title: Lagmann mac Gofraid

texts:
<mask> mac Gofraid may have been an early eleventh-century ruler of the Kingdom of the Isles. He seems to have been a son of <mask> mac Arailt, King of the Isles, and was likely a member of the Uí Ímair kindred. According to mediaeval sources, Lagmann was closely associated with Óláfr Haraldsson, a future King of Norway. According one source, both men lent assistance to Knútr, son of Sveinn Haraldsson, King of Denmark, although it is possible that this account actually refers to Óláfr's campaigning in England several years beforehand. Lagmann and Óláfr are also recorded to have assisted Richard II, Duke of Normandy. The two are specified to have not only ravaged lands in Brittany on behalf of Richard, but were tasked to counter Richard's opponent Odo II, Count of Chartres. Lagmann's activities on the Continent may have arisen as a result of being forced from the Isles following the death of his possible brother Ragnall mac <mask>, King of the Isles in 1004 or 1005.Lagmann's son, Amlaíb, is recorded to have perished at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. If Lagmann died at about this time as well, it could account for the record of Hákon Eiríksson assuming control of the Isles. King of the Isles

According to the eleventh-century Gesta Normannorum ducum, Knútr, son of Sveinn Haraldsson, King of Denmark sought military assistance from a king of the Noricorum named Óláfr, and a king of Suauorum named Lacman. Whilst Óláfr seems to be identical to Óláfr Haraldsson, there is otherwise no known Swedish king named Lagmann. In fact, Gesta Normannorum ducum appears to refer to a King of the Isles rather than a King of Sweden, with Suauorum likely being a form of Sudrorum. The Kingdom of the Isles was known in Old Norse as Suðreyjar, a term that means "Southern Islands", in reference to the Hebrides and Mann. The Gaelic personal name Lagmann is derived from the Old Norse lǫgmaðr ("lawman").The latter word originally referred to a profession, and was later adopted as a personal name. Although the name itself is historically found in the Isles as early the tenth century, it is not attested in Scandinavia proper. Corroboration that there was indeed a contemporaneous potentate from the Isles who bore the name is preserved by the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster and the eleventh- or twelfth-century Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib. These sources reveal that a prominent Islesmen named Amlaíb, described as the son of Lagmann mac Gofraid, fought and died at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. The patronym accorded to Lagmann in these sources suggests that his father was <mask> mac Arailt, King of the Isles, and thus a brother of Ragnall mac <mask>, King of the Isles. It is conceivable that Lagmann's son led the Hebridean contingent at Clontarf. According to the twelfth-century Roman de Rou, and Gesta Normannorum ducum, after Lagmann and Óláfr assisted Knútr, the two were approached by Richard II, Duke of Normandy, who needed aid battling against Odo II, Count of Chartres.Lagmann and Óláfr are also stated to have campaigned on behalf of the Normans against the Bretons in Brittany where the two sacked Dol. It is possible that a record of this ravaging of Dol—and the unidentified coastal site of Hringsfjǫrðr—is preserved by Víkingarvísur, a piece of contemporary praise poetry composed by Sigvatr Þórðarson, extolling battles fought by Óláfr in England, Scandinavia, and on the Continent. In any event, when Robert II, King of the Franks afterwards intervened between the duke and count, Gesta Normannorum ducum records that Lagmann and Óláfr were presented with gifts from the king, and persuaded to return home to their own countries. The accounts of Lagmann and Óláfr suggest that they were sea-kings, the royal commanders of Viking fleets that sought out plunder, mercantile wealth, and mercenarial employment. The exact chronology of the events attributed to Lagmann on the Continent is uncertain. There is reason to suspect that the episode concerning 1014 may be erroneous, and actually refers to Óláfr's otherwise known campaigning with Þorkell inn hávi in 1009–1011. Certainly, no English source associates Óláfr with Knútr in 1014, at about the time when the former was active in Scandianvia claiming the Norwegian kingship.Although it is likewise uncertain who ruled the Isles at about the time of the Battle of Clontarf, it is conceivable that Lagmann held a degree of authority on Mann. The royal title accorded to him by Gesta Normannorum ducum suggests that had ruled in the Kingdom of the Isles, or at least possessed a claim to the kingship. One possibility is that his actions in England and on the Continent are evidence that he had been exiled from the Isles by this time. Such an expatriation could have come about in the immediate aftermath of the death of Ragnall in 1005. If correct, Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig, High King of Ireland could have seized upon Ragnall's demise and forced Lagmann from the Isles in an attempt to wrest control of realm for himself. The fact that the Annals of Ulster describes Brian in 1014 as "over-king of the Gaels of Ireland, and of the Foreigners, and of the Britons" could be evidence that Brian indeed held authority in the Isles, or at least sought to. It is conceivable that such interference could have enticed certain Islesmen to back Sitriuc and the Dubliners against Brian at the Battle of Clontarf that year.If Lagmann and his son died at about the same time, the lack of a suitable native candidate to succeed as King of the Isles may account for the record of the region falling under the control of the Norwegian Hákon Eiríksson. Evidence that Knútr installed Hákon as overlord of the Isles may be preserved by the twelfth-century Ágrip af Nóregskonungasǫgum. The historicity of this event is uncertain, however, and Hákon's authority in the Isles is not attested by any other source. If Hákon had indeed possessed overlordship of the Isles, his eventual demise in 1029 or 1030 may well have paved the way for the rise of Echmarcach mac Ragnaill, King of Dublin and the Isles, a man who may have been a son of Lagmann's brother, and who first appears on record in about 1031. The tenth- or eleventh-century Gesta Normannorum alleges that the dukes of Normandy were associated with people variably identified in Latin as the Hibernenses—a term that ostensibly refers to the Irish. At one point the text claims that Richard II's father, Richard I, Duke of Normandy, enjoyed the military assistance of the Hibernenses. Although this particular passage purports to describe events in the late tenth-century, it is evident that the source is heavily influenced by the realities of the early eleventh century.Whilst there is no evidence that Richard I had access to Irish support, there is instead reason to suspect that Gesta Normannorum actually refers to the Norse-Gaelic rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles and the Irish Sea region. In fact, it is possible that Richard II's association with Lagmann influenced the passage connecting Richard I with a military alliance with the Hibernenses. In another passage, Gesta Normannorum alleges that Richard I was involved in securing peace between the English and the Hibernenses. Certainly, a papal directive of 991 reveals that the English and Normans concluded a peace treaty in which the duke was called upon to resist from aiding the enemies of the English. Together, this pact and Gesta Normannorum, may indicate that Richard I was associated with leading figures in the Irish Sea region, such as Lagmann's father and uncle, Maccus mac Arailt. The latter two were actively campaigning in the Irish Sea region in the 970s and 980s. As such, Lagmann may have continued his family's cooperation with the dukes of Normandy.Another source that seems to evince military collaboration between the Isles and Normandy is the eleventh-century Historiarum libri quinque. Although the reliability of this chronicle is suspect, it nevertheless relates that Richard II enjoyed an amiable alliance and military assistance from "the islands beyond the sea", and may partly evince links between the Normans and the Irish Sea region. Notes

Citations

References

Primary sources

Secondary sources

11th-century Manx people
11th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles
Viking Age in France
Rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles
Uí Ímair

masks: Lagmann Gofraid Gofraid Gofraid Gofraid


title: K. M. Panikkar

type: original

texts:
<mask> (3 June 1895 – 10 December 1963), popularly known as Sardar K. M<mask>, was an Indian statesman and diplomat. He was also a professor, newspaper editor, historian and novelist. He was born in Travancore, then a princely state in the British Indian Empire and was educated in Madras and at the University of Oxford. After a stint as professor at Aligarh Muslim University and later at University of Calcutta, he became editor of Hindustan Times in 1925. Later, he was appointed Secretary to the Chamber of Princes, whence he moved to Patiala State and then to Bikaner State as Foreign Minister and later became the latter's Prime Minister. When India achieved political independence, <mask> represented the country at the 1947 session of the UN General Assembly. In 1950, he was appointed Ambassador of India (the first non-Socialist country to recognise People's Republic of China) to China.After a successful tenure there, he went as Ambassador to Egypt in 1952. He was appointed a member of the States Reorganisation Commission set up in 1953. He was also India's Ambassador to France and a member of Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian parliament. He also served as Vice-Chancellor of the University of Kashmir and the University of Mysore. Early life and education
<mask> <mask> Parameswaran Namboodiri and Chalayil <mask> <mask> in the princely state of Travancore in 1895. He completed his basic studies at CMS College School, Kottayam and St. Paul's School, Vepery, Madras. Later on he joined Madras Christian College for intermediate classes.At MCC he was a contemporary of Puthezhath Raman <mask>, Nandyelath Padmanabha <mask> and Sadasiva Reddy among others. He left for England in April 1914 to read history at Christ Church, University of Oxford. After leaving Oxford, <mask> read for the bar at the Middle Temple, London. He was the first president of the Kerala Sahitya Academy. After his studies, <mask> travelled to Portugal and Holland to research the involvement of these countries with Malabar, the results of which were published in the books Malabar and the Portuguese (1929) and Malabar and the Dutch (1931). He was the maternal uncle of the noted poet, dramatist and lyricist <mask> Narayana Panicker. Career
On returning to India, he first taught at the Aligarh Muslim University and later at the University of Calcutta.He turned to journalism in 1925 as editor of the Hindustan Times. For the next 20 years, <mask> <mask> served the Princely States, becoming secretary to the chancellor of the Chamber of Princes. He also served as the foreign minister of the state of Patiala and as foreign minister of Bikaner, and became the dewan of Bikaner in 1944. He served in China until 1952, building a relationship with <mask>-shek, and remaining there through the Communist takeover in 1949 and the following period. He wrote of his experiences in the book In Two Chinas (1955). This period also saw the completion of his work Asia and Western Dominance (1953). He subsequently served as ambassador to Egypt (1952–1953), and France (1956–1959), before a severe stroke forced him to return to India.On recovering, he took up his academic career again, becoming Vice-Chancellor of Jammu and Kashmir University and later of Mysore University. During his political career <mask> continued to publish articles and poems, and also translated several Greek plays into Malayalam verse. He was a nominated member of Rajya Sabha from 1959 - 1961. Academics and scholarship
Early on <mask> <mask> had cultivated an interest in Malayalam literature, and was a lifelong friend of the poet Vallathol Narayana <mask>on. He published scholarly works extensively and worked on ancient Indian history and more recent historical developments. Cambridge historian Arthur Hassall wrote that in his "long career as tutor of history at Christ Church" he had "never had a more brilliant student." <mask> <mask>'s interests stretched into diverse fields such as, art, notably novels, poetry and Kathakali and he wrote equally well in both Malayalam and English and published over 50 books and numerous articles.<mask> <mask>'s interest in European influence on Asia was reflected in his studies of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Malabar (in South India) and especially in his Asia and Western Dominance (1953). In Two Chinas (1955) revealed his sympathy with Communist China.

