title: John McCain

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 like to send condolences to his family." In a TV interview, Senator Lindsey Graham said <mask>'s last words to him were "I love you, I have not been cheated."His daughter, Meghan <mask>, shared her grief, stating that she was present at the moment he died. At the 70th Primetime Emmy Awards, <mask> was recognized in the "In Memoriam" segment, right before Aretha Franklin. Many fans questioned the inclusion of <mask> in the segment because he wasn't known for television. He had, however, appeared in various television projects, including hosting and several cameo appearances on Saturday Night Live. He also made appearances on Parks and Recreation and 24. Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer (D-NY) announced that he would introduce a resolution to rename the Russell Senate Office Building after <mask>. A quarter peal of Grandsire Caters in memory of <mask> was rung by the bellringers of Washington National Cathedral the day following his death.Another memorial quarter peal was rung on September6 on the Bells of Congress at the Old Post Office in Washington. Reaction by Donald Trump

President Trump reportedly rejected the White House's plans to release a statement praising <mask>'s life, and he initially said nothing about <mask> himself in a tweet that extended condolences to <mask>'s family. In addition, the flag at the White House, which had been lowered to half-staff the day of <mask>'s death (August 25), was raised back to full-staff at 12:01 a.m. on August 27. Trump reportedly felt that media coverage of <mask>'s death was excessive given that <mask> was never president. In contrast with the White House's initial decision, many governors, both Democratic and Republican, had ordered flags in their states to fly at half-staff until <mask>'s interment, and Senate leaders Mitch McConnell and Chuck Schumer requested support from the Defense Department so that flags would be flown at half-staff on all government buildings. Following public backlash from the American Legion and AMVETS, Trump relented and ordered the White House flag back to half-staff later in the day on August 27. Trump belatedly issued a statement praising <mask>'s service to the country, and he signed a proclamation ordering flags to be flown at half-staff until <mask>'s interment at the Naval Academy Cemetery.In March 2019—seven months after <mask>'s death—Trump issued a series of public statements that criticized <mask> at least four times in five days. Trump also claimed that he approved <mask>'s funeral but was not thanked for it. However, the Washington National Cathedral responded that no governmental or presidential approval was needed for <mask>'s funeral because he was not a former president. <mask>'s lying in state was approved by the Senate, while Trump did approve the transport for <mask>'s body. Trump also described himself as having "got the job done" on the Veterans Choice Act while claiming <mask> failed on the same issue. However, <mask> was actually one of the two main authors of the bill, which President Barack Obama signed into law in 2014. Trump had signed the VA MISSION Act of 2018 (), an expansion of that law worked on by <mask> that includes <mask>'s name in its full title.Trump also claimed that <mask> graduated "last in his class", though <mask> was actually fifth from last. Political positions

Various advocacy groups have given <mask> scores or grades as to how well his votes align with the positions of each group. CrowdPac, which rates politicians based on donations made and received, gave Senator <mask> a score of 4.3C with 10C being the most conservative and 10L being the most liberal. The non-partisan National Journal rates a Senator's votes by what percentage of the Senate voted more liberally than him or her, and what percentage more conservatively, in three policy areas: economic, social, and foreign. For 2005–2006 (as reported in the 2008 Almanac of American Politics), <mask>'s average ratings were as follows: economic policy: 59 percent conservative and 41 percent liberal; social policy: 54 percent conservative and 38 percent liberal; and foreign policy: 56 percent conservative and 43 percent liberal. In 2012, the National Journal gave <mask> a composite score of 73 percent conservative and 27 percent liberal, while in 2013 he received a composite score of 60 percent conservative and 40 percent liberal. Columnists such as Robert Robb and Matthew Continetti used a formulation devised by William F. Buckley Jr. to describe <mask> as "conservative" but not "a conservative", meaning that while <mask> usually tended towards conservative positions, he was not "anchored by the philosophical tenets of modern American conservatism".Following his 2008 presidential election loss, <mask> began adopting more orthodox conservative views; the magazine National Journal rated <mask> along with seven of his colleagues as the "most conservative" Senators for 2010 and he achieved his first 100 percent rating from the American Conservative Union for that year. During Barack Obama's presidency, <mask> was one of the top five Republicans most likely to vote with Obama's position on significant votes; <mask> voted with Obama's position on such votes more than half the time in 2013 and was "censured by the Arizona Republican party for a so-called 'liberal' voting record". From the late 1990s until 2008, <mask> was a board member of Project Vote Smart which was set up by Richard Kimball, his 1986 Senate opponent. The project provides non-partisan information about the political positions of <mask> and other candidates for political office. Additionally, <mask> used his Senate website to describe his political positions. In his 2008 speech to the CPAC <mask> stated that he believed in "small government; fiscal discipline; low taxes; a strong defense, judges who enforce, and not make, our laws; the social values that are the true source of our strength; and, generally, the steadfast defense of our rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, which I have defended my entire career as God-given to the born and unborn." In his 2018 memoir The Restless Wave, <mask> described his views as such: "Last but not least, I was [at the time of entering Congress] a Republican, a Reagan Republican.Still am. Not a Tea Party Republican. Not a Breitbart Republican. Not a talk radio or Fox News Republican. Not an isolationist, protectionist, immigrant-bashing, scapegoating, get-nothing-useful-done Republican. Not, as I am often dismissed by self-declared 'real' conservatives, a RINO, Republican in Name Only. I'm a Reagan Republican, a proponent of lower taxes, less government, free markets, free trade, defense readiness, and democratic internationalism."Cultural and political image

<mask>'s personal character was a dominant feature of his public image. This image includes the military service of both himself and his family, the circumstances and tensions surrounding the end of his first marriage and beginning of second, his maverick political persona, his temper, his admitted problem of occasional ill-considered remarks, and his close ties to his children from both his marriages. <mask>'s political appeal was more nonpartisan and less ideological compared to many other national politicians. His stature and reputation stemmed partly from his service in the Vietnam War. He also carried physical vestiges of his war wounds, as well as his melanoma surgery. When campaigning, he quipped: "I am older than dirt and have more scars than Frankenstein." Writers often extolled <mask> for his courage not just in war but in politics, and wrote sympathetically about him.<mask>'s shift of political stances and attitudes during and especially after the 2008 presidential campaign, including his self-repudiation of the maverick label, left many writers expressing sadness and wondering what had happened to the <mask> they thought they had known. By 2013, some aspects of the older <mask> had returned, and his image became that of a kaleidoscope of contradictory tendencies, including as a Republican In Name Only or a "traitor" to his party  and, as one writer listed, "the maverick, the former maverick, the curmudgeon, the bridge builder, the war hero bent on transcending the call of self-interest to serve a cause greater than himself, the sore loser, old bull, last lion, loose cannon, happy warrior, elder statesman, lion in winter." In his own estimation, <mask> was straightforward and direct, but impatient. His other traits included a penchant for lucky charms, a fondness for hiking, and a sense of humor that sometimes backfired spectacularly, as when he made a joke in 1998 about the Clintons that was widely deemed not fit to print in newspapers: "Do you know why Chelsea Clinton is so ugly? – Because Janet Reno is her father." <mask> subsequently apologized profusely, and the Clinton White House accepted his apology. <mask> did not shy away from addressing his shortcomings, and he apologized for them.He was known for sometimes being prickly and hot-tempered with Senate colleagues, but his relations with his own Senate staff were more cordial, and inspired loyalty towards him. He formed a strong bond with two senators, Joe Lieberman and Lindsey Graham, over hawkish foreign policy and overseas travel, and they became dubbed the "Three Amigos". <mask> acknowledged having said intemperate things in years past, though he also said that many stories have been exaggerated. One psychoanalytic comparison suggested that <mask> was not the first presidential candidate to have a temper, and cultural critic Julia Keller argued that voters want leaders who are passionate, engaged, fiery, and feisty. <mask> employed both profanity and shouting on occasion, although such incidents became less frequent over the years. Lieberman made this observation: "It is not the kind of anger that is a loss of control. He is a very controlled person."Senator Thad Cochran, who knew <mask> for decades and had battled him over earmarks, expressed concern about a <mask> presidency: "He is erratic. He is hotheaded. He loses his temper and he worries me." Yet Cochran supported <mask> for president when it was clear he would win the nomination. The Chicago Tribune editorial board called <mask> a patriot, who although sometimes wrong was fearless, and that he deserves to be thought of among the few US senators in history, whose names are more recognizable than some presidents. All <mask>'s family members were on good terms with him, and he defended them against some of the negative consequences of his high-profile political lifestyle. His family's military tradition extends to the latest generation: son <mask> IV ("Jack") graduated from the U.S.Naval Academy in 2009, becoming the fourth generation <mask><mask> to do so, and is a helicopter pilot; son James served two tours with the Marines in the Iraq War; and son Doug flew jets in the navy. His daughter Meghan became a blogging and Twittering presence in the debate about the future of the Republican Party following the 2008 elections, and showed some of his maverick tendencies. In 2017 Meghan joined the cast of the popular ABC talk show The View as a co-host. Senator <mask> himself also appeared as a guest on the program. <mask> appeared in several television shows and films while he was a sitting senator. He made uncredited cameo appearances in Wedding Crashers and 24 and had two uncredited cameos in Parks and Recreation. <mask> also hosted Saturday Night Live in 2002 and appeared in two episodes in 2008.Awards and honors

