title: Frances Burney

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<mask> (13 June 1752 – 6 January 1840), also known as <mask> and later Madame d'Arblay, was an English satirical novelist, diarist and playwright. In 1786–1790 she held the post as "Keeper of the Robes" to Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, George III's queen. In 1793, aged 41, she married a French exile, General Alexandre d'Arblay. After a long writing career and wartime travels that stranded her in France for over a decade, she settled in Bath, England, where she died on 6 January 1840. The first of her four novels, Evelina (1778), had the best success and remains best regarded. Most of her plays were not performed in her lifetime. She wrote a memoir of her father (1832) and many letters and journals that have been gradually published since 1889.Overview of career
<mask> was a novelist, diarist and playwright. In all, she wrote four novels, eight plays, one biography and twenty-five volumes of journals and letters. She has gained critical respect in her own right, but she also foreshadowed such novelists of manners with a satirical bent as Jane Austen and William Makepeace Thackeray. She published her first novel, Evelina, anonymously in 1778. During that period, novel reading was frowned upon as something young women of a certain social status should not do, while novel writing was out of the question. <mask> feared that her father would find what she called her "scribblings". When she published Evelina anonymously, she only told her siblings and two trusted aunts.Eventually her father read the novel and guessed that <mask> was its author. News of her identity spread. The novel brought <mask> almost immediate fame with its unique narrative and comic strengths. She followed it with Cecilia in 1782, Camilla in 1796 and The Wanderer in 1814. All Burney's novels explore the lives of English aristocrats and satirise their social pretensions and personal foibles, with an eye to larger questions such as the politics of female identity. With one exception, <mask> never succeeded in having her plays performed, largely due to objections from her father, who thought that publicity from such an effort would be damaging to her reputation. The exception was Edwy and Elgiva, which unfortunately was not well received by the public and closed after the first night's performance.Although her novels were hugely popular during her lifetime, <mask>'s reputation as a writer of fiction suffered after her death at the hands of biographers and critics, who felt that the extensive diaries, published posthumously in 1842–1846, offer a more interesting and accurate portrait of 18th-century life. Today critics are returning to her novels and plays with renewed interest in her outlook on the social lives and struggles of women in a predominantly male-oriented culture. Scholars continue to value <mask>'s diaries as well, for their candid depictions of English society. Through her whole writing career, <mask>'s talent for satirical caricature was widely acknowledged: figures such as Dr Samuel Johnson, Edmund Burke, Hester Lynch Thrale and David Garrick were among her admirers. Her early novels were read and enjoyed by Jane Austen, whose own title Pride and Prejudice derives from the final pages of Cecilia. Thackeray is said to have drawn on the first-person account of the Battle of Waterloo recorded in her diaries while writing his Vanity Fair. <mask>'s early career was strongly affected by her relations with her father and the critical attentions of a family friend, Samuel Crisp.Both encouraged her writing, but used their influence in a critical fashion, dissuading her from publishing or performing her dramatic comedies, as they saw the genre as inappropriate for a lady. Many feminist critics have since seen her as an author whose natural talent for satire was somewhat stifled by such social pressures on female authors. Burney persisted despite the setbacks. When her comedies were poorly received, she returned to novel writing, and later tried her hand at tragedy. She supported both herself and her family on the proceeds of her later novels, Camilla and The Wanderer. Family life
<mask> was born in Lynn Regis, now King's Lynn, England, on 13 June 1752, to the musician Dr <mask> (1726–1814) and his first wife, Esther Sleepe <mask> (1725–1762), as the third of her mother's six children. Her elder siblings were Esther (Hetty, 1749–1832) and James (1750–1821); those younger were Susanna Elizabeth (1755–1800), Charles (1757–1817) and Charlotte Ann (1761–1838).Of her brothers, James became an admiral and sailed with Captain James Cook on his second and third voyages. The younger <mask> became a well-known classical scholar, after whom The Burney Collection of Newspapers is named. Her younger sister Susanna married in 1781 Molesworth Phillips, an officer in the Royal Marines who had sailed in Captain Cook's last expedition; she left a journal that gives a principal eye-witness account of the Gordon Riots. Her younger half-sister Sarah Harriet <mask> (1772–1844) also became a novelist, publishing seven works of fiction. Esther Sleepe <mask> also bore two other boys, both named Charles, who died in infancy in 1752 and 1754. <mask> began composing small letters and stories almost as soon as she learnt the alphabet. She often joined with her brothers and