masks:
Kavalam Madhava Panikkar
. Panikkar
Sardar Madhava Panikkar
Madhava
Panikkarathu
Kunjikutti
Kunjamma
Menon
Menon
Panikkar
Panikkar
Kavalam
Madhava
Panikkar
Chiang Kai
Panikkar
Madhava
Panikkar
Men
Madhava
Panikkar
Madhava
Panikkar


title: Andries de Wet

texts:
<mask> (district of Carnarvon, Cape Colony, July 5, 1876 – Windhoek, South West Africa, April 26, 1930) was a South African soldier and founder of the Vrykorps in German South West Africa which tried to overthrow the British-aligned government of the Union of South Africa to establish German rule. Early life and education
<mask> was the son of the field cornet <mask> and his wife, Magdalena Judith Keet, and a cousin of General <mask> (Pieter was the brother of Christiaan's father, <mask>). His education began at a farm school followed by primary school in Carnarvon, after which he studied with A. G. Visser at the Memorial School of the Huguenots in Dal Josafat, where they became close friends. After graduation, he returned to his hometown to farm, though according to one source, he was hired by the Cape Colony government at a young age as a plunge dip inspector of cattle. Second Boer War
In 1895, he moved to the South African Republic, where he and his friend Koos Jooste made a name for themselves as record-setting champion cyclists on the Pretoria-to-Cape-Town race. In September 1899, he and Jooste helped Daniel Theron establish his cyclist scout corps. In December 1899, once he was promoted to a lieutenant, <mask> was ordered by Theron at the head of 25 men to the front at Colesberg and from there to Stormberg, Northern Cape.<mask> and Jooste criticized the government for not stationing troops in Colesberg and advocated an expedition to the northwestern districts of the Cape to foment anti-colonial rebellion and thereby cut off the British connection to the South. Initially refusing his counsel, the SAR government eventually adopted his plan. <mask> accompanied the expedition led by Gen. P. J. Liebenberg and Comm. Lucas Steenkamp, which set out by the end of January 1900. During February and March 1900, <mask> was active in organizing revolts in Prieska, Upington, and Kenhardt, and was promoted to commandant. The surrender of Gen.Piet Cronjé at Paardeberg on February 27, 1900, and the fall of Bloemfontein on March 13, 1900 obligated Republican forces to retreat quickly south of the Orange River. <mask> then helped defend the Orange Free State from British forces.He joined the Afrikaner Cavalry Corps when Comm. Abraham Malan founded it. Exile and return
With the dissolution of his unit, <mask> sailed for Europe out of Delagoa Bay. A serious surgery left him out of active service but he often spoke publicly about the war, championing a road through German South West Africa to help Boer representatives in Europe supply Boer troops in South Africa. By July 1901, he was well enough to return to the SAR with the help of its envoy, Willem Johannes Leyds. <mask> continued to function as the intermediary between Boer leadership at home and abroad. After a difficult trip through German South West Africa, he joined the commanders in the Cape in October 1901 and served on the staff of Gen. Jan Smuts, until a serious injury put him out of commission once more.At the end of the war, refusing to submit to British authority, he fled with Gen. Manie Maritz, Com. (later Gen.) Edwin A. Conroy, Com. Jacob Petrus Neser, and High Com. Hendrik Lategan to German South West Africa. From there, they sailed out from Swakopmund on July 30, 1902. Hugging the west coast of Africa, they called port in Victoria, Kamerun (then another German colony, where they boarded another ship traveling via Las Palmas, Canary Islands, Madeira, and Southampton to Hamburg, where he received a hero's welcome on German soil on August 29. The party travelled by train to Berlin where they hoped to meet their heroes, generals Christiaan <mask>, Koos <mask> Rey, and Louis Botha on the latter's European tour.However, the latter Boer generals would only visit the German capital afterwards, and therefore the company went to the Netherlands where Neser rented them rooms with money borrowed from Cape loyalist Jan du Plessis. While in a hospital, <mask> began and soon completed a book on his wartime experiences. The sources are unclear as to whether this is the same as Die Buren in der Kapkolonie im Kriege mit England ("Neighbors in Cape Colony at War with England," published in Munich, which he wrote Van Doomik and Du Plessis. <mask>, who accepted German citizenship, was already beginning to organize massive Boer settlement in German Southwest Africa. He had already negotiated with the German government for land where Boer refugees could live, but was stymied by lack of funds. In 1903, he returned to farm in South West Africa, still unwilling to live under the British flag, and became a leader in the local Afrikaner community. World War I

With the outbreak of World War I, <mask> enlisted in the Freikorps on September 9, 1914 in Windhoek, hoping among other things to free his homeland South Africa from British rule.Although the local Freikorps were short-lived, there was no comparable unit in any other German colonies. The all-volunteer corps was recruited from the already large Afrikaner population. The Freikorps's goal was to support the Maritz rebellion that arose after the Union government sided with Great Britain at the outbreak of war in August 1914. The rebels strongly opposed the Union Defense Force (UDF) invasion of German South West Africa and saw British forces' diversion to other fields by the broader war as an opportunity to restore the independence of the Boer republics. The Freikorps operated independently but under the aegis of the German Imperial Forces, the so-called Schutztruppe. The German governor, Theodor Seitz, fully supported the Freikorps' efforts from a strategic point of view, believing the Boers could defeat Botha's government and provide a ready German ally in South Africa. Armed with ammunition, uniforms, materiel, and military support from the German government in Windhoek, the Freikorps joined the rebels in the Northwest Cape in their siege of Upington.<mask> journeyed with the Boer troops from Windhoek to Nakop, serving as captain and commander of the Freikorps regiment sent to join Gen. Maritz there, but soon resigned and was replaced by Cmdt. Stoffel Schoeman. Quickly and poorly trained for numerous battles against the much better equipped UDF, the Freikorps ultimately failed to gain the upper hand in Cape Colony. The members lacked discipline, the rebel leaders often fought among themselves, and contact with the German commanders on the other side of the border was almost completely lost. The last rebel units surrendered to the UDF on February 2 and February 3, 1915, and Seitz officially ordered the unit disbanded on February 15, effective March 1. After the rebellion was suppressed and the slight Freikorps incursion into the Northwest Cape ended, Botha's army had little trouble defeating the Schutztruppe and capturing Windhoek on May 9 without opposition. Only two months later, the German surrender was signed to the north, in Khorab.In South West Africa
<mask> returned to his farm and soon began participating in local politics. He helped found the United National South West Party and advocated in 1928 for the repatriation of the Dorslandtrekkers from Portuguese soil to South West Africa. Personal life
His marriage in 1903 in German South West Africa to Elisabeth Hagedom (or Hagdorn) (to whom he had been engaged in Germany a year before his return to Africa) produced four children. After her death, he married Elisabeth Catherina Ackerman, whom he later divorced but with whom he had a son. He was survived by his third wife, Anna Jacoba <mask>, and was buried in Windhoek. A street southeast of downtown Windhoek was named for him. Sources
 (af) Nienaber, P. J.1947. Afrikaanse biografiese woordeboek Deel 1. ("Afrikaner Biographical Dictionary Part 1") Johannesburg: L. en S. Boek- en Kunssentrum. (af) Krüger, D. W. (up to 1972) and Beyers, C.J. (since 1973). 1977. Suid-Afrikaanse Biografiese Woordeboek.("South African Biographical Dictionary") Cape Town: Tafelberg-Uitgewers. (en) Trümpelmann, G.P.J. and Potgieter, D.J. 1971. Standard Encyclopaedia of Southern Africa. Cape Town: Nasionale Opvoedkundige Uitgewery Ltd.
 (en) Fighting with the Germans against their own people. URL accessed 3 October 2015.References

External links
(af) Afrikaner History, Namibia. URL accessed 3 October 2015. People of the Second Boer War
History of Namibia
1876 births
1930 deaths

masks:
Andries Gerhardus de Wet
De Wet
Pieter Gerhardus de Wet
Christiaan de Wet
Jacobus Ignatius de Wet
De Wet
De Wet
De Wet
De Wet
De Wet
De Wet
De Wet
de Wet
de la
De Wet
De Wet
De Wet
De Wet
De Wet
van Heerden


