title: Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia

texts:
<mask> or <mask> (, Стјепан/Стефан Томашевић; died on 25 May 1463) was the last sovereign from the Bosnian Kotromanić dynasty, reigning as Despot of Serbia briefly in 1459 and as King of Bosnia from 1461 until 1463. <mask>'s father, King Thomas, had great ambitions for him. An attempt to expand into Croatia by marrying <mask> to a wealthy noblewoman failed, and negotiations for a marital alliance with the Sforzas of Milan were abandoned when a more prestigious opportunity presented itself: marriage to the heiress Maria of Serbia. Celebrated in April 1459, it made <mask> the ruler of the remnants of the neighbouring country. The intent was to unite the Kingdom of Bosnia and the Serbian Despotate under <mask> to combat the expanding Ottoman Empire. <mask>'s Catholicism made him unpopular in Orthodox Serbia. After ruling it for merely two months, he surrendered it to the encroaching Ottoman forces and fled back to his father's court, which earned him the contempt of the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus and other Christian rulers in Europe.<mask> succeeded his father on the throne following the latter's death in July 1461 and became the first Bosnian king to receive a crown from the Holy See. The kingdom's existence, however, was increasingly threatened by the Ottomans. King <mask> had the unanimous support of his noblemen in resistance to the Ottomans, but not of the common people. He maintained an active correspondence with Pope Pius II, who forgave him for the loss of Serbia and worked with him to preserve Bosnia for Christendom. The Hungarian king was placated, but all Western monarchs contacted by <mask> refused to assist him. Confident that at least Matthias would come to his aid, <mask> refused to deliver the customary tribute to the Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, which provoked an invasion. In May 1463, Mehmed marched into Bosnia, meeting little effective resistance, and captured <mask>, who was then beheaded.The execution marks the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia to the Ottoman Empire. Family
<mask> was born into the House of Kotromanić as one of the two known sons of the Bosnian prince Thomas by a commoner named Vojača. The other son died as an adolescent. <mask>'s father was an adulterine son of King Ostoja and a younger brother of Radivoj, who contested the rule of their cousin King Tvrtko II. Thomas was politically inactive and did not take part in the struggle between his brother and cousin, enabling his family to lead a quiet life in a period when the Ottomans tried to weaken the Kingdom of Bosnia by encouraging internal divisions. This all changed when the ailing and childless King Tvrtko II decreed that Thomas should succeed him. The King died shortly after, in November 1443, and <mask>'s father ascended the throne.King Thomas, raised as a member of the Bosnian Church, converted to Roman Catholicism in c. 1445; <mask> later stated that he had been baptized into the Roman Catholic Church as a child, and that he had been taught Latin letters. At about that time, likely in order to allow for a peaceful solution to his protracted war with the magnate Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, King Thomas requested from Pope Eugene IV an annulment of his union with <mask>'s mother. Open warfare ended in 1446 with the marriage of <mask>'s father to Kosača's daughter Catherine, by whom <mask> had a half-brother named Sigismund and a half-sister named Catherine. Marriage

In the 1450s, King Thomas vigorously searched for suitable spouses for the children from his first union. <mask>'s two sisters were married off in 1451, and in 1453 <mask> too entered his father's considerations. Wishing to gain control over the allodial land of Petar Talovac, who had governed Croatia proper as ban on behalf of the Hungarian king, Thomas attempted to have <mask> marry Talovac's widow, Hedwig Garai. Kosača too hastened to marry the wealthy widow, leading to an armed conflict, but neither prevailed due to an intervention by the Republic of Venice on behalf of Talovac's heirs.The earliest source mentioning <mask> by name dates from 30 April 1455, when Pope Callixtus III put the King of Bosnia and his son under his protection. King Thomas's ambitions for <mask> grew as he strived to establish closer relations with the Western world. In 1456, he asked the Pope to procure a bride for his son, specifying that she should be a princess from a royal house. Negotiations soon commenced about <mask>'s marriage to an illegitimate daughter of Francesco I Sforza, Duke of Milan, but <mask>'s father had greater expectations. When Lazar Branković, Despot of Serbia, died in 1458, an interregnum ensued. Having left three daughters and no sons, he had no clear heir, so the power was shared between his blinded brother <mask> and widow Helen Palaiologina. King Thomas took advantage of their weakness to recapture Eastern Bosnian towns he had lost to Serbia in 1445.Shortly afterwards, he entered peace negotiations with Lazar's widow, Helen Palaiologina. Abandoning the prospect of his son's marriage to a daughter of the Duke of Milan, Thomas came to an agreement with Helen: <mask> was to marry the eldest of her three daughters by Lazar, the  11-year-old Helen. The match was prestigious for <mask> not only because of the bride's descent from the Byzantine imperial family, but also because it brought the government of Serbia to the groom. The Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus agreed to <mask>'s engagement with Helen – it was in his interest to create a strong buffer zone between his realm and the Ottoman Empire by uniting the Kingdom of Bosnia and the Despotate of Serbia, which he considered Hungary's vassal states, under <mask>. The Diet of Hungary confirmed <mask>'s right to Serbia in January 1459. Despotism

<mask>, accompanied by his uncle Radivoj, duly set out for Serbia but narrowly escaped imprisonment during an Ottoman raid on the Bosnian royal residence of Bobovac. He arrived to Smederevo, capital of the Eastern Orthodox despotate, during the Holy Week of 1459, and ascended the Serbian throne on 21 March.Michael Szilágyi, regent for the underage King Matthias, arrived at the head of an army to ensure that command over the town's fortress would be assumed by <mask> without any difficulties. <mask>'s marriage to Helen took place on 1 April, the first Sunday following Easter. Following the presumably Catholic ceremony, the bride was known as Maria. He assumed the title of despot, despite the fact that the title was neither hereditary nor tied to a specific territory, but a grant from the Byzantine emperor. It is possible that his mother-in-law, a member of Byzantium's last imperial family, believed that she had the right to grant the title in the absence of an emperor. Within a week of the wedding, <mask> exiled his wife's uncle from Serbia. King Thomas boasted to the Duke of Milan that his son had been made despot "with the agreement and will of all the Rascians", but <mask>'s regime was not particularly popular; chroniclers writing about his treatment of his wife's uncle cursed him as a schismatic.It was clear from the onset that <mask>'s reign in Serbia would be short-lived. The Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror considered <mask>'s enthronement an unwarranted violation of his own rights, for the Ottomans too considered Serbia their vassal state. Mehmed promptly launched an attack on Smederevo in June, and there was no serious consideration of trying to defend it. King Thomas rushed to his son's aid, trying to divert the Turks by laying siege to their fortress of Hodidjed, in the middle of Bosnia. Aware that Smederevo could not withstand Mehmed's attack, <mask> surrendered the fortress on 20 June. The Ottoman proceeded to annex the rest of the Serbian state to their empire within a year. Following the fall of the town which Pope Pius II lamentably termed "the gateway to Rascia", <mask> fled to Bosnia with his family and in-laws, seeking refuge at the court of his father.The King of Hungary accused <mask> and his family of selling Smederevo Fortress to the Ottomans "for a great weight of gold", and the Pope at first believed him. Pius's own investigation appears to have come to the conclusion that <mask> did not sell the fortress, as the Pope did not repeat the claim. Ottoman, Bosnian and Serbian sources say nothing about the supposed betrayal, so the allegation is unlikely to be based on fact. The Serbian-born janissary Konstantin Mihailović and the Byzantine Greek scholar Laonikos Chalkokondyles maintained <mask>'s innocence and pointed out to the strength of the Ottoman army. Both state that the Serbs within Smederevo were so unhappy with Bosnian rule and convinced that the Ottomans would prevail (and grant them more religious tolerance than the Hungarians) that they went out to meet Mehmed and presented him with keys to the city. Kingship

Accession and coronation

King Thomas died in July 1461. According to later accounts, Thomas's death was plotted by <mask> and Radivoj, and even Matthias and Mehmed were implicated.Historians dismiss these allegations, however, pointing out that the King had been ill since June. <mask> ascended the throne without difficulty. He ensured that his uncle would not contest the succession by generously endowing him with land. The new monarch assumed the pompous title inherited from Tvrtko I, the first Bosnian king, styling himself as, "by the Grace of God, King of Serbia, Bosnia, the Maritime Lands, Zachlumia, Dalmatia, Croatia, and the Western lands" – regardless of the fact that Serbia had by then become an Ottoman pashaluk, that Croatia had been lost to Hungary in the 1390s, and that he had to beg the government of the Republic of Venice to allow him to take refuge in Dalmatia in case of an Ottoman attack. Immediately upon his accession, <mask> set out to resolve all disagreements within the royal family in order to strengthen his own position. His relations with his stepmother, the 37-year-old Queen Catherine, had been strained during his father's lifetime, but he now guaranteed that she would retain her title and privileges. Her father, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, wrote to Venetian officials that the King had "taken her as his mother", Vojača having already died by the time he ascended the throne.Kosača was the kingdom's most powerful nobleman, and had been engaged in a never-ending conflict with <mask>'s father.

