title: Lilly Martin Spencer

texts:
<mask> (born <mask>; November 26, 1822 – May 22, 1902) was one of the most popular and widely reproduced American female genre painters in the mid-nineteenth century. She primarily painted domestic scenes, paintings of women and children in a warm happy atmosphere, although over the course of her career she would also come to paint works of varying style and subject matter, including the portraits of famous individuals such as suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Although she did have an audience for her work, <mask> had difficulties earning a living as a professional painter and faced financial trouble for much of her adult life. Biography

Early life

<mask> was born in Exeter, England, to French-born parents <mask> and <mask>. In 1830, when <mask> was eight, her family immigrated to New York where they remained for three years before ultimately moving to Marietta, Ohio. There <mask> was home-schooled by her highly educated parents and began what would be her long career as an artist. Her first artistic endeavors were “likenesses of the entire household, in lifelike, characteristic postures, so truthful as to be recognized at once by everyone who knew them."These likenesses were drawn on the walls of the family home. Rather than being scolded, <mask> was encouraged in her love of art by her parents, whose reformist tendencies—her mother was a follower of the Utopian advocate Charles Fourier—included a belief in more opportunity for women. She continued to draw and her work was so impressive that "ladies and gentlemen began to call frequently at the farm, to judge for themselves of these vaunted pictures. Their admiring comments stimulated her ambition and added to her industry; but the difficulty of procuring proper materials and the want of a competent teacher retarded her progress." Yet she drew the attention of local artists and was mentored and helped, especially in coloring her charcoal drawings. One such mentor was Sala Bosworth, a portrait and landscape artist who trained at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. The second was Charles Sullivan (1794–1867) who had also studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts; his influence is very apparent in the early work of <mask>.<mask>'s first exhibition in August 1841 was held at a church rectory, where she drew the attention of Nicholas Longworth, a benefactor of many artists. Of <mask>, Longworth said
“…a new genius has sprung up at Marietta or rather within five miles of it, at a farm house in the shape of a French girl of 17 or 18 years of age. She already has painted a great number of pictures. She is entirely self taught, excels in attitudes and designs." Though <mask> had originally traveled with her father to Cincinnati with the hopes of Longworth offering to sponsor an exhibition for <mask>, Longworth offered to help <mask> financially and discouraged her from further shows until she had more training. Longworth first made an offer to <mask> to send her to Boston for training, along with five hundred dollars. This advice she ignored; instead, she along with her father traveled to Cincinnati for an exhibition in the autumn of 1841.Cincinnati was ”swarming with artists" and <mask> would spend the next seven years studying there. This would be the most highly productive period in her career, and is marked by her move from Cincinnati to New York, and ends with her move to New Jersey. <mask> turned down Longworth's offer to send her to Europe to study; instead she received help and instruction from portrait artist James Beard and other local artists. While in Cincinnati, <mask> studied under portrait painter John Insco William. However the exact extent of her training is unknown. She produced her most well-known and popular works during the decade between 1848 and 1858. <mask> was rare in the art world.Most women used art as genteel accomplishment and not as a career. <mask>, however, provides an example of a woman who pursued art as a career. Married life

During her third year in Cincinnati she married Benjamin Rush <mask> on August 24, 1844. <mask> was an Englishman who worked in the tailoring business; however once they were married he no longer pursued an independent career, instead dedicating himself to helping his wife both in household chores as well as with her artistic work. This made Mrs. <mask> the main breadwinner for the family. Although the <mask>s did not run a traditional home, from all accounts they had a "singularly happy one". The <mask>s had thirteen children, seven of whom grew to maturity.Although many feared that matrimony would end her career as an artist, it did not; she would become the most popular and widely reproduced female genre painter of the mid-19th century. The <mask>s experienced chronic financial difficulties. In pursuit of greater opportunity they moved to New York City in 1848. There she was already known through exhibitions at the National Academy of Design and the American Art-Union. By the time the <mask>s arrived in New York "art patronage was firmly in the hands of the middle class which was eager to ‘purchase’ culture, and quick to assert their preference for scenes which they could identify." <mask> <mask> easily filled this gap with domestic scenes, often using her own family and pets as models. In 1849 she produced her first major successful painting, Life's Happy Hour.Scholars have noted that due to the demand of the time <mask> was "able to combine her two roles, as artist and mother with a certain degree of success." Her works were all positive and devoid of tragedy, depicting endearing scenes of domesticity; academics have commented that in this period "her paintings exude an enthusiasm and happiness reminiscent of seventeenth-century Dutch art…(and are) enhanced by a disarming gaze directly toward the viewer or his inclusion in a coy flirtation, tease, or practical joke." Despite her positive reputation there was a disparity between <mask>’s apparent popularity and her financial success. Most of her sales were a result of art unions, and their downfall, as a result of low membership subscriptions, was a blow to her sales. She also sold possibly a million lithographs of her paintings, but of these she only received profit from the sales of the rights to the painting. She also illustrated books and magazines, such as Godey's Lady's Book and Women of the American Revolution. Again, due to the difficulty in making ends meet the <mask>s moved to Newark, New Jersey in 1858.There they raised chickens and planted vegetables in order to stave off actual starvation. <mask> continued to make portraits and commissions whenever possible, and still supported her family through her art, but money remained a problem. During the late 1850s, in an attempt to expand the range of her options in domestic scenes she added sexuality to the women in her domestic spaces. This new sexuality could be due to an influx of European images, which showed women as sexual beings. This was demonstrated in more suggestive figures and elaborate hairstyles and dress. Throughout the 1860s the Civil War changed the outlook of many artists, including <mask>. Her paintings become more thoughtful and included more patriotic themes and titles.She produced famous and  perceptive works of art such as War Spirit at Home in 1866 and We Both Must Fade in 1869, which depicts a young female looking in a mirror. The title offers a view of woman in society, which applied at least during the mid-19th century, commenting on concepts of the importance of beauty of women and their role in society. It was during this time that she painted what she considered her masterpiece, Truth Unveiling Falsehood. The piece is divided in half; on one side a monstrous woman with a sheep's head is about to devour a helpless babe in its grasp, and at its feet a figure with a grossly deformed hand pays homage. On the other side a beautiful woman nurses a child. The image is divided by Truth, an angelic blond figure who lifts a cloak (Falsehood) off the monster exposing the woman-as-beast, referred to as Selfishness. The piece was not commissioned, and <mask> refused to sell it even when offered $20,000.The work, whose meaning remains ambiguous today, is her only such piece with an allegorical message. Later life
The family moved again in the winter of 1879–80 to rural Highland, New York. Her paintings reflect this change with increased detail in landscape and farm life scenes. During the 1880s <mask> attempted to reintroduce her work to the public but found that the market had drastically altered since the Civil War. No longer was it driven by middle class mentality; instead the wealthy were steered by art dealers pushing "serious" European work. <mask>’s art dealer said, "You have not lost your old skill but in some particulars have improved on the old time things. You are broader and simpler in execution and finer in color I think," however clients were buying "the great Foreign names."Yet she continued to try and sell work only to find "her particular kind of work had outlived popular favor." Her husband of forty-six years, Benjamin, died in February 1890, leaving <mask> a widow. She sold the farm and moved again, to a farm 10 miles away, while maintaining a studio downtown. <mask> continued to work but her financial situation remained insecure, and sometimes she was forced to pay for services with art. <mask> <mask> worked until the day of her death on May 22, 1902. She had a career that spanned more than 60 years, and painted portraits of influential people of the time, such as First Lady Caroline Harrison and the suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton. She persevered despite financial turmoil and facing challenges that all artists must address, as well specific difficulties for a female working in a male-dominated world.Artistic style