sisters in writing and acting in plays.The <mask> family had many close friends. "Daddy Crisp" was almost like a second father to <mask> and a strong influence on her early writing years. Burney scholar Margaret Anne Doody has investigated conflicts within the Burney family that affected Burney's writing and her personal life. She alleged that one strain was an incestuous relationship between <mask>'s brother James and their half-sister Sarah in 1798–1803, but there is no direct evidence for this and it is hard to square with <mask>'s affection and financial assistance to Sarah in later life. <mask>'s mother, Esther Sleepe, described by historians as a woman of "warmth and intelligence", was the daughter of a French refugee named Dubois and had been brought up a Catholic. This French heritage influenced <mask>'s self-perception in later life, possibly contributing to her attraction and subsequent marriage to Alexandre d'Arblay. <mask> died in 1762 when <mask> was ten years old.<mask>'s father, <mask>, was noted for his personal charm, and even more for his talents as a musician, a musicologist, a composer and a man of letters. In 1760 he moved his family to London, a decision that improved their access to the cultured elements of English society, and so their social standing. They lived amidst an artistically inclined social circle that gathered round Charles at their home in Poland Street, Soho. In 1767 <mask> eloped to marry for a second time, to Elizabeth Allen, the wealthy widow of a King's Lynn wine merchant. Allen had three children of her own, and several years after the marriage the two families merged into one. This new domestic situation was fraught with tension. The Burney children found their new stepmother overbearing and quick to anger, and they took refuge by making fun of her behind her back.However, their collective unhappiness served in some respects to bring them closer to one another. In 1774 the family moved again, to what had been the house of Isaac Newton in St Martin's Street, Westminster. Education
<mask>'s sisters Esther and Susanna were favoured over <mask> by their father, for what he perceived as their superior attractiveness and intelligence. At the age of eight, <mask> had yet to learn the alphabet; some scholars suggest she suffered from a form of dyslexia. By the age of ten, however, she had begun to write for her own amusement. Esther and Susanna were sent by their father to be educated in Paris, while at home <mask> educated herself by reading from the family collection, including Plutarch's Lives, works by Shakespeare, histories, sermons, poetry, plays, novels and courtesy books. She drew on this material, along with her journals, when writing her first novels.Scholars who have looked into the extent of <mask>'s reading and self-education find a child who was unusually precocious and ambitious, working hard to overcome an early disability. A critical aspect of <mask>'s literary education was her relationship with a <mask> family friend, the "cultivated littérateur" Samuel Crisp. He encouraged Burney's writing by soliciting frequent journal-letters from her that recounted to him the goings-on in her family and social circle in London. <mask> paid her first formal visit to Crisp at Chessington Hall in Surrey in 1766. Dr <mask> had first made Crisp's acquaintance in about 1745 at the house of Charles Cavendish Fulke Greville. Crisp's play Virginia, staged by David Garrick in 1754 at the request of the Countess of Coventry (née Maria Gunning), had been unsuccessful, and Crisp had retired to Chessington Hall, where he frequently entertained <mask> and his family. Journal-diaries and Caroline Evelyn
The first entry in <mask>'s journal was dated 27 March 1768 and addressed to "Nobody".The journal itself was to extend over 72 years. A talented storyteller with a strong sense of character, <mask> kept the journal-diary as a form of correspondence with family and friends, recounting life events and her observations of them. The diary contains a record of her extensive reading in her father's library, as well as the visits and behaviour of noted personalities in the arts who came to their home. <mask> and her sister Susanna were particularly close, and <mask> continued to send journal-letters to her throughout her adult life. <mask> was 15 when her father remarried in 1767. Her diary entries suggest that she had begun to feel pressure to abandon her writing as something "unladylike" that "might vex Mrs. Allen."Feeling that she had transgressed, that same year she burnt her first manuscript, The History of Caroline Evelyn, which she had written in secret. Despite this repudiation, <mask> recorded in her diary an account of the emotions that led up to that dramatic act. She eventually recouped some of the effort by using it as a foundation for her first novel, Evelina, which follows the life of the fictional Caroline Evelyn's daughter. In keeping with <mask>'s sense of propriety, she savagely edited earlier parts of her diaries in later life, destroying much of the material. Editors Lars Troide and Joyce Hemlow recovered some of this obscured material while researching their late-20th-century editions of the journals and letters. Evelina