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title: Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia

type: original

texts:
 <mask> took the Venetians' advice to make peace with his stepgrandfather, thus finally ensuring the nobility's absolute support of their king. He then focused on improving Bosnia's economy, which became stronger than ever during his reign, and ensuring that the state would collect more profit from the flourishing metalworking trade. Problems rose soon already in the summer of 1461, when Pavao Špirančić, who governed Croatia as ban on behalf of the Hungarian king and frequently clashed with King Thomas, seized a border town. By late summer, <mask> and Kosača were preparing to strike him jointly and divide his territory between themselves. Venice objected, fearing that the fortresses Klis and Ostrovica, paramount to the defense of Dalmatia, might fall to the Ottomans if first taken over by the Bosnians. King <mask> wasted no time to solidify his relations with the Holy See.He sent a desperate plea to Pope Pius, asking him to send bishops, crusading weapons, and a coronation crown, as well as to be recommended to Matthias Corvinus. <mask> hoped that, with the Pope's urging, the Hungarian king would agree to provide him with military aid. On 17 November, the feast of Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus, who had been proclaimed "Defender of Bosnia" at royal request, the papal legate and newly appointed bishop Nicholas of Modruš crowned <mask> in the Church of Saint Mary in Jajce. It was the last coronation performed in Bosnia, as well as the only one performed with a crown sent from Rome. It exemplified how, with the religious persecution established by Thomas and with <mask>'s active correspondence with the papacy, the Kingdom of Bosnia acquired the character of a true Catholic state only at its very end. The belated attempt at sanctification of the Bosnian monarchy gravely offended the Hungarian king Matthias, who saw the Pope's involvement in the coronation as an infringement of the rights of Hungarian kings. Matthias went so far as to request that the Pope withdraw his support of <mask>.Pope Pius and Bishop John Vitéz mediated in the dispute between the kings of Bosnia and Hungary, but the negotiations did not proceed easily. The relations were finally repaired in the spring of 1462. Matthias was driven by the need to ransom the Crown of St <mask> from Emperor Frederick III, and <mask> was obliged to contribute. In return for the Hungarian king's good graces, <mask> was also required to cede certain towns, swear fealty and to refuse to pay tribute to the Ottomans. Ottoman invasion

By the spring of 1462, it was known that Mehmed had decided to conquer Bosnia. <mask> and Kosača desperately sought help from Christian rulers. The King maintained contact with the Pope, who had his legates stay permanently at the Bosnian royal court and who strived to concentrate as many soldiers and as much weapons as possible in the threatened kingdom.The authorities of the neighbouring Republic of Ragusa were enlisted to secure the support of the Albanian ruler Skanderbeg, who was subsequently allowed by the Venetians to pass with his army through Venetian Albania on their way to Bosnia. Venice itself promised no assistance, suggesting instead that <mask> and Kosača should trust in their own forces. Others, such as King Ferdinand I of Naples, cited domestic issues and offered nothing more than moral support. While doing everything possible to secure foreign aid, King <mask> found that there was little will to resist within the country. He complained to Pope Pius that the local population leaned towards the Ottomans, which may have been due to increased exploitation and incessant warfare (as opposed to a stable Ottoman regime). The previously tacit discontent of forcefully converted elders of the Bosnian Church became prominent. According to a contemporary, <mask> generously bestowed gifts and honors in order to inspire loyalty, and awarded fortified towns to untrustworthy people, even including former "heretics".The greatest blow to the defense efforts, however, was the old conflict between Kosača and his son Vladislav Hercegović, which was resumed in the spring of 1462. Vladislav personally sought help from Mehmed later that year, and the Ottoman ruler eagerly accepted. Encouraged by Matthias's commitment to help and possibly by the Bishop of Modruš, <mask> made an imprudent and fatal decision in June 1462. Pope Pius wrote in his diary that, "relying on one knows what hope", the King "refused the tributes which his ancestors had long been used to pay the Ottomans and had stormed the town which the enemy had built at the confluence of Sava and Bosna to put fear into the Hungarians and Slavs." According to Chalkokondyles, <mask> invited the Ottoman ambassador to his treasure house and showed him the money set aside as tribute, but informed him that he would rather use it to fight off an Ottoman attack or to live off it in exile. Mehmed the Conqueror was enraged by <mask>'s insubordinance and audacity. The Pope recounts how, hearing of the Sultan's vow to conquer his kingdom and destroy him, <mask> summoned the Bishop of Modruš and blamed him for infuriating the Sultan.He commanded Nicholas to go to Hungary and seek immediate action against the Ottomans, but no help ever arrived to Bosnia from Christendom. Matthias, Skenderbeg and the Ragusans all failed to carry out their promises. In the spring of 1463, Mehmed gathered an army of 150,000 men in Adrianople and prepared to march towards Bosnia. In his despair, <mask> turned to the Sultan himself and tried at the last moment to procure a 15-year-long truce with him. Konstantinović claimed that he was present when the Ottomans duped the Bosnian envoys into thinking that the King's request for truce was granted, and that he tried to warn them about the deceit. Mehmed's army set out right after the envoys. Fortresses fell rapidly, and King <mask> fled with his family and possessions from Bobovac to Jajce.The Ottoman army under the leadership of Mahmud Pasha Angelović laid siege to Bobovac on 19 May, with the Sultan joining them the following day. Angelović was tasked with capturing the King. Believing that Bobovac could withstand the siege for two years, <mask> planned to assemble an army in Jajce, still counting on foreign aid. He sent his wife with their possessions to Dalmatia, while his stepmother took the rest to Ragusa. Capture and death

Contrary to <mask>'s expectations, Bobovac fell within days. The King had already realized that he had no choice but to take refuge in the neighbouring Croatia or Dalmatia. Angelović tirelessly pursued him, and caught up with him in Ključ.The Ottoman army was reportedly about to pass the city's fortress, not suspecting that the King was hiding within its walls, when a local man revealed his whereabouts in return for money. A four-day-long siege of the fortress ensued. Eager to capture him, Angelović had his messengers solemnly promise the King that he would be done no harm if he surrendered, and sent him a document guaranteeing him freedom. With food supplies and ammunition running short, <mask> decided to surrender himself and his garrison to Angelović. Angelović, in turn, brought him, his uncle Radivoj and 13-year-old cousin Tvrtko before Mehmed in Jajce. <mask> sought to ingratiate himself with Mehmed by sending out orders to commanders and castellans to surrender, enabling his captor to take command of more than 70 towns in one week. Mehmed, however, had no intention of sparing <mask>'s life and summoned him on 25 May.<mask> fearfully brought Angelović's document, but Mehmed's Persian-born mullah, Ali al-Bistami, issued a fatwah declaring that the Sultan was not bound to keep the promise made by his servant without his knowledge. As if to demonstrate the validity of his fatwah, the elderly mullah took out his sword and beheaded <mask> in front of Mehmed. The chronicler Benedetto Dei, who claimed to have been part of the Sultan's retinue, recorded that Mehmed himself decapitated <mask>. According to later accounts, Mehmed had <mask> flayed or used as a shooting target. The execution of the King, his uncle, cousin and two noblemen took place in a field next to Jajce, which has since been known as Carevo Polje ("the Emperor's Field"). Assessment and legacy
<mask> was buried on a hill near Jajce. Europe was stunned to see the Bosnian state fall almost completely within weeks of his death.The country's quick submission is said to be the consequence of a poor cooperation between <mask> and his noblemen, but it is perhaps most accurate to attribute it to the people's low morale and general belief that the conquest was inevitable. Additionally, the religiously diverse Bosnians were aware, much like the neighbouring Serbians, that the country would be overrun by Hungary if not by the Ottomans, and that they would enjoy far less freedom of religion and far higher taxes in that case. Therefore, resistance was not as strong as it could have been. Pope Pius's claim that adherents of the Bosnian Church betrayed the kingdom is groundless. <mask>'s half-siblings were taken to Constantinople and converted to Islam. Queen Catherine, his stepmother, left for the Papal States and unsuccessfully campaigned for the restoration of the kingdom; Bosnia only ceased to be part of the Ottoman Empire in 1908, 445 years after <mask>'s death. His widow, Queen Maria, spent the rest of her life in the Empire.In 1888, the Croatian archeologist Ćiro Truhelka excavated bones in a settlement close to Jajce known as Kraljev Grob (meaning King's Tomb) and found the skeleton of a decapitated adult male. The head was placed on the chest, with two coins in the mouth. Though by no means certain, it was assumed that the skeleton belonged to <mask>. Despite objection from the friar Antun Knežević, who argued for leaving the bones where they had laid for centuries and constructing a small church at the site, the skeleton was placed in a glass coffin in the right aisle of the Franciscan monastery in Jajce. Family tree

References

Bibliography

Further reading

Bosnian monarchs
Despots of Serbia
15th-century monarchs in Europe
Year of birth missing
1463 deaths
Bosnia and Herzegovina Roman Catholics
Executed Bosnia and Herzegovina people
Kotromanić dynasty
Roman Catholic monarchs
Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime
Executed monarchs
15th-century Bosnian people
Dethroned monarchs
Kings of

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title: Milton Caraglio

texts:
<mask> (born 1 December 1988) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a striker for Rosario Central on loan from Cruz Azul. Club career

Rosario Central

Caraglio started his football career at Rosario Central youth, being promoted to the first team in 2007. He made his professional on 17 March against San Lorenzo de Almagro in a 1–0 home defeat and scored his first goal against Huracán during the 2008 Apertura. In the following two seasons, the striker scored seven goals in 29 games. In July 2010, <mask> joined West Ham United on trial, making his debut on 28 July when he played for 64 minutes in a 2–0 win against MK Dons. However, he failed to pass the stringent medical that West Ham put him through and he returned to Argentina. New England Revolution