title: George W. Trendle

texts:
<mask> (July 4, 1884May 10, 1972) was a Detroit lawyer and businessman best known as the producer of the Lone Ranger radio and television programs along with The Green Hornet and Sergeant Preston of the Yukon. Movie theaters
During the 1920s, <mask><mask> was a Detroit, Michigan, lawyer who had established a reputation as a tough negotiator specializing in movie contracts and leases. Trendle became involved in the Detroit area entertainment business in 1928 when local motion picture theater owner John H. Kunsky offered Trendle 25 percent ownership in exchange for his services. Kunsky had been an early investor in Nickelodeons beginning in 1905. In 1911, he built the first movie theater in Detroit. It was the second movie theater in the nation. By 1928, he owned twenty movie theaters, including four of the largest first-run theaters in Detroit.Kunsky was being driven out of the theater business when Adolph Zukor acquired the Detroit area film exchange known as the Cooperative Booking Office and began pressuring local theater owners to sell out to Paramount. <mask> negotiated to sell Kunsky's theatres for six million dollars. Zukor transferred the theaters to a Paramount subsidiary named United Detroit Theatres. In 1948, Paramount's monopoly became the focus of an antitrust suit initiated by the Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers (SIMPP). As part of the deal, <mask> and Kunsky were prohibited from reentering the movie business in Detroit. However, Zukor apparently recognized <mask>'s talents and hired him to manage the Paramount theaters in Detroit. <mask> is credited as having built the historic Alger Theater, which opened August 22, 1935, on Detroit's east side.Trendle was fired from the United Detroit Theatres for "negligence" in 1937. Radio and television stations
Trendle and Kunsky formed the Kunsky-Trendle Broadcasting Company in 1929 after purchasing Detroit radio station WGHP. The radio station's call letters were changed to WXYZ. <mask> was the president and Kunsky was the vice president of the company. Trendle was active as the station manager. Kunsky is rarely mentioned except as co-owner. WXYZ was initially affiliated with the Columbia Broadcasting System but became an independent station within a year.Trendle's partner, Kunsky, legally changed his name to King in 1936, and the Kunsky-Trendle Broadcasting Company became the King-Trendle Broadcasting Company. WXYZ improved its technical facilities through the 1930s, expanding its studios, raising its daytime power from 1,000 to 5,000 watts in the late 1930s, and increasing nighttime power to 5,000 watts in time for its mandated 1941 move from 1240 to 1270 kHz under the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement. In 1931, Kunsky-Trendle acquired WASH and WOOD in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The two stations merged facilities, including studios and transmitters, but retained both station licenses. WASH was on the air from 8 a.m. to noon, and WOOD from noon to midnight. WOOD-WASH became an NBC Red affiliate in 1935. King and Trendle decided to drop the WASH license in 1942, keeping the WOOD identification.In 1946, the newly formed American Broadcasting Company purchased the King-Trendle Broadcasting Company and its radio stations for $3.65 million. This sale was for the broadcast facilities (including WOOD, WXYZ, and the Michigan Regional Network) and a construction permit for what would later become WXYZ-TV (channel 7) but did not include ownership of Trendle's radio programs. The FCC approved ABC's purchase on July 18, 1946. In 1952, Paramount Theaters (owners of Kunsky and Trendle's former chain of Detroit area theaters) acquired ABC, including WXYZ. Trendle entered into a new partnership with long-term business associates H. Allen Campbell and Raymond Meurer. The Trendle-Campbell Broadcasting Company was formed in 1946 and started radio station WTCB in Flint, Michigan. The new radio station went on the air April 26, 1946, with a four-tower 1000-watt broadcast array.The call letters were later changed to WTAC. In 1953, they added UHF television station WTAC-TV affiliated with ABCTV and DuMont. The TV station went out of business less than a year later because too few TVs at the time were equipped to receive UHF channels. The radio station has changed owners several times and its call sign was changed to WSNL in 1997. The station is currently owned by The Christian Broadcasting System. Three of the four towers were demolished in 2003 to make room for redevelopment of the site. The fourth tower was removed in 2004 after new transmitting facilities were completed in Gaines Township, southwest of Flint.Another Trendle-Campbell radio station (WPON) went on the air in December 1954. The station was located in Pontiac, Michigan, with studios in the Waldron Hotel in downtown Pontiac. Trendle and Campbell were reportedly still in charge of station operations in the late 1960s. In 1987, WPON's transmitter was moved from Pontiac to Walled Lake. The station is currently owned by Southfield-based Birach Broadcasting and has a talk-and-oldies format. Penny pinching
The Kunsky-Trendle business venture began at the start of the Great Depression, and Trendle took many cost-cutting moves that earned him a reputation as a penny-pincher. According to Dick Osgood in his book Wyxie Wonderland: An Unauthorized 50-Year Diary of WXYZ Detroit, he was assisted in this by H. Allen Campbell.Campbell was an advertising salesman for the Hearst organization whom Trendle hired to find sponsors for his radio programs. Campbell is credited with signing Silvercup Bread (of the Gordon Baking Company) as the first sponsor for the Lone Ranger series. This was a big account and helped to bring the show to nationwide syndication. Apparently, Campbell's contributions to the business were significant. He continued working for Trendle for the next twenty years and eventually became one of Trendle's business partners. Campbell reportedly kept a set of books to show employees that the company was losing money and could not afford to pay higher salaries. Trendle and Campbell often responded to employee requests for salary increases by downplaying their value to the company and threatening to fire them.This threat was particularly effective during the Depression. <mask> specified the music on WXYZ shows should be non-copyrighted classical so that the music was royalty-free. This is the reason that the William Tell Overture was adopted as the Lone Ranger theme and The Flight of the Bumble Bee became the theme for the Green Hornet show. New programming
In June 1932, <mask> decided to drop the network affiliation to operate WXYZ as an independent station. His station would produce its own radio drama series and broadcast locally produced music programs rather than pay for syndicated programs. Jim Jewell was hired as the station's dramatic director and supplied the actors from his own repertory company, the "Jewell Players." Freelance radio writer Fran Striker was hired to write many of these programs.The earliest dramatic radio series included Thrills of the Secret Service, Dr. Fang, and <mask>, Manhunter. Striker wrote many of the scripts and eventually became head of WXYZ's script department. Late in 1932, Trendle began discussing ideas to create a new radio series with a cowboy as the hero. He wanted a mysterious hero who would have the same type of appeal as Zorro or Robin Hood. The target audience included children, so Trendle insisted on a wholesome hero with high moral standards. Violence and romance were to be minimized. Trendle worked out the basic concept of a masked vigilante, a lone Texas ranger with a big white horse, in staff meetings with Jim Jewell and studio manager Harold True.Then it was turned over to Fran Striker to flesh out the details and provide the scripts. His contributions included silver bullets and an Indian companion. The result was The Lone Ranger, which began broadcasting January 30, 1933, on WXYZ and the seven other stations of the Michigan Regional Network. The Lone Ranger was an almost immediate hit. In May, a free popgun was offered to the first 300 listeners to send a written request; the station received nearly 25,000 replies. In July, the Lone Ranger made a public appearance at a park and a crowd estimated at 70,000 gathered. Trendle recognized the value of the Lone Ranger and forced Striker and Jewell to sign over all rights.Along with the legal rights, <mask> claimed credit as the creator of the Lone Ranger. <mask> and his partners kept most of the profits from radio syndication, movie rights, and merchandising while Striker and Jewell were given little more than their salaries. By the beginning of 1934, the show was syndicated to WGN, Chicago, and WOR, Newark. Other stations soon followed. The live broadcasts were transmitted over telephone lines to the other stations. When the Mutual Broadcasting System was created in 1934, WXYZ became a charter member and the Lone Ranger program was featured on the Mutual Network. Although WXYZ dropped out to join NBC Blue about a year later, contractual obligations kept The Lone Ranger on Mutual until 1942, during this period The Lone Ranger was produced at WXYZ but heard in the Detroit area over Mutual's new affiliate, CKLW.It then switched to the NBC Blue Network, which became ABC in 1943. The popularity of the series rapidly grew and it was eventually heard on 249 radio stations nationwide. In order to service a nationwide audience, the live broadcast was performed three times, once for each time zone. Beginning in February 1938, the third performance was also recorded on a transcription disk for later broadcast on stations that did not have a live connection to the network. In 1936, The Green Hornet was added to the roster of WXYZ programs. The Green Hornet was a modern-day masked crime fighter named Britt Reid and was descended from the Lone Ranger's nephew Dan Reid. He was assisted by his Japanese (later changed to Filipino when American involvement in World War II grew more likely) valet Kato, who used martial arts.Fran Striker wrote most of the scripts for the series. In 1937, Trendle licensed Republic Pictures to produce a movie version of The Lone Ranger. Trendle was not happy with changes that were made in the movie adaptations and hired attorney Raymond Meurer to oversee licensing of the franchise. However, Trendle did like the incidental music Republic used on the serial's soundtrack and acquired the right to use it on The Lone Ranger. In 1939, when The Lone Ranger moved from Mutual to NBC (Blue), new arrangements were recorded by The NBC Symphony and used for the rest of the run of the radio series and on the TV series episodes produced by Trendle's company. In 1938, Trendle asked his writing staff to create an adventure series featuring a dog as the hero. Writer Tom Dougall created Challenge of the Yukon, a series about Sergeant Preston of the North-West Mounted Police and his sled dog Yukon King.In 1939, Striker created Ned Jordan Secret Agent for WXYZ. In 1949, Trendle hired former MGM film producer Jack Chertok to produce The Lone Ranger television series. Trendle was credited as executive producer. In 1950, Trendle began producing Bob Barclay - American Agent. Bob Barclay was an undercover agent for the U.S. Government with a cover identity as a news correspondent. Trendle received complaints from the U.S. Government because the stories sounded too much like actual cases. The American press also complained that the series was hurting the real-life situation of <mask>s.Oatis was a reporter being held on espionage charges in Czechoslovakia. The series was cancelled at the end of its first season. In July 1954, Trendle sold the rights to the Lone Ranger to the Wrather Corporation for $3 million. The radio series ceased at that time, but the television series continued until 1957 with <mask> as the new executive producer. From 1955 to 1958, the radio program Challenge of the Yukon was adapted for television as Sergeant Preston of the Yukon. The series was produced by Trendle-Campbell-Meurer Inc. during its first two seasons but was sold to Jack Wrather Productions in 1957. Death
On May 10, 1972, <mask> died of a heart attack at the age of 87.He is buried in Detroit's Woodlawn Cemetery. References

Sources
 Dunning, John (1998). On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio. New York: Oxford University Press. Osgood, Dick (1981). Wyxie Wonderland: An Unauthorized 50-Year Diary of WXYZ Detroit. Ohio: Bowling Green University Press.Bisco, Jim (2005). “Buffalo's Lone Ranger: The Prolific Fran Striker Wrote the Book on Early Radio.“ Western New York Heritage, Vol 7, Number 4, Winter 2005. J Brian III. ”HI-YO SILVER“ The Saturday Evening Post. October 14, 1939

External links

The Miser of Motown: <mask>. Trendle
History of United Detroit Theaters
Michigan Radio Station History