In addition to his military honors and decorations, <mask> was granted a number of civilian awards and honors. In 1997, Time magazine named <mask> as one of the "25 Most Influential People in America". In 1999, <mask> shared the Profile in Courage Award with Senator Russ Feingold for their work towards campaign finance reform. The following year, the same pair shared the Paul H. Douglas Award for Ethics in Government. In 2005, The Eisenhower Institute awarded <mask> the Eisenhower Leadership Prize. The prize recognizes individuals whose lifetime accomplishments reflect Dwight D. Eisenhower's legacy of integrity and leadership. In 2006, the Bruce F. Vento Public Service Award was bestowed upon <mask> by the National Park Trust.The same year, <mask> was awarded the Henry M. Jackson Distinguished Service Award by the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs, in honor of Senator Henry M. "Scoop" Jackson. In 2007, the World Leadership Forum presented <mask> with the Policymaker of the Year Award; it is given internationally to someone who has "created, inspired or strongly influenced important policy or legislation". In 2010, President Mikheil Saakashvili of Georgia awarded <mask> the Order of National Hero, an award never previously given to a non-Georgian. In 2015, the Kyiv Patriarchate awarded <mask> its own version of the Order of St. Vladimir. In 2016, Allegheny College awarded <mask>, along with Vice President Joe Biden, its Prize for Civility in Public Life. In August 2016, Petro Poroshenko, the President of Ukraine, awarded <mask> with the highest award for foreigners, the Order of Liberty. In 2017, Hashim Thaçi, the President of Kosovo, awarded <mask> the "Urdhër i Lirisë" (Order of Freedom) medal for his contribution to the freedom and independence of Kosovo, and its partnership with the U.S. <mask> also received the Liberty Medal from the National Constitution Center in 2017.In the spring of 2018 <mask> was decorated with the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun from the Japanese Emperor for 'strengthening bilateral relations and promoting friendship between Japan and the United States'. <mask> received several honorary degrees from colleges and universities in the United States and internationally. These include ones from Colgate University (LL.D 2000), The Citadel (DPA 2002), Wake Forest University (LL.D May 20, 2002), the University of Southern California (DHL May 2004), Northwestern University (LL.D June 17, 2005), Liberty University (2006), The New School (2006), and the Royal Military College of Canada (D.MSc June 27, 2013). He was also made an Honorary Patron of the University Philosophical Society at Trinity College Dublin in 2005. On July 11, 2018, , originally named in honor of the Senator's father and grandfather, was rededicated in the Senator's name also. On November 29, 2017, the Phoenix City Council unanimously voted to name Terminal 3 at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport in Honor of the Senator which opened on January 7, 2019, after his death in August 2018. On April 4, 2019, the Kyiv City Council renamed a street that had previously been named after the NKVD agent Ivan Kudria to "<mask> Street".Electoral history

Works

Books
 Faith of My Fathers by <mask>, Mark Salter (Random House, August 1999)  (later made into the 2005 television film Faith of My Fathers)
 Worth the Fighting For by <mask>, Mark Salter (Random House, September 2002)
 Why Courage Matters: The Way to a Braver Life by <mask>, Mark Salter (Random House, April 2004)
 Character Is Destiny: Inspiring Stories Every Young Person Should Know and Every Adult Should Remember by <mask>, Mark Salter (Random House, October 2005)
 Hard Call: Great Decisions and the Extraordinary People Who Made Them by <mask>, Mark Salter (Hachette, August 2007)
 Thirteen Soldiers: A Personal History of Americans at War by <mask>, Mark Salter (Simon & Schuster, November 2014)
 The Restless Wave: Good Times, Just Causes, Great Fights, and Other Appreciations by <mask>, Mark Salter (Simon

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title: John McCain

type: original

texts:
 & Schuster, May 2018)

Articles and forewords
 "How the POW's Fought Back", by <mask><mask> III, Lieut. Commander, U.S. Navy, U.S. News & World Report, May 14, 1973 (reprinted for web under different title in 2008). Man of the People: The Life of <mask> (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey 2002). .
 Brock, David and Waldman, Paul. Free Ride: <mask> and the Media (Anchor Books, New York 2008). .
 Drew, Elizabeth. <mask> (Simon & Schuster, New York 2002). .
 Feinberg, Barbara Silberdick. <mask>: Serving His Country (Millbrook Press, Brookfield, Connecticut 2000). .
 Hubbell, <mask>. P.O.W.: A Definitive History of the American Prisoner-Of-War Experience in Vietnam, 1964–1973 (Reader's Digest Press, New York 1976). .
 Karaagac, <mask>. <mask>: An Essay in Military and Political History (Lexington Books, Lanham, Maryland 2000). .
 <mask>, <mask> and Salter, Mark, Faith of My Fathers (Random House, New York 1999). .
 <mask>, <mask> and Salter, Mark. Worth the Fighting For (Random House, New York 2002). .
 Rochester, Stuart I. and Kiley, Frederick. Honor Bound: American Prisoners of War in Southeast Asia, 1961–1973 (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland 1999). .
 Schecter, Cliff. The Real McCain: Why Conservatives Don't Trust Him and Why Independents Shouldn't (PoliPoint Press, Sausalito, California 2008). .
 Timberg, Robert. <mask>: An American Odyssey (Touchstone Books, New York 1999). . Chapter 1 available online. Timberg, Robert.The Nightingale's Song (Simon & Schuster, New York 1996). . Chapter 1 available online. Welch, Matt. <mask>: The Myth of a Maverick (Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2007). . External links

 Senator <mask> official U.S. Senate website
 <mask> for Senate
 Sean Wilentz: <mask>. In: Encyclopædia Britannica, February 15, 2018

 Gates, H.L. <mask>'s Interactive Family Tree. PBS.February 11, 2016. Accessed February 17, 2017

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1936 births
2018 deaths
20th-century American Episcopalians
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
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<mask> family
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Sons of the American Revolution
United States Naval Academy alumni
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United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War
United States senators from Arizona
Vietnam War prisoners of war
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title: Violet Vanbrugh

texts:
<mask> (11 June 1867 – 10 November 1942), born <mask>, was an English actress who had a career spanning more than 50 years. Despite her many successes, her career was overshadowed by that of her more famous sister <mask>. Vanbrugh studied acting and made her professional debut in an 1886 burlesque. The same year, she made her West End theatre debut and then travelled to Margate to play leading roles in four of Shakespeare's plays. In 1889 she joined the Kendals at the Royal Court Theatre and on tour in the US Two years later, back in London, she joined Henry Irving and Ellen Terry in their famous Shakespeare company at the Lyceum Theatre. In 1893, she appeared opposite her husband Arthur Bourchier at Daly's Theatre and soon became his leading lady at the Royalty Theatre and then at the Garrick Theatre, where Bourchier was lessee for the first six years of the 20th century. Vanbrugh returned to Shakespearean roles in 1906 at Stratford upon Avon, where she played Lady Macbeth to her husband's Macbeth, and they soon starred together in Herbert Beerbohm Tree's London production of Henry VIII.They continued to play in Shakespeare and other pieces, and two films, through World War I, but their marriage ended in 1918. She continued acting steadily on stage and had some success in film in the 1930s, especially in Pygmalion in 1938. In her 50th season on stage, she starred in The Merry Wives of Windsor with her sister in London, and during The Blitz, they entertained at matinees. Her last film appearance was in 1940 in Young Man's Fancy. She died in London in 1942 at the age of 75. Biography
<mask> Mary Barnes was born in Exeter, England, the eldest of six children of the Rev Reginald Henry Barnes (1831–1889), Prebendary of Exeter Cathedral and Vicar of Heavitree, and his wife, Frances Mary Emily, née Nation. She was the elder sister of the actress <mask> and the theatrical educator Kenneth Barnes.She grew up in Exeter and was then educated in France and Germany. Early career
When <mask> decided to enter the acting profession, the actress Ellen Terry, a family friend, suggested that she should adopt the stage name Vanbrugh. <mask>'s early success encouraged Irene to follow her into the profession, and she too took the stage surname Vanbrugh. Both sisters enrolled at Sarah Thorne's school of acting, based at Margate, which gave them a thorough practical grounding. Irene recalled "We played every kind of play there; comedy, farce, and drama of the deepest dye; while at Christmas there came the pantomime, so that the Juliet of a week ago might be the Prince Paragon of the Yule-tide extravaganza." The sisters played together in As You Like It at the Theatre Royal, Margate, with <mask> in the lead role, Rosalind, and Irene in the smaller part of Phoebe. John Gielgud, a grand nephew of Ellen Terry, described the two:
The Vanbrugh sisters were remarkably alike in appearance.Tall and imposing, beautifully spoken, they moved with grace...They were elegantly but never ostentatiously dressed, entering and leaving the stage with unerring authority...<mask> never struck me as a natural comedienne, as Irene was. Ellen Terry helped <mask> land her first professional acting role in an 1886 burlesque, by F.C. Burnand, Faust and Loose, at Toole's Theatre. The same year, she made her West End theatre debut as Ellen in The Little Pilgrims. She then toured and also returned to Toole's, playing several roles until 1887 including Lady Anne in The Butler. Returning to Margate later that year, she appeared in Shakespeare's Hamlet as Ophelia, in A Midsummer Night's Dream as Helena, in As You Like It as Rosalind and in The Merchant of Venice as Portia. In London in 1888, she played Gertrude in the Deputy Registrar.In 1889, she joined the Kendals at the Royal Court Theatre as Lady Gillingham in The Weaker Sex, and at the end of the year travelled with them to the US, where she played Lady Ingram in the comedy A Scrap of Paper and in dramas such as The Iron Master, Impulse and A White Lie and comedies such The Weaker Sex. Back in England in 1891, she joined Henry Irving and Ellen Terry at the Lyceum Theatre as Anne Boleyn in his successful revival of King Henry VIII. She also understudied Terry in several roles. Bourchier and later years