On 2 August 2011, Caraglio completed a move to Major League Soccer side New England Revolution as the team's first ever designated player.Per MLS Soccer Players Union documentation, <mask>'s 2011 base salary was $54,000, though, under Designated Player rules,
the Revolution's salary cap would be charged roughly $200,000 for their use of the spot. It is likely that the fees associated with his loan deal / transfer fee pushed his over-all compensation into qualification for Designated Player rule, which does allow for transfer fees to be built into a salary cap hit that can extend over several seasons. <mask> made his league debut on August 6, 2011, against Chivas USA in front of 11,523 fans at Gillette Stadium. The Revolution would lose 3-2, their 5th straight loss to Chivas, conceding a brace to Alejandro Moreno and an additional goal to Nick LaBrocca. The game is best remembered as the league debut of the Revolution's first homegrown player Diego Fagundez, who would additionally score his first MLS goal in the 86th minute. <mask>'s first goal came as part of a brace at home against the New York Red Bulls on Saturday, August 20, 2011. <mask> scored his first goal in the 15th minute, breaking past three defenders and corralling his own shot past Bouna Coundoul.His second goal would come 22 minutes later, when he headed in a Kenny Mansally set piece in the 37th minute. Despite <mask>'s heroics the Revolution would concede 2 second half goals to Dane Richards and draw 2-2. <mask>'s final goal for the Revolution came on October 22, 2011 in the season finale at BMO Field against Toronto FC in front of 21,600 fans. Caraglio slid to connect with a Benny Feilhaber cross in the 46th minute, sending the ball past Miloš Kocić. Though the option on <mask>'s contract was not picked up at the end of the season, a The Boston Globe article reported that <mask>, as well as season stand-outs Rajko Lekić and Monsef Zerka, were all considering returning to the club with renegotiated contracts. Despite this statement, coming from coach Jay Heaps, Revolution fans would learn on six days later that Caraglio had signed a contract with Rangers. Rangers

After scoring three goals in 12 games with the New England Revolution, in December of the same year, he signed for Chilean Primera División club Rangers to play the 2012 Apertura Tournament.In Rangers the Argentine forward was the team's top scorer of the season, with 16 goals in 37 games. His success brought interest from Catania and Genoa in Italy, and also Racing in Argentina. Loan to Pescara

On January 22, 2013, <mask> moved to Italian Serie A side Pescara to play for former Pescara player Cristiano Bergodi. Caraglio would play under 3 managers at Pescara in his half season of service - Bergodi was soon sacked and replaced by Cristian Bucchi in March, and <mask> would only make 3 appearances for the team, who finished in 20th place and were relegated to Serie B. In June 2013 <mask>'s loan would end, and Pasquale Marino would oversee the return of Caraglio to Rangers. Loans to Arsenal de Sarand, Vélez Sarsfield

The striker played the 2013–14 Argentine Primera División season on loan for Arsenal de Sarandí, helping the team reach the quarterfinals of the 2014 Copa Libertadores. For the 2014–15 Argentine Primera División season, he was loaned from a third-party to Vélez Sarsfield for 18 months, with an option to buy of US$1,2 million.He debuted and scored his first goal for the team in the first fixture 1–0 win against Tigre. <mask> scored the first two goals of the 2015 Argentine Primera División, in Vélez' 2–0 victory over Aldosivi. Move to Dorados de Sinaloa

On January 23, 2016, after several loan spells, and a year and five months left on his contract, <mask> left Rangers de Talca for Mexican Liga MX side Dorados de Sinaloa to play for Luis Fernando Suárez in the Liga MX Clausura. In the Toreno Clausura 2016 <mask> finished 12 in scoring in the league, with six goals for his new club, making a total of 14 appearances. Move to Tijuana

In July 2016, <mask> moved to Tijuana to play for Miguel Herrera. He would wear the No. 9 jersey.Caraglio scored 6 goals in 23 appearances for Tijuana, finishing atop the Liga MX table In the Torneo Apertura 2016 Caraglio scored 3 goals for his new club and 5 goals in the Torneo Clausura 2017. Atlas

<mask> moved to Atlas prior to the 2017 Apertura. He would once again play for José Guadalupe Cruz, who briefly managed him during his tenure at Sinaloa. On July 22, 2017 he made his league debut scoring the second of three goals against Club Leon Caraglio did not find the scoresheet again until September 29, when he scored both goals in a 2–0 win over Veracruz. <mask> managed to score another brace against low regarded CD Guadalajara bringing his goal tally to 7. <mask> would finish the 2017 Apertura season with 8 Goals. In his second season with Atlas <mask> scored a total of 8 goals in the season being the team's top scorer.Cruz Azul

In the summer of 2018 <mask> officially became a Cruz Azul player in Liga MX[9][10]. On July 21, 2018 <mask> made his League debut with Cruz Azul and made his first goal with the team via penalty shot in the 90th minute. He scored the 10,000 goals in stadium Azteca. Career statistics

International career
In May 2009, Caraglio was called by coach Diego Maradona for a national team formed exclusively with Argentine-based players, to play a friendly against Panama. However, a knee injury forced him to leave the squad, and Esteban Fuertes was chosen as his substitute in his stead. Honours
Cruz Azul
 Copa MX: Apertura 2018
 Supercopa MX: 2019
 Leagues Cup: 2019

References

External links
 <mask> at Vélez Sarsfield

 <mask> at ESPN Deportes

1988 births
Living people
Footballers from Rosario, Santa Fe
Argentine people of Italian descent
Argentine footballers
Argentine expatriate footballers
Association football forwards
Rosario Central footballers
Rangers de Talca footballers
New England Revolution players
Delfino Pescara 1936 players
Club Atlético Vélez Sarsfield footballers
Dorados de Sinaloa footballers
Club Tijuana footballers
Atlas F.C. footballers
Cruz Azul footballers
Argentine Primera División players
Chilean Primera División players
Major League Soccer players
Designated Players (MLS)
Serie A players
Liga MX players
Expatriate footballers in Chile
Expatriate soccer players in the United States
Expatriate footballers in Italy
Expatriate footballers in Mexico

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title: Wolfgang Borchert

texts:
<mask> (; 20 May 1921 – 20 November 1947) was a German author and playwright whose work was strongly influenced by his experience of dictatorship and his service in the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. His work is among the best-known examples of the Trümmerliteratur movement in post-World War II Germany. His most famous work is the drama Draußen vor der Tür (The Man Outside), which he wrote soon after the end of World War II. His works are uncompromising on the issues of humanity and humanism. He is one of the most popular authors of the German postwar period; his work continues to be studied in German schools. Life
<mask> was born in Hamburg, the only child of teacher <mask>, who also worked for the Dada magazine Die Rote Erde, and author <mask>, who worked for the Hamburg radio and was famous for her dialect poetry. <mask>'s family was liberal and progressive, and they moved in Hamburg's intellectual social circles.<mask> hated his compulsory time in the party's youth wing, the Hitler Youth, from which, after missing meetings, he was released. He rebelled against the Nazi dictatorship in his prewar-works (1938–1940). In April 1940 he was arrested by the Gestapo) and then released. The same year he reluctantly took up an apprenticeship at the Hamburg bookshop C. Boysen in the Große Bleichen. He would pass around anti-Nazi poems to his colleagues. While at the bookshop, <mask> took acting lessons, without, at first, telling his parents. He left the apprenticeship early in 1941.Upon passing his acting examination on 21 March 1941, he began working for the travelling repertory theatre company Landesbühne Ost-Hannover based in Lüneburg. His nascent theatrical career was cut short by his conscription into the Wehrmacht in June 1941. <mask> was posted to the Eastern Front, where he saw the full horror of the eastern conflict, witnessing the numerous casualties in battle and those sustained due to cold, starvation and inadequate equipment. On 23 February 1942, he returned from sentry duty on the Russian front missing the middle finger of his left hand. He claimed that he had surprised a Russian soldier, had engaged in hand-to-hand conflict, his rifle had gone off in the struggle and wounded him. His superior officer, accusing him of attempting to evade military service by self-mutilation, had him arrested and placed in isolation. At his trial, the military prosecutor called for the death penalty, but the court believed <mask>'s version, and he was pronounced not guilty.However, he was immediately re-arrested on charges under the Heimtückegesetz – making statements against the regime. He was convicted of making "statements endangering the country" and sentenced to serve a further six weeks of strict-regime detention, and was then sent back to the Eastern Front "to prove himself at the front". There he suffered frostbite and several further bouts of hepatitis, after which he was granted medical leave. On leave he again acted in a night club in the now bomb-ravaged city of Hamburg. He then returned to his barracks, and successfully applied to be transferred to an army theatre group. He was transferred to a transit camp in Koblenz, but in the dormitory on the evening of 30 November 1943 he retold parodies of the Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels. <mask> was denounced by one of the other soldiers in the dormitory, arrested, and on 21 August 1944 sentenced to nine months in prison.The sentence was deferred until the end of the War, so he was again returned to the army, this time mostly spending his time in his barracks in Jena, before being sent, in March 1945, to the area around Frankfurt-am-Main. His company surrendered to the French in March 1945. During their transportation to a prisoner of war camp, <mask> and others jumped off the lorry and escaped, and then he walked home to Hamburg (a distance of around 370 miles). He arrived there, totally exhausted, on 10 May, a week after Hamburg had surrendered to the British without putting up any resistance. Following the war, <mask>'s condition continued to worsen. In 1946 one doctor told his mother he expected <mask> would not live longer than another year, but <mask> himself was never told of this prognosis. He resumed his work with the theatre, and continued writing.He wrote short prose and published a collection of poems Laterne, Nacht und Sterne (Lantern, Night and Stars) in December 1946. In December 1946 and/or January 1947 he wrote the play The Man Outside (Draußen vor der Tür). Even before its publication the play was performed on the radio on 13 February 1947, meeting with much acclaim. Later in 1947 <mask> entered a hepatic sanitorium in the Swiss city of Basel, where he continued with short stories and wrote his manifesto against war  (Then there is only one thing!) shortly before his death from liver failure. Poems
<mask> was keen on poetry from his mid-teens. Readers sensed in his poems the influence of famous poets, such as Shakespeare, Stefan George and Rainer Maria Rilke.Rilke was his role model, to the extent that he signed a work  "Wolff Maria Borchert" to express his respect for him. He was a follower of some poets and had seen them as his source of art fulfillment, for example, when he was to join the army, he wrote that he was hungry for art, listing Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Verlaine, Musset, Schiller and Hölderlin. Writing poetry was easier for <mask> than creating prose. His poem production rate was around five to 10 per day. His work was reviewed by his father, which fact <mask> considered as an endorsement. He was later well known for expressing himself in poems when he needed to, no matter what the outcome. <mask>'s writings indicate that he was less concerned with the quality of his work than he was fulfilled creating poems.This later came in when he joined the theater where he became an actor to better express himself. For instance, in one of his letters to Aline Bussmann he was not interested in hearing her opinion in what he wrote but rather he asked her whether the piece pleased her or not! <mask>'s work was distributed to whoever showed interest in them; later, this helped the Gestapo arrest him along with other reasons. Even though <mask>'s work was widely spread, he was not satisfied with his work and thought it was more of a self-expression need that he needed to let out:

“Aber ich bin seit einiger Zeit darüber, meine Gedichte für etwas Wichtiges anzusehen, das nicht verloren gehen dürfte. Wenn von den paar Tausend – so viele werden es ja allmählich sein- nur zwei – drei übrig bleiben die es wert sind, dann will ich zufrieden sein. Wenn ich aber dennoch immer welche schreibe, die oft garnichts taugen, dann nur, um sie loszuwerden – sonst nichts.”