1884 births
1972 deaths
American radio producers
Television producers from Ohio
Lone Ranger
People from Norwalk, Ohio
Burials in Michigan
Green Hornet
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Detroit, Michigan)

masks:
George Washington Trendle
George W
. Trendle
Trendle
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Trendle
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Trendle
Warner Lester
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William Oati
Jack Wrather
Trendle
George W


title: Ritesh Arya

texts:
<mask> is an Indian geologist known for finding water at multiple locations in the high-altitude cold and mountainous desert of  Ladakh, including the Siachen Glacier, which has made him a Guinness World Records holder. In 2014 he was Director Water and Geothermal Section at the International Sustainable Energy Organization (ISEO). Life
<mask> was born in Shimla on 20 Aug 1968. He had his primary education from St Edward Shimla and high school from St Marys Convent School  Kasauli. He did his pre-medical from DAV Chandigarh but soon realized that dissections on animals were not his cup of tea. He joined BSc (Hons School) in  Center of Advanced Study in Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh and did his Masters and Ph.D. from there. He has an interest in fossils, groundwater, tectonics, climate, geothermal.Fossils
During his graduation days, he was inspired by Medlicott who had collected fossils from the Kasauli club in 1864. Since <mask> belonged to Kasauli he started collecting fossils during his graduation days which culminated in his Ph.D. degree but his love for fossils continued. His collection included fossils of leaves, flowers, stems, roots, vertebrates, molluscs, insect wings most of which were the first report from the Kasauli Himalayas . He presented his findings in  Seminar marking the 25th celebration of  Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology in 1993 and later in 1994 he also presented the same in the International Geological Correlation Program 355 on  Neogene evolution of Pacific Ocean gateways                                                                         Inter-University Seminar House, Kansai JAPAN organized by Prof Nishimura in Japan 1994. Groundwater
In 1993 he joined the Groundwater Organisation, Government of Himachal Pradesh as a hydrogeologist to explore groundwater resources in the Himalayas which were earlier considered to devoid of groundwater resources. In 1996 he coined the word Hydrostratigraphy and divided the Himalayas into 7 hydrostratigraphic zones based on borewell samples. He prepared a Conceptual model to explain occurrences and movement of groundwater resources in the entire Himalayas and presented the same in 1996 International Geological Congress Beijing China
In 1995, following a request from the Dalai Lama to help in providing potable water to natives of Sonamling Tibetan Settlement in Choglamsar.These were those Tibetans who had fled Tibet following Chinese aggression in 1959 along with the Dalai Lama and settled in these high altitude cold mountain desert of the world. Arya successfully explored the region which was at that time considered to be devoid of groundwater. In 1997 Water Aid funded a project to find drinking water for around 5000 Tibetans living in and around Leh. This included Choglamsar, Spituk, Nyoma, Sumdo and Hanle. He left his government job and established his own company 'Arya Driller' in  working on a "No Water, No Money" basis. <mask> was part of the team who managed to find the required water, further drilled 25 borewells to make that water accessible. Arya then helped make drinking water available at Air Force Station Leh and  Thoise.He worked in close association with the scientists of the Defence Research Development Organisation (DRDO) to provide water for irrigation for the Field Research Laboratory in Leh and Partapur. Groundwater based agriculture increased the production by 50% During Kargil War, he was exploring and provided groundwater to the troops stationed in Siachen, Kargil, Drass, Khumbathang Since 1999 he has been providing potable water in difficult terrains for the military bases and along the border across Ladakh including Thoise, Phobrang, Chushul, Partapur, Sasoma, Rezang La and Tangtse. He also worked with civil authorities to provide water to the civil population and also under the Sadhbavana project. Kushok Bakula Rimpochee Airport, Batalik and DRDO laboratory aside, <mask> found water at nearly 50 locations connected to the Indian Army's XIV Corps. In 2003 <mask> made his name in the Guinness World Records for exploring and drilling the highest artesian condition (borewell) in the world at for the Indian Army. He presented his findings in World Water Week Stockholm in 2009

Geothermal
In 2008 he was in Oslo to present a paper at the International Geological Congress Oslo. In 2010 Research Council of Norway he was part of the INDNOR an Indo-Norway joint venture to study geothermal sites in Himalayas.He introduced Agneyodgara (lava Energy) and firmly believed that Geothermal energy alone can solve the energy problem in remote areas of Ladakh specially Chumathang and Puga in a sustainable way. This concept was rated among the Top 10 innovations in World Future Energy Summit 2010 Abu Dhabi. In 2010 he presented his paper on Geothermal as Tourist destination in Himalayas in World Geothermal Congress Bali Indonesia. He was able to explore and develop lukewarm water for Indian army @ Siachen Base camp with the aim to decrease dependency on fossil fuel

Climate
After the reports of Man-made Global warming were published by IPCC in 2007, <mask> who was working in Higher Himalayas was carefully observing the glacial remains, geological and geomorphological features, and the borewell samples and tried to relate it with paleoclimates. He found that majority of the glaciers had receded and become extinct in the Himalayas much before industrialization started and based on geological and geomorphological shreds of evidence proposed <mask>'s C Cycle on climate change  C cycles because the geomorphic features he found in the granites of Ladakh Batholith represented alphabet C .  He concluded that Climate Change is a natural cyclic process consisting of warming and cooling cycles. Man creates pollution and not changes in Climate  He concluded that Global warming is the best part to be on this planet earth and did a TEDx talk "Enjoy Global Warming - Its the best part to be on this planet earth"

Floods
In 2010, Leh floods claimed more than 200 plus lives in night of 5 August. Dr Arya had predicted flash floods induced due to global warming in an International Seminar organized by Military Engineering Services in Leh and in 2010 he was trapped in the flash flood.He worked on the flood sites and based on the evidences collected he concluded that Leh floods were caused due to Reservoir Wall Rupture Mechanism paper was published in NIDM Journal Disaster & Development Vol. 5, No. 1 & 2, April & November 2011

Earthquakes
Arya based on geological evidences collected across the Himalayas from the foothills of the Shivalik to the Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone and beyond  firmly believed that Himalayas are accumulation of various geological formations consisting of various rocks of different geological ages representing different environment which have been placed side by side today by various forces of tectonics which moved the Indian plate towards Eurasian plate thereby squeezing the sediments of the Tethys Sea which was once separating India from the Tibetan landmass. Resulting in trusting of older formations over the younger formations thereby creating week zones leading to frequent seismic activities which we witness today. According to him “Hill stations near Chandigarh are geologically upside down hence prone to seismic activity”
<mask> discovered the signatures of paleoseismic activity in Spituk Leh Ladakh. He was able to demonstrate the seismic activity and the bursting of the paleolake at Spituk around 1000 years ago. He concluded that geological investigations are being ignored while constructing roads and widening them which leads to landslides which become erratic and cause danger to the life of the people.Geoheritage and geotourism
Geoheritage preservation can educate the students and tourists about the rich GEO heritage and culture of the area by helping them understand the life, climate and geographic position of India in the past. This will also promote tourism which will help increase the socio-economic status of the people living in the remote region. A geo heritage walk was organized by Arya to promote geotourism in the region . A marathon was organized from Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh to Renuka Lake in Himachal to show the importance of mountain lakes in preserving and conserving fresh water reserves on one hand and promoting geotourism in those areas
 A geoheritage calendar of Kasauli and Ladakh was prepared and presented to JP Nadha and Member of Parliament Ladakh to highlight various sites of geoheritage importance in the Himalayas . Presently he is working on establishing a museum of evolution based on the fossils collected from different parts of Himalayas to spread awareness of the rich geoheritage among the students  children and administration with the aim to preserve, conserve sites of geological importance to promote geotourism specially in remote areas where the fossils are found. References

External links
The incredible waterman - INDIA TODAY
Indian geologist makes it to Guinness Book of World Records-Tribune News Service
Global warming is a cyclic process: Guinness record holder-Deccan Herald
Soon, power from ancient rocks-Times of India

Indian geologists
Scientists from Himachal Pradesh
Living people
1968 births
Guinness World Records

masks:
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Ritesh Arya
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title: Nils Malmros