<mask>'s paintings are generally oil on canvas, ranging in sizes from as large as 72"x50" to as small as 16"x11". Her themes were drawn from close to home often depicting idealized children, Madonna-like mothers, happy housewives, and loveable, inept husbands. Her work has been considered “both ideological (encouraging accommodation to norms associated with the rising middle class) and utopian (resistant to class or gender domination). She was often influenced by etiquette books, which resulted in attention to details in the settings such as bowls of fruits and neatly designed flower arrangements. Etiquette also affected the activities of the picture's subjects—women were engaged in womanly activities and everyone played their heteronormative roles. Painted in a palette of bright, crisp colors, her canvases are refined in execution and smoothly finished, although in later years her brushstrokes became drier and looser. Her works were usually given short, catchy titles, undescriptive, but rather exclamations on the subject of the painting.One main critique of her work is the variation in the size of the heads of her figures. Her reviewers often comment that the head is larger and disproportionate to the body size of the figures. Such pieces as Shake Hands? (1854), an oil on canvas with arched top, which now resides at the Ohio Historical Society, epitomizes <mask>’s unique style. The piece shows a buxom woman making dough in a homey kitchen adorned with domestic accommodations, such as a bowl of apples, and a chicken. Her skirt is tied back, presumably to keep it clean. Pausing from her activity, and smiling broadly, the doughy-handed woman reaches out to greet a visitor, seemingly the viewer.The title demonstrates <mask>'s standard wit: shaking hands is the last thing someone would want to do while working with dough. It also has a deeper meaning concerning equality. Shaking hands is a symbol of male equality and was "fundamental to males citizens' sense of status." Here a woman is making her claim to equality, though it is a limited equality rooted in a domestic sphere. <mask> does make the women's sphere separate. The dark spaces make the room appear closed off, separating the women's sphere from the more public male sphere. However it is not necessary a negative message, this painting shows a Utopian kitchen.The message is that a woman in her sphere “accommodates the status quo and attempts to invest it with new meaning." Women were not merely frivolous and vain; rather they worked in domestic labor, which was not merely useful but highly enjoyable. The woman here is self-confident, smiles and even appears to flirt with viewer. She directs the kitchen and is in control of her world, however limited it might be. <mask> plays with traditional notions of women's roles in society and domesticity and infuses them with deeper meaning. Selected works
The Little Navigator (1848)
Domestic Happiness (1848), Detroit Institute of Arts
The Young Teacher (1848)
Life's Happy Hour (1849)
The Jolly Washerwoman (1851), Hood Museum of Art
Peeling Onions (1852), Memorial Art Gallery, Rochester, NY
Reading the Legend (1852), Smith College Museum of Art
The Young Husband: First Marketing (1854)
Shake Hands? (1854), Ohio Historical Society
Clap Hands (1855)
The Forsaken (1856), The Smithsonian Collection L.M Spencer exhibit (1973), location currently unknown
The Young Wife: First Stew (1856)
Kiss Me and You'll Kiss the 'Lasses (1856), Brooklyn Museum of Art
This Little Pig Went to the Market (1857)
Fi!Fo!Fum!(1858)
Raspberries on a Leaf (1858), Collection:  Widener University Alfred O. Deshong Collection
Grandpa's Prodigies (1860)
War Spirit at Home: Celebrating the Battle at Vicksburg (1866)
Mother and Child by the Hearth (1867)
 We Both Must Fade (Mrs. Fithian) (1869), Smithsonian American Art Museum
Old Man with Two Children (1845), Collection: purchased at auction in 1958 by the Ohio Historical Center, Columbus. Peeling Onions (1848–1852) Collection: Hirschl & Adler Galleries, New York; to Closson Galleries, Cincinnati; to Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute, Utica
Self-Portrait (ca. 1841), Collections: Mrs. Pierre A. G. <mask>; in 1947 to the Ohio Historical Center, Columbus
Shepherdess Mending Stockings (1844–1848), Collections: Mrs. William E. Smith, Oxford, Ohio (1953); given by Mrs. Smith in 1870 to the Ohio Historical Center
Young Women in a Seventeenth-Century Costume (1845), Collection: Mrs. Mary Abrams, Llewellyn Park, New Jersey
Child Playing with Fish Bowl (1856), Collection: Victor Sparks, New York; to Mrs. George L. Cohen, New York; given by Mrs. Cohen in 1966 to the Newark Museum
Choose Between (ca. 1857), Collections: John Mitchell, New York; to Victor Spark (1946); private owner; Victor Spark, New York
Peeling Onions (ca. 1852), Collection: Mr. and Mrs. William Postar, Boston
Reading the Legend (1852), Collections: Visitor Spark, New York (1843); to M. Knoedler &Co.; to Caroline R. and Adeline F. Wing; given by the Misses Wing in 1954 to the Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts

Exhibitions
 St. Luke's Episcopal Church (Marietta, Ohio), Rectory. 1841
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Life in America: A Special Loan Exhibition of Paintings, April 24-October 29, 1939.Corcoran Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.) American Processional: The Story of Our Country,  July 8-December 17, 1950
Currier Art Gallery of Art (Manchester, N.H.) 19th Century American Painting from the Collection of Henry Melville Fuller, September 18-October 17, 1971
Walter Art Gallery (Baltimore). Old Mistresses: Women Artists of the Past, April 17- June 18, 1972
Brooklyn Museum (Brooklyn, NY) Kiss Me and You'll Kiss the 'Lasses https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/onview/location/2147483587/American_Identities%3A_A_New_Look_American_Art_Galleries_5th_Floor_5th_Floor
National Academy of Design
Women's Pavilion of the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876

Notes

References

"Women Artist's Death." The New York Times, 1902-05-23. Retrieved on 2008-01-02. Bolton-Smith, Robin, and Douglas Hyland. “Baby Chicks: The Sentimental Brush of <mask> Martin <mask>.” The Register of the Spencer Museum of Art. Lawrence: University of Kansas (Spring 1983): 80-93.Bolton-Smith, Robin, and William H. Truettner <mask> <mask> 1822-1902 The Joys of Sentiment. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1973. Freivogel, Elsie F. “<mask> <mask>.” Archives of American Art Journal, Vol. 12 No. 4. (1972): 9-14. JSTOR.29 Jan. 2008. Hadry, Henriette A. “Mrs. <mask><mask>.” Sartain’s Union Magazine of Literature and Art, American Periodical Series (1800–1850) 573-574 (August 1851). Johns, Elizabeth. America Genre Painting: The Politics of Everyday Life. London: Yale University Press, 1991.Katz, Wendy Jean. Regionalism and Reform: Art and Class Formation in Antebellum Cincinnati. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2002. Lubin, David M. Picturing a Nation: Art and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century America. London: Yale University Press, 1994. Masten, April F. 2004. “Shake Hands?"<mask> <mask> and the Politics of Art”. American Quarterly 56 (2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 348–94. Withers, Josephine. 1976. “Artistic Women and Women Artists”. Art Journal 35 (4).[Taylor & Francis, Ltd., College Art Association]: 330–36. doi:10.2307/776223. Stott, Annette. 1992. “Floral Femininity: A Pictorial Definition”. American Art 6 (2). [University of Chicago Press, Smithsonian American Art Museum]: 61–77.External links
Art and the empire city: New York, 1825-1861, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on <mask> (see index)
National Museum of Women in the Arts
The Ohio History Society
Artcyclopedia
New Jersey Women's History
Smithsonian American Art Museum (PDF)
http://www.britannica.com/biography/<mask>-Spencer. 1822 births
1902 deaths
American genre painters
American still life painters
American women painters
Artists from Cincinnati
People from Exeter
Artists from Newark, New Jersey
19th-century American painters
19th-century American women artists
20th-century American women artists

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title: Andrei Sakharov

type: original

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<mask> (; 21 May 192114 December 1989) was a Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident, Nobel laureate, and activist for disarmament, peace and human rights. He became renowned as the designer of the Soviet Union's RDS-37, a codename for Soviet development of thermonuclear weapons. <mask> later became an advocate of civil liberties and civil reforms in the Soviet Union, for which he faced state persecution; these efforts earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Sakharov Prize, which is awarded annually by the European Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, is named in his honor. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born in Moscow on May 21, 1921. His father was <mask>, a physics professor and an amateur pianist. His father taught at the Second Moscow State University.<mask>'s grandfather Ivan had been a prominent lawyer in the Russian Empire who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles (including advocating the abolition of capital punishment) that would later influence his grandson. <mask>'s mother was Yekaterina Alekseevna Sofiano, a daughter of the army general Aleksey Semenovich Sofiano. <mask>'s parents and paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped his personality. His mother and grandmother were churchgoers; his father was a nonbeliever. When <mask> was about thirteen, he realized that he did not believe. However, despite being an atheist, he did believe in a "guiding principle" that transcends the physical laws. Education and career
<mask> entered Physics Department of Moscow State University in 1938.Following evacuation in 1941 during the Great Patriotic War (World War II), he graduated in Aşgabat, in today's Turkmenistan. He was then assigned to laboratory work in Ulyanovsk. In 1943, he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva, with whom he raised two daughters and a son. Klavdia would later die in 1969. He returned to Moscow in 1945 to study at the Theoretical Department of FIAN (the Physical Institute of the Soviet Academy of Sciences). He received his Ph.D. in 1947. Development of thermonuclear devices

After World War II, he researched cosmic rays.In mid-1948 he participated in the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov and Igor Tamm. <mask>'s study group at FIAN in 1948 came up with a second concept in August–September 1948. Adding a shell of natural, unenriched uranium around the deuterium would increase the deuterium concentration at the uranium-deuterium boundary and the overall yield of the device, because the natural uranium would capture neutrons and itself fission as part of the thermonuclear reaction. This idea of a layered fission-fusion-fission bomb led <mask> to call it the sloika, or layered cake. The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29, 1949. After moving to Sarov in 1950, <mask> played a key role in the development of the first megaton-range Soviet hydrogen bomb using a design known as <mask>'s Third Idea in Russia and the Teller–Ulam design in the United States. Before his Third Idea, <mask> tried a "layer cake" of alternating layers of fission and fusion fuel.The results were disappointing, yielding no more than a typical fission bomb. However the design was seen to be worth pursuing because deuterium is abundant and uranium is scarce, and he had no idea how powerful the US design was. <mask> realised that in order to cause the explosion of one side of the fuel to symmetrically compress the fusion fuel, a mirror could be used to reflect the radiation. The details had not been officially declassified in Russia when <mask> was writing his memoirs, but in the Teller–Ulam design, soft X-rays emitted by the fission bomb were focused onto a cylinder of lithium deuteride to compress it symmetrically. This is called radiation implosion. The Teller–Ulam design also had a secondary fission device inside the fusion cylinder to assist with the compression of the fusion fuel and generate neutrons to convert some of the lithium to tritium, producing a mixture of deuterium and tritium. <mask>'s idea was first tested as RDS-37 in 1955.A larger variation of the same design which <mask> worked on was the 50 Mt Tsar Bomba of October 1961, which was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated. <mask> saw "striking parallels" between his fate and those of J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller in the US. Sakharov believed that in this "tragic confrontation of two outstanding people", both deserved respect, because "each of them was certain he had right on his side and was morally obligated to go to the end in the name of truth." While <mask> strongly disagreed with Teller over nuclear testing in the atmosphere and the Strategic Defense Initiative, he believed that American academics had been unfair to Teller's resolve to get the H-bomb for the United States since "all steps by the Americans of a temporary or permanent rejection of developing thermonuclear weapons would have been seen either as a clever feint, or as the manifestation of stupidity. In both cases, the reaction would have been the same – avoid the trap and immediately take advantage of the enemy's stupidity." <mask> never felt that by creating nuclear weapons he had "known sin", in Oppenheimer's expression. He later wrote:

Support for peaceful use of nuclear technology

In 1950 he proposed an idea for a controlled nuclear fusion reactor, the tokamak, which is still the basis for the majority of work in the area.<mask>, in association with Tamm, proposed confining extremely hot ionized plasma by torus shaped magnetic fields for controlling thermonuclear fusion that led to the development of the tokamak device. Magneto-implosive generators

In 1951 he invented and tested the first explosively pumped flux compression generators, compressing magnetic fields by explosives. He called these devices MK (for MagnetoKumulative) generators. The radial MK-1 produced a pulsed magnetic field of 25 megagauss (2500 teslas). The resulting helical MK-2 generated 1000 million amperes in 1953. <mask> then tested a MK-driven "plasma cannon" where a small aluminum ring was vaporized by huge eddy currents into a stable, self-confined toroidal plasmoid and was accelerated to 100 km/s. <mask> later suggested replacing the copper coil in MK generators with a large superconductor solenoid to magnetically compress and focus underground nuclear explosions into a shaped charge effect.He theorized this could focus 1023 protons per second on a 1 mm2 surface. Particle physics and cosmology
After 1965 <mask> returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and physical cosmology. He tried to explain the baryon asymmetry of the universe; in that regard, he was the first to give a theoretical motivation for proton decay. Proton decay was suggested by Wigner in 1949 and
1952. Proton decay experiments had been performed since 1954 already. <mask> was the first to consider CPT-symmetric events occurring before the Big Bang:We can visualize that neutral spinless maximons (or photons) are produced at ''t'' < 0 from contracting matter having an excess of antiquarks, that they pass "one through the other" at the instant ''t'' = 0 when the density is infinite, and decay with an excess of quarks when ''t'' > 0, realizing total CPT symmetry of the universe. All the phenomena at t < 0 are assumed in this hypothesis to be CPT reflections of the phenomena at t > 0.His legacy in this domain are the famous conditions named after him: Baryon number violation, C-symmetry and CP-symmetry violation, and interactions out of thermal equilibrium. <mask> was also interested in explaining why the curvature of the universe is so small. This lead him to consider cyclic models, where the universe oscillates between contraction and expansion phases. In those models, after a certain number of cycles the curvature naturally becomes infinite even if it had not started this way: Sakharov considered three starting points, a flat universe with a slightly negative cosmological constant, a universe with a positive curvature and a zero cosmological constant, and a universe with a negative curvature and a slightly negative cosmological constant. Those last two models feature what <mask> calls a reversal of the time arrow, which can be summarized as follows: He considers times t > 0 after the initial Big Bang singularity at t = 0 (which he calls "Friedman singularity" and denotes Φ) as well as times t < 0 before that singularity. He then assumes that entropy increases when time increases for t > 0 as well as when time decreases for t < 0, which constitutes his reversal of time. Then he considers the case when the universe at t < 0 is the image of the universe at t > 0 under CPT symmetry but also the case when it is not so: the universe has a non-zero CPT charge at t = 0 in this case.<mask> considers a variant of this model where the reversal of the time arrow occurs at a point of maximum entropy instead of happening at the singularity. In those models there is no dynamic interaction between the universe at t < 0 and t > 0. In his first model the two universes did not interact, except via local matter accumulation whose density and pressure become high enough to connect the two sheets through a bridge without spacetime between them, but with a continuity of geodesics beyond the Schwarzschild radius with no singularity, allowing an exchange of matter between the two conjugated sheets, based on an idea after Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov. Novikov called such singularities a collapse and an anticollapse, which are an alternative to the couple black hole and white hole in the wormhole model. <mask> also proposed the idea of induced gravity as an alternative theory of quantum gravity. Turn to activism
Since the late 1950s <mask> had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the 1960s, <mask> was against nuclear proliferation.Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in Moscow. <mask> was also involved in an event with political consequences in 1964, when the Soviet Academy of Sciences nominated for full membership Nikolai Nuzhdin, a follower of Trofim Lysenko (initiator of the Stalin-supported anti-genetics campaign Lysenkoism). Contrary to normal practice, <mask>, a member of the academy, publicly spoke out against full membership for Nuzhdin and held him responsible for "the defamation, firing, arrest, even death, of many genuine scientists." In the end, Nuzhdin was not elected, but the episode prompted Sergei Khrushchev to order the KGB to gather compromising material on Sakharov. The major turn in <mask>'s political evolution came in 1967, when anti-ballistic missile defense became a key issue in US–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of July 21, 1967, Sakharov explained the need to "take the Americans at their word" and accept their proposal for a "bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense" because an arms race in the new technology would otherwise increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript, which accompanied the letter, in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by that kind of defense.The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABMs in the Soviet press. Since 1967, after the Six Day War and the beginning of the Arab-Israeli conflict, he actively supported Israel, as he reported more than once in the press, and also maintained friendly relations with refuseniks who later made aliyah. In May 1968, <mask> completed an essay, "Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom". He described the anti-ballistic missile defense as a major threat of world nuclear war. After the essay was circulated in samizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union, <mask> was banned from conducting any military-related research and returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics. For 12 years, until his exile to Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) in January 1980, <mask> assumed the role of a widely recognized and open dissident in Moscow. He stood vigil outside closed courtrooms, wrote appeals on behalf of more than 200 individual prisoners, and continued to write essays about the need for democratization.In 1970, <mask> was among the three founding members of the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR, along with Valery Chalidze and <mask>v. The Committee wrote appeals, collected signatures for petitions and succeeded in affiliating with several international human rights organizations. Its work was the subject of many KGB reports and brought <mask> under increasing pressure from the government. <mask> married a fellow human rights activist, Yelena Bonner, in 1972. By 1973, <mask> was meeting regularly with Western correspondents and holding press conferences in his apartment. He appealed to the US Congress to approve the 1974 Jackson-Vanik Amendment to a trade bill, which coupled trade tariffs to the Kremlin's willingness to allow freer emigration. Attacked by Soviet establishment from 1972
In 1972, <mask> became the target of sustained pressure from his fellow scientists in the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Soviet press.The writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn came to his defence. In 1973 and 1974, the Soviet media campaign continued, targeting both <mask> and Solzhenitsyn for their pro-Western,

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title: Andrei Sakharov

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 anti-socialist positions. <mask> later described that it took "years" for him to "understand how much substitution, deceit, and lack of correspondence with reality there was" in the Soviet ideals. "At first I thought, despite everything that I saw with my own eyes, that the Soviet State was a breakthrough into the future, a kind of prototype for all countries". Then he came, in his words, to "the theory of symmetry: all governments and regimes to a first approximation are bad, all peoples are oppressed, and all are threatened by common dangers." <mask>'s ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works, he declared that "the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally", and defied what he saw as unwritten ideological rules imposed by the Communist Party on the society in spite of a democratic Soviet Constitution (1936).In a letter written from exile, he cheered up a fellow physicist and free market advocate with the words: "Fortunately, the future is unpredictable and also – because of quantum effects – uncertain." For <mask>, the indeterminacy of the future supported his belief that he could and should take personal responsibility for it. Nobel Peace Prize (1975)
In 1973, <mask> was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, and in 1974, he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca. <mask> was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Norwegian Nobel Committee called him "a spokesman for the conscience of mankind". In the words of the Nobel Committee's citation: "In a convincing manner <mask> has emphasised that Man's inviolable rights provide the only safe foundation for genuine and enduring international cooperation." <mask> was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect the prize.His wife, Yelena Bonner, read his speech at the ceremony in Oslo, Norway. On the day the prize was awarded, <mask> was in Vilnius, where the human rights activist Sergei Kovalev was being tried. In his Nobel lecture, "Peace, Progress, Human Rights", <mask> called for an end to the arms race, greater respect for the environment, international cooperation, and universal respect for human rights. He included a list of prisoners of conscience and political prisoners in the Soviet Union and stated that he shared the prize with them. By 1976, the head of the KGB, Yuri Andropov, was prepared to call <mask> "Domestic Enemy Number One" before a group of KGB officers. Internal exile (1980–1986)