Later when <mask> grew up, he purified his creation by destroying many poems that were irrelevant to that time period. In <mask>'s eyes, what was left of his poems were not of high quality.Therefore, what survived from his poems were mostly included in his letters to Aline Bussmann, Ruth Hager, Carl Albert Lange and Hugo Seiker. Those poems were not to be published, or at least that was the intention of Borchert. However, in 1960, his mother Hertha <mask> and the American Stanley Tschopp gathered around two hundred poems to be published but that did not happen until 1996, when Allein mit meinem Schatten und dem Mond (Alone with my shadow and the moon), a compiled selection of <mask>'s poems, was published. When it comes to putting <mask>'s poems under the critic's spotlight, only his later work that he endorsed publishing should be studied. This is due to the fact that his poems were mostly written for certain events or to a particular person, or occasional literature; his earlier poems were done when he was young. From one of his longer poems:

Laterne, Nacht und Sterne:

Ich möchte Leuchtturm sein

In Nacht und Wind-

für Dorsch und Stint-

für jedes Boot-

und bin doch selbst

ein Schiff in Not! Which translates to:

Lantern, Night and Stars:

I would like to be a lighthouse

at night and wind –

for codfish and smelt –

for any boat –

and am myself

A ship in need!Style and influence
<mask>’s style was not limited to his poems, but rather it was his short stories that made his style more vivid. The experience he had been through during war was a key factor in the way he expressed himself; his work reflects the trauma he went through. The preoccupations of war and post war in <mask>’s writings are the pictures he had in mind of the front from the war, the life of a prisoner during the war, the return of a soldier to a destroyed Germany and the hope for the future after devastating war. From there his writings entail abrupt and fragmented pictures. Most of what he creates is not memorable-character based, meaning, he describes people and things without the labels placed by the society or the nation. For example, he mentions men, soldiers, or widows instead of giving up characters like himself, his parents or anyone else. People felt the pain in his writing even with this anonymity and that points out a humanitarian success he achieved; reaching the people’s hearts with simplicity.The basic language he used contributed to delivering the desired message of suffering the people, and he, experienced during the war time. His play Draußen vor der Tür, which was “a tragedy of a returning soldier”, had a hopelessly nihilistic theme. There was emphasis on how nothing was worth living for and everything was destroyed; the smell of guilt is spread everywhere, and the largest share of guilt is the God's guilt. There was no tolerance or acceptance to fate. This describes what <mask> felt inside and how he wanted to touch the audience's feelings. He aimed to bring up disjointed events and present them as a shattered mirror and let the audience enjoy feeling it instead of watching it. The normal style of narrating a story does not exist in <mask>'s writings due to the intensity of experience he had to go through.Instead, the reader finds <mask>'s stories divided into sections of despair, guilt, solitariness and a lack of faith and willingness. That was caused by the distracted mind, the shaken soul, and the disordered emotions initiated by the war experience. <mask>'s work was not famous during his early days, although there were many people who liked his poems and prose works. The war gave <mask>'s writings an everlasting impression; it was characterized as one of the best war-literature. He employed the styles of Rainer Maria Rilke and Holderlin into his poems and short stories. Rilke tends to use metaphors, metonymy and contradictions which affected <mask> in that he utilized many metaphors in his writings such as <mask>'s short story “The Kitchen Clock”. In the story, he used the clock as a metaphor that reminds him of his mother and his lost family.It has a great resemblance to trauma-literature. Then, comes Hölderlin's role in inspiring <mask> where Hölderlin was known for using symbols in his writings instead of labeling people and places with their known tags. And, again in “The Kitchen Clock”, Borchert uses symbols in describing characters, for example, describing the returning soldier in “The Kitchen Clock” he says:

“… He looked at his clock and shook his head pensively. No, dear sir, no, you are wrong about that. It has nothing to do with the bombs. You should not keep talking about the bombs. No.At 2:30. At night I mean. Nearly always at 2:30. That is just it…”

The character is missing here but the message he wanted to send is clear and deliverable because there are many people who had their different “Clock” after World War II and can relate to his situation. <mask> was a heavy reader and he read the product of other poets from other countries. <mask> was influenced by an American civil-war poet Walt Whitman. For example, the “Laterne, Nacht und Sterne“ written by <mask> is very similar to Whitman's “youth, old age, and night”.They share the same images of insomnia with darkness that are mixed with cold, hunger and the long time outside standings Later in <mask>'s life, his work extended beyond the national borders as it was translated to other languages, especially English. The most famous work of <mask> was The Man Outside, a play that was first performed in 1947 only one day after his death. The Man Outside has the same tone as the Kitchen Clock so that it describes the return of a man who was in war prisons to his home. This play was first translated to English in 1952 by David Porter whose translation reduced the quality of this artistic piece. Then, Thomas Fisher, an English producer, retranslated the play and produced it to be played in London in 1998 at the Gate Theater. The translation of <mask>'s work opened up the opportunity for foreigners to further study the trauma literature which is greatly presented in his poems and short stories. In 1988, a group of people who were keen on <mask> work initiated the International Wolfgang-Borchert Society.The mission of the society is to promote studying <mask>'s writings to the international level. Selected bibliography
 Die drei dunklen Könige (The three dark kings, 1946)
 An diesem Dienstag (On this Tuesday, 1946)
Die Hundeblume (The dandelion, 1946)
 Das Brot (The Bread, 1946)
 Draußen vor der Tür (The Man Outside, 1946)
  (The rats do sleep at night, 1947)
  (The cherries, 1947)
  (Then there's only one thing!, 1947)
 Die lange lange Strasse lang (Along the Long, Long Road, 1947)

See also

<mask> Theater

References

Sources
Wolf, Rudolf. 1984. <mask>. Werk und Wirkung. Bouvier Verlag. Bonn.Gumtau, Helmut. 1969. <mask>. Colloquium Verlag. Berlin. Rühmkopf, Peter. 1961.<mask>. Rowohlt. Reinbeck bei Hamburg. External links

 International Wolfgang Borchert Society
 English translations of some of <mask>'s stories

1921 births
1947 deaths
Writers from Hamburg
German Army personnel of World War II
German resistance members
Trümmerliteratur
Deaths from hepatitis
20th-century German poets
20th-century German dramatists and playwrights
German male poets
German male dramatists and playwrights
German-language poets
20th-century German male writers
Burials at the Ohlsdorf Cemetery
Hitler Youth members

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title: Carl Koch (architect)

texts:
<mask> ( May 11, 1912– 3 July 3, 1998) was a noted American architect. He was most associated with the design of prefabricated homes and development of the Techcrete building system. Early life and education

<mask>, Jr. was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on May 11, 1912. He was educated at Harvard College and received his Master of Architecture degree from the Harvard University Graduate School of Design (GSD), completing his studies in 1937. The time he spent at Harvard overlapped briefly with the arrival of Walter Gropius, founder of the Bauhaus in Germany, who had come to lead GSD. <mask> served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. In April 1944, he was recruited for transfer to the Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives program of the Allied Military Government in the European Theater of Operations, where he served in Germany with other ‘Monuments Men.’