In 1893, she appeared together with Arthur Bourchier in Augustin Daly's production of Love in Tandem at Daly's Theatre, and the two married the following year. In 1895, Bourchier became lessee of the Royalty Theatre, and Vanbrugh became his leading lady in many productions, including The Chilli Widow, Mr and Mrs, Monsieur de Paris and The Queens Proctor. Bourchier, Vanbrugh and her sister Irene toured America beginning in 1897. Returning to England, Vanbrugh played the title role in Teresa, which Bourchier produced at the Metropole.After managing several productions with Charles Wyndham, Bourchier became lessee of the Garrick Theatre. Harold Acton described his childhood impression of Vanbrugh in Memoirs of an Aesthete: "Immensely tall, sedate, angular, sharp nosed, and dressed as another herbaceous border, she ate her supper haughtily, like a deaconess. I could not imagine...the hero embracing her: unless he were equally tall he would have to climb on a chair." In 1902, Vanbrugh and Bourchier had a child, Prudence Bourchier, who also became an actress, taking the stage name Vanbrugh. Over the six years of Bourchier's management at the Garrick, Vanbrugh starred in many of his productions, including The Bishop's Move, My Lady Virtue, Whitewashing Julia, The Arm of the Law and W. S. Gilbert's The Fairy's Dilemma (1904). Their production of The Walls of Jericho by Alfred Sutro in 1904, ran for a very successful 423 performances. In 1905, <mask> reprised her role of Portia in Bourchier's production of The Merchant of Venice and again in a command performance for King Edward at Windsor Castle.In 1906, at Stratford upon Avon, she played Lady Macbeth to her husband's Macbeth. Vanbrugh and Bourchier toured in 1908 in John Glayde's Honour and appeared together as King Henry and Queen Katherine in Sir Herbert Tree's successful production of Henry VIII, which was followed by Tree's silent film of the play. In 1913, she appeared in Mrs. Pomeroy's Reputation by Horace Annesley Vachell and Thomas Cobb at The Queen's Theatre. They then produced their own movie in Germany of scenes from Macbeth. They continued to play in Shakespeare and other pieces through World War I, but their marriage was becoming difficult. They toured together in 1916 but then separated and finally divorced in 1918. A contemporary later observed, "He treated her very much as Henry VIII treated Anne Boleyn – except he didn't quite cut off her head."Bourchier remarried a much younger actress, <mask> Kyrle Bellew, but Vanbrugh never remarried. Vanbrugh continued acting steadily until 1939, playing with much success in Thunder in the Air as Mrs Vexted in 1928. She also appeared in three further films during the 1930s, including Pygmalion (1938), together with Leslie Howard and Wendy Hiller. In her 50th season on stage, she starred in The Merry Wives of Windsor at The Ring Blackfriars (playing Mistress Ford to her sister's Mistress Page), and the Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park. Her last film appearance was in 1940 in Young Man's Fancy. During the Battle of Britain, the Vanbrugh sisters carried out what a biographer calls "a characteristic piece of war work" by giving, with Donald Wolfit, lunchtime performances of extracts from The Merry Wives of Windsor at the Strand Theatre. Vanbrugh died in London in 1942 at the age of 75.Notes

References

Vanbrugh biography at the Stage Beauty website
Profile "<mask>rugh Edwardian Actress" at the About Postcards site

External links

Photos of Vanbrugh, especially in Shakespeare roles at the Shakespeare and the Players site
NY Times review of Vanbrugh and Bourchier
NPG gallery of portraits of Vanbrugh

English stage actresses
English film actresses
English silent film actresses
1867 births
1942 deaths
20th-century English actresses

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title: Franz Karl Delavilla

texts:
<mask> (6 December 1884 – 2 August 1967) was an Austrian-German graphic artist, illustrator, designer and art professor. Education
Born in Vienna, <mask> first received a one-year apprenticeship at the  and then was a pupil at the K.K. Technical College for Textile Industry Vienna from 1901 to 1903. In 1903, he won the 1st prize for the best work in drawing at the competition of the 'Niederösterreichischer Gewerbeverein'. From 1903 to 1908, he was a state scholarship holder at the University of Applied Arts Vienna of the K.K. Austrian Museum of Art and Industry, where he was taught by Carl Otto Czeschka and Bertold Löffler, among others. From 1907, he got first commissions for applied arts and from the same year he worked at the "Wiener Werkstätte", a production association of visual artists, which existed from 1904 until 1932.Designs for jewellery, fashion, stage designs, posters, cards for various occasions and the illustration of books were his metier. From 1908, the workshop held an annual art show, where <mask>'s works were also shown. Teaching activity until 1944
In 1908/09, <mask> held a teaching post at the  and from 1909 to 1913, at the University of Fine Arts of Hamburg. From 1913 to 1920, he was head of the class for "free graphics and surface art" at the school of arts and crafts of the Mitteldeutsche Kunstgewerbeverein of the  in Frankfurt. In 1914, he was awarded the "Goldenen Preis" of the International Exhibition for Book Trade and Graphics in Leipzig and in the same year he participated in the Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne. From 1917 until 1933, <mask> worked as a part-time scenic designer in Frankfurt and Darmstadt. In 1919, he was also a member of the Dresden Secession.In 1922, he became a teacher at the Städelschule in Frankfurt and led the lithography class. In 1923, he was appointed professor. In 1936, he and his colleagues Hugo Bäppler and Albert Windisch accepted a commission from the Ministry of the Reichswehr and designed with a class common rooms of the newly built Olympisches Dorf in Berlin. For this design with Merkbilder of the German landscape, he and his group received an Olympic Medal from Adolf Hitler. In 1943, he took part in the exhibition  in Vienna, organised by Reichsleiter Baldur von Schirach and thus came under the criticism of conservative Nazi circles. In 1944, he was released into early retirement. Post-war activity
During World War II, <mask>'s Frankfurt studio with many of his works burned down.Awards which he had received during the Nazi era prevented his application for Wiedergutmachung after the war. In 1946, he was reinstated as professor at the Städelschule and retired for good in 1950. In 1955, he was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit. In 1959, he was awarded the  and the Goethe-Plakette des Landes Hessen. <mask> died in Frankfurt at the age of 82. His grave is located on the Frankfurt Main Cemetery. In 2004, the Kronberg Gallery exhibited some of his works.Publications
 Arthur Roessler: Der Dialog vom Pierrot und andere Essays, Vienna: <mask> [1907] (Umschlag/Titelbild von Delavilla)
 Des Freiherrn von Münchhausen Abenteuer und Reisen; newly edited by Alois Th. Schlagbrandtner. Buchschmuck von <mask>. <mask>, Vienna: Graeser & Kie., ca. 1910
 Unser Hamburg. Ed. by the Journalists' and Writers' Association for Hamburg, Altona and the surrounding area. With book decoration by F. K<mask>, Hamburg 1911, 116 p. (auch weitere Auflagen)
 Kriegsbilderbogen Deutscher Künstler, Mappe III, Munich: Goltz-Verlag 1915
 Die Reise zum Meer.fairy tales by  and headpieces by F. K<mask>, Weimar: Kiepenheuer 1915, 95 p.
 Gottfried Gurcke: Hamburger Fibel bearbeitet von W.Böhling, J.Spiering und A.Winckler. Pictures byF. K. <mask>. Schreibschrift von Chr.Seemann, 244. neubearbeitete Auflage, Hamburg: Otto Meißner, 1917
 Deutsche Bühne. Jahrbuch der Frankfurter Städtischen Bühnen. Edited by Georg J. Plotke on behalf of the Generalintendanz . Vol.1: Spielzeit 1917/1918. Mit 6 (1 farb.) Taf. (m. Bühnenbild-Entwürfen v. Delavilla u. a.) u. 7 Abb.im Text, Frankfurt: Rütten & Loening 1919, 4 vol., 402 p.
 Clara Berg: Schnurli-Butzli und andere deutsche Märchen mit Bildern K. F. Delavilla, Frankfurt: Englert und Schlosser, 20.–30. Tausend, ca. 1925, 123 p.
 : Bundschuh flieg! Ein Zeitbild vom großen Bauernaufstand im Jahre 1525. With pictures by F. K. <mask>, Stuttgart: Loewe 1936, 3rd edition 1942