<mask> was arrested on 22 January 1980, following his public protests against the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979, and was sent to the city of Gorky, now Nizhny Novgorod, a city that was off limits to foreigners. Between 1980 and 1986, Sakharov was kept under Soviet police surveillance.In his memoirs, he mentioned that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. <mask> was named the 1980 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association. In May 1984, <mask>'s wife, Yelena Bonner, was detained, and <mask> began a hunger strike, demanding permission for his wife to travel to the United States for heart surgery. He was forcibly hospitalized and force-fed. He was held in isolation for four months. In August 1984, Bonner was sentenced by a court to five years of exile in Gorky. In April 1985, <mask> started a new hunger strike for his wife to travel abroad for medical treatment.He again was taken to a hospital and force-fed. In August, the Politburo discussed what to do about <mask>. He remained in the hospital until October 1985, when his wife was allowed to travel to the United States. She had heart surgery in the United States and returned to Gorky in June 1986. In December 1985, the European Parliament established the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought, to be given annually for outstanding contributions to human rights. On 19 December 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev, who had initiated the policies of perestroika and glasnost, called <mask> to tell him that he and his wife could return to Moscow. Political leader

In 1988, <mask> was given the International Humanist Award by the International Humanist and Ethical Union.He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In March 1989, <mask> was elected to the new parliament, the All-Union Congress of People's Deputies and co-led the democratic opposition, the Inter-Regional Deputies Group. In November the head of the KGB reported to Gorbachev on <mask>'s encouragement and support for the coal miners' strike in Vorkuta. In December 1988, <mask> visited Armenia and Azerbaijan on a fact-finding mission. He concluded, "For Azerbaijan the issue of Karabakh is a matter of ambition, for the Armenians of Karabakh, it is a matter of life and death". Death

Soon after 9pm on 14 December 1989, <mask> went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress. His wife went to wake him at 11pm as he had requested but she found <mask> dead on the floor.According to the notes of Yakov Rapoport, a senior pathologist present at the autopsy, it is most likely that <mask> died of an arrhythmia consequent to dilated cardiomyopathy at the age of 68. He was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow. Influence

Memorial prizes
The Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought was established in 1988 by the European Parliament in his honour, and is the highest tribute to human rights endeavours awarded by the European Union. It is awarded annually by the parliament to "those who carry the spirit of Soviet dissident <mask>"; to "Laureates who, like <mask>, dedicate their lives to peaceful struggle for human rights." An <mask>ov prize has also been awarded by the American Physical Society every second year since 2006 "to recognize outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights". The Andrei Sakharov Prize For Writer's Civic Courage was established in October 1990. In 2004, with the approval of Yelena Bonner, an annual Sakharov Prize for journalism was established for reporters and commentators in Russia.Funded by former Soviet dissident Pyotr Vins, now a businessman in the US, the prize is administered by the Glasnost Defence Foundation in Moscow. The prize "for journalism as an act of conscience" has been won over the years by famous journalists such as Anna Politkovskaya and young reporters and editors working far from Russia's media capital, Moscow. The 2015 winner was Yelena Kostyuchenko. Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center
The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center, established at Brandeis University in 1993, are now housed at Harvard University. The documents from that archive were published by the Yale University Press in 2005. These documents are available online. Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of the KGB to the Central Committee about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers.The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 (Brezhnev stagnation). The documents characterize not only <mask>'s activity, but that of other dissidents, as well as that of highest-position apparatchiks and the KGB. No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available. Legacy and remembrance

Places

 In Moscow, there is Academician Sakharov Avenue and Sakharov Center. During the 1980s, the block of 16th Street NW between L and M streets, in front of the Russian ambassador's residence in Washington, D.C. was renamed "<mask> Plaza" as a form of protest against his 1980 arrest and detention. In Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, Sakharov Square, located in the heart of the city, is named after him. The Sakharov Gardens (est.1990) are located at the entrance to Jerusalem, Israel, off the Jerusalem–Tel Aviv Highway. There is also a street named after him in Haifa. In Nizhny Novgorod, there is a Sakharov Museum in the apartment on the first floor of the 12-storeyed house where the <mask> family lived for seven years; in 2014 his monument was erected near the house. In Saint Petersburg, his monument stands in Sakharov Square, and there is a Sakharov Park. In 1979, an asteroid, 1979 Sakharov, was named after him. A public square in Vilnius in front of the Press House is named after <mask>. The square was named on 16 March 1991, as the Press House was still occupied by the Soviet Army.Andreja Saharova iela in the district of Pļavnieki in Riga, Latvia, is named after <mask>. <mask>j-Sacharow-Platz in downtown Nuremberg is named in honour of <mask>. In Belarus, International Sakharov Environmental University was named after him. Intersection of Ventura Blvd and Laurel Canyon Blvd in Studio City, Los Angeles, is named <mask> Square. In Arnhem, the bridge over the Nederrijn is called the Andrej Sacharovbrug. The Andrej Sacharovweg is a street in Assen, Netherlands. There are also streets named in his honour in other places in the Netherlands such as Amsterdam, Amstelveen, The Hague, Hellevoetsluis, Leiden, Purmerend, Rotterdam, Utrecht
 A street in Copenhagen, Denmark.Quai Andreï Sakharov in Tournai, Belgium, is named in honour of <mask>. In Poland, streets named in his honour in Warsaw, Łódź and Kraków. Andreï <mask> Boulevard in the district of Mladost in Sofia, Bulgaria, is named after him. In New York, a street sign at the southwest corner of Third Avenue and 67th Street reads Sakharov-Bonner Corner, in honor of <mask> and his wife, Yelena Bonner. The corner is just down the block from the Russian (then Soviet) Mission to the United Nations and was the scene of repeated anti-Soviet demonstrations. Media
 In the 1984 made-for-TV film Sakharov starring Jason Robards. In the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, one of the Enterprise-D's Shuttlecraft is named after <mask>, and is featured prominently in several episodes.This follows the Star Trek tradition of naming Shuttlecraft after prominent scientists, and particularly in The Next Generation, physicists. The fictitious interplanetary spacecraft Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov from the novel 2010: Odyssey Two by Arthur C. Clarke is powered by a "Sakharov drive". The novel was published in 1982, when <mask> was in exile in Nizhny Novgorod, and was dedicated both to <mask> and to Alexei Leonov. Russian singer Alexander Gradsky wrote and performed the song "Памяти А. Д. Сахарова" ("In memory of <mask>"), which features on his Live In "Russia" 2 (Живем в "России" 2) CD. The faction leader of the Ecologists in the PC game S.T.A.L.K.E.R. : Shadow of Chernobyl and its prequel is a scientist named <mask>. Honours and awards
 Hero of Socialist Labour (three times: 12 August 1953; 20 June 1956; 7 March 1962).Four Orders of Lenin. Lenin Prize (1956). Stalin Prize (1953). In 1980, <mask> was stripped of all Soviet awards for "anti-Soviet activities". Later, during glasnost, he declined the return of his awards and, consequently, Mikhail Gorbachev did not sign the necessary decree. Prix mondial Cino Del Duca (1974). Nobel Peace Prize (1975).Laurea Honoris Causa of the Sapienza University of Rome (1980). Grand Cross of Order of the Cross of Vytis (posthumously on January 8, 2003). Bibliography

Books

Articles and interviews

See also

 Sakharov conditions
 Sakharov Prize
 List of peace activists
 Sergei Kovalev
 Natan Sharansky
 Edward Teller
 Stanislaw Ulam
 Omid Kokabee, Mordechai Vanunu

References

Further reading

  The Regesto delle lauree honoris causa dal 1944 al 1985 is a detailed and carefully commented register of all the documents of the official archive of the Sapienza University of Rome pertaining to the honoris causa degrees awarded or not. It includes all the awarding proposals submitted during the considered period, detailed presentations of the work of the candidate, if available, and precise references to related articles published on Italian newspapers and magazines, if the laurea was awarded. External links

 The Andrei Sakharov Archives at the Houghton Library. <mask>: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights. Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics.<mask>: Photo-chronology
 Annotated bibliography of <mask> from the Alsos Digital Library

Videos

1921 births
1989 deaths
20th-century Russian writers
Amnesty International prisoners of conscience held by the Soviet Union
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Cross of Vytis
Heroes of Socialist Labour
Lenin Prize winners
Members of the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union
Moscow State University alumni
Nobel Peace Prize laureates
Nuclear weapons program of the Soviet Union
Perestroika
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Hunger strikers
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Soviet prisoners and detainees
Soviet psychiatric abuse whistleblowers
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Political prisoners
Russian people of Greek descent
Political party founders
20th-century memoirists
Male non-fiction writers
World War II

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title: Jaslene Gonzalez

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<mask> (born May 29, 1986) is an American model, television host, and winner of Cycle 8 of America's Next Top Model. Biography
<mask> was born in Puerto Rico and grew up in Humboldt Park, Chicago. She attended Notre Dame High School for Girls on the Northwest Side of Chicago. She was an online college admissions advisor prior to America's Next Top Model. <mask> had done some modeling prior to America's Next Top Model, having been represented by Avant Garde Models. In her CW "Close-up" interview, it was revealed that she appeared in fashion shows for local Chicago designers, including Michelle Gomez of Chicago and Alexis Arquette, as seen in local Chicago newspapers Extra and La Nota. <mask> said in her Seventeen interview that she had been in an abusive relationship with her ex-boyfriend; the relationship ended shortly before the filming of cycle 7.America's Next Top Model