<mask>'s Evelina or the History of a Young Lady's Entrance into the World was published anonymously in 1778 without her father's knowledge or permission, by Thomas Lowndes, who voiced an interest after reading its first volume and agreed to publish it upon receipt of the finished work. The novel had been rejected by a previous publisher, Robert Dodsley, who declined to print an anonymous work.<mask>, who worked as her father's amanuensis, had copied the manuscript in a "disguised hand" to prevent any identification of the book with the <mask>s, thinking that her own handwriting might be recognised by a publisher. <mask>'s second attempt to publish it involved the collusion of her eldest brother James, who posed as its author to Lowndes. Inexperienced at negotiating with a publisher, he only extracted twenty guineas (£21) as payment for the manuscript. The novel was a critical success, with praise from respected persons, including the statesman Edmund Burke and the literary critic Dr Johnson. It was admired for its comic view of wealthy English society and realistic portrayal of working-class London dialects. It is known today as a satire. It was even discussed by characters in another epistolary novel of the time: Elizabeth Blower's George Bateman (1782).<mask>'s father read public reviews of it before learning that the author was his daughter. Although the act of publication was radical for its time, he was impressed by the favourable reactions and largely supported her. He certainly saw social advantages in having a successful writer in the family. Critical reception
Written in epistolary form just as this was reaching its height of popularity, Evelina portrays the English upper middle class through a 17-year-old woman who has reached marriageable age. It was a Bildungsroman ahead of its time. Evelina pushed boundaries, for female protagonists were still "relatively rare" in that genre. Comic and witty, it is ultimately a satire of the oppressive masculine values that shaped a young woman's life in the 18th century, and of other forms of social hypocrisy.Encyclopædia Britannica calls it a "landmark in the development of the novel of manners". In choosing to narrate the novel through letters written by the protagonist, <mask> made use of her own writing experience. This course has won praise from critics past and present, for the direct access it provides to events and characters, and the narrative sophistication it demonstrates in linking the roles of narrator and heroine. The authors of Women in World History argue that she identifies difficulties faced by women in the 18th century, especially those on questions of romance and marriage. She is seen as a "shrewd observer of her times and a clever recorder of its charms and its follies". What critics have consistently found interesting in her writing is the introduction and careful treatment of a female protagonist, complete with character flaws, "who must make her way in a hostile world." These are recognisable also as features of Jane Austen's writing, and show Burney's influence on her work.Furthermore, she sought to put to use the epistolary form espoused periodically by <mask>, as seen in Lady Susan and to a lesser extent Pride and Prejudice. As a testament to its popularity, the novel went through four immediate editions. In 1971, Encyclopædia Britannica stated of Evelina: "Addressed to the young, the novel has a quality perennially young." Hester Thrale and Streatham
The novel brought <mask> to the attention of a patron of the arts, Hester Thrale, who invited <mask> to visit her home in Streatham. The house was a centre for literary and political

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 conversation. Though shy by nature, <mask> impressed those she met, including Dr Johnson, who would remain a friend and correspondent throughout the period of her visits, from 1779 to 1783. Thrale wrote to Dr <mask> on 22 July: "Mr. Johnson returned home full of the Prayes of the Book I had lent him, and protesting that there were passages in it which might do honour to Richardson: we talk of it for ever, and he feels ardent after the dénouement; he could not get rid of the Rogue, he said."Many of Dr Johnson's compliments were transcribed into <mask>'s diary. Sojourns at Streatham occupied months at a time, and on several occasions the guests, including <mask>, made trips to Brighton and to Bath. Like other notable events, these were recorded in letters to her family. The Witlings
In 1779, encouraged by the public's warm reception of comic material in Evelina, and with offers of help from Arthur Murphy and Richard Brinsley Sheridan, <mask> began to write a dramatic comedy called The Witlings. The play satirised a wide segment of London society, including the literary world and its pretensions. It was not published at the time because <mask>'s father and the family friend Samuel Crisp thought it would offend some of the public by seeming to mock the Bluestockings, and because they had reservations about the propriety of a woman writing comedy. The play tells the story of Celia and Beaufort, lovers kept apart by their families due to "economic insufficiency".<mask>'s plays came to light again in 1945 when her papers were acquired by the Berg Collection of the New York Public Library. A complete edition was published in Montreal in 1995, edited by Peter Sabor, Geoffrey Sill, and Stewart Cooke. Cecilia