Career

After completing his education, <mask> moved to Sweden where he briefly worked for Modernist architect Sven Markelius.After his return to the United States he began teaching at Harvard University and also began work on Snake Hill in 1940, a set of modernist houses including one for himself in Belmont, Massachusetts. Focusing on how to address family needs economically, he eliminated all complicated details and expensive millwork. Land costs were low because of a very steep slope and ledge which made construction less attractive for conventional building. <mask>'s own house was arranged on three levels, the lowest of which was built into the granite ledge, which was left exposed inside the house. The development was hailed as "one of the best known and most significant groups of contemporary houses in the world" in a 1946 article in Progressive Architecture, with photographs by Ezra Stoller.The cost of the house in 1940 was $6,160. Evidence of the design's livibility is the fact that the house is largely unmodified 80 years later. In one of the earliest examples of prefabrication, in 1947 <mask> and two associates created the "Acorn House", which was designed to be assembled from parts in one day and then be "demountable" so it could be easily transported to a new location.Although prototypes were built, the design never caught on, possibly due to resistance from local building officials and financers. <mask> considered the Acorn House his "one best idea: one that in any reasonable world would have brought comfort to millions." The cost in 1949 was intended to be $4,500 of which all labor costs were supposed to be $350. After a number of false starts in the design of housing that could be fabricated from parts, he finally met with success with the 1953 "Techbuilt" house. With 90 franchised "builder-dealers" using parts from 4 factories, it is estimated that there were eventually more than 3000 Techbuilt houses in 32 US states. In the Techbuilt house, the post and beam system (which makes interior walls non-loadbearing) combined with a variety of modular exterior wall panels (in 4' and 8' widths) allowing the buyer to easily customize the design. In his 1958 book "At Home with Tomorrow", <mask> laid out a philosophy of an "industrial house" that could use prefabrication of parts to design homes that better suited people's needs and could be built quickly and affordably.He questioned the prevailing view that people primarily cared about having their house look like their neighbors'. Although to modern readers some of the gender assumptions about how people live are jarring, the basic ideas about the usefulness of prefabrication and flexible plans still ring true in the 21st century. Larger Housing Developments

<mask> was also a pioneer in cluster housing, initiating, in 1951, the 104-home Conantum in Concord, Massachusetts one of the first of its kind in New England. In later years, he became involved in large-scale housing projects in Boston and New York associated with the urban renewal movement. Urban renewal attempted to address what was thought of as urban decay and blight through large scale razing of existing buildings and neighborhoods, replacing them with new highrises. Early on, the implications of this approach came under fire, most persuasively by Jane Jacobs in The Death and Life of Great American Cities

While <mask>'s innovations were largely technical in nature, one of his projects, Academy Homes in Roxbury, Massachusetts, was the subject of neighborhood demostrations with residents asking for more community control. <mask> believed the goals of technological advancement and citizen involvement could be reconciled.He recommended that neighborhood residents be given a larger role in the Techrete construction process and in planning of the neighborhood itself. An Early Example of "Adaptive Reuse"

In his project to transform Lewis Wharf into luxury housing, <mask> embarked on a dual role of architect and developer. Completed in 1973, his reuse of the beautiful but obsolete 19th century structure predated the better-known redevelopment of historic Faneuil Hall Marketplace by architect Ben Thompson and developer James Rouse in 1976. Projects
Snake Hill, Massachusetts group of eight houses (1941)
The Acorn House (1946)
Conantum, group of 102 houses, Concord, MA (1951)
Staff housing for the US Embassy, Belgrade (1956)
Turning Mill/Middle Ridge, Lexington, Massachusetts (1956–1967)
Academy Homes Boston, Massachusetts (1962)
Eliot House, Mount Holyoke College (1962)
Spruce Hill Road, Weston, Massachusetts (1956)
Ocean Village/Arverne, for the Urban Development Corporation, New York City (1972)
Lewis Wharf Boston, Massachusetts (1973)

Publications

Legacy
<mask> is known for his successful early designs for prefabricated housing. Progressive Architecture magazine gave him the unofficial title "The Grandfather of Prefab" in 1994. In total, over 3,000 Techbuilt homes were sold. Awards
 First Award American Institute of Architects (1954)
 Frank P. Brown Pioneer Award of the Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology (1967)

References

American architects
Modernist architects
1998 deaths
1912 births
Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni

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Carl Koch
Albert Carl Koch
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title: Norman Shelley

texts:
<mask> (16 February 1903 – 21 August 1980) was a British actor, best known for his work in radio, in particular for the BBC's Children's Hour. He also had a recurring role as Colonel Danby in the long-running radio soap opera The Archers. Perhaps <mask>'s single best-known role was as Winnie-the-Pooh in Children's Hour adaptations of A.A. Milne's stories; for many British people of the mid-20th century, his is the definitive voice of Pooh. Other roles for Children's Hour included Dr. Watson (opposite Carleton Hobbs as Holmes) in the 1952–1969 Sherlock Holmes radio series; Toad in Kenneth Grahame's The Wind in the Willows; and the roles of The Magician and Captain Higgins in the specially written Toytown series. <mask> also played the parts of Gandalf and Tom Bombadil in the 1955-6 radio adaptation of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. In the 1973 BBC television series Jack the Ripper <mask> played Detective Constable Walter Dew. Life and career
<mask> was born in Chelsea, London, the son of <mask>, a painter, and his wife, Alice Campbell, née Glover.He originally intended to make a career as an aircraft designer, but took up stage acting on the advice of the actress and teacher Rosina Fillipi. His public debut was at the Old Vic in 1919, and in the early 1920s he toured with the Charles Doran Shakespeare Company, performing such roles as Trebonius in Julius Caesar and Sebastian in Twelfth Night. During the 1920s and early '30s he worked principally in London, and was particularly associated with Peter Godfrey's experimental productions at the Gate Theatre Studio. <mask>'s first BBC broadcast was in 1926, having earlier made a reputation in radio in Australia and New Zealand. By the late '30s he established a reputation as a respected and versatile British radio actor. In 1937 he married Monica Daphne, née Brett. During the Second World War he was a member of the BBC's wartime repertory company, but left to serve as a ferry pilot in the Air Transport Auxiliary.In the 1930s and '40s he was a Children's Hour regular, famous as Dennis the Dachshund in Toytown, and as Winnie-the-Pooh, whom he first played in 1939. He played Dr Watson to Carleton Hobbs's Sherlock Holmes from October 1952 to July 1969. In the late 1950s he took part in recorded dramatised versions by Argo Records of Alice in Wonderland (1958) and Through the Looking-Glass, both directed by Douglas Cleverdon and both starring Jane Asher in the title role. For the same company he also recorded his impersonation of Toad in Wind in the Willows (1960) with Richard Goolden as Mole. Late in life he found new fame as Colonel Freddy Danby in the BBC radio serial The Archers. He was still recording episodes of The Archers at the time of his death. He collapsed suddenly at Finchley Road tube station, London, on 21 August 1980, and was declared dead in the Royal Free Hospital, Hampstead.His wife had predeceased him; he was buried near her at Long Hanborough, Oxfordshire, on 28 August. Churchill impersonation
A recurring rumour holds that, because the House of Commons was not set up for location recording at that time, some of Winston Churchill's most famous speeches to Parliament during the Second World War were subsequently recorded for radio broadcast by <mask>, impersonating Churchill. The rumour has been promoted by David Irving, to support his unflattering view of Churchill. It is difficult to prove or disprove Irving's claims. Analysis of the voice patterns in 20 of Churchill's recorded speeches show that three made in May and June 1940 do not match those provably by him, although Churchill might have recorded them after his voice had changed. According to one source, it is unproven whether <mask> is the speaker and, if so, whether the speeches were broadcast as having been spoken by Churchill. One report states <mask> did record a performance of Churchill's "We shall fight on the beaches" speech, which is claimed to be one of the three non-matching speeches,.However, <mask>'s 78rpm record is dated 7 September 1942, whereas Churchill's speech was broadcast on 4 June 1940, key parts being read out by a BBC announcer. <mask> claimed that, with Churchill's permission, he did once voice Churchill for an introduction to a wartime propaganda film for distribution overseas, because the Prime Minister could not find time for the necessary visit to the studio. According to <mask>'s great friend, former BBC radio and TV producer and presenter, Trevor Hill, <mask> did stand in for Churchill on at least three occasions, specifically when Churchill was ill or out of the country. That would never have been divulged at the time. <mask>'s party piece, apparently often requested, was for everyone to close their eyes while he impersonated Churchill, and on those occasions, according to Hill, it was impossible to tell the difference. In 1949, Churchill re-recorded most of his speeches at his home at Chartwell. The EMI engineer responsible for the recordings has told the BECTU History Project that he used one of the then new British Tape Recorders, and that Churchill usually did the recording in bed, so the speeches have a more relaxed air than the original broadcast.They are often the versions that are played today. Selected filmography

 Down River (1931) as Blind Rudley
 East Lynne on the Western Front (1931)
 The River Wolves (1934) as Jim Spiller
 The Iron Duke (1934) as Pozzo di Borgo
 Went the Day Well? (1942) as Bob Owen (uncredited)
 They Came to a City (1944) as Mr Cudworth
 Strawberry Roan (1944) as Dr. Lambert
 I Know Where I'm Going! (1945) as Sir Robert Bellinger (voice)
 We of the West Riding (1945) as narrator
 I See a Dark Stranger (1946) as Man in Straw Hat
 Dancing with Crime (1947) as Stage Door Keeper (uncredited)
 The Silver Darlings (1947) as Hendry
 Daughter of Darkness (1948) as Smithers
 The Monkey's Paw (1948) as Monoghan
 Vote for Huggett (1949) as Mr. Wilson
 The Blue Lamp (1950) as F. P. Jordan (uncredited)
 Her Favourite Husband (1950) as Mr. Dobson
 I'll Get You for This (1951) as Mr. Langley (uncredited)
 Blind Man's Bluff (1952) as Superintendent Morley
 Private Information (1952) as Freemantle
 Strange Stories (1953) as Mr. Gilkie
 The Man Without a Body (1957) as Dr. Alexander
 The Price of Silence (1959) as Councilor Forbes
 Sink the Bismarck! (1960) as Winston Churchill (voice, uncredited)
 The Angry Silence (1960) as Seagrave
 Very Important Person (1961) as Fred Whittaker
 A Place to Go (1963) as Magistrate
 Otley (1968) as Businessman
 Oh! What a Lovely War (1969) as Staff Officer in Ballroom
 Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed (1969) as Guest – Smoking pipe
 Gulliver's Travels (1977) as Father / animation voices

References

External links
 A detailed debunking of the impersonation of Winston Churchill rumour
 Shelley, Norman at BFI

1903 births
1980 deaths
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
English male radio actors
English male film actors
English male television actors
English male voice actors
20th-century English male actors
Children's Hour presenters