America's Next Top Model Cycle 7
<mask> initially auditioned for Cycle 7, but only made it to the top 21 during the semifinals. Assuring the judges that she would be back for the next cycle's audition, <mask>'s determination caught the eyes of producers, who thought she had potential. Winning America's Next Top Model Cycle 8
<mask> re-auditioned for Cycle 8 and this time made it to the top thirteen, being the twelfth finalist selected. During the competition, <mask> was called first at panel four times, received four Covergirl of the Week awards, and won the Go-Sees reward challenge in Sydney. She was also the second contestant after Joanie Dodds and the first winner to never appear in the bottom two. On the season finale, <mask> was revealed as the winner. She is the first girl in the show's history to compete on more than one cycle and win.<mask> is the second of three winners from Illinois, preceded by Adrianne Curry of cycle 1, and followed by McKey Sullivan of cycle 11. America's Next Top Model Cycle 9
<mask> appeared in the first episode of Cycle 9 at St. John’s where the 33 potential contestants met her before preparing for a beach photoshoot. <mask> also appeared in the final episode to assist the final three models (Chantal Jones, Jenah Doucette and Saleisha Stowers) with their CoverGirl Wetslicks Fruit Spritzers commercial and photoshoot. After Doucette was eliminated, the remaining two contestants Jones and Stowers participated in the final runway modeling Qi Gang's line of couture dresses with <mask> opening the show. America's Next Top Model Cycle 10
Evans appeared in a Cycle 10 episode posing in a Lot 29 photoshoot in Seventeen magazine with challenge winner Katarzyna Dolinska along with fellow contestants chosen to participate, Amis Jenkins and Marvita Washington. <mask> was also present for the 7 Up party where the top seven contestants had to work a "green" carpet leading to eventual runner-up Anya Kop winning the challenge where her prize was another nude photoshoot for 7 Up and US$10,000 as payment. Modeling career

Print work
<mask> has modeled for the New York Post (Tempo), US Weekly,In Touch Weekly, had a 6-page spread in an issue of Vibe Vixen magazine, a 12-page fashion spread for ZooZoom Magazine.Named One Of Latina Magazine's Latinas Of the Year, had a 9-page spread for Colures (U.K fashion Magazine), was featured in Trace (magazine): Model Behaviour as Falls new faces, has been on the covers and had spreads of over a dozen magazines such as Latina, Imagén, Hombre, 6 Degrees, FN, ZooZoom, Fashion Salon Seventeen, Urban Latino, Bleu, Vanidades, Scene, JamRock, Splendor, Time Out. and Metrostyle Catalog. She has also appeared in Lot29 Fall/Winter 07-08 and Spring/Summer 08 ad campaigns; she has had a total of four billboards in Times Square so far. Also, she shares one of her Lot29 billboards in Times Square, New York with Katarzyna Dolinska. <mask> shot an ad campaign for online retailer ShopBop, 8-page fashion spreads for both Scene Magazine and JamRock Magazine. She is also featured on the pages of Living Proof Magazine, American Salon Magazine and currently has an ad campaign with Marianne Stores. <mask> has had an Ad Campaign for designer Cesar Galindo's Spring 2008 Collection and appeared on the pages of Supermodels Unlimited Magazine twice for the August and September/October 2008 issues.<mask> is also part of the "Heart On My Sleeve" clothing campaign by Aubrey O'Day. <mask> is on the pages of YRB Magazine. She has also been featured on COACD, fashionista.com and in Women's Wear Daily. <mask> currently has nationwide campaigns with Garnier Nutrisse, and Southpole. In addition, Kett Cosmetics, Marianne Stores F/W 09, and Recession Denim F/W 09 campaigns. She has also been on the cover Nuovo Magazine. She has been on the cover of Nylon Mexico.In India, she has been in Marie Claire (June 2012), New Woman and Grazia. Runway

<mask> has modeled for Ximena Valero and James de Colón and was honored at the 1st Annual Chicago Latino Fashion Week. <mask> also walked for Ashley Paige in Mercedes Benz Fashion Week Miami Swim 08 and was on the catwalk for the Armani Exchange line. In addition she received a showcard from elite and walked at Mercedes-Benz New York Fashion Week Spring/Summer 2008. <mask> walked at Mercedes-Benz New York Fashion Week Fall/Winter 2008-09 for Armani Exchange and Project Runway finalist Jillian Lewis. She has modeled for the Amaya swimwear line at the BET 'Rip the Runway' fashion show. <mask> strutted on the catwalk of Mercedes-Benz New York Fashion Week Spring/Summer 2009 for designers Jose Duran, Indashio, Cesar Galindo, Farah Angsana and Custo Barcelona.<mask> was on the runway for Adolfo Sanchez S/S 09 collection and also on the runways at the 2nd Annual Chicago Latino Fashion Week for Elda De La Rosa, James De Colon, Nora Del Busto, and Soledad Designs S/S 09. <mask> modeled as Wonder Woman at the 11th Annual New York Chocolate Show, which benefited the Susan G. Komen breast cancer foundation. <mask> strutted on the catwalk of Mercedes-Benz New York Fashion Week Fall/Winter 2009 for Project Runway & Jordi Scott. She was also on the runways for Dana Maxx Fall 09, Design Cares Kaleidoscope Of Dreams For St. Jude Children's Hospital and Jenna Leigh Lingerie A/W 09.10. Maxis presents Malaysia International Fashion Week 2009. <mask> was also a featured model in the finale of  Project Runway (season 6). She took part in the Sewing for Hope charity fashion show 2010.On September 12, 2011, <mask> was a featured model for designer, WALTER Spring 2012 Fashion Presentation at The Empire Hotel Rooftop Lounge during New York Fashion Week. Miscellaneous
As part of her prize, <mask> won representation by Elite Model Management, a $100,000 (USD) contract with CoverGirl cosmetics and a photo shoot for the cover of  a six-page spread in Seventeen magazine. In addition, during the run of Cycle 9, <mask> appeared once a week in a "My Life As A CoverGirl" segment that aired during commercial breaks while the week's episode of Top Model runs. She has also been Featured as one of Cycle 11's Top Models in Action. She made appearances on talk shows Live With Regis and Kelly, 106 & Park, TRL, The View, modeling a dress designed by Elisabeth Hasselbeck and Jensen! (Dutch Talkshow). She was "La Madrina" of the Annual National New York City Puerto Rican Day Parade held June 16, 2007, appearing in a yellow convertible that paraded alongside the car carrying Daddy Yankee.<mask> hosted several style spots for CoverGirl TV, including segments titled "Summer Goddess", "Day To Night" and "<mask>'s Glamorous Nights". She was a nominee for the 2007 Teen Choice Awards, under the category "Choice TV: Female Reality/Variety Star". Women's Wear Daily (WWD) said the following about <mask>:
When 20-year-old <mask> <mask> won season eight's America's Next Top Model, Lot29 executives knew they had their next face.They seem to have chosen correctly. <mask> did so well for the brand last season, the company asked her back to endorse the product for spring. <mask> filmed her first official CoverGirl commercial, which aired in Europe, Latin America and on Spanish-language channels and has been featured on Teen Vogue. She shot a cameo in the John Leguizamo film Nothing Like the Holidays. In addition, <mask> has renewed her contract with CoverGirl and she has also been featured on CBS' The Early Show, where she discussed her career success.<mask> was also featured on Ryan Leslie's music video, "Addiction". Also, featured on Aventura's (Dominican Bachata band) latest music video "Por Un Segundo" and Magic Juan's music video "Baby Come Back". <mask> partnered with Liz Claiborne and the National Domestic Violence Hotline to spread awareness about teen dating violence for the "Love Is Not Abuse" campaign. <mask> modeled a design from fashion house Nina Ricci on the Today Show with Kathie Lee Gifford and Hoda Kotb for a segment on Paws for Style. <mask> is currently signed with 301 Model Management Miami, Faces Model Management Malaysia, Exodus Model Management Thailand; she is currently working in Malaysia, Hong Kong, Thailand and Singapore. She was also a guest judge for Miss Malaysia World 2010. <mask> hosts events on Spanish 'Yeah!'channel. Awards and nominations

See also

 List of Puerto Ricans

References

External links

The Internet Fashion Database

1986 births
Living people
American people of Puerto Rican descent
People from Chicago
American female models
America's Next Top Model winners
Hispanic and Latino American female models
Female models from Illinois

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title: Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor

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<mask> (; ; 1 October 1685 – 20 October 1740) was Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy from 1711 until his death, succeeding his elder brother, Joseph I. He unsuccessfully claimed the throne of Spain following the death of his relative, <mask>. In 1708, he married Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, by whom he had his four children: Leopold Johann (who died in infancy), Maria Theresa (the last direct Habsburg sovereign), Maria Anna (Governess of the Austrian Netherlands), and Maria Amalia (who also died in infancy). Four years before the birth of Maria Theresa, faced with his lack of male heirs, <mask> provided for a male-line succession failure with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. The Emperor favoured his own daughters over those of his elder brother and predecessor, Joseph I, in the succession, ignoring the decree he had signed during the reign of his father, Leopold I. <mask> sought the other European powers' approval. They demanded significant terms, among which were that Austria close the Ostend Company. In total, Great Britain, France, Saxony-Poland, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Venice, States of the Church, Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Savoy-Sardinia, Bavaria, and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire recognised the sanction.France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged. <mask> died in 1740, sparking the War of the Austrian Succession, which plagued his successor, Maria Theresa, for eight years. Biography