Further reading
 Jung-Wien. Ergebnisse aus der Wiener-Kunstgewerbe-Schule. Entwürfe zu Architekturen und Flächen-Dekorationen junger Wiener Künstler.Architekturen und Modelle, Gartenanlagen, Innen-Räume, Möbel, Plastiken, ferner Plakate, Malereien, Keramiken, Studien und dekorative Holzschnitte, ornamentale Schriften, Vorsatzpapiere und Tapeten, Webereien und Stickereien. Darmstadt: A. Koch 1905, 71 p.
 Die Kunst. Monatshefte für freie und angewandte Kunst, vol. 40: Angewandte Kunst der "Dekorativen Kunst", Jg. 22., Munich: F. Bruckmann 1919 (with a contribution about the stage design and equipment of Delavilla). Oskar Fischel: Das moderne Bühnenbild, Berlin: Wasmuth (1923), 142 p.
 Delavilla, <mask>. In Hans Vollmer (ed. ): Allgemeines Lexikon der bildenden Künstler des XX.Jahrhunderts. Vol. 1: A–D. E. A. Seemann, Leipzig 1953, p. 537. Jugendstilpostkarten. Ed. and with an epilogue by H. Dichand.With a biographical appendix of the performing artists by M. Martischnig. Gütersloh: Buchgemeinschaft (ca. 1980), 174 p. (with plans by Delavilla)
 <mask> <mask>: Bühnenbildentwürfe zur Uraufführung des "Urfaust", Frankfurt 1918, in Hofmannsthal-Blätter, issue 30, Autumn 1984, pp. 60 f.
 Werner J. Schweiger: Bilderbogen der Wiener Werkstätte, Vienna: Ed. Brandstätter 1986. Werner J. Schweiger, Die Wiener Werkstätte. Kunst und Handwerk 1903–32, 1982.Constanze Neuendorf-Müller: <mask> <mask> (1884–1967), Maler, Graphiker, Kunstgewerbler und Bühnenbildner, Diss. Frankfurt, 1998. References

External links

Austrian illustrators
German illustrators
Wiener Werkstätte
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
1884 births
1967 deaths
Artists from Vienna

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title: Willi Baumeister

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<mask> (22 January 1889 – 31 August 1955) was a German painter, scenic designer, art professor, and typographer. His work was part of the art competitions at the 1928 Summer Olympics and the 1932 Summer Olympics. Life

Born in Stuttgart in 1889, Baumeister completed an apprenticeship as a decorative painter in his native city from 1905 to 1907, followed by military service (fall 1907–1908). During his apprenticeship, Baumeister also began art studies at the Stuttgart Art Academy (Königlich Württembergische Akademie) (1905–1906), attended Robert Poetzelberger’s drawing class, and took additional lessons from Josef Kerschensteiner. In 1906 he resumed his apprenticeship and, in 1907, completed the trade test. Following his military service, <mask> continued his studies at the art academy. Dismissed by his teacher Poetzelberger due to lack of talent, he switched into the composition class of Adolf Hölzel, with whom he studied until 1912, where he met his lifelong friend, Oskar Schlemmer.Baumeister took his first trip to Paris in 1911, successfully participated in a gallery exhibition in Zurich in 1912 and a year later participated in the Erster Deutscher Herbstsalon (First German Autumn Salon) in the Berlin gallery Der Sturm. There he met the expressionist painter Franz Marc. In 1914 <mask> had his first solo exhibition at Der Neue Kunstsalon (New Art Salon) in Stuttgart. In the same year, Adolf Hölzel arranged a commission for wall paintings at the Deutsche Werkbund-Ausstellung (German Werkbund Exhibition) in Cologne for <mask>, Schlemmer, and Herman Stenner. Prior to being drafted into the army in the summer of 1914 (until 1918), Baumeister travelled to Amsterdam, London, and Paris. During the war, Baumeister met the painter Oskar Kokoschka and the architect Adolf Loos in Vienna in 1915. In 1916 he participated in the exhibition Hölzel und sein Kreis (Hölzel and his Circle) at the Art Association in Freiburg im Breisgau, which was subsequently shown at the Ludwig Schames Art Salon in Frankfurt am Main.In 1918, still prior to being discharged from military service, he threw an exhibition with his friend Oskar Schlemmer at the Galerie Schaller in Stuttgart. <mask> and Schlemmer campaigned to bring Paul Klee to the Stuttgart Academy, which was rejected by the Academy. Klee, for his part, would have been willing to come. In 1919 <mask> became a member of the Berlin artist association Novembergruppe (November Group). The group was founded by Max Pechstein in 1918, immediately following Germany’s capitulation and the fall of the monarchy. It remained one of the most important alliances of German artists until 1933. In Stuttgart in 1919, <mask> took up the initiative with Schlemmer and other artists to found the artist group Üecht (Alemannic: genuine, true), which he left in 1921.In 1919 he produced his first stage design, which was followed by seventeen others. In 1920 <mask> completed his art studies, worked as an independent artist, and participated in exhibitions in Berlin, Dresden, and Hagen. His popularity and recognition abroad became evident in a joint exhibition with Fernand Léger in the Berlin gallery Der Sturm in 1922. During these years, Baumeister developed professional relationships with artists such as Paul Klee, Léger, Le Corbusier, Amédée Ozenfant, and Michel Seuphor. In 1924 several of his works were shown at the Erste Allgemeine Deutsche Kunstausstellung (First General German Art Exhibition) in Moscow and, in 1925, he participated in the Paris exhibition L’Art d’aujourd’hui (Art Today). Alongside his artistic work, he was also active in the area of commercial art and designed advertisements for numerous companies, such as Bosch and DLW (Deutsche Linoleumwerke)

In 1926 Baumeister married the painter Margarete Oehm (1898–1978) and was offered the opportunity to take part in the International Exhibition of Modern Art in New York, followed by a solo exhibition in Paris the following year, where he also participated in the Große Berliner Kunstausstellung (Great Berlin Art Exhibition) (with his own room), where he met Kasimir Malevich. In 1927 Baumeister accepted a teaching post at the Frankfurt School of Applied Arts, later known the Städel.There he taught from 1928 a class in commercial art, typography, and textile printing. That very year, his daughter was born. The following year he turned down a position at the Bauhaus in Dessau. A member of the ring neue werbegestalter (Circle of New Commercial Designers) (chairman: Kurt Schwitters) since 1927, Baumeister joined the artist association Cercle et Carré (Circle and Square) in 1930. In the same year, he received the Württemberg State Prize for the painting Line Figure. After "Cercle et Carré", he also became a member of the artist association "Abstraction-Création" in Paris. On 31 March 1933, following the National Socialist rise to power, <mask> was dismissed from his professorship at the Städel.His colleague Professor Albert Windisch and Wilhelm Biering continued his lessons. Thereafter Baumeister earned his living mainly from commercial art, he was still however able to travel to Switzerland, Italy, and France. In the same year, his daughter Felicitas was born. In 1936 he was introduced by  the Wuppertaler architect Heinz Rasch,  with whom he work during the 1924 Exhibition in Stuttgart, to Dr. Kurt Herberts, the owner of a varnish factory in Wuppertal. He began working for the company in 1937, joining other artists ostracized by the National Socialist regime: Franz Krause, Alfred Lörcher, Georg Muche, and Oskar Schlemmer, and the art historian Hans Hildebrandt. That year five of his works were shown in the National Socialist exhibition Entartete Kunst (Degenerate art) in Munich. Until 1941, when a ban on his paintings and exhibitions was issued by the National Arts Chamber, Baumeister still had many opportunities to exhibit his works abroad in Europe.Despite the prohibition and the constant surveillance, he still worked at the Herberts varnish factory, as well as on his art. In 1943, when a bomb attack rendered Wuppertal as well as <mask>’s house in Stuttgart uninhabitable, he moved with his family to Urach in the Swabian Alps. In 1945, after the end of the Second World War, Baumeister completed his book Das Unbekannte in der Kunst (The Unknown in Art), which was only published in 1947, even though he had completed the manuscript in 1943–44. In 1946 he received the position to teach a class in decorative paintings at the Stuttgart Academy of Arts and in 1947 resumed his exhibition activities. In 1949 he became the co-founder of the artist group Gegenstandlose (The Group of Nonrepresentational Artists), which threw its first exhibition called ZEN 49 in 1950. Here <mask> met Fritz Winter, Ernst Wilhelm Nay, Paul Fontaine, and many others who worked in the field of fine arts after the end of the war and the dictatorship in Germany  to forge a new beginning and connection to international developments. In his participation in the Erstes Darmstädter Gespräch (First Darmstadt Dialogue) in July 1950, at the exhibition Das Menschenbild in unserer Zeit (The Human Image of Our Time), <mask> defended modern art against Hans Sedlmayr's thesis of a "loss of the center" ("Verlust der Mitte").Until his death in 1955, <mask> stood at the peak of his artistic career, which was demonstrated by his participation in many national and international exhibitions such as the Venice Biennale in 1948, the São Paulo Biennale (Brazil) in 1951 (where he received a prize for his painting Cosmic Gesture), and Younger European Artists at the Guggenheim Museum in New York in 1953. In 1955 <mask> <mask> retired (emeritus) from the Stuttgart Art Academy, although he still received a teaching contract for the following semester. On 31 August 1955, he died sitting with his brush in his hand in his atelier in Stuttgart. Work

<mask> took part in his first exhibition in 1910, showing figurative works inspired by impressionism. His chief interest was even at this time already in cubism and Paul Cézanne, whose work remained important to him throughout his life. These influences of impressionism and cubism that shaped <mask>’s early paintings played an essential role in his work until the end of the 1920s. On the one hand, his representational painting was increasingly reduced (abstracting and geometric) as it gained form and lost depth.Parallel to the paintings of his friend Oskar Schlemmer, Baumeister’s independent exploration of form and color emerged. Already around 1919, his teacher Adolf Hölzel wrote to him: "Out of all of us, you will be the one who will achieve the most." Also worth noticing is that the idiosyncratic German path into modernism, expressionism, barely resonates at all in <mask>’s work, even though he had met, for instance, Franz Marc earlier on, and was certainly acquainted with the works of the Brücke (Bridge) artists and those of the Blaue Reiter (Blue Rider). After his return from the First World War, Baumeister rigorously developed his work further. Although one still finds figurative elements in his paintings, the forms grew increasingly geometric and took on a dynamic of their own, and Baumeister broke the traditional connection between form and color. Various work groups emerged at this time, including the relief-like wall pictures, and paintings with sports theme (as a symbol for modernity). In his painting, the grappling with shapes and material of the painting as well as the relationship between reality and representation became visible.Parallel to this development, nonrepresentational painting began to gain a foothold in works that centered on geometric shapes and their relationships to one another in the picture (e.g. Planar Relation of 1920). <mask>’s lively exchange with other German and foreign artists must also be seen as vitally important in the consequent development of his work. Indeed, as it was for many of his fellow artists, posing such questions was part of the agenda of the modern age (for example, El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Wassily Kandinsky, Fernand Léger, Amédée Ozenfant, Le Corbusier, Paul Klee). Towards the end of the 1920s, the shapes in Baumeister’s pictures grew softer. His paintings moved away from being oriented by the elementary shapes of the circle, triangle, and square towards organic forms. Although this development could also be observed concurrently in the work of other artists of his time, in Baumeister’s case, it was tied to his fascination for the prehistoric and archaic paintings.Baumeister intensely explored artifacts of early paintings and integrated this

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title: Willi Baumeister

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 pictorial experience into his own painting. He identified the symbols, signs, and figures of cave painting as components of a valid archaic pictorial language that he used in his works. These included his increasing number of paintings in "oil on sand on canvas" that, in their materials, also approached the cave painting that Baumeister so admired (beg. ca. 1933). He himself collected examples of prehistoric findings, small sculptures, and tools, and occupied himself with cliff drawings that had been discovered in Rhodesia. This experience was undoubtedly important for <mask>’s artistic disposition since he, evidently inspired by this rich store of prehistoric works, ultimately used extraordinarily reduced organic shapes for his "ideograms" (beg.ca. 1937). In these works he used a unique world of signs, which he saw as symbols for the laws of nature, their evolution, and human existence. <mask>’s artistic development was not interrupted when he lost his professorship at the Städel in Frankfurt in 1933. He continued to paint despite political persecution and economic difficulties. His work and its development are correspondingly diverse, even for the period after 1941, when he banned from exhibiting. He was the employed by the Dr. Kurt Herberts & Co. varnish factory in Wuppertal to research antique and modern painting techniques.This protected him politically and also  gave him the opportunity to explore the fundamentals of painting. In this way he furthered his knowledge on prehistoric cave painting techniques. At the same time, he looked into Goethe’s theory of plant morphology. Out of this study this "eidos pictures" (eidos: idea) emerged: paintings that, unlike <mask>’s ideograms, are rich in their variety and coloration. Moreover, these forms are organic, but seem rather than being symbols or signs, are images of simple plantlike and animal life forms. The pictures bear titles such as Rock Garden, Eidos, or Primordial Vegetable. As an indefatigable researcher and collector, <mask> also owned examples of African sculpture, in which he, as in the case of the prehistorical artifacts, saw universal images for life, development, and human existence.Correspondingly, their formal language entered <mask>’s work in the early 1940s—highly abstracted, at first chromatically restrained (African Tale, 1942), and with time, became increasingly colorful and in part very complex in their formal design (Owambo 1944–1948). Both the titles and formal language reveal <mask>’s preoccupation with other old (Latin American) cultures (Peruvian Wall, 1946, and Aztec Couple, 1948). Another example of his search for the “foundations of art” is <mask>’s transposition of the Gilgamesh Epic, one of the oldest surviving literary works. Therefore, Baumeister used his personal pictorial and sign language in his illustration of the narrative (beg. 1943), which resulted in an astonishingly unified cycle, which  with his pictorial language came strikingly close to depicting the literary and linguistic effects(impression) of the epic. He also produced illustrations to texts from the Bible—Saul, Esther, Salome—as well as to <mask>’s The Tempest. In this way, Baumeister single-mindedly and successfully developed a very personal and impressive visual language that was and still is unique in the German art immediately after 1945.The national and international recognition that <mask> <mask> received in the postwar period was correspondingly high. But his artistic development did not stop there. On the one hand, he developed his painting further in a virtuosic manner and, what is more, combined the variety of his formation phases in many other pictures—in part into "overalls structures" that nonetheless still possessed a fundamental that was reminiscent of landscape imageries (Blue Movement, 1950). On the other hand, Baumeister also produced densely packed abstractions that, proceeding from a central form, characterized him as an outstanding "nonrepresentationalist." These paintings became quite possibly the most famous of his works, and were immediately associated by a broad public with Baumeister (e.g. ARU 2, 1955). Even so, Baumeister did not limit himself to this late "trademark."Multiform and multicoloured pictures emerged as well in the year of his death. Critical reception
Today, <mask>’s work still attracts a lot of attention, particularly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. In contrast to the "French classics" of Modernism, or the important American artists of the second half of the twentieth century, <mask> receives only a scant amount of attention in the Anglo-Saxon world. The quality of his work is undisputed. It is clear that while working in "domestic emigration" during the Nazi dictatorship, he had no influence on the vital artistic environment. After 1945 <mask> played an important role in the development of German and European art. Among the German painters who remained in the country despite the persecution by the National Socialists from 1933 to 1945, only a few succeeded in achieving such pioneering strides toward new contents and forms.Following World War II, he became a spokesman in the debate on Modernism. Regarded as an advocate of "abstract" painting, he was highly regarded by some, while strongly condemned by others. An important collection of <mask>’s works is preserved in the Willi Baumeister Archive, which is part of the Kunstmuseum Stuttgart, and in the Sammlung Domnick (Domnick Collection) in Nürtingen. <mask> <mask>. Tenerife: Ediciones Gaceta de Arte, 1934
 <mask>, <mask>. Das Unbekannte in der Kunst. Stuttgart, 1947; 2d ed.Cologne (Köln), 1960; 3d ed. Cologne, 1974; 4th ed. Cologne, 1988. (English: The Unknown in Art. Translated by Joann M. Skrypzak and with an essay by Tobias Hoffmann. Willi Baumeister Stiftung, Stuttgart, 2013
 Grohmann, Will. <mask> <mask>: Leben und Werk.Cologne [Köln], 1963. 1988 [1965, 1966??] Kermer, Wolfgang: Einige Aspekte der Kunstlehre Willi <mask>s. In: 175 Jahre Friedrich-Eugens-Gymnasium Stuttgart. Stuttgart: Belser, 1971, p. 126-152
 Haftmann, Werner. "Gilgamesch - Einführung." In: <mask> <mask>, Gilgamesch, 5-15.Cologne [Köln], 1976. Kermer, Wolfgang: Hommage à Baumeister: Klaus Bendixen, Karl Bohrmann, Peter Brüning, Bruno Diemer, Peter Grau, Klaus Jürgen-Fischer, Emil Kiess, Eduard Micus, Herbert Schneider, Peter Schubert, Friedrich Seitz, Ludwig Wilding. Exh. cat. Stuttgart: Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart, 1979
 Kermer, Wolfgang: Zur Kunstlehre Baumeisters: ein Vorschlag Baumeisters zur Reform des künstlerischen Elementarunterrichts aus dem Jahre 1949. Die Studierenden Willi Baumeisters an der Staatlichen Akademie der bildenden Künste Stuttgart 1946–1955. Verzeichnis der ″Didaktischen Tafeln″.Exhib. cat. <mask> <mask>: 1945–1955, Württembergischer Kunstverein Stuttgart, Cantz, Stuttgart 1979, pp 129–134, 147. Ponert, Dietmar J. <mask> Baumeister - Werkverzeichnis der Zeichnungen, Gouachen und Collagen. Dietmar J. Ponert in collaboration with Felicitas Karg-<mask>. Cologne [Köln]: DuMont, 1988. *
 Kermer, Wolfgang: <mask> <mask> - Typographie und Reklamegestaltung.Exh. cat. Stuttgart: Edition Cantz, 1989
 <mask>, Schlemmer und die Üecht-Gruppe: Stuttgarter Avantgarde 1919. Exh. cat. Stuttgart: Hugo Matthaes, 1989. <mask> <mask>, Lithographien / Serigraphien: 55 Werke der Zeit 1919 bis 1964.Galerie Schlichtenmaier, cat. no. 109. Grafenau: Galerie Schlichtenmaier, 1991
 Bruns, Jörg Heiko Willi Baumeister. Dresden: Verlag der Kunst, 1991. Kermer, Wolfgang: Der schöpferische Winkel: <mask> <mask>s pädagogische Tätigkeit. Ostfildern-Ruit: Edition Cantz, 1992 ( / ed.Wolfgang Kermer; 7)
 Boehm, Gottfried. <mask> <mask>. Stuttgart: Hatje, 1995
 Kermer, Wolfgang (ed. ): Aus Willi Baumeisters Tagebüchern: Erinnerungen an Otto Meyer-Amden, Adolf Hölzel, Paul Klee, Karl Konrad Düssel und Oskar Schlemmer. Mit ergänzenden Schriften und Briefen von <mask> <mask>. Ostfildern-Ruit: Edition Cantz, 1996 (Beiträge zur Geschichte der Staatlichen Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart / ed. Wolfgang Kermer; 8)
 Beye, Peter, and Felicitas <mask>.<mask> <mask>: Werkkatalog der Gemälde. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2002. Kermer, Wolfgang. <mask> <mask> und die Werkbund-Ausstellung "Die Wohnung" Stuttgart 1927. Stuttgart: Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart, 2003 (Beiträge zur Geschichte der Staatlichen Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart / ed. Wolfgang Kermer; 11)
 Spielmann, Heinz, and Felicitas <mask>. <mask> <mask>: Werkkatalog der Druckgraphik.Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005. <mask> <mask>: Figuren und Zeichen. Exh. cat. Hamburg, Münster, Wuppertal: Hatje Cantz, 2005. Schürle, Wolfgang, and Nicholas J. Conard, eds. Zwei Weltalter.Eiszeitkunst und die Bildwelt Willi Baumeisters. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005. Kermer, Wolfgang (ed. ): Über Baumeister: der Künstler und Lehrer im Urteil seiner Schüler. Stuttgart: Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart, 2006  / [Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart], ed. Wolfgang Kermer; 15)
 Im Rampenlicht: Baumeister als Bühnenbildner. Exh.cat. Munich and Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2007,
Chametzky, Peter. Objects as History in Twentieth-Century German Art: Beckmann to Beuys. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010. Quotations about <mask> <mask>