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title: Jagadeva

texts:
<mask>, also known as Jagaddeva or Jagdev Parmar, was an 11th-12th century prince from the Paramara dynasty of central India. He is known from an inscription discovered at Jainad and some folk legends. His political status is uncertain, although according to one theory, he may have been a vassal of the Western Chalukyas. Ancestry and political status
The coins and inscriptions from <mask>'s period have been found in the northern parts of Berar and Marathwada regions of Maharashtra, not the traditional Paramara territory of Malwa. These regions were dominated by the Chalukyas of Kalyani. An inscription discovered at Jainad names Jagaddeva as the son of the Paramara king Udayaditya (reigned c. 1060–1086). Four gold coins bearing the name "Shri-Jagadeva" have also been discovered.Several scholars, including P. C. Roy, identify the issuer of these coins as the Paramara prince. M. H. Krishna surmised that the Chalukya king Someshvara was known by the title "Jagaddeva" ("Lord of the world") in the northern part of his kingdom, and it was he who issued these coins. However, all the known Chalukya coins feature Kannada script, while coins of Jagaddeva feature the Nagari script used by the Paramaras. Therefore, Krishna's theory is purely conjectural. V. P. Rode theorizes that Jagadeva accepted the suzerainty of Vikramaditya VI of Kalyani. Vikramaditya made him governor of Berar and a part of Deccan. P. C. Roy disagrees with this theory, arguing that a vassal could not have issued gold coins in his own name, and the coins do not mention the Chalukyas.A legendary account in the Ras-Mala states that <mask> succeeded Udayaditya as the king. Therefore, D. C. Ganguly suggested that Jagadeva was another name for Lakshmadeva (r. c. 1086-1094 CE), who according to Paramara inscriptions, was the successor of Udayaditya. According to Ganguly's theory, he abdicated the throne in favour of his brother Naravarman (r. c. 1094-1133 CE). He then governed the southern part of the Paramara kingdom (northern parts of Berar and Deccan) until at least 1112 CE. Later, he lived at the Chalukya court at Vikramaditya's invitation. K. C. Jain disagrees with this theory, arguing that Jagaddeva and Lakshmadeva were two distinct princes. Jainad inscription

The undated Jainad inscription was found on the floor of a temple mandapa.It was composed by the poet Ashvatthama in Sanskrit language, and has been dated to the 11th century on a palaeographical  basis. It records the construction of a temple dedicated to Surya (the sun deity) by one Padmavati. The inscription states that it was issued during Jagaddeva's rule. The inscription begins with verses praising Surya and Shiva. It then mentions the Agnivansha myth, which states that the founder of the Paramara dynasty was created by Vashistha from a sacrificial fire pit. Jagaddeva was born in this dynasty: his father and paternal uncle are named as Udayaditya and Bhoja respectively. Next, the record describes the military achievements of Jagaddeva:
 He defeated the king of Andhra.Historian H. V. Trivedi believes that this refers to the Chola king Rajaraja II, and Jagaddeva may have led a Chalukya invasion against the Chola occupation of Andhra territory. He "uprooted in sport" the king of Chakradurga. Chakradurga can be identified with the present-day Bastar district; its ruler at that time was Someshvara of an obscure dynasty named Naga. He successfully invaded Dorasamudra, causing "acute pain in the heart of the chief of Malahara". Trivedi theorizes that this refers to the Chalukya invasion of the Hoysala kingdom, which was ruled by Ballala. According to him, "Malahara" is a variation of "Malaha" or "Malapa" (hill chiefs), and referred to a hill tribe to which the Hoysalas belonged. He fought against the Gurjaras, causing a flood of tears among the wives of the Gurjara warriors.The inscription mentions the word "Jayasimha" in this sentence. D. C. Ganguly interpreted the sentence to mean that Jagaddeva's bravery was an "announcement of the valour of Jayasimha". He concluded that Jagaddeva may have fought against the Chaulukya (Solanki) king of Gujarat, as part of the Paramara army under Jayasimha I. However, a later translation appearing in Epigraphia Indica interprets the verse to mean that Jayasimha was an enemy of Jagaddeva. On basis of this, Trivedi identifies Jayasimha as the Chaulukya king Jayasimha Siddharaja. He subdued the king Karna. Ganguly identified Karna as the Chaulukya king Karna, but V. V. Mirashi disagreed with this theory, pointing out that Jagadeva's father Udayaditya is said to have destroyed the king of Dahala.The Dahala region was ruled by the Kalachuris, so Mirashi identifies Karna as the Kalachuri king Karna. According to H. V. Trivedi, the Kalachuri king may be identified as either Karna or his son Yashah-Karna. Jaggadeva's brother Lakshmadeva is known to have invaded the Kalachuri capital Tripuri during Yashah-Karna's reign, and might have been aided by Jagaddeva in this campaign. The rest of the inscription describes Padmavati, who resembled Lakshmi and constructed the "Nimbaditya" temple "in this city". The inscription does not name the city, but it is possible that it refers to Jainad, where the inscription was found in a temple. Padmavati is described as the queen of Arjuna, who was a member of the Dahima family. Arjuna is described as a subordinate and a favourite of the king Udayaditya.The inscription also mentions Udayaditya's minister Lolarka as another member of the Dahima family. He is described a Shaivite who was loyal to Jagaddeva. Lolarka's father Gunaraja was also a favourite of Udayaditya. Legends

Legend of Virmati and Jagadeva
One legend about Jagadeva is mentioned in the Ras-Mala, a collection of Gujarati legends. It names Jagdev Parmar (Jagadeva) as the son of king Udayadit of Dhar (Udayaditya) and his Solanki (Chaulukya) wife. The king's favourite son and the heir apparent was Rindhaval, his son by another wife from Vagheli family. The Chavda ruler of Tuktoda was impressed with Jagdev's merits, and married his daughter Virmati to the Paramara prince.Jagdev left his father's kingdom because of harassment from the Vagheli queen and reached Tuktoda. From there, he and Virmati marched to Anhilvara (Patan), the capital of the Solanki king Sidh Raj Jesangh (Jayasimha Siddharaja). Virmati's mother was the sister of the Solanki king, and Jagdev hoped to find employment with him. Virmati went to the royal palace to seek the king's help, but she was trapped in a room by a woman named Jamoti, who had been paid by the governor's son Dungarsi to find a paramour for him. When Dungarsi came to the room, Virmati got him drunk and killed him. When the king learned about this incident, he praised Virmati as an honourable woman and enlisted Jagdev in his service. One day, the Solanki king asked Jagdev to investigate some strange sounds he had been hearing.Jagdev found four wailing women, who introduced themselves as the Fates of Patan. They told him that the Solanki king was about to die. Near them were four other women, who were laughing. They introduced themselves as the Fates of Delhi. Jagdev asked them if there was any way to save the king's life. They told him that if a highly ranked man offered his life instead, the king would survive. Jagdev then decided to offer his life, but his wife insisted that their entire family offer their lives.First, they offered their first-born son to the Fates. The Fates beheaded the boy, but impressed with the family's loyalty to the king, they let the rest of the family go. The Solanki king had secretly seen the entire episode. He was pleased with Jagdev's loyalty, and married one of his daughters to Jagdev. Virmati was satisfied with this arrangement, because multiple wives indicated the high status of a Rajput lord. According to this legend, Jagdev went back to Dhar after Udayadit's death and became the new Paramara king. Navalram's play Veermati (1869) is based on this legend.Shree Nath Patankar made Sati Veermata, an Indian silent film based on the legend, in 1923. Other legends
According to another bardic tradition, some tribes in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent are descended from "Jagdev Parmar", that is, Jagadeva. During the reign of <mask>'s nephew Yashovarman (r. c. 1133-1142 CE), the Delhi Sultanate invaded Malwa. The bardic works state that <mask>'s descendant Rai Shankar and some other Paramaras migrated to Punjab via Rajputana as a result of this invasion. Rai Shankar had three sons: Gheo (the ancestor of Ghebas), Teo or Tenu (the ancestor of Tiwanas) and Seo (the ancestor of Sials). Teo's descendants established the Mataur village in present-day Haryana, from where the Tiwanas migrated to other places. Some of them converted from Hinduism to Sikhism and Islam in the later centuries.The rulers of the Muli princely state in present-day Gujarat also claimed descent from Jagdev Parmar. The Ambaraian rulers of the Akhnoor principality in present-day Jammu and Kashmir traced their ancestry to "Jagdev Singh" (<mask>), who had migrated from Dhar. References

Paramara dynasty

masks: Jagadeva Jagadeva Jagadeva Jagadeva Jagadeva Jagadeva


title: James Prinsep

texts:
<mask> FRS (20 August 1799 – 22 April 1840) was an English scholar, orientalist and antiquary. He was the founding editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and is best remembered for deciphering the Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts of ancient India. He studied, documented and illustrated many aspects of numismatics, metallurgy, meteorology apart from pursuing his career in India as an assay master at the mint in Benares. Early life

<mask> was the seventh son and the tenth child of <mask> (1746–1830) and his wife, Sophia Elizabeth Auriol (1760–1850). <mask> went to India in 1771 with almost no money and became a successful indigo planter. He returned to England in 1787 with a fortune of £40,000 and established himself as an East India merchant. He moved to Clifton in 1809 after incurring losses.His connections helped him find work for all his sons and several members of the Prinsep family rose to high positions in India. <mask> later became a Member of Parliament. <mask> initially went to study in a school in Clifton run by a Mr. Bullock but learnt more at home from his older siblings. He showed a talent for detailed drawing and mechanical invention and this made him study architecture under the gifted but eccentric Augustus Pugin. His eyesight however declined due to an infection and he was unable to take up architecture as a profession. His father knew of an opening in the assay department at the mint in India and sent him to train in chemistry at Guy's Hospital and later as an apprentice to Robert Bingley, assay master at the Royal Mint in London (1818–19). Career in India