Early years
Archduke <mask> (baptized Carolus Franciscus Josephus Wenceslaus Balthasar Johannes Antonius Ignatius), the second son of the Emperor Leopold I and of his third wife, Princess Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, was born on  1 October 1685. His tutor was Anton Florian, Prince of Liechtenstein. Following the death of <mask> of Spain, in 1700, without any direct heir, <mask> declared himself King of Spain—both were members of the House of Habsburg. The ensuing War of the Spanish Succession, which pitted France's candidate, Philip, Duke of Anjou, Louis XIV of France's grandson, against Austria's <mask>, lasted for almost 14 years. The Kingdom of Portugal, Kingdom of England, Scotland, Ireland and the majority of the Holy Roman Empire endorsed <mask>'s candidature.<mask>, as he was known, disembarked in his kingdom in 1705, and stayed there for six years, only being able to exercise his rule in Catalonia, until the death of his brother, Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor; he returned to Vienna to assume the imperial crown. Not wanting to see Austria and Spain in personal union again, the new Kingdom of Great Britain withdrew its support from the Austrian coalition, and the war culminated with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt three years later. The former, ratified in 1713, recognised Philip as King of Spain; however, the Kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Milan, the Austrian Netherlands and the Kingdom of Sardinia – all previously possessions of the Spanish—were ceded to Austria. To prevent a union of Spain and France, Philip was forced to renounce his right to succeed his grandfather's throne. <mask> was extremely discontented at the loss of Spain, and as a result, he mimicked the staid Spanish Habsburg court ceremonial, adopting the dress of a Spanish monarch, which, according to British historian Edward Crankshaw, consisted of "a black doublet and hose, black shoes and scarlet stockings". <mask>'s father and his advisors went about arranging a marriage for him. Their eyes fell upon Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, the eldest child of Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.She was held to be strikingly beautiful by her contemporaries. On 1 August 1708, in Barcelona, <mask> married her by proxy. She gave him two daughters that survived to adulthood, Maria Theresa and Maria Anna. Succession to the Habsburg dominions
When <mask> succeeded his brother in 1711, he was the last male Habsburg heir in the direct line. Since Habsburg possessions were subject to Salic law, barring women from inheriting in their own right, his own lack of a male heir meant they would be divided on his death. The Pragmatic Sanction of 19 April 1713 abolished male-only succession in all Habsburg realms and declared their lands indivisible, although Hungary only approved it in 1723. <mask> had three daughters, Maria Theresa (1717–1780), Maria Anna (1718–1744) and Maria Amalia (1724–1730) but no surviving sons.When Maria Theresa was born, he disinherited his nieces and the daughters of his elder brother Joseph, Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia. It was this act that undermined the chances of a smooth succession and obliged <mask> to spend the rest of his reign seeking to ensure enforcement of the Sanction from other European powers. <mask> agreed to a demand from Britain that he close a trading company, (the Ostend Company), which was based in the Austrian Netherlands and that he himself founded in 1722. However, by 1735 he had secured approvals from key states, most importantly the Imperial Diet, which in theory bound all its members including Prussia and Bavaria. Other signatories included Britain, France, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Russia, Denmark and Savoy-Sardinia but subsequent events underlined Eugene of Savoy's comment that the best guarantee was a powerful army and full Treasury. His nieces were married to the rulers of Saxony and Bavaria, both of whom ultimately refused to be bound by the decision of the Imperial Diet and despite publicly agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction in 1735, France signed a secret treaty with Bavaria in 1738 promising to back the 'just claims' of <mask> of Bavaria. In the first part of his reign, the empire continued to expand; success in the Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718), adding Banat to Hungary, and establishing direct Austrian rule over Serbia and Oltenia (Lesser Wallachia).This extended Austrian rule to the lower Danube. The War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720) followed. It too ended in an Austrian victory; by the Treaty of The Hague (1720), <mask> swapped Sardinia, which went to the Duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus, for Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean, which was harder to defend than Sardinia. The treaty also recognised Philip V of Spain's younger son, Don Carlos (the future <mask> of Spain), as heir to the Duchy of Parma and Grand Duchy of Tuscany; <mask> had previously endorsed the succession of the incumbent Grand Duke's daughter, Anna Maria Luisa, Electress Palatine. Peace in Europe was shattered by the War of the Polish Succession (1733–1738),  a dispute over the throne of Poland between Augustus of Saxony, the previous King's elder son, and Stanisław Leszczyński. Austria supported the former, France the latter; thus, a war broke out. By the Treaty of Vienna (1738), Augustus ascended the throne, but <mask> had to give the Kingdom of Naples to Don Carlos, in exchange for the much smaller Duchy of Parma.The issue of <mask>'s elder daughter's marriage was raised early in her childhood. She was first betrothed to Léopold Clément of Lorraine, who was supposed to come to Vienna and meet Maria Theresa. Instead, he died of smallpox in 1723, which upset Maria Theresa. Léopold Clément's younger brother, Francis Stephen, then came to Vienna to replace him. <mask> considered other possibilities (such as Don Carlos) before announcing the engagement to Francis. At the end of the War of the Polish Succession, France demanded that Francis surrender the Duchy of Lorraine (his hereditary domain), to Stanisław Leszczyński, the deposed King of Poland, who would bequeath it to France at his death. <mask> compelled Francis to renounce his rights to Lorraine and told him: "No renunciation, no archduchess."Francis complied; he was married to Maria Theresa in February 1736, and Lorraine devolved to Stanisław in July 1737. In 1737, the Emperor embarked on another Turkish War in alliance with Russia. Unlike the previous Austro-Turkish War, it ended in a decisive Austrian defeat. Much of the territory gained in 1718 (except for the Banat) was lost. Popular discontent at the costly war reigned in Vienna; Francis of Lorraine, Maria Theresa's husband, was dubbed a French spy by the Viennese. The war not only revealed the sorry state of the Austrian army, but also the weakness of the imperial state itself, which did not have the financial strength to sustain a long war without the subsidies of its allies. Death and legacy

At the time of <mask>'s death, the Habsburg lands were saturated in debt; the exchequer contained a mere 100,000 florins; and desertion was rife in Austria's sporadic army, spread across the Empire in small, ineffective barracks.Contemporaries expected that Hungary would wrench itself from the Habsburg yoke upon his death. Despite the predicaments faced by <mask>, the territorial extent of his Habsburg lands was at its greatest since the days of his cognatic ancestor Emperor <mask>, reaching the Southern Mediterranean and including the Duchy of Milan. The Emperor, after a hunting trip across the Hungarian border in "a typical day in the wettest and coldest October in memory", fell seriously ill at the Favorita Palace, Vienna, and he died on 20 October 1740 in the Hofburg. In his Memoirs Voltaire wrote that <mask>'s death was caused by consuming a meal of death cap mushrooms. <mask>'s life opus, the Pragmatic Sanction, was ultimately in vain. Maria Theresa was forced to resort to arms to defend her inheritance from the coalition of Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain, Saxony and Poland—all party to the sanction—who assaulted the Austrian frontier weeks after her father's death. During the ensuing War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa saved her crown and most of her territory but lost the mineral-rich Duchy of Silesia to Prussia and the Duchy of Parma to Spain.Emperor <mask> VI has been the main motif of many collectors' coins and medals. One of the most recent samples is high value collectors' coin the Austrian Göttweig Abbey commemorative coin, minted on 11 October 2006. His portrait can be seen in the foreground of the reverse of the coin.

masks:
Charles VI
Charles II
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles II
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles III
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles Albert
Charles
Charles III
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles V
Charles
Charles
Charles


title: Khalid Mahmud Arif

texts:
General <mask> ( 29 December 1930 – 6 March 2020) , popularly known as K.M<mask>, was a four-star rank army general in the Pakistan Army, serving as the vice-chief of army staff under President Zia-ul-Haq, who retained the command of the army since 1976. His career in the army was mostly spent in the military intelligence, and served in the government of East Pakistan as its military adviser to its army, briefly fighting in the civil war aided by neighboring India. Upon repatriation to Pakistan in 1973, he continued with his military service in the army and eventually ascended as director-general of military intelligence before assuming the staff appointment at the Army GHQ. Appointed as vice-chief of army staff in 1984, he played crucial role in stabilizing the administration of President Zia-ul-Haq, and was succeeded by General Mirza Aslam Beg as army chief in March 1987. Upon his retirement in 1987, he authored several books on the political and military history of Pakistan, of which Working With Zia: Pakistan's Power Politics is the best known. Biography