texts:
<mask> (born 1944), a Danish film director and screenwriter, is considered a leading auteur of realism in Danish cinema. <mask> is noted for his detailed focus on the common growing pains of adolescence and the loss of innocence, which he draws from his childhood experiences growing up in Århus, Denmark. His most notable films form a trilogy about schoolchildren in 1950s Århus: Lars-Ole 5c, Boys and Tree of Knowledge. The latter film, 1981's Tree of Knowledge (Kundskabens træ), is one of ten films listed in Denmark's cultural canon by the Danish Ministry of Culture. <mask>, self-educated as a filmmaker, is formally trained as a surgeon. In his film Facing the Truth (At kende sandheden), he performed all of the film's brain surgery sequences himself. <mask> is a 4-time recipient of the Bodil Award for Best Danish Film and a 3-time recipient of the Robert Award for Danish Film of the Year.Early life and medical training
<mask> Sigurd <mask> was born on 5 October 1944 in Århus, Denmark the son of , professor of neurosurgery at University of Aarhus, and Eli Cold. As a young man, <mask> wanted to be a furniture designer and applied for admission to architecture school in Copenhagen, but was not accepted. Instead, Malmros followed in the path of his father and, in 1965, began studying medicine. However, after viewing François Truffaut's Jules and Jim and reading a film analysis by Klaus Rifbjerg, <mask> became inspired to pursue film making. <mask> eventually completed his medical training and graduated from the Århus University medical school in 1988—after 23 years and the completion of five feature films. First films
In 1968, using his own money and his friends as actors, <mask> wrote and directed his first film: A Strange Romance (En mærkelig kærlighed). The film about the problems and philosophical discussions of some youths in Århus received a premiere at a Copenhagen theater but passed with little notice.After opening in Århus, critics panned the movie for being amateurish and a plagiarism of Truffaut. <mask> was hurt, but pushed forward with his next movie project: Lars-Ole, 5c. In 1969, <mask> sought financial support from the Danish Film Fund, first for script development of Lars-Ole, 5c, and again later for production. Both times he was turned down—the Film Fund would not support what they considered a children's movie. <mask> again self-funded his project. The movie revolved around the social life and development of a fifth-grade schoolboy. Malmros filmed on location at the Finsensgades Skole in Århus where he once attended, and he reduced costs by using children from the school as actors and extras."In 1971, he appealed for support to transfer the film from 16-mm to 35-mm and was again refused. The film premiered in 1973 to critical praise and was hailed as "a little film miracle." <mask>' treatment by the Danish Film Fund became a scandal and was discussed within the Danish parliament. Subsequently, the Film Fund was dissolved and replaced by the Danish Film Institute which awarded Malmros 335,000 dkk in settlement in 1974. In August of that year, <mask> won the Bodil Award for Best Danish Film for Lars-Ole, 5c. Professional career
The positive results and financial success of his Lars-Ole, 5c permitted <mask> to pursue his first professional film: Boys (Drenge). Once again, <mask> used his own childhood experiences to relate his story, this time about an Århus schoolboy's sexual development told in three phases from child to teenager to young man.The film premiered in 1977 and in 1978, <mask> won his second Bodil Award for Best Danish Film. In 1981, <mask> released the third film of his trilogy: Tree of Knowledge (Kundskabens træ). Like Lars-Ole, 5c and Boys, Tree of Knowledge was an examination of Danish schoolchildren in Århus during the 1950s. However, this time, the story revolved around the lives of 17 young teenagers during a two-year period. Shooting on location at the Århus Katedralskole where he went to school, <mask> took two years to film the action, so the cast members reflected the real life physical and emotional development of their characters. <mask> originally wanted to film over a four-year period but ran into financial difficulties with the film's funding from the Det Danske Filminstitut. The film received critical acclaim but garnered only two awards: a Bodil Award for Jan Weincke's cinematography and an audience prize at the Lübeck Nordic Film Days.However, Tree of Knowledge is one of the top 100 Danish films listed by the Danish Film Institute and is one of ten films listed in the cultural canon of Denmark by the Danish Ministry of Culture. <mask> made Beauty and the Beast (Skønheden og udyret) in 1983. The film describes the tensions between a father and daughter when he becomes over his daughter's developing relationships with boys. In 1984 <mask> won his third Bodil Award for Best Danish Film. The movie was also awarded the newly established Robert Award for Danish Film of the Year. He followed this with his 1989 film Århus by Night. The film was inspired by <mask>' experiences during the filming of Boys and many of the characters were obvious portraits of those involved from the earlier film.During filming <mask> came under criticism from the Actor's union for employing amateur actors. <mask> held a preview of the movie and was criticized for the surrealistic Freudian ending by reviewers, for example critic Klaus Rifberg. However, without Rifberg's knowledge, <mask> had seen the review and one week before the official premiere he removed the film's ending, thus shortening the film by 5 minutes. <mask> received pleasant but mild reviews of the film. In 1992, <mask> shifted from his usual milieu and made the dramatic tragedy Pain of Love (Kærlighedens Smerte). Departing from Malmros' usual sentimental view of childhood, the film tells a beautiful but bitter story about a young college student whose small setbacks in school and relationships lead her toward an inexorable descent into suicidal depression. The film won both the Bodil and Robert awards in 1993 for Best Danish Film.Both Anne Louise Hassing and Søren Østergaard received the same awards for their leading roles and both supporting actors received Bodil awards as well. For his next film, <mask> for the first time chose a story from outside of his childhood environs. Malmros' Barbara (1997) is an adaptation of the classic Danish novel by Jørgen-Frantz Jacobsen set in the Faroe Islands. The film about a minister who falls in love and marries a promiscuous woman received the Audience Award at the Rouen Nordic Film Festival as well as the 1998 Robert Award for Best Film. For his 2002 film, Facing the Truth (At kende sandheden), <mask> returned to his personal experience with semi-biographical tale about his father who was a pioneer in brain surgery. Shot in black-and-white documentary style, the film relates the hardships of a young neurosurgeon struggling through a medical lawsuit. <mask>, intent on the film's realism, used his surgical background by performing all of the film's brain surgery scenes himself.The film was nominated for the 2003 Bodil Award for Best Danish Film and <mask> accepted the 2003 Danish Film Academy's Robert Award for Film of the Year. In 2009, <mask> released another coming-of-age story, Aching Hearts (Kærestesorger). Filmed over a three-year period with teenagers in Viborg, the movie repeated the filming techniques and themes from <mask>' Tree of Knowledge. In 2013, <mask> wrote and directed Sorrow and Joy () about the tragic events in which his wife killed their 9-month-old daughter. It was selected as the Danish entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 87th Academy Awards, but was not nominated. Personal life
<mask> married school teacher Marianne Tromholt on 5 June 1982. Tromholt suffers from bipolar disorder.In 1984, while on a home visit from Risskov Psychiatric Hospital and off her medication, Tromholt killed the couple's 9-month-old daughter with a kitchen knife. Tromholt received 18 months of hospital treatment after which Malmros obtained her release. Tromholt returned to teaching at the request of her students' parents. She retired from teaching in 2012, prior to the release of <mask>' 2013 film Sorrow and Joy which recounts the tragic events. <mask> <mask> – en auteur. Amanda 1991, s. 25-36. Lars Daneskov og Kim Kristensen: <mask> <mask>, portræt af en filmkunstner.Hovedland 1989. Finn Thrane: Interview med <mask> Mamros. Kosmorama 123-124/1974. John Mogensen: Kundskabens træ – en film bliver til. Centrum 1981. Søren Birkvad: Syndens huler. Kosmorama 157/1982.Oluf Gandrup og Peter Kirkegaard: Malmros' erindringsmagi – Bringing It All Back Home. MacGuffin 41-42/1982. Niels Olaf Gudme: Interview med <mask> <mask>. Tusind Øjne 47/1981. Henrik Jul Hansen: Fortiden på nethinden. Levende Billeder 7/1981. Klaus Rifbjerg: Kærligheden er en by i provinsen.Levende Billeder 8/1981. External links

 <mask> Malmos at danskfilmogtv.com (in Danish)

1944 births
Danish film directors
Danish male writers
Danish screenwriters
Living people
Male screenwriters
People from Aarhus

masks:
Nils Malmros
Malmros
Malmros
Malmros
Nils
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title: Man Ray

texts:
<mask> (born Emmanuel Radnitzky; August 27, 1890 – November 18, 1976) was an American visual artist who spent most of his career in Paris. He was a significant contributor to the Dada and Surrealist movements, although his ties to each were informal. He produced major works in a variety of media but considered himself a painter above all. He was best known for his pioneering photography, and he was a renowned fashion and portrait photographer. <mask> is also noted for his work with photograms, which he called "rayographs" in reference to himself. Biography

Background and early life

During his career as an artist, <mask> allowed few details of his early life or family background to be known to the public. He even refused to acknowledge that he ever had a name other than <mask>.<mask>'s birth name was Emmanuel Radnitzky. He was born in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on August 27, 1890. He was the eldest child of Russian Jewish immigrants Melach "Max" Radnitzky, a tailor, and <mask> "Minnie" Radnitzky (née Lourie or Luria). He had a brother, Sam, and two sisters, Dorothy "Dora" and Essie (or Elsie), the youngest born in 1897 shortly after they settled in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. In early 1912, the Radnitzky family changed their surname to <mask>. <mask>'s brother chose the surname in reaction to the ethnic discrimination and antisemitism prevalent at the time. Emmanuel, who was called "<mask>" as a nickname, changed his first name to <mask> and gradually began to use <mask> as his name.<mask>'s father worked in a garment factory and ran a small tailoring business out of the family home. He enlisted his children to assist him from an early age. <mask>'s mother enjoyed designing the family's clothes and inventing patchwork items from scraps of fabric. <mask> wished to disassociate himself from his family background, but their tailoring left an enduring mark on his art. Mannequins, flat irons, sewing machines, needles, pins, threads, swatches of fabric, and other items related to tailoring appear in almost every medium of his work. Art historians have noted similarities between <mask>'s collage and painting techniques and styles used for tailoring. Mason Klein, curator of a <mask> exhibition at the Jewish Museum in New York, Alias <mask>: The Art of Reinvention, suggests that the artist may have been "the first Jewish avant-garde artist."<mask> was the uncle of the photographer Naomi Savage, who learned some of his techniques and incorporated them into her own work. First artistic endeavors

<mask> displayed artistic and mechanical abilities during childhood. His education at Brooklyn's Boys' High School from 1904 to 1909 provided him with solid grounding in drafting and other basic art techniques. While he attended school, he educated himself with frequent visits to the local art museums, where he studied the works of the Old Masters. After his graduation, <mask> was offered a scholarship to study architecture but chose to pursue a career as an artist. <mask>'s parents were disappointed by their son's decision to pursue art, but they agreed to rearrange the family's modest living quarters so that <mask>'s room could be his studio. The artist remained in the family home over the next four years.During this time, he worked steadily towards becoming a professional painter. <mask> earned money as a commercial artist and was a technical illustrator at several Manhattan companies. The surviving examples of his work from this period indicate that he attempted mostly paintings and drawings in 19th-century styles. He was already an avid admirer of contemporary avant-garde art, such as the European modernists he saw at Alfred Stieglitz's "291" gallery and works by the Ashcan School. However, with a few exceptions, he was not yet able to integrate these trends into his own work. The art classes he sporadically attended, including stints at the National Academy of Design and the Art Students League, were of little apparent benefit to him. When he enrolled in the Ferrer School in the autumn of 1912, he began a period of intense and rapid artistic development.New York

While living in New York City, <mask> was influenced by the avant-garde practices of European contemporary artists he was introduced to at the 1913 Armory Show and in visits to Alfred Stieglitz's "291" art gallery. His early paintings display facets of cubism. After befriending Marcel Duchamp, who was interested in showing movement in static paintings, his works began to depict movement of the figures. An example is the repetitive positions of the dancer's skirts in The Rope Dancer Accompanies Herself with Her Shadows (1916). In 1915, <mask> had his first solo show of paintings and drawings after he had taken up residence at an art colony in Grantwood, New Jersey, across the Hudson River from New York City. His first proto-Dada object, an assemblage titled Self-Portrait, was exhibited the following year. He produced his first significant photographs in 1918, after initially picking up the camera to document his own artwork.<mask> abandoned conventional painting to involve himself with Dada, a radical anti-art movement. He published two Dadaist periodicals, that each only had one issue, The Ridgefield Gazook (1915) and TNT (1919), the latter co-edited by Adolf Wolff and Mitchell Dawson. He started making objects and developed unique mechanical and photographic methods of making images. For the 1918 version of Rope Dancer, he combined a spray-gun technique with a pen drawing. Like Duchamp, he worked with readymades—ordinary objects that are selected and modified. His Gift readymade (1921) is a flatiron with metal tacks attached to the bottom, and Enigma of Isidore Ducasse is an unseen object (a sewing machine) wrapped in cloth and tied with cord. Aerograph (1919), another work from this period, was done with airbrush on glass.In 1920, <mask> helped Duchamp make the Rotary Glass Plates, one of the earliest examples of kinetic art. It was composed of glass plates turned by a motor. That same year, <mask>, Katherine Dreier, and Duchamp founded the Société Anonyme, an itinerant collection that was the first museum of modern art in the U.S. In 1941 the collection was donated to Yale University Art Gallery. <mask> teamed up with Duchamp to publish one issue of New York Dada in 1920. For <mask>, Dada's experimentation was no match for the wild and chaotic streets of New York. He wrote that "Dada cannot live in New York.All New York is dada, and will not tolerate a rival." In 1913, <mask> met his first wife, the Belgian poet Adon Lacroix (Donna Lecoeur) (1887–1975), in New York. They married in 1914, separated in 1919, and formally divorced in 1937. Paris