Prinsep found a position as an assay master at the Calcutta mint and reached Calcutta along with his brother Henry Thoby on 15 September 1819.Within a year at Calcutta, he was sent by his superior, the eminent orientalist Horace Hayman Wilson, to work as assay master at the Benares mint. He stayed at Benares until the closure of that mint in 1830. He then moved back to Calcutta as deputy assay master, and when Wilson resigned in 1832, he was made assay master (overruling Wilson's nominee for that position, <mask>) at the new silver mint designed in Greek revival style by Major W. N. Forbes. His work as assay master led him to conduct many scientific studies. He worked on means for measuring high temperatures in furnaces accurately. The publication of his technique in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 1828 led to his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society. He suggested the possibility of visual pyrometric measurement using a calibrated series of mica plates as well as using the thermal expansion of platinum but considered that a practical approach was to use calibrated combinations of platinum, gold and silver alloys placed in a cupel or crucible and observe their melting.He also described a pyrometer that measured the expansion of a small amount of air held within a gold bulb. In 1833 he called for reforms to Indian weights and measures and advocated a uniform coinage based on the new silver rupee of the East India Company. He also devised a balance so sensitive as to measure three-thousandth of a grain (≈0.19 mg). Architecture

<mask> continued to take an interest in architecture at Benares. Regaining his eyesight, he studied and illustrated temple architecture, designed the new mint building at Benares as well as a church. In 1822 he conducted a survey of Benares and produced an accurate map at the scale of 8 inches to a mile. This map was lithographed in England.He also painted a series of watercolours of monuments and festivities in Benares which were sent to London in 1829 and published between 1830 and 1834 as Benares Illustrated, in a Series of Drawings. He helped design an arched tunnel to drain stagnant lakes and improve the sanitation of the densely populated areas of Benares and built a stone bridge over the Karamansa river. He helped restore the minarets of Aurangzeb which were in a state of collapse. When he moved to Calcutta, he offered to help complete a canal that had been planned by his brother Thomas but left incomplete by the latter's death in 1830. Thomas's canal linked the River Hooghly with branches of the Ganges further to the east. Asiatic Society of Bengal

In 1829, Captain <mask>. Herbert started a serial called Gleanings in Science. Captain Herbert, however, was posted as Astronomer to the King of Oudh in 1830, leaving the journal to the editorship of <mask>, who was himself the primary contributor to it.In 1832 he succeeded H. H. Wilson as secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and suggested that the Society should take over Gleanings in Science and produce the Journal of the Asiatic Society. <mask> became the founding editor of this journal and contributed articles on chemistry, mineralogy, numismatics and on the study of Indian antiquities. He was also very interested in meteorology and the tabulation of observations and the analysis of weather data from across the country. He worked on the calibration of instruments to measure humidity and atmospheric pressure. He continued to edit the journal until his illness in 1838 which led to his leaving India and subsequently his death. Many of the plates in the journal were illustrated by him. Numismatist

Coins were Prinsep's first interest.He interpreted coins from Bactria and Kushan as well as Indian series coins, including "punch-marked" ones from the Gupta series. Prinsep suggested that there were three stages; the punch-marked, the die-struck, and the cast coins. Prinsep also reported upon the native punch-marked coinage, noting that they were better known in eastern India. Brahmi script philologist

As a result of <mask>'s work as an editor of the Asiatic Society's journal, coins and copies of inscriptions were transmitted to him from all over India, to be deciphered, translated, and published. The first successful attempts at deciphering Brahmi were made in 1836 by Norwegian scholar Christian Lassen, who used the bilingual Greek-Brahmi coins of Indo-Greek kings Agathocles and Pantaleon to correctly identify several Brahmi letters. The task was then completed by <mask>, who was able to identify the rest of the Brahmi characters, with the help of Alexander Cunningham. In a series of results that he published between 1836–38 Prinsep was able to decipher the inscriptions on rock edicts found around India.The edicts in Brahmi script mentioned a King Devanampriya Piyadasi which Prinsep initially assumed was a Sri Lankan king. He was then able to associate this title with Ashoka on the basis of Pali script from Sri Lanka communicated to him by George Turnour. These scripts were found on the pillars at Delhi and Allahabad and on rock inscriptions from both sides of India, and also the Kharosthi script in the coins and inscriptions of the north-west. The idea of Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, a collection of Indian epigraphy, was first suggested by Prinsep and the work was formally begun by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1877. His studies on inscriptions helped in the establishment of date of Indian dynasties based on references to Antiochus and other Greeks. Prinsep's research and writing were not confined to India. Prinsep also delved into the early history of Afghanistan, producing several works that touched on archaeological finds in that country.Many of the collections were sent by Alexander Burnes. After <mask>'s death, his brother Henry Thoby <mask> published in 1844 a volume exploring the numismatist's work on collections made from Afghanistan. Other pursuits
A talented artist and draftsman, Prinsep made meticulous sketches of ancient monuments, astronomy, instruments, fossils and other subjects. He was also very interested in understanding weather. He designed a modified barometer that automatically compensated for temperature. He maintained meteorological registers, apart from supplying barometers to volunteers and graphically summarising the records of others. He conducted experiments on practical methods to prevent rusting of iron surfaces.Personal life
Prinsep married Harriet Sophia Aubert, elder daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel Jeremiah Aubert (grandson of Alexander Aubert) of the Bengal army and his wife Hannah, at the cathedral in Calcutta on 25 April 1835. They had a daughter Eliza in 1837 who was to be the only child to survive. He was elected a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1839. Death and legacy

Prinsep literally worked himself to death. From 1838 he began to suffer from recurrent headaches and sickness. It was initially thought to be related to a liver (bilious) condition and he was forced to get away from his studies and left for England in November 1838 aboard the Herefordshire. He arrived in England in poor condition and did not recover.He died on 22 April 1840 in his sister Sophia Haldimand's home at 31 Belgrave Square of a "softening of the brain". A genus of plant Prinsepia was named after him by the botanist John Forbes Royle in 1839 in appreciation of his work. News of his death reached India and several memorials were commissioned. A bust at the Asiatic Society was to be made by Francis Chantrey but was finished by Henry Weekes. Prinsep Ghat, a Palladian porch on the bank of the Hooghly River designed by W. Fitzgerald in 1843, was erected in his memory by the citizens of Calcutta. Part of his original collection of ancient coins and artefacts from the Indian subcontinent is now in the British Museum, London. See also
 William Jones
 Allahabad Pillar

References

Other sources

 Kejariwal, O. P. (1993), The Prinseps of India: A Personal Quest.The Indian Archives, 42 (1-2)
 Allbrook, Malcolm (2008), 'Imperial Family': The Prinseps, Empire and Colonial Government in India and Australia, Ph.D. thesis, Griffith University, Australia. <mask> and O. P. Kejariwal (2009),  "Benares Illustrated" and "<mask> Prinsep and Benares" , Pilgrims Publishing, . External links

 "<mask>p" entry in Encyclopædia Britannica
 Thomas, Edward, editor (1858) Essays On Indian Antiquities, Historic, Numismatic, And Palæographic, Of The Late <mask>, F.R.S., Secretary To The Asiatic Society Of Bengal; To Which Are Added His Useful Tables, Illustrative Of Indian History, Chronology, Modern Coinages, Weights, Measures, Etc. Volume 1 Volume 2

1799 births
English antiquarians
19th-century philologists
English philologists

1840 deaths
Anglo-Indian people
Fellows of the Royal Society
English Indologists

masks:
James Prinsep
James Prinsep
John Prinsep
John Prinsep
John Prinsep
James
James Atkinson
James Prinsep
James D
James Prinsep
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James Pse
James Psep


title: Marcus Harris (cricketer)

texts:
<mask> (born 21 July 1992) is an Australian cricketer who plays as an opening batsman for Victoria in domestic cricket. He made his Test cricket debut for the Australia national cricket team in December 2018. Cricket career

Western Australia
<mask> began playing first-class cricket for Western Australia in the 2010–11 summer. His maiden first-class century came in just his third match, when he made 157 against Queensland. This made him the youngest Australian to score a first class 150, breaking a 115-year-old record set by Clem Hill. <mask> played semi-regularly for Western Australia over the next six years, and was even named man of the match in the 2014–15 Sheffield Shield final for scoring 81 and 158 in his two innings. <mask> played more than 40 Sheffield Shield matches for Western Australia and scored more than 2,000 runs for the team, but he'd only kept a batting average of 28.43 and scored just four centuries in that time.<mask> also played for the Twenty20 team the Perth Scorchers, playing 14 Big Bash League (BBL) matches to score 192 runs at an average of 19.41. <mask> had a particularly poor 2015–16 season. In the Sheffield Shield he had mixed results, scoring a century but only totaling 274 runs at an average of 27.40, and his BBL form was woeful with just 69 runs from 6 innings. His performances for the Western Australian teams frustrated coach Justin Langer, who said he was "mediocre with flashes of brilliance". In Australia's national List A competition, the Matador BBQs One-Day Cup, <mask> wasn't even chosen to be in Western Australia's team at all. He was instead picked up by the young Cricket Australia XI. At the end of the season <mask> left Western Australia to play for Victoria.Victoria
The move to Victoria proved to be very successful for <mask>. In December 2016 he was the leading run-scorer in the 2016–17 Sheffield Shield season with 409 runs at an average of 68.16. Victoria made the Sheffield Shield final, in which <mask> scored a century and was part of a Shield final record-breaking opening partnership of 224 runs with Travis Dean on the first day. <mask> credited his newfound form with the move to Victoria, saying that the Victorian system suited him better and it was useful to have more experienced players around him than he had had in Western Australia. In the absence of Steve Smith, David Warner and Cameron Bancroft from the Australian Test team following the 2018 ball-tampering scandal, <mask> gained his first opportunity to play Test cricket for Australia. In a Sheffield Shield match against New South Wales in October 2018, <mask> helped Victoria to recover from a poor start of 2/6 with an unbeaten 250, the best score of his first-class career. This innings put him into contention for one of the vacant spots at the top of Australia's batting order.In the first four matches of the Sheffield Shield season, he scored a further two half-centuries and averaged 87.40. After 25 first-class matches for Victoria, <mask> had scored five centuries and averaged 47.58, and as a result of his improved consistency he was selected in Australia's Test squad for the first time. Test career