<mask> was born on 29 December 1930 in a Kakazai family in East Punjab, India and immigrated to Pakistan following the partition.He attended Edwardes College in Peshawar and graduated in 1947. After passing the ISSB's examinations, he joined the Pakistan Military Academy in Kakul as a cadet and graduated in 1947, where he was selected to do advance training on Infantry tactics in Kohat, North-West Frontier Province. His family permanently moved in Kohat as he gained commissioned into the Armoured Corps. In 1952, he was selected for further military training in the United States and was sent to attend the United States Army Armor School at Fort Knox, where he graduated in specializing in the armoured tactics. He was further educated in Military College of Signals in Rawalpindi where he excelled in intelligence management, and graduated in the staff course degree from the Command and Staff College in Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan. War appointments and military adviser in East Pakistan

In 1965,  Arif, as a captain, served in the armoured corps along with then-Major Zia-ul-Haq and participated in the second war with India over the disputed Kashmir. Arif commanded an American M48 tank against the Indian Army.After the war, he was sent back to the military intelligence and stationed in East Pakistan as a military adviser to the East Pakistan Army. In 1967, he greatly aided towards troop redeployment of the Eastern Command in formulating a battle plan, codename: "Operation X-Sunderbans-1." The deployment, however, was non combative and it was only designed to form the basis for the operational combat plan. In 1969, he was later posted in GHQ Dhaka as a martial law officer under the government led by Governor Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan in 1969. During this stint, Arif reportedly relied a secretive message in his complied report in regards to the situation in East that ultimately warned off the consequences of the civil war. In March 1971, he witnessed the meeting with President Yahya Khan who decided the launch of the military operations  against the rebels in the East should take place. Arif took over the situation himself to control the law and order.About this meeting, <mask> described the meeting as: President Yahya took matters in his hands, thus good bye to civil bureaucracy. In East, he fought and led companies to fight the approaching Indian Army, and was captured by the Indian Army units who held him as war prisoner after the instrument of surrender was signed between Lieutenant-General A.A.K. Niazi and Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, GOC-in-C of Eastern Command of Indian military in 1971. Command and staff appointments
His efforts and actions in the liberation war in East that accounted his bravery had earned admiration in Pakistan which led to Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto accepting recommendations to decorate Major <mask> with service award, Sitara-e-Basalat. In 1975, he was repatriated to Pakistan from the Wagha and was allowed to resume his military service, being promoted as Lieutenant-Colonel. He testified in the War Enquiry Commission led by Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman, giving accounts of military intelligence failures took place in East. In 1976, he was promoted as Colonel and Brigadier in 1977, of which, he assumed the command of the 111th Brigade stationed in Islamabad; this command appointment lasted only eight months.The general elections held in 1977 saw the victory of Pakistan Peoples Party led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, caused the public agitation led by the conservative alliance whose politicians refused to accept the results amid alleged vote rigging. Brig. K. M<mask> ultimately leaked and informed Prime Minister Bhutto of covert coup d'état took place under his appointed-army chief General Zia-ul-Haq, but the latter refused to believe him. Acting upon warnings by Brig. <mask>, Bhutto did accept all demands by the conservative alliance but the coup d'état had already took place. After receiving orders from Lieutenant-General F.A. Chishti, GoC-in-C of X Corps, Brigadier <mask> rotated the 111th Brigade to take control of the civilian government in support of Chief of Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq and Chairman joint chiefs Mohammad Shariff.After the coup d'état was completed, General Zia's promoted Brigadier <mask> as Major-General and appointed him as Director-General of Military Intelligence (DGMI). In a views of Lieutenant-General Chishti who noted: "General Zia was lucky to have Major-General <mask> as his life long confidante. He had experience as a Martial Law Officer during General's Yahya's regime and handled matters efficiently." In 1979, he helped and aided in preparing a national security strategy against the Russian invasion of Afghanistan, after a meeting with President Zia-ul-Haq upon the latter's request. Vice Chief of Army Staff (1984–87)

A quintessential staff officer, Major-General <mask>'s career accelerated and gained reputation as an effective commander in the military intelligence. Major-General <mask> served in the military intelligence until 1983 when he promoted as Lieutenant-General and posted in a staff assignment in the Army GHQ. At the Army GHQ, he brought most qualified officers who had worked with him in the past assignments, and built up his reputation in army as an effective leader.On 11 March 1983, Lieutenant-General <mask>, alongside with Chairman Senate Ghulam Ishaq Khan, was invited by Munir Ahmad Khan, then-Chairman of PAEC, to witnessed the subcritical testing of an atomic device that took place in a hidden weapons-testing sites. Despite never effectively commanding the field assignments, he was named and appointed as Vice Chief of Army Staff under President Zia in 1984. Upon being promoted to four-star rank army general, he assumed the command of Pakistan Army as its Vice-Chief of Army Staff under President Zia. To many observers, this promotion, in fact, made General Arif the chief of army staff of the Pakistan Army with the entire commanding staff reporting to him. As an army chief, General <mask> played a crucial role towards the successful implementation of the secretive atomic bomb programme after removing the civilian administrator, Dr. Mubashir Hassan. Towards diplomacy with the United States, General Arif made frequent trips with United States, successfully convincing the Reagan administration to allow the secretive atomic bomb development by making it very clear to the United States that "[Pakistan] won't compromise on its nuclear weapons programme, but won't conduct a test to harm to relationship between two nations." In 1983, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) placed a mole near the Kahuta Research Laboratories but was thwarted by the ISI, which according to General Arif, the ISI took the mole to its secret museum to train its own spies in espionage operations.He was described as a very uptight and strict army officer by civilian scientists, specifically dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan in his memoirs, did not compromise on his morals and disciplines throughout his career. In 1984, General <mask>'s tenure also saw the commissioning of the Bell AH-1 Cobra Attack helicopters in the aviation corps. In 1986–87, he deployed and rotated the V Corps, with support from the Southern Air Command to deter the Indian Army's major military exercise that took place near Pakistan's border under supervision of General Sundarji, then-army chief of Indian Army. During this time, he refuted the claims made by dr. A.Q. Khan and immediately issued directives towards the policy of deliberate ambiguity over the clandestine atomic bomb programme. Post retirement

In 1987, General <mask> sought retirement from his military service and did not seek extension and handed over the army command to Lieutenant-General Mirza Aslam Beg who was promoted to the four-star rank and as an army chief. Upon retiring, he focused towards poetry and became a military historian when he authored the notable eyewitnessed and famed text on the military interference led General Zia-ul-Haq, Working with Zia, published in 1995.In 2001, he published Khaki Shadows: Pakistan 1947–1997, about the politics, government, and armed forces of  Pakistan during and shortly after the Cold War. In 2010, he authored another book, Estranged Neighbours: India, Pakistan (1947-2010) on the foreign relations of India and Pakistan. Gen (Retd) K M <mask> died on 6 March 2020 in ICU CMH Lahore due to Kidney disease. Works

References

1931 births
2020 deaths
Punjabi people
People from Jalandhar district
Edwardes College alumni
People from Kohat District
Pakistan Military Academy alumni
Pakistan Army Armored Corps officers
Military intelligence
People of East Pakistan
People of the Bangladesh Liberation War
Pakistani military personnel of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
Pakistani military writers
Pakistani prisoners of war
Pakistani generals
Military government of Pakistan (1977–1988)
Project-706 people
Pakistani memoirists
Pakistani military historians
Pakistani poets
Recipients of Nishan-e-Imtiaz
Recipients of the Legion of Merit

masks:
Khalid Mahmud Arif
. Arif
Khalid Mahmud Arif
Arif
Arif
. Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif
Arif