In 1782 she published Cecilia, or Memoirs of an Heiress, written partly at Chessington Hall and after much discussion with Crisp. The publishers, Thomas Payne and Thomas Cadell, paid <mask> £250 for her novel, printed 2000 copies of the first edition, and reprinted it at least twice within a year. The plot revolves around a heroine, Cecilia Beverley, whose inheritance from an uncle comes with the stipulation that she find a husband who will accept her name. Beset on all sides by would-be suitors, the beautiful and intelligent Cecilia's heart is captivated by a man whose family's pride in its birth and ancestry would forbid such a change of name. He finally persuades Cecilia, against all her judgement, to marry him secretly, so that their union – and consequent change of name – can be presented to the family as a fait accompli.The work received praise for the maturity of its ironic third-person narration, but was viewed as less spontaneous than her first work, and weighed by the author's self-conscious awareness of her audience. Some critics claim to have found the narration intrusive, while friends found the writing too closely modelled on Johnson's. Edmund Burke admired the novel, but moderated his praise with criticism of the array of characters and tangled, convoluted plots. Jane Austen seems to have been inspired by a sentence in Cecilia to name her famous novel Pride and Prejudice:
"The whole of this unfortunate business," said Dr Lyster, "has been the result of pride and prejudice." The Royal Court

In 1775 <mask> turned down a marriage proposal from one Thomas Barlow, a man whom she had met only once. Her side of the Barlow courtship is amusingly told in her journal. During 1782–1785 she enjoyed the rewards of her successes as a novelist; she was received at fashionable literary gatherings throughout London.In 1781 Samuel Crisp died. In 1784 Dr Johnson died, and that year also brought her failure in a romance with a clergyman, George Owen Cambridge. She was 33 years old. In 1785, an association with Mary Granville Delany, a woman known in both literary and royal circles, allowed <mask> to travel to the court of King George III and Queen Charlotte, where the Queen offered her the post of "Keeper of the Robes", with a salary of £200 per annum. <mask> hesitated, not wishing to be separated from her family, and especially resistant to employment that would restrict free use of her time in writing. However, unmarried at 34, she felt constrained to accept and thought that improved social status and income might allow her greater freedom to write. Having accepted the post in 1786, she developed a warm relationship with the queen and princesses that lasted into her later years, yet her doubts proved accurate: the position exhausted her and left her little writing time.Her sorrow was intensified by poor relations with her colleague Juliane Elisabeth von Schwellenburg, co-Keeper of the Robes, who has been described as "a peevish old person of uncertain temper and impaired health, swaddled in the buckram of backstairs etiquette." Burney's journals continued during her court years. To her friends and to Susanna, she recounted her life in court, along with major political events, including the public trial of Warren Hastings for "official misconduct in India". She recorded the speeches of Edmund Burke at the trial. She was courted by an official of the royal household, Colonel Stephen Digby, but he eventually married another woman of greater wealth. The disappointment, combined with the other frustrations of office, contributed to her health failing at this time. In 1790 she prevailed on her father (whose own career had taken a new turn when he was appointed organist at Chelsea Hospital in 1783) to request that she be released from the post, which she was.She returned to her father's house in Chelsea, but continued to receive a yearly pension of £100. She kept up a friendship with the royal family and received letters from the princesses from 1818 until 1840. Marriage

In 1790–1791 Burney wrote four blank-verse tragedies: Hubert de Vere, The Siege of Pevensey, Elberta and Edwy and Elgiva. Only the last was performed. Although it was one of a profusion of paintings and literary works about the early English king Eadwig (Edwy) and his wife Ælfgifu (Elgiva) to appear in the later 18th century, it met with public failure, opening in London in March for only one night. The French Revolution began in 1789; <mask> was among many literary figures in England who sympathized with its early ideals of equality and social justice. During this period <mask> became acquainted with some French exiles known as "Constitutionalists", who had fled to England in August 1791 and were living at Juniper Hall, near Mickleham, Surrey, where <mask>'s sister Susanna lived.She quickly became close to General Alexandre d'Arblay, an artillery officer who had been adjutant-general to Lafayette, a hero of the French Revolution whose political views lay between those of Royalist and of Republicans. D'Arblay taught her French and introduced her to the writer Germaine de Staël. <mask>'s father disapproved of d'Arblay's poverty, Catholicism, and ambiguous social status as an émigré. Nonetheless she and d'Arblay were married on 28 July 1793 at St Michaels and All Angels Church in Mickleham. The same year she produced her pamphlet Brief Reflections relative to the Emigrant French Clergy. This short work resembled other pamphlets produced by French sympathisers in England