In July 1921, <mask> went to live and work in Paris, France. He soon settled in the Montparnasse quarter favored by many artists. His accidental rediscovery of the cameraless photogram, which he called "rayographs", resulted in mysterious images hailed by Tristan Tzara as "pure Dada creations". Shortly after arriving in Paris, he met and fell in love with Kiki de Montparnasse (Alice Prin), an artists' model and celebrated character in Paris bohemian circles.Kiki was <mask>'s companion for most of the 1920s. She became the subject of some of his most famous photographic images, and starred in his experimental films Le Retour à la Raison and L'Étoile de mer. In 1929, he began a love affair with the Surrealist photographer Lee Miller. She left him in 1932. <mask> was in a relationship with the Guadeloupean dancer and model Adrienne Fidelin from late 1934 until August 1940, the two parting ways after <mask> fled the Nazi occupation in France, while Adrienne chose to stay behind to care for her family. Unlike the artist's other significant muses, Fidelin has largely been written out of his life story. <mask> was a pioneering photographer in Paris for two decades between the wars.Significant members of the art world, such as Pablo Picasso, Tristan Tzara, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Jean Cocteau, Salvador Dalí, Peggy Guggenheim, Bridget Bate Tichenor, Luisa Casati, and Antonin Artaud, posed for his camera. <mask>'s international fame as a portrait photographer is reflected in a series of photographs of Maharajah Yashwant Rao Holkar II and his wife Sanyogita Devi from their visit to Europe in 1927. His practice of photographing African objects in the Paris collections of Paul Guillaume and Charles Ratton and others led to several iconic photographs, including Noire et blanche. As Man Ray scholar Wendy A. Grossman has illustrated, "no one was more influential in translating the vogue for African art into a Modernist photographic aesthetic than <mask>." <mask> was represented in the first Surrealist exhibition with Jean Arp, Max Ernst, André Masson, Joan Miró, and Pablo Picasso at the Galerie Pierre in Paris in 1925. Important works from this time were a metronome with an eye, originally titled Object to Be Destroyed, and

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title: Man Ray

texts:
 the Violon d'Ingres, a stunning photograph of Kiki de Montparnasse, styled after the painter/musician Ingres. Violon d'Ingres is a popular example of how <mask> could juxtapose disparate elements in his photography to generate meaning.<mask> directed a number of influential avant-garde short films, known as Cinéma Pur. He directed Le Retour à la Raison (2 mins, 1923); Emak-Bakia (16 mins, 1926); L'Étoile de Mer (15 mins, 1928); and Les Mystères du Château de Dé (27 mins, 1929). <mask> also assisted Marcel Duchamp with the cinematography of his film Anemic Cinema (1926), and <mask> personally manned the camera on Fernand Léger's Ballet Mécanique (1924). In René Clair's film Entr'acte (1924), <mask> appeared in a brief scene playing chess with Duchamp. Duchamp, <mask>, and Francis Picabia were all friends and collaborators, connected by their experimental, entertaining, and innovative art. In the winter of 1933, surrealist artist Méret Oppenheim, known for her fur-covered teacup, posed nude for <mask> in a well-known series of photographs depicting her standing next to a printing press. With Lee Miller, his photographic assistant and lover, <mask> reinvented the photographic technique of solarization.Hollywood
The Second World War forced <mask> to return from Paris to the United States. He lived in Los Angeles from 1940 to 1951 where he focused his creative energy on painting. A few days after arriving in Los Angeles, <mask> met Juliet Browner, a first-generation American of Romanian-Jewish lineage. She was a trained dancer, who studied dance with Martha Graham, and an experienced artists' model. The two married in 1946 in a double wedding with their friends Max Ernst and Dorothea Tanning. In 1948 <mask> had a solo exhibition at the Copley Galleries in Beverly Hills, which brought together a wide array of work and featured his newly painted canvases of the Shakespearean Equations series. Later life
<mask> returned to Paris in 1951, and settled with Juliet into a studio at 2 bis rue Férou near the Luxembourg Gardens in St. Germain-des-Prés, where he continued his creative practice across mediums.During the last quarter century of his life, he returned to a number of his iconic earlier works, recreating them in new form. He also directed the production of limited-edition replicas of several of his objects, working first with Marcel Zerbib and later Arturo Schwarz. In 1963, he published his autobiography, Self-Portrait (which was republished in 1999). He died in Paris on November 18, 1976, from a lung infection. He was interred in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris. His epitaph reads "unconcerned, but not indifferent". When Juliet Browner died in 1991, she was interred in the same tomb.Her epitaph reads "together again". Juliet organized a trust for his work and donated much of his work to museums. Her plans to restore the studio as a public museum proved too expensive; such was the structure's disrepair. Most of the contents were stored at the Pompidou Centre. Innovations
<mask> was responsible for several technical innovations in modern art, filmmaking, and photography. These included his use of photograms to produce surrealist images he called "Rayograms", and solarization (discovered with Lee Miller). His 1923 experimental film Le Retour à la raison was the first 'cine-rayograph', a motion picture made without the use of a camera.<mask>'s 1935 Space Writing (Self-Portrait) was the first light painting, predating Picasso's 1949 light paintings, photographed by Gjon Mili, by fourteen years. Accolades
In 1974, <mask> received the Royal Photographic Society's Progress Medal and Honorary Fellowship "in recognition of any invention, research, publication or other contribution which has resulted in an important advance in the scientific or technological development of photography or imaging in the widest sense." In 1999, ARTnews magazine named <mask> one of the 25 most influential artists of the 20th century. The publication cited his groundbreaking photography, "his explorations of film, painting, sculpture, collage, assemblage and prototypes of what would eventually be called performance art and conceptual art." ARTnews further stated that "<mask> offered artists in all media an example of a creative intelligence that, in its 'pursuit of pleasure and liberty', unlocked every door it came to and walked freely where it would." Art market
On 9 November 2017 <mask>'s Noire et Blanche (1926), formerly in the collection of Jacques Doucet, was purchased at Christie's Paris for €2,688,750 (US$3,120,658), becoming the 14th most expensive photograph to ever sell at auction. This was a record not only for <mask>'s work in the photographic medium but also for the sale at auction of any vintage photograph.Only two other works by <mask> in any medium have commanded more at auction than the price captured by the 2017 sale of Noire et blanche. His 1916 canvas Promenade sold for $5,877,000 on 6 November 2013, at the Sotheby's New York Impressionist & Modern Art Sale. And on 13 November 2017, his assemblage titled Catherine Barometer (1920), sold for $3,252,500 at Christie's in New York. Legacy
Self-Portrait was republished in 1999. In March 2013, <mask>'s photograph Noire et Blanche (1926) was featured in the US Postal Service's "Modern Art in America" series of stamps. Selected publications
 <mask> and Tristan Tzara (1922). Champs délicieux: album de photographies.Paris: [Société générale d'imprimerie et d'édition]. <mask> (1926). Revolving doors, 1916–1917: 10 planches. Paris: Éditions Surrealistes. <mask>  (1934). <mask>: photographs, 1920–1934, Paris. Hartford, Connecticut: James Thrall Soby.Éluard, Paul, and <mask> (1935). Facile. Paris: Éditions G.L.M. Man <mask>  and André Breton (1937). La photographie n'est pas l'art. Paris: Éditions G.L.M. Man <mask> and Paul Éluard (1937).Les mains libres: dessins. Paris: Éditions Jeanne Bucher. <mask> (1948). Alphabet for adults. Beverly Hills, California: Copley Galleries. <mask> (1963). Self portrait.London: Andre Deutsch. <mask> and L. Fritz Gruber (1963). Portraits. Gütersloh, Germany: Sigbert Mohn Verlag. See also

 The Gift, 1921 sculpture

References and sources

References

Sources
Alexandrian, Sarane. <mask>; J. P. O'Hara;  (1973). Allan, Kenneth R. "Metamorphosis in 391: A Cryptographic Collaboration by Francis Picabia, <mask>, and Erik Satie" in Art History 34, No.1 (February 2011): 102–125. Baldwin, Neil. <mask>: American Artist; Da Capo Press;  (1988, 2000). Coleman, A. D. "Willful Provocateur"; ARTnews, May 1999. Foresta, Merry, et al. Perpetual Motif: The Art of <mask>. Washington: National Museum of American Art; New York: Abbeville Press, 1988.Grossman, Wendy A., Adina Kamien-Kazhdan, Edouard Sebline, and Andrew Strauss. <mask>—Human Equations: A Journey From Mathematics to Shakespeare; Hatje Cantz;  (2015). Heyd, Milly. "<mask>/Emmanuel Radnitsky: Who is Behind the Enigma of Isidore Ducasse? "; in Complex Identities: Jewish Consciousness and Modern Art; ed. Matthew Baigell and Milly Heyd; Rutgers University Press;  (2001). Klein, Mason.Alias <mask>: The Art of Reinvention; Yale University Press;  (2009). Knowles, Kim, A Cinematic Artist: The Films of <mask> Ray. Bern; Oxford: Peter Lang;  (2009). Mileaf, Janine. "Between You and Me: <mask>'s Object to be Destroyed," Art Journal 63, No. 1 (Spring 2004): 4–23. Naumann, Francis.Conversion to Modernism: The Early Work of <mask>; Rutgers University Press;  (2003). External links

Works by <mask>, Official Licensing Archive. Searchable; over 1,000 photos
Man Ray Trust