title: Hank Aaron

texts:
<mask> (February 5, 1934 – January 22, 2021), nicknamed "Hammer" or "Hammerin' <mask>", was an American professional baseball right fielder who played 23 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB), from 1954 through 1976. Widely regarded as one of the greatest baseball players in history, he spent 21 seasons with the Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves in the National League (NL) and two seasons with the Milwaukee Brewers in the American League (AL). His 755 career home runs broke the long-standing MLB record set by Babe Ruth and stood as the most for 33 years; <mask> still holds many other MLB batting records. He hit 24 or more home runs every year from 1955 through 1973 and is one of only two players to hit 30 or more home runs in a season at least fifteen times. In 1999, The Sporting News ranked <mask> fifth on its list of the "100 Greatest Baseball Players". In 1982, he was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility. <mask> was born and raised in and around Mobile, Alabama.<mask> had seven siblings, including Tommie <mask>, who played major-league baseball with him. He appeared briefly in the Negro American League and in minor league baseball before starting his major league career. By his final MLB season, <mask> was the last former Negro league baseball player on a major league roster. During his time in Major League Baseball, and especially during his run for the home run record, <mask> and his family endured extensive racist threats. His experiences fueled his activism during the civil rights movement. <mask> played the vast majority of his MLB games in right field, though he appeared at several other infield and outfield positions. In his last two seasons, he was primarily a designated hitter.<mask> was an NL All-Star for 20 seasons and an AL All-Star for one season, and he holds the record for the most All-Star selections (25), while sharing the record for most All-Star Games played (24) with Willie Mays and Stan Musial. He was a three-time Gold Glove winner, and in 1957, he won the NL Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award when the Milwaukee Braves won the World Series. <mask> holds the MLB records for the most career runs batted in (RBIs) (2,297), extra base hits (1,477), and total bases (6,856). <mask> is also in the top five for career hits (3,771) and runs (2,174). He is one of only four players to have at least 17 seasons with 150 or more hits. <mask> is in second place in home runs (755) and at-bats (12,364), and in third place in games played (3,298). At the time of his retirement, <mask> held most of the game's key career power-hitting records.After his retirement, <mask> held front office roles with the Atlanta Braves, including the senior vice president. In 1988, <mask> was inducted into the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame. In 1999, MLB introduced the Hank <mask> Award to recognize the top offensive players in each league. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2002. He was named a 2010 Georgia Trustee by the Georgia Historical Society in recognition of accomplishments that reflect the ideals of Georgia's founders. <mask> resided near Atlanta until his death. Early life
<mask> was born in Mobile, Alabama, to <mask> Sr. and Estella (Pritchett) <mask>.He had seven siblings. Tommie <mask>, one of his brothers, also went on to play Major League Baseball. By the time <mask> retired, he and his brother held the record for most career home runs by a pair of siblings (768). They were also the first siblings to appear in a League Championship Series as teammates. While he was born in a section of Mobile referred to as "Down the Bay", he spent most of his youth in Toulminville. <mask> grew up in a poor family. His family could not afford baseball equipment, so he practiced by hitting bottle caps with sticks.He would create his own bats and balls out of materials he found on the streets. His boyhood idol was baseball star Jackie Robinson. <mask> attended Central High School as a freshman and a sophomore. Like most high schools, they did not have organized baseball, so he played outfield and third base for the Mobile Black Bears, a semipro team. <mask> was a member of the Boy Scouts of America. Although he batted cross-handed (as a right-handed hitter, with his left hand above his right), <mask> established himself as a power hitter. As a result, in 1949, at the age of 15, <mask> had his first tryout with an MLB franchise, the Brooklyn Dodgers; however, he did not make the team.After this, <mask> returned to school to finish his secondary education, attending the Josephine Allen Institute, a private high school in Alabama. During his junior year, <mask> joined the Prichard Athletics, an independent Negro league team, followed by the Mobile Black Bears, another independent Negro league team. While on the Bears, <mask> earned $3 per game ($ today), which was a dollar more than he got while on the Athletics. Negro league and minor league career
On November 20, 1951, baseball scout Ed Scott signed <mask> to a contract on behalf of the Indianapolis Clowns of the Negro American League, where he played for three months. He started play as a ,  shortstop, and earned $200 per month. As a result of his standout play with the Indianapolis Clowns, <mask> received two offers from MLB teams via telegram, one from the New York Giants and the other from the Boston Braves. Years later, <mask> remembered:

I had the Giants' contract in my hand.But the Braves offered fifty dollars a month more. That's the only thing that kept Willie Mays and me from being teammates – fifty dollars. While with the Clowns he experienced racism. Of a time his team was in Washington, D.C. <mask> recalled

We had breakfast while we were waiting for the rain to stop, and I can still envision sitting with the Clowns in a restaurant behind Griffith Stadium and hearing them break all the plates in the kitchen after we finished eating. What a horrible sound. Even as a kid, the irony of it hit me: here we were in the capital in the land of freedom and equality, and they had to destroy the plates that had touched the forks that had been in the mouths of black men. If dogs had eaten off those plates, they'd have washed them.The Howe Sports Bureau credits <mask> with a .366 batting average in 26 official Negro league games, with five home runs, 33 runs batted in (RBIs), 41 hits, and nine stolen bases. The Braves purchased <mask>'s contract from the Clowns for $10,000, which GM John Quinn thought was a steal, as he stated that he felt that <mask> was a $100,000 property. On June 12, 1952, <mask> signed with Braves' scout Dewey Griggs. During this time, he picked up the nickname "pork chops" because it "was the only thing I knew to order off the menu". A teammate later said, "the man ate pork chops three meals a day, two for breakfast". The Braves assigned <mask> to the Eau Claire Bears, the Braves' Northern League Class-C farm team. The 1952 season proved to be very beneficial for <mask>.Playing in the infield, <mask> continued to develop as a ballplayer and made the Northern League's All-Star team. He broke his habit of hitting cross-handed and adopted the standard hitting technique. By the end of the season, he had performed so well that the league made him the unanimous choice for Rookie of the Year. Although he appeared in just 87 games, he scored 89 runs, had 116 hits, nine home runs, and 61 RBIs. In addition, <mask> hit for a .336 batting average. During his minor league experience, he was very homesick and faced constant racism, but his brother, Herbert Jr., told him not to give up the opportunity. In 1953, the Braves promoted him to the Jacksonville Braves, their Class-A affiliate in the South Atlantic League.Helped by <mask>'s performance, the Braves won the league championship that year. <mask> led the league in runs (115), hits (208), doubles (36), RBIs (125), total bases (338), and batting average (.362). He won the league's Most Valuable Player Award, and had such a dominant year that one sportswriter was prompted to say, "<mask> led the league in everything except hotel accommodations." <mask>'s time with the Braves did not come without problems. He was one of the first African Americans to play in the league. The 1950s were a period of racial segregation in parts of the United States, especially the southeastern portion of the country. When <mask> traveled around Jacksonville, Florida, and the surrounding areas, he was often separated from his team because of Jim Crow laws.In most circumstances, the team was responsible for arranging housing and meals for its players, but <mask> often had to make his own arrangements. The Braves' manager, Ben Geraghty, tried his best to help <mask> on and off the field. Former Braves minor league player and sportswriter Pat Jordan said, "<mask> gave [Geraghty] much of the credit for his own swift rise to stardom." That same year, <mask> met his future wife, Barbara Lucas. The night they met, Lucas decided to attend the Braves' game. <mask> singled, doubled, and hit a home run in the game. On October 6, <mask> and Lucas married.In 1958, <mask>'s wife noted that during the offseason he liked "to sit and watch those shooting westerns". He also enjoyed cooking and fishing. <mask> spent the winter of 1953 playing in Puerto Rico. Mickey Owen, the team's manager, helped <mask> with his batting stance. Until then, <mask> had hit most pitches to left field or center field, but after working with Owen, <mask> was able to hit the ball more effectively all over the field. During his stay in Puerto Rico, Owen also helped <mask> transition from second base to the outfield. <mask> had not played well at second base, but Owen noted that <mask> could catch fly balls and throw them well from the outfield to the infield.The stint in Puerto Rico also allowed <mask> to avoid being drafted into military service. Though the Korean War was over, people were still being drafted. The Braves were able to speak to the draft board, making the case that <mask> could be the player to integrate the Southern Association the following season with the Atlanta Crackers. The board appears to have been convinced, as <mask> was not drafted. MLB career
In 1954, <mask> attended spring training with the major league club. Although he was on the roster of its farm club, Milwaukee manager Charley Grimm later stated, "From the start, he did so well I knew we were going to have to carry him." On March 13, 1954, Milwaukee Braves left fielder Bobby Thomson fractured his ankle while sliding into second base during a spring training game.The next day, <mask> made his first spring training start for the Braves major league team, playing in left field and hitting a home run. This led <mask> to a major league contract, signed on the final day of spring training, and a Braves uniform with the number five. On April 13, <mask> made his major league debut and was hitless in five at-bats against the Cincinnati Reds' left-hander Joe Nuxhall. In the same game, Eddie Mathews hit two home runs, the first of a record 863 home runs the pair would hit as teammates. On April 15, <mask> collected his first major league hit, a double off Cardinals' pitcher Vic Raschi. <mask> hit his first major league home run on April 23, also off Raschi. Over the next 122 games, <mask> batted .280 with 13 homers before he suffered a fractured ankle on September 5.He then changed his number to 44, which would turn out to look like a "lucky number" for the slugger. <mask> would hit 44 home runs in four different seasons, and he hit his record-breaking 715th career home run off Dodgers pitcher Al Downing, who coincidentally also wore number 44. At this point, <mask> was known to family and friends primarily as "Henry". Braves' public relations director Don Davidson, observing <mask>'s quiet, reserved nature, began referring to him publicly as "<mask>" in order to suggest more accessibility. The nickname quickly gained currency, but "Henry" continued to be cited frequently in the media, both sometimes appearing in the same article, and <mask> would answer to either one. During his rookie year, his other well-known nicknames, "Hammerin' Hank" (by teammates) and "Bad Henry" (by opposing pitchers) are reported to have arisen. Considerably later in his career, <mask> coined "Stone-fingers", which would prove a popular handle for one of baseball's more colorful characters, the famously distance-hitting but defensively challenged first baseman Dick Stuart, reportedly "delight[ing]" even its recipient.Sal Maglie recommended throwing low curveballs to <mask>. "He's going to swing and he'll go after almost anything," Maglie said of the Braves' slugger. "And he'll hit almost anything, so you have to be careful." Prime of his career

<mask> hit .314 with 27 home runs and 106 RBIs, in 1955. He was named to the NL All-Star roster for the first time; it was the first of a record 21 All-Star selections and first of a record 25 All-Star Game appearances. In 1956, <mask> hit .328 and captured the first of two NL batting titles. He was

masks:
Henry Louis Aaron
Hank
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Herbert Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Henry Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Hank Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Hank
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron
Aaron