Report on <mask> (PDF), Office of the Inspector General, National Archives and Records Administration

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1945 births
2015 deaths
American male criminals
American foreign policy writers
American male non-fiction writers
American lobbyists
American political consultants
American political commentators
Deaths from cancer in Washington, D.C.
Clinton administration personnel
Cornell University alumni
Disbarred American lawyers
Harvard Law School alumni
Jewish American government officials
New York (state) Democrats
New York (state) lawyers
People from Millerton, New York
United States National Security Advisors
Millennium attack plots
United States Deputy National Security Advisors

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