"Man Ray Laid Bare" from Tate Magazine
<mask>’s Subtle Surrealistic Genius Women

Collection of <mask> short films

<mask> letters and album, 1922–1976. Research Library at the Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles
<mask> in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler collection

<mask> at The Jewish Museum

American contemporary painters
1890 births
1976 deaths
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Screenwriters from New York (state)
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People from Williamsburg, Brooklyn
20th-century American male writers
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American

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title: Brendon Hartley

texts:
<mask> (born 10 November 1989) is a New Zealand professional racing driver who is currently competing in the FIA World Endurance Championship with Toyota Gazoo Racing. He won the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship, alongside his teammates Mark Webber and Timo Bernhard, and also went on to win the 2017 FIA World Endurance Championship alongside Bernhard and Earl Bamber. He won the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans with Bamber and Bernhard and also the 2020 24 Hours of Le Mans with Sébastien Buemi and Kazuki Nakajima. He formerly competed in Formula One for Scuderia Toro Rosso, making his debut at the 2017 United States Grand Prix. Career

<mask> was born in Palmerston North in a family well integrated within motorsport. His father, Brian, had raced in many forms of motorsport, including Formula Atlantic. At the age of six, <mask> began his motor racing career in kart racing, following in his brother Nelson's footsteps.Six years later, he competed in his first full-scale race championship, competing in the Formula First category. <mask> finished the season in seventh. In 2003, he won that year's New Zealand Formula Ford Festival which resulted in him getting a drive for the following year's Formula Ford championship. In a car his brother had used the previous year, he started four races and won two of them. After a season in Formula Toyota New Zealand, <mask> moved to Europe, competing in the Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 and Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup (NEC). He finished 14th and 10th in the Drivers' Championship in the Eurocup and North European Cup respectively, taking a podium position at Anderstorp in the latter. In his second year in Formula Renault, he stayed in the Eurocup, but moved from the NEC to the Italian championship.He took three wins in the Eurocup and three podiums in the Italian championship, and took the championship title in the Eurocup. In 2007 <mask> also made his Formula Three debut in the Masters of Formula 3 at Zolder event, finishing 4th. This resulted in a test with A1 Team New Zealand and the role of the rookie driver for the series. In 2008, he competed in the British Formula 3 Championship for Carlin Motorsport, winning five times, and eventually finished the championship in third. He also competed in eight races in the Formula Three Euroseries for Carlin and RC Motorsport, and achieved two finishes in the points, although he was ineligible for points. In non-championship races, <mask> finished fifth at the Masters of Formula 3, and third at the Macau Grand Prix. After crashing in the qualification race, he started 20th on the grid and recorded the fastest race lap.He stayed with Carlin for the full F3 Euroseries in 2009, finishing eleventh despite missing two rounds due to Formula Renault 3.5 Series commitments. In that series, <mask> competed for the defending champion Tech 1 Racing team, and ended fifteenth in the championship. He was signed at Tech 1 for a full season of Formula Renault 3.5 in 2010, where he was partnered by Australian and fellow Red Bull Junior driver, Daniel Ricciardo. During the series' summer break it was announced that <mask> had been dropped from the Red Bull Junior Team. His seat was taken by British Formula 3 championship leader Jean-Éric Vergne. Despite the loss of his Red Bull backing, <mask> made his GP2 Series début at Monza in September, replacing Vladimir Arabadzhiev at the Coloni team. He scored a point in the season finale at Yas Marina to place 27th in the championship.For 2011, <mask> returned to Formula Renault 3.5, driving alongside Jan Charouz for the Gravity–Charouz Racing team. He also returned to GP2 for the eighth round of the series at Spa-Francorchamps, replacing Kevin Mirocha and driving alongside Johnny Cecotto Jr. in the Ocean Racing Technology team, for whom he had tested before the start of the season. He finished in fifth place in his first race with the team, and 19th in the overall championship. <mask> began the 2012 season without a drive, but returned to Ocean for the second round of the championship in Bahrain in place of Jon Lancaster. After the two rounds in Bahrain, he was in turn replaced by Víctor Guerin. He finished 25th in the championship. With no suitable single-seater drives available, <mask> joined the Murphy Prototypes sportscar team, which was competing in the LMP2 class in the European Le Mans Series.Following the cancellation of the second round of the ELMS championship (which would have been <mask>'s début event) and the series' future in doubt, Murphy was one of several ELMS teams invited to compete as a guest entry in the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps, a round of the more prestigious FIA World Endurance Championship. Driving the team's Oreca 03-Nissan, <mask> finished tenth overall and third in the LMP2 class with teammates Warren Hughes and Jody Firth. The trio teamed up again for the 24 Hours of Le Mans, but retired from the race after completing 196 laps of the circuit. In October 2017, <mask> was offered a drive in Formula One by Toro Rosso for the United States Grand Prix which was held in Austin. <mask> replaced Pierre Gasly, who was absent contesting the Super Formula Championship final. It was <mask>'s F1 debut where he became the ninth New Zealander to race in Formula One. In November 2018, <mask> was released from the Toro Rosso team.In early May 2019, Toyota Gazoo Racing's WEC program announced that <mask> would be driving for the team for the full 2019/20 season, replacing the former occupant, Fernando Alonso. In August 2019, Geox Dragon Racing announced they had contracted <mask> for the 2019/20 Formula E season. Formula One

Red Bull Racing (2008–2010)
In February 2008, aged 18, <mask> got his first taste of Formula One. He was invited to perform a show run for Red Bull Racing in Riyadh. From here he performed the initial three-day shake-down test for Scuderia Toro Rosso's 2008 spec car, the STR3. In November 2008, it was announced he would be providing cover for Mark Webber, who had broken his leg in a cycling accident, by performing testing duties alongside permanent test driver Sébastien Buemi for Red Bull in the 2008 RB4 F1 car. For the  season, <mask> was appointed as official reserve driver for both the Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Toro Rosso teams.However, unable to get his mandatory superlicence approved until April 2009, he was replaced in this role by retired F1 driver David Coulthard for the first races in Melbourne and Sepang. <mask> made his debut as reserve and test driver at the Spanish Grand Prix on 8 May. He is the first New Zealander to achieve F1 driver status since Mike Thackwell in 1984. He was replaced in the role by fellow Red Bull Junior driver Jaime Alguersuari for the second half of the season. However <mask> did not return to the reserve driver role with Red Bull and Toro Rosso following Jaime Alguersuari's promotion to a race seat, preferring to focus on his F3 and Renault World Series. David Coulthard again took over the role. For the  season, <mask> was again appointed official reserve driver for both Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Toro Rosso.He shared the reserve driver duties with his Formula Renault 3.5 teammate, Australian Daniel Ricciardo. The two drivers shared the duties on a race-by-race basis until round six of the championship. Following this race, <mask>'s support from Red Bull was dropped, based on the fact he had not won a race in his season and a half in the championship. On 13 September 2012, he participated in the young driver test at Magny-Cours. He drove 87 laps for Mercedes on the final day, setting the third quickest time behind Jules Bianchi (Ferrari) and Rodolfo González (Force India). Mercedes (2012–2013)
<mask> said that the simulator development work and the test drive with Mercedes would give him a new opportunity to get back into Formula One. Toro Rosso (2017–2018)

<mask> made his Formula One début for Toro Rosso at the 2017 United States Grand Prix, replacing Pierre Gasly, who was absent to take part in the final round of the Japanese Super Formula Championship; he raced with the number 39.He qualified in 17th position after being eliminated during Qualifying 1, but started from 19th position due to engine penalties. He finished the race in 13th position, one lap down on race winner Lewis Hamilton. It was confirmed on 26 October that <mask> would remain a Toro Rosso driver for the remainder of the season, replacing Daniil Kvyat, and he chose 28 (the same number previously used by Will Stevens in 2015) as his permanent race number. On 16 November 2017 <mask> was confirmed by Toro Rosso as a full-time driver alongside Pierre Gasly for the  season. <mask> scored points at the Azerbaijan Grand Prix with tenth, German Grand Prix with tenth again and the United States Grand Prix with his highest finish in ninth. He finished the season in nineteenth place, four places and 25 points behind his teammate, albeit with two more non-finishes. On 26 November 2018 it was confirmed that <mask> would not continue with Toro Rosso for 2019.He was replaced by Thai driver Alexander Albon. Ferrari (2019)
On 4 February 2019, Scuderia Ferrari announced that <mask> would be one of their development drivers for the 2019 season, alongside former Manor and Sauber and current Formula E driver Pascal Wehrlein. Formula E
Following his exit from Formula One, <mask> reunited with Porsche for testing ahead of the manufacturer's debut in the championship. In August 2019, it was announced he would make his debut in the 2019–20 season with GEOX Dragon Racing, partnering Nico Müller. <mask> left the Dragon Racing team with immediate effect in July 2020. Since then, he has been replaced by Sérgio Sette Câmara. Sports prototypes

European Le Mans Series
<mask> was signed to drive an Oreca 03 for Murphy Prototypes in the 2012 and 2013 European Le Mans Series as well as the 2012 and 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans races.This was also complemented with a drive in the Rolex Sports Car Series for Starworks Motorsport in the Daytona Prototype category in 2013. He completed all but one round in that series due to a clash for the final round of the 2013 European Le Mans Series. FIA World Endurance Championship

Porsche announced <mask> as a factory driver of the Porsche 919 Hybrid in the FIA World Endurance Championship. Over the next four years, he won the 2015 and 2017 FIA World Endurance Championship. He also won the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans and placed second in 2015 sharing the car with drivers including Timo Bernhard, former Formula One driver Mark Webber and fellow Kiwi Earl Bamber. After one year in Formula One, <mask> was back in 2019 1000 Miles of Sebring, replacing Jenson Button in SMP Racing. He finished the race on the podium, behind two Toyota TS050s.Weeks later, Toyota announced that he would be driving for the team for 2019/20 season replacing two-time Formula One world champion Fernando Alonso. WeatherTech SportsCar Championship
<mask> kept his ties with the American racing scene driving again for Starworks Motorsport in the 2014 and 2015 Daytona 24 Hours. In the 2016 Daytona 24 Hour he drove with Ford Chip Ganassi Racing. This tie saw him invited to drive for Chip Ganassi's Indycar team in 2018 but he had to decline due to securing a drive in Formula One with Toro Rosso. The 2017 WeatherTech SportsCar Championship saw him do three rounds for Extreme Speed Motorsports driving a Nissan Onroak DPi culminating in a victory at the 2017 Petit Le Mans. Racing record