<mask> was first selected to join the Australian team ahead of the 2018–19 Border-Gavaskar Trophy. According to <mask>, he received a text message from now Australian coach Justin Langer saying, "Welcome to the brotherhood, you little bastard". <mask> and Langer both publicly denied media speculation that there was bad blood between them after Langer's comments when <mask> had left Western Australia. <mask> made his Test debut on 6 December 2018, opening the batting alongside his Victorian teammate Aaron Finch, the least experienced pair to open the batting for Australia at Test level since the 1950s. He had his baggy green cap presented by Michael Hussey.<mask> played in all four matches of the series against India, but was unable to cement his spot. He scored 256 runs, including two half-centuries, at an average of 36.57, and he was Australia's most consistent batsman in the 2–1 series loss, but he wasn't able to score a century in any of the matches. <mask> then under-performed in the subsequent series against Sri Lanka, potentially putting his place in the Test team at risk for the upcoming 2019 Ashes series. <mask> finished off the season playing for Victoria in the remaining matches of the 2018–19 Sheffield Shield season. In a match against Queensland he had innings of 95 and 174 to push his case, and then on the final day of the regular season he scored 65 runs against South Australia to take his season total up to 1,024 runs. In doing so, he became the first person to score 1,000 runs in a season for Victoria since Chris Rogers a decade earlier. Victoria made it to the Sheffield Shield final again, and <mask> scored another century in the final to finish off the summer.<mask> was given his first contract with Cricket Australia for the 2019–20 season. He was named in Australia's squad for the 2019 Ashes series in England. He was omitted from the first two Tests, but recalled in place of Cameron Bancroft in the third Test. <mask> again was selected in Australia's squad in the 2021-22 Ashes series, as an opening batsmen (alongside David Warner) in the first four test matches. His best result was in the third test in Melbourne, where he top-scored with 76 runs. Playing style
<mask>' batting style is typical of Perth-raised opening batsmen, similar to Justin Langer and Chris Rogers. He has a variety of shots he can play well, particularly the cover drive and the pull and hook shots.He leaves the ball judiciously if he thinks it's outside the line of his off stump. <mask> is comfortable at facing fast bowling. <mask>' similarities with Langer were noted by former Australian coach Darren Lehmann following <mask>' maiden first-class century. <mask> has said that this is because the two of them came from the same club team in Perth and had the same batting coach. References

External links

1992 births
Living people
Australian cricketers
Australia Test cricketers
Cricketers from Perth, Western Australia
Perth Scorchers cricketers
Melbourne Renegades cricketers
Sportsmen from Western Australia
Western Australia cricketers
Cricket Australia XI cricketers
Leicestershire cricketers

masks:
Marcus Sinclair Harris
Harris
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title: Robert Levin (Norwegian pianist)

texts:
<mask> (6 June 191229 October 1996) was a Norwegian classical pianist and composer. Although he was an accomplished solo pianist and composer, <mask> received international acclaim for his work as an accompanist with several of the world's most celebrated vocal and instrumental performers. <mask> was born in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway. He  grew up in the immigrant neighborhood in Grünerløkka, the child of <mask> (1882–1936) and Marie Scheer (1885–1954). Both were Jewish refugees from Lithuania who had immigrated in 1905. <mask>'s father supported his family through various means, including peddling sewing notions and carting coal. <mask> caught interest in the piano when he was four and a half years old, at his grandmother's home.By the time he was five, he had taught himself well enough for his first public performance. He did not receive formal lessons until he was ten, and when he was twelve he was accepted by the pre-eminent music teacher of the time, Nils Larsen. <mask> did his part to support the family by performing at restaurants, bars, and movie theaters during the silent film era. He only finished the first six years of public schooling. He learned at the synagogue for his bar mitzvah, but was mostly occupied with his music. He was also an avid reader of diverse literature. Early professional career
Like many of the classical musicians of pre-World War II era, <mask> played at restaurants to support himself.He rose through the unofficial ranks as a teenager, overcoming strong antisemitic barriers. He took private lessons with concertmaster Gustav Fredrik Lange (1861–1939) and notably composer Fartein Valen (1887–1952), being exposed to a wide range of musical traditions and innovations. <mask> was the last living silent movie veteran when he died in 1996. He also became an accomplished accordion player during this time. <mask> had his performance debut on 26 January 1932 to widespread acclaim. <mask> was introduced to several strains of modern music when he was engaged in the orchestra at Theatercafeen, where the Norwegian exponent of neo-Classical music Carl Gustav Sparre Olsen (1903–1984) performed. The orchestra also introduced <mask> to jazz music.War years
After Norway was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1940, <mask> continued to perform but was subjected to daily threats and restrictions on the venues and music he could play. When Nazi authorities in occupied Norway started arresting and deporting Jews, <mask> went under cover with friends and eventually fled to Sweden. The rest of his family arrived in Sweden a few days later, but many of <mask>'s closest relatives were deported from Norway and were victims of the Holocaust in Auschwitz. <mask> became a proponent of Norwegian music and culture while in exile in Sweden. He wrote the music to several patriotic Norwegian songs, including Kirkenesmarsjen, a march to commemorate the liberation of the Northern Norwegian town of Kirkenes by Soviet troops on 25 October 1944. Sponsored by the Norwegian government-in-exile and Svenska Norgeshjälpen, <mask> performed for members of the Norwegian Resistance Movement in Sweden along with his wife Solveig,  Randi Heide Steen, Ernst Glaser, Gunnar Sønstevold, Hugo Kramm, Gunnar Reiss Andersen, Axel Kielland, Lauritz Falk, Sonja Mjøen, and others. <mask> also sent packages to musical colleagues in Oslo under the pseudonym Banjo-Lasse.After the Liberation of Norway  the <mask> family returned to one of the central train stations in Oslo in June 1945. The orchestra which <mask> had to leave nearly three years earlier awaited him at the platform, performing at their arrival. Post-war career
After the war, <mask> decided to concentrate more on a classical career, and after he accompanied Gösta Kjellertz, his career as an accompanist took off. He accompanied such diverse international artists as Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Yehudi Menuhin, <mask>, Rita Streich, Henryk Szeryng, Ann Brown, Kim Borg, Camilla Wicks, Felicia Weathers; and a panorama of Norwegian artists that included Ingrid Bjoner, Knut Skram, Arve Tellefsen, Terje Tønnesen, Elise Båtnes, Aase Nordmo Løvberg, Edith Thallaug, and Ole Bøhn. Notably, on 22 May 1984, he and  American pianist <mask><mask>, performed together in Carnegie Hall in a concert called "From Grieg to Gershwin" with then Crown Prince Harald and Crown Princess Sonja in attendance. The two, along with other musicians including Ole Bøhn, Knut Skram, Felicia Weathers, and Ingrid Bjoner performed pieces by Edvard Grieg, Richard Hageman, Harry Owens, Aaron Copland, Celius Dougherty, Oley Speaks, George Gershwin. <mask> took part in performing tours all around the world.He became one of the most respected classical musicians of his time in Norway. He took an active part in music education at all ages, led the Norwegian Society of Composers and Lyricists (NOPA), and promoted the art of accompaniment. He was the first rector of the Norwegian Academy of Music when it was founded in 1973, where he was also a professor of interpretation. When the academy moved to its new facilities in Majorstuen in 1989, one of the performance halls was named after <mask>. Awards
<mask> received the Houens legat (1951)  and Statens kunstnerstip  (1954). <mask> was awarded the Norwegian Music Critics Award (Musikkritikerprisen) (1956/57), Lindemanprisen (1983) and Spellemannprisen (1977). He was also awarded the King's Medal of Merit (Kongens fortjenstmedalje) in gold  and was made a member of the Order of St Olaf.In 1993,  he was awarded the Anders Jahre Cultural Prize  (Anders Jahres kulturpris) jointly with Stein Mehren. Personal life
In 1938, he married Solveig Margrethe Bernstein (born 1914). They were the parents of journalist, <mask> (born 1939). Their daughter, Sidsel <mask> (born 1944) was music teacher and cultural facilitator at the Jewish Museum in Oslo. <mask> died  during 1996 at the age of 84 and was buried at  Østre gravlund in Oslo. References

Other sources
 <mask> and <mask>  (1983) Med livet i hendene (Oslo: Cappelen)

External links
Music Information Center article on <mask>

1912 births
1996 deaths
Norwegian classical pianists
Classical accompanists
20th-century classical pianists
Norwegian Academy of Music faculty
Refugees in Sweden
Jews who emigrated to escape Nazism
Jewish classical pianists
Norwegian refugees
Norwegian Jews
Norwegian people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
Recipients of the St. Olav's Medal
Recipients of the King's Medal of Merit in gold

masks:
Robert Levin
Levin
Background Levin
David Levin
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Robert Levin
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Roberta Peters
Robert D
. Levin
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Mona Levin
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Robert Levin
Mona Levin
Robert Levin