 "In my eyes, the name Baumeister takes an extremely important place among those of modern German artists." (Fernand Léger, 1949)
 "He was the most European of German painters." (Will Grohmann, 1959)
 "<mask> <mask>'s art belongs to the healthy, natural, appealing appearances."(Wassily Kandinsky, 1935)
 "You are going to have a future, with certainty." (Le Corbusier to Baumeister, 1931)

See also
 List of German painters

Sources
 Grohmann, Will. <mask> <mask>: Leben und Werk. 1963. Cologne [Köln]: DuMont. <mask> <mask>: Figuren und Zeichen. Exh.cat. Hamburg, Münster, Wuppertal. Stuttgart: Hatje Cantz, 2005. References

External links
 official <mask> Baumeister Website of the Baumeister Archive and Family, Stuttgart (in English, German, Spanish, Italian, and French) - includes numerous illustrations and photographs
 Stuttgart Art museum (in German)
 LEMO Biography (in German)
 Baumeister and Stuttgart (in German)
 Works at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

20th-century German painters
20th-century male artists
German male painters
Abstract painters
German scenic designers
German typographers and type designers
German art educators
German military personnel of World War I
Artists from Stuttgart
1889 births
1955 deaths
Olympic competitors in art competitions
German abstract

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title: Fulgencio Batista

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<mask> (; ; born Rubén Zaldívar, January 16, 1901 – August 6, 1973) was a Cuban military officer and politician who served as the elected president of Cuba from 1940 to 1944 and as its U.S.-backed military dictator from 1952 to 1959 before being overthrown during the Cuban Revolution. <mask> initially rose to power as part of the 1933 Revolt of the Sergeants, which overthrew the provisional government of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada. He then appointed himself chief of the armed forces, with the rank of colonel and effectively controlled the five-member "pentarchy" that functioned as the collective head of state. He maintained this control through a string of puppet presidents until 1940, when he was himself elected President of Cuba on a populist platform. He then instated the 1940 Constitution of Cuba and served until 1944. After finishing his term, <mask> moved to Florida, returning to Cuba to run for president in 1952. Facing certain electoral defeat, he led a military coup against President Carlos Prío Socarrás that pre-empted the election.Back in power and receiving financial, military and logistical support from the United States government, <mask> suspended the 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including the right to strike. He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners who owned the largest sugar plantations, and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans. Eventually it reached the point where most of the sugar industry was in U.S. hands, and foreigners owned 70% of the arable land. As such, <mask>'s repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships both with the American Mafia, who controlled the drug, gambling, and prostitution businesses in Havana, and with large U.S.-based multinational companies who were awarded lucrative contracts. To quell the growing discontent amongst the populace—which was subsequently displayed through frequent student riots and demonstrations—<mask> established tighter censorship of the media, while also utilizing his Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture and public executions. These murders mounted in 1957, as socialist ideas became more influential. Many people were killed, with estimates ranging from hundreds to about 20,000 people killed.Catalyzing the resistance to such tactics, for two years (December 1956 – December 1958) Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement and other rebelling elements led an urban- and rural-based guerrilla uprising against <mask>'s government, which culminated in his eventual defeat by rebels under the command of Che Guevara at the Battle of Santa Clara on New Year's Day 1959. <mask> immediately fled the island with an amassed personal fortune to the Dominican Republic, where strongman and previous military ally Rafael Trujillo held power. <mask> eventually found political asylum in Oliveira Salazar's Portugal, where he first lived on the island of Madeira and then in Estoril. He was involved in business activities in Spain and was staying there in Guadalmina at the time of his death from a heart attack on August 6, 1973. Early life

<mask> was born in the town of Veguita, located in the municipality of Banes, Cuba in 1901 to Belisario <mask> Palermo and Carmela Zaldívar González, who had fought in the Cuban War of Independence. He was of Spanish, African, Chinese, and possibly some Taíno descent. His mother named him Rubén and gave him her last name, Zaldívar.His father did not want to register him as a <mask>. In the registration records of the Banes courthouse, he was legally Rubén Zaldívar until 1939, when, as <mask> <mask>, he became a presidential candidate and it was discovered that this name did not exist in the birth certificates; he thus had to postpone the presentation of his candidacy and pay 15,000 pesos to the local judge. Both <mask>'s parents are believed to have been of mixed race and one may have had Indigenous Caribbean blood. <mask> was initially educated at a public school in Banes and later attended night classes at an American Quaker school. He left home at age 14, after the death of his mother. Coming from a humble background, he earned a living as a laborer in the cane fields, docks, and railroads. He was a tailor, mechanic, charcoal vendor and fruit peddler.In 1921, he traveled to Havana, and in April joined the army as a private. After learning shorthand and typing, <mask> left the army in 1923, working briefly as a teacher of stenography before enlisting in the Guardia Rural (rural police). He transferred back to the army as a corporal, becoming secretary to a regimental colonel. In September 1933, he held the rank of sergeant stenographer and as such acted as the secretary of a group of non-commissioned officers who led a "sergeants' conspiracy" for better conditions and improved prospects of promotion. 1933 coup

In 1933, <mask> led an uprising called the Sergeants' Revolt, as part of the coup that overthrew the government of Gerardo Machado. Machado was succeeded by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, who lacked a political coalition that could sustain him and was soon replaced. A short-lived five-member presidency, known as the Pentarchy of 1933, was established.The Pentarchy included a representative from each anti-Machado faction. <mask> was not a member, but controlled Cuba's armed forces. Within days, the representative for the students and professors of the University of Havana, Ramón Grau San Martín, was made president—and <mask> became the Army Chief of Staff, with the rank of colonel, effectively putting him in control of the presidency. The majority of the commissioned officer corps were forced to retire or, some speculate, were killed. Grau remained president for just over 100 days before <mask>, conspiring with the U.S. envoy Sumner Welles, forced him to resign in January 1934. Grau was replaced by Carlos Mendieta, and within five days the U.S. recognized Cuba's new government, which lasted eleven months. <mask> then became the strongman behind a succession of puppet presidents until he was elected president in 1940.After Mendieta, succeeding governments were led by José Agripino Barnet (five months) and Miguel Mariano Gómez (seven months) before Federico Laredo Brú ruled from December 1936 to October 1940. First presidency (1940–1944)