Career summary

 <mask> was ineligible to score points. Complete Formula 3 Euro Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

 As <mask> was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score championship points.Complete Formula Renault 3.5 Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete GP2 Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicates fastest lap)

 Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance. Complete Formula E results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Sportscars/GT results

Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results

Complete European Le Mans Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results

 As <mask> was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score points. Rolex Sports Car Series results

(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap. Results are overall/class)

WeatherTech SportsCar Championship

1 The No. 7 of Starworks Motorsport withdrew from the 12 Hours of Sebring before Practice. Notes

External links

1989 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Palmerston North
People educated at Palmerston North Boys' High School
New Zealand racing drivers
Formula Renault Eurocup drivers
Italian Formula Renault 2.0 drivers
Formula Renault 2.0 NEC drivers
A1 Grand Prix Rookie drivers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
Formula 3 Euro Series drivers
Formula Ford drivers
Toyota Racing Series drivers
GP2 Series drivers
World Series Formula V8 3.5 drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans winning drivers
24 Hours of Daytona drivers
Rolex Sports Car Series drivers
European Le Mans Series drivers
FIA World Endurance Championship drivers
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New Zealand Formula One drivers
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Motopark Academy drivers
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Carlin racing drivers
RC Motorsport drivers
Tech 1 Racing drivers
P1 Motorsport drivers
Scuderia Coloni drivers
Charouz Racing System drivers
Ocean Racing Technology drivers
Murphy Prototypes drivers
Starworks Motorsport drivers
Porsche Motorsports drivers
Toyota Gazoo Racing drivers

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title: Anna Freud

texts:
<mask>  (3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982) was a British psychoanalyst of Austrian-Jewish descent. She was born in Vienna, the sixth and youngest child of <mask> and Martha Bernays. She followed the path of her father and contributed to the field of psychoanalysis. Alongside Hermine Hug-Hellmuth and Melanie Klein, she may be considered the founder of psychoanalytic child psychology. Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego and its normal "developmental lines" as well as incorporating a distinctive emphasis on collaborative work across a range of analytical and observational contexts. After the <mask> family were forced to leave Vienna in 1938 with the advent of the Nazi regime in Austria, she resumed her psychoanalytic practice and her pioneering work in child psychology in London, establishing the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic in 1952 (now the Anna Freud National Centre for Children and Families) as a centre for therapy, training and research work. Life and career

Vienna years
<mask> was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary on 3 December 1895.She was the youngest daughter of Sigmund <mask> and Martha Bernays. She grew up in "comfortable bourgeois circumstances." <mask> appears to have had a comparatively unhappy childhood, in which she "never made a close or pleasurable relationship with her mother, and was instead nurtured by their Catholic nurse Josephine." She found it particularly difficult to get along with her eldest sister, Sophie, "the two young <mask>s developed their version of a common sisterly division of territories, 'beauty' and 'brains', and their father once spoke of her "age-old jealousy of Sophie." As well as this rivalry between the two sisters, <mask> had become "a somewhat troubled youngster who complained to her father in candid letters how all sorts of unreasonable thoughts and feelings plagued her". She may have suffered from depression which caused eating disorders. and  "she ... was repeatedly sent to health farms for thorough rest, salutary walks, and some extra pounds to fill out her all too slender shape".The close relationship between <mask> and her father was different from the rest of her family. She was a lively child with a reputation for mischief. <mask> wrote to his friend Wilhelm Fliess in 1899: "<mask> has become downright beautiful through naughtiness." In adolescence she took a precocious interest in her father's work and was allowed to sit in on the meetings of the newly established Vienna Psychoanalytical Society which <mask> convened at his home. Enrolled at the Cottage Lyceum, a secondary school for girls in Vienna, <mask> made good progress in most subjects. The steady flow of foreign visitors to the <mask> household inspired <mask> to emulate her father by becoming proficient in different languages and she soon mastered English and French and acquired some basic Italian. The positive experience she had at the Lyceum led to her initial choice of teaching as a career.After she left the Lyceum in 1912 she took an extended vacation over the winter months in Italy. This proved to be, for a period, a time of self-doubt, anxiety, and uncertainty about her future. She shared these concerns in correspondence with her father whose writings she had begun reading. In response he provided reassurance and in the Spring of 1913 he joined her for a tour of Verona, Venice and Trieste. A visit to Britain in the autumn of 1914, chaperoned by her father's colleague Ernest Jones, became of concern to <mask> when he learned of the latter's romantic interest. His advice to Jones, in a letter of 22 July 1914, was that his daughter "... does not claim to be treated as a woman, being still far away from sexual longings and rather refusing man. There is an outspoken understanding between me and her that she should not consider marriage or the preliminaries before she gets two or three years older".In 1914 she passed her teaching examination and began work as a teaching apprentice at her old school, the Cottage Lyceum. From 1915 to 1917, she worked as a teaching apprentice for third, fourth, and fifth graders. For the school year 1917–18, she began "her first venture as Klassenlehrerin (head teacher) for the second grade". For her performance during the school years 1915-18 she was highly praised by her superior, Salka Goldman who wrote that she showed "great zeal for all her responsibilities", but she was particularly appreciated for her "conscientious preparations" and for her "gift for teaching", being such a success that she was invited to stay on with a regular four-year contract starting in the fall of 1918. With the encouragement and assistance of her father she pursued her exploration of psychoanalytic literature and in the summer of 1915 she undertook her first translation work for the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society: papers by James Jackson Putnam (into German) and Hermine Hug-Hellmuth (into English). During 1916 and 1917 she attended the lectures on psychoanalysis her father gave at the University of Vienna. By 1918 she had gained his support to pursue a training in psychoanalysis and she went into analysis with him in October of that year.Having contracted tuberculosis during 1918, and thereafter experiencing multiple episodes of illness, she resigned her teaching post in 1920. As well as in the periods of analysis she had with her father (from 1918 to 1921 and from 1924 to 1929), their filial bond became further strengthened after <mask> was diagnosed with cancer of the jaw in 1923, for which he would need numerous operations and the long-term nursing assistance which <mask> provided. She also acted as his secretary and spokesperson, notably at the bi-annual congresses of the International Psychoanalytical Association which <mask> was unable to attend. Early psychoanalytic work: Child Development, Ego, and Defence Mechanisms

In 1922 <mask> presented her paper "Beating Fantasies and Daydreams" to the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society and became a member of the society. In 1923, she began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and by 1925 she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis, her approach to which she set out in her first book, An Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis published in 1927. From 1925 until 1934, she was the Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued her child analysis practice and contributed to seminars and conferences on the subject. In 1935, she became director of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Training Institute and the following year she published her influential study of the "ways and means by which the ego wards off depression, displeasure and anxiety", The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence.It became a founding work of ego psychology and established <mask>'s reputation as a pioneering theoretician. Among the first children <mask> took into analysis were those of Dorothy Burlingham. In 1925 Burlingham, heiress to the Tiffany luxury jewellery retailer, had arrived in Vienna from New York with her four children and entered analysis firstly with Theodore Reik and then, with a view to training in child analysis, with <mask> himself. <mask> and Dorothy soon developed "intimate relations that closely resembled those of lesbians", though <mask> "categorically denied the existence of a sexual relationship". After the Burlinghams moved into the same apartment block as the <mask>s in 1929 she became, in effect, the children's stepparent. London years
In 1938, following the Anschluss in which Nazi Germany occupied Austria, <mask> was taken to Gestapo headquarters in Vienna for questioning on the activities of the International Psychoanalytical Association. Unknown to her father, she and her brother Martin had obtained Veronal from Max Schur, the family doctor, in sufficient quantities to commit suicide if faced with torture or internment.However, she survived her interrogation ordeal and returned to the family home. After her father had reluctantly accepted the urgent need to leave Vienna, she set about organizing the complex immigration process for the family in liaison with Ernest Jones, the then President of the International Psychoanalytical Association, who secured the immigration permits that eventually led to the family establishing their new home in London at 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead. In 1941 <mask> and Burlingham collaborated in establishing the Hampstead War Nursery for children whose lives had been disrupted by the war. Premises were acquired in Hampstead, North London and in Essex to provide education and residential care with mothers encouraged to visit as often as practicable. Many for the staff were recruited from the exiled Austro-German diaspora. Lectures and seminars on psychoanalytic theory and practice were regular features of staff training. <mask> and Burlingham went on to publish a series of observational studies on child development based on the work of the Nursery with a focus on the impact of stress on children and their capacity to find substitute affections among peers in the absence of their parents.The Bulldog Banks Home, run on similar lines to the Nursery, was established after the war for a group of children who had survived the concentration camps. Building on and developing their war-time work with children, <mask> and Burlingham established the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic (now the Anna Freud National Centre for Children and Families) in 1952 as a centre for therapy, training and research work. During the war years the hostility between <mask> and Melanie Klein and their respective followers in the British Psychoanalytic Society (BPS) grew more intense. Their disagreements, which dated back to the 1920s, centered around the theory of the genesis of the super-ego and the consequent clinical approach to the pre-Oedipal child; Klein argued for play as an equivalent to free association in adult analyses. <mask> opposed any such equivalence, proposing an educative intervention with the child until an appropriate level of ego development was reached at the Oedipal stage. Klein held this to be a collusive inhibition of analytical work with the child. To avoid a terminal split in the BPS Ernest Jones, its president, chaired a number of "extraordinary business meetings" with the aim of defusing the conflict, and these continued during the war years.The meetings, which became known as the Controversial Discussions, were established on a more regular basis from 1942. In 1944 there finally emerged a compromise agreement which established parallel training courses, providing options to satisfy the concerns of the rival groups that had formed which by then, in addition to the followers of <mask> and Klein, included a non-aligned group of Middle or Independent Group analysts. It was agreed further that all the key policy-making committees of the BPS should have representatives from the three groups. From the 1950s until the end of her life <mask> travelled regularly to the United States to lecture, teach and visit friends. During the 1970s she was concerned with the

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