<mask>, supported by the Democratic Socialist Coalition which included Julio Antonio Mella's Communist Party, defeated Grau in the first presidential election under the new Cuban constitution in the 1940 election, and served a four-year term as President of Cuba, the first and to this day only, non-white Cuban in that office. <mask> was endorsed by the original Communist Party of Cuba (later known as the Popular Socialist Party), which at the time had little significance and no probability of an electoral victory. This support was primarily due to <mask>'s labor laws and his support for labor unions, with which the Communists had close ties. In fact, Communists attacked the anti-<mask> opposition, saying Grau and others were "fascists" and "reactionaries." During this term in office, <mask> carried out major social reforms and established numerous economic regulations and pro-union policies. Cuba entered World War II on the side of the Allies on December 9, 1941, declaring war on Japan two days after the attack on Pearl Harbor.On December 11, the <mask> government declared war on Germany and Italy. In December 1942, after a friendly visit to Washington, <mask> said Latin America would applaud if the Declaration by United Nations called for war with Francisco Franco's Spain,  calling the regime "fascist". Post-presidency
In 1944, <mask>'s handpicked successor, Carlos Saladrigas Zayas, was defeated by Grau. In the final months of his presidency, <mask> sought to handicap the incoming Grau administration. In a July 17, 1944, dispatch to the U.S. Secretary of State, U.S. Ambassador Spruille Braden wrote:

Shortly after, <mask> left Cuba for the United States. "I just felt safer there," he said.He divorced his wife, Elisa, and married Marta Fernández <mask> in 1945. Two of their four children were born in the United States. For the next eight years, <mask> remained in the background, spending time in the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City and a home in Daytona Beach, Florida. He continued to participate in Cuban politics, and was elected to the Cuban Senate in absentia in 1948. Returning to Cuba, he decided to run for president and received permission from President Grau, whereupon he formed the United Action Party. On taking power he founded the Progressive Action Party, but he never regained his former popular support, though the unions supported him until the end. Military coup and second presidency (1952–1959)

In 1952, <mask> again ran for president.In a three-way race, Roberto Agramonte of the Orthodox Party led in all the polls, followed by Carlos Hevia of the Authentic Party. <mask>'s United Action coalition was running a distant third. On March 10, 1952, three months before the elections, <mask>, with army backing, staged a coup and seized power. He ousted outgoing President Carlos Prío Socarrás, canceled the elections and took control of the government as a provisional president. The United States recognized his government on March 27. When asked by the U.S. government to analyze <mask>'s Cuba, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. said

The corruption of the Government, the brutality of the police, the government's indifference to the needs of the people for education, medical care, housing, for social justice and economic justice ... is an open invitation to revolution. Economy of Cuba
Upon his seizure of power, <mask> inherited a country that was relatively prosperous for Latin America.According to <mask>'s government, although a third of Cubans still lived in poverty, Cuba was one of the five most developed countries in the region. In the 1950s, Cuba's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was roughly equal to that of Italy at the time, although still only a sixth of that of the United States. Moreover, although corruption and inequality were rife under <mask>, Cuban industrial workers' wages rose significantly. In 1953, the average Cuban family only had an income of $6.00 a week, 15% to 20% of the labor force was chronically unemployed, and only a third of the homes had running water.. Despite this, according to the International Labour Organization, the average industrial salary in Cuba became the world's eighth-highest in 1958, and the average agricultural wage was higher than some European nations. Relationship with organized crime

Throughout the 1950s, Havana served as "a hedonistic playground for the world's elite", producing sizable gambling, prostitution and drug profits for the American mafia, corrupt law-enforcement officials, and their politically elected cronies. In the assessment of the Cuban-American historian Louis Perez, "Havana was then what Las Vegas has become."Relatedly, it is estimated that by the end of the 1950s the city of Havana had 270 brothels. In addition, drugs, be it marijuana or cocaine, were so plentiful at the time that one American magazine in 1950 proclaimed "Narcotics are hardly more difficult to obtain in Cuba than a shot of rum. And only slightly more expensive." As a result, the playwright Arthur Miller described <mask>'s Cuba in The Nation as "hopelessly corrupt, a Mafia playground, (and) a bordello for Americans and other foreigners." In a bid to profit from such an environment, <mask> established lasting relationships with organized crime, notably with American mobsters Meyer Lansky and Lucky Luciano, and under his rule Havana became known as "the Latin Las Vegas". <mask> and Lansky formed a friendship and business relationship that flourished for a decade. During a stay at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York in the late 1940s, it was mutually agreed that, in return for kickbacks, <mask> would give Lansky and the Mafia control of Havana's racetracks and casinos.After World War II, Luciano was paroled from prison on the condition that he permanently return to Sicily. Luciano secretly moved to Cuba, where he worked to resume control over American Mafia operations. Luciano also ran a number of casinos in Cuba with the sanction of <mask>, though the American government eventually succeeded in pressuring the <mask> government to deport him. <mask> encouraged large-scale gambling in Havana. In 1955, he announced that Cuba would grant a gaming license to anyone who invested US$1 million in a hotel or $200,000 in a new nightclub—and that the government would provide matching public funds for construction, a 10-year tax exemption, and waive duties on imported equipment and furnishings for new hotels. Each casino would pay the government $250,000 for the license, plus a percentage of the profits. The policy omitted background checks, as required for casino operations in the United States, which opened the door for casino investors with illegally obtained funds.Cuban contractors with the right connections made windfalls by importing, duty-free, more materials than needed for new hotels and selling the surplus to others. It was rumored that, besides the $250,000 to obtain a license, an additional "under the table" fee was sometimes required. Lansky became a prominent figure in Cuba's gambling operations, and exerted influence over <mask>'s casino policies. The Mafia's Havana Conference was held on December 22, 1946, at the Hotel Nacional de Cuba; this was the first full-scale meeting of American underworld leaders since the Chicago meeting in 1932. Lansky set about cleaning up the games at the Montmartre Club, which soon became the "place to be" in Havana. He also wanted to open a casino in the Hotel Nacional, the most elegant hotel in Havana. <mask> endorsed Lansky's idea over the objections of American expatriates such as Ernest Hemingway, and the renovated casino wing opened for business in 1955 with a show by Eartha Kitt.The casino was an immediate success. As the new hotels, nightclubs, and casinos opened, <mask> collected his share of the profits. Nightly, the "bagman" for his wife collected 10% of the profits at Santo Trafficante's casinos, the Sans Souci cabaret, and the casinos in the hotels Sevilla-Biltmore, Commodoro, Deauville, and Capri (partly owned by the actor George Raft). His take from the Lansky casinos—his prized Habana Riviera, the Hotel Nacional, the Montmartre Club, and others—was said to be 30%. Lansky was said to have personally contributed millions of

masks:
Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar
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title: Fulgencio Batista

texts:
 dollars per year to Batista's Swiss bank accounts. Support of U.S. business and government

In a manner that antagonized the Cuban people, the U.S. government used its influence to advance the interests of and increase the profits of the private American companies, which "dominated the island's economy". By the late 1950s, U.S. financial interests owned 90% of Cuban mines, 80% of its public utilities, 50% of its railways, 40% of its sugar production and 25% of its bank deposits—some $1 billion in total.According to historian Louis A. Pérez Jr., author of the book On Becoming Cuban, "Daily life had developed into a relentless degradation, with the complicity of political leaders and public officials who operated at the behest of American interests." As a symbol of this relationship, ITT Corporation, an American-owned multinational telephone company, presented <mask> with a Golden Telephone, as an "expression of gratitude" for the "excessive telephone rate increase", at least according to Senator John F. Kennedy, that <mask> granted at the urging of the U.S. government. Earl E.T. Smith, former U.S. Ambassador to Cuba, testified to the U.S. Senate in 1960 that, "Until Castro, the U.S. was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president." In addition, nearly "all aid" from the U.S. to <mask>'s government was in the "form of weapons assistance", which "merely strengthened the <mask> dictatorship" and "completely failed to advance the economic welfare of the Cuban people". Such actions later "enabled Castro and the Communists to encourage the growing belief that America was indifferent to Cuban aspirations for a decent life."According to historian and author James S. Olson, the U.S. government essentially became a "co-conspirator" in the arrangement because of <mask>'s strong opposition to communism, which, in the rhetoric of the Cold War, seemed to maintain business stability and a pro-U.S. posture on the island. Thus, in the view of Olson, "The U.S. government had no difficulty in dealing with him, even if he was a hopeless despot." On October 6, 1960, Senator John F. Kennedy, in the midst of his campaign for the U.S. presidency, decried <mask>'s relationship with the U.S. government and criticized the Eisenhower administration for supporting him:

<mask> <mask> murdered 20,000 Cubans in seven years ... and he turned Democratic Cuba into a complete police state—destroying every individual liberty. Yet our aid to his regime, and the ineptness of our policies, enabled <mask> to invoke the name of the United States in support of his reign of terror. Administration spokesmen publicly praised <mask>—hailed him as a staunch ally and a good friend—at a time when <mask> was murdering thousands, destroying the last vestiges of freedom, and stealing hundreds of millions of dollars from the Cuban people, and we failed to press for free elections. <mask>, Fidel Castro and the Cuban Revolution

On July 26, 1953, just over a year after <mask>'s second coup, a small group of revolutionaries attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago. Government forces easily defeated the assault and jailed its leaders, while many others fled the country.The primary leader of the attack, Fidel Castro, was a young attorney who had run for parliament in the canceled 1952 elections. Although Castro was never officially nominated, he felt that <mask>'s coup had sidetracked what would have been a promising political career for him. In the wake of the Moncada assault, <mask> suspended constitutional guarantees and increasingly relied on police tactics in an attempt to "frighten the population through open displays of brutality." <mask> held an election in 1954, running as the candidate of a political coalition that included the Progressive Action Party, the Radical Union Party and the Liberal Party. The opposition divided into abstentionists and electoralists. The abstentionists favored boycotting the elections regardless of the circumstances in which they were held, whereas the electoralists sought certain rights and guarantees to participate. The CIA had predicted that <mask> would use any means necessary to ensure he won the election.<mask> lived up to their expectations, utilizing fraud and intimidation to secure his presidency. This led most of the other parties to boycott the elections. Former President Ramón Grau San Martín, leading the electoralist factions of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, participated through the political campaign but withdrew from the campaign days before election day, charging that his supporters had been terrorized. Thus <mask> was elected president with the support of 45.6% of registered voters. Despite the boycott, Grau received the support of 6.8% of those who voted. The remaining voters abstained. By late 1955, student riots and anti-Batista demonstrations had become frequent, and unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.These were dealt with through increasing repression. All youth were seen as suspected revolutionaries. Due to its continued opposition to Batista and the large amount of revolutionary activity taking place on its campus, the University of Havana was temporarily closed on November 30, 1956 (it did not reopen until 1959 under the first revolutionary government). On March 13, 1957, student leader José Antonio Echeverría was killed by police outside Radio Reloj in Havana after announcing that <mask> had been killed in a student attack on the Presidential Palace. In reality, <mask> survived, and the students of the Federation of University Students (FEU) and the Directorio (DR) who led the attack were killed in the response by the military and police. Castro quickly condemned the attack, since July 26 Movement had not participated in it. In April 1956, <mask> called popular military leader Col. Ramón Barquín back to Cuba from his post as military attaché to the United States.Believing Barquín would support his rule, <mask> promoted him to General. However, Barquín's Conspiración de los Puros (Conspiracy of the Pure) was already underway and had already progressed too far. On April 6, 1956, Barquín led hundreds of career officers in a coup attempt, but was frustrated by Lieutenant Ríos Morejón, who betrayed the plan. Barquín was sentenced to solitary confinement for eight years on the Isle of Pines, while some officers were sentenced to death for treason. Many others were allowed to remain in the military without reprimand. The purge of the officer corps contributed to the inability of the Cuban army to successfully combat Castro and his guerrillas. <mask>'s police responded to increasing popular unrest by torturing and killing young men in the cities.However, his army was ineffective against the rebels based in the Sierra Maestra and Escambray Mountains. Another possible explanation for the failure to crush the rebellion was offered by author Carlos Alberto Montaner: "<mask> does not finish Fidel out of greed ... His is a government of thieves. To have this small guerrilla band in the mountains is to his advantage, so that he can order special defense expenditures that they can steal." <mask>'s rule became increasingly unpopular among the population, and the Soviet Union began to secretly support Castro. Some of <mask>'s generals also criticized him in later years, saying that <mask>'s excessive interference in his generals' military plans to defeat the rebels hampered Army morale and rendered all operations ineffective. In an effort to gather information about Castro's army, <mask>'s secret police pulled in people for questioning. Many innocent people were tortured by <mask>'s police, while suspects, including youth, were publicly executed as a warning to others who were considering joining the insurgency.Additionally, "Hundreds of mangled bodies were left hanging from lamp posts or dumped in the streets in a grotesque variation of the Spanish colonial practice of public executions." The brutal behavior backfired and increased support for the guerrillas. In 1958, 45 organizations signed an open letter supporting July 26 Movement, among them national bodies representing lawyers, architects, dentists, accountants, and social workers. Castro, who had originally relied on the support of the poor, was now gaining the backing of the influential middle classes. The United States supplied <mask> with planes, ships, tanks and the latest technology, such as napalm, which he used against the insurgency. However, in March 1958, the U.S. announced it would stop selling arms to the Cuban government. Soon after, the U.S. imposed an arms embargo, further weakening the government's position, although land owners and others who benefited from the government continued to support <mask>.Elections were scheduled for June 1958, as required by the Constitution, but were delayed until November 1958, when Castro and the revolutionaries called for a general strike and placed several bombs in civilian areas of the country. Three main candidates ran in the elections: Carlos Márquez Sterling of the Party of the Free People, former President Ramón Grau San Martín of the Cuban Revolutionary Party-Authentic, and Andrés Rivero Agüero of the government coalition. According to Carlos Márquez Sterling, all three were threatened by Castro, and several assassination attempts were made on both Ramón Grau San Martín and Carlos Márquez Sterling. On Election Day, estimates on the turnout range from 30 to 50% in the areas where voting took place, which did not include parts of Las Villas and Oriente, which were controlled by Castro. Márquez Sterling also stated that the initial results were favorable to him, but the military ordered the counting to stop as they changed the actual ballots for fraudulent ones. However, Grau San Martín, as he had previously done in the 1954 elections, withdrew his candidacy within a few hours of the election day. <mask> declared Rivero Agüero the winner.On December 11, 1958, U.S. Ambassador Earl Smith visited <mask> at his hacienda, Kuquine. There, Smith informed him that the United States could no longer support his government. <mask> asked if he could go to his house in Daytona Beach. The ambassador denied the request and suggested that he seek asylum in Spain instead. On December 31, 1958, at a New Year's Eve party, <mask> told his cabinet and top officials that he was leaving the country. After seven years, <mask> knew his presidency was over, and he fled the island in the early morning.At 3:00 a.m. on January 1, 1959, <mask> boarded a plane at Camp Columbia with 40 of his supporters and immediate family members and flew to Ciudad Trujillo in the Dominican Republic. A second plane flew out of Havana later in the night, carrying ministers, officers and the Governor of Havana. <mask> took along a personal fortune of more than $300 million that he had amassed through graft and payoffs. Critics accused <mask> and his supporters of taking as much as $700 million in fine art and cash with them as they fled into exile. As news of the fall of <mask>'s government spread through Havana, The New York Times described jubilant crowds pouring into the streets and automobile horns honking. The black and red flag of July 26 Movement waved on cars and buildings. The atmosphere was chaotic.On January 8, 1959, Castro and his army rolled victoriously into Havana. Already denied entry to the United States, <mask> sought asylum in Mexico, which also refused him. Portugal's leader António Salazar allowed him to settle there on the condition that he completely abstain from politics. Historians and primary documents estimate between hundreds and 20,000 Cubans were killed under the <mask> regime. Personal life

Marriages and children
<mask> married Elisa Godínez y Gómez (1900–1993) on July 10, 1926. They had three children: Mirta Caridad (1927–2010), Elisa Aleida (born 1933), and <mask> Rubén <mask> Godínez (1933–2007). By all accounts, she was devoted to him and their children throughout their marriage, and their daughter remembered them as a "happy, young couple" until their sudden divorce.Much to her surprise, he divorced her in October 1945 against her will in order to marry his longtime mistress Marta Fernandez Miranda. He married Marta Fernández Miranda (1923–2006) on November 28, 1945, shortly after his divorce became final, and they had five children: Jorge Luis (born 1942), Roberto Francisco (born 1947), Carlos Manuel (1950–1969), <mask> José (born 1953) and Marta María <mask> Fernández (born 1957). Extramarital affairs
<mask> was an inveterate philanderer who engaged in numerous extramarital affairs throughout his first marriage. He cheated on his first wife with multiple women, and his children eventually became aware of his relationships. His first wife, who supported her husband throughout his political career and found his philandering humiliating, never considered divorce and tolerated his multiple affairs. However, <mask> became enamored with a teenage schoolgirl, Marta Fernandez Miranda, who became his longtime mistress. He filed divorce papers shortly before his first grandchild was born.His first wife and their children were astounded and devastated by the divorce. In 1935, he fathered an illegitimate daughter, Fermina Lázara <mask> Estévez, whom he supported financially. Biographers suggest that <mask> may have fathered several more children out of wedlock. Death
After he fled to Portugal, <mask> lived in Madeira, then later in Estoril. He died of a heart attack on August 6, 1973, at Guadalmina, Spain, two days before a team of assassins from Castro's Cuba allegedly were planning to assassinate him. Marta Fernández Miranda de <mask>, <mask>'s widow, died on October 2, 2006. <mask>, her son, says that she died at her home in West Palm Beach, Florida.She had suffered from Alzheimer's disease. She was buried with her husband and son in the Cementerio Sacramental de San Isidro in Madrid. In popular culture
Actors who have portrayed <mask> in film include Tito Alba in The Godfather Part II (1974), Wolfe Morris in Cuba (1979) and Juan Fernández de Alarcón in The Lost City (2005). In literature and movies, <mask>'s regime is commonly referred to as the "greens" (opposite the Communist "reds"), because of the green uniforms his soldiers wore. In Cuban post-revolution books, documentaries and movies <mask>'s troops were are also referred to as the "helmets" or "casquitos" (in Spanish), because of the helmets they used. In Ubisoft's “Far Cry 6” it has been confirmed that  the antagonist dictator “El Presidente” Antón Castillo was heavily based on

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Roberto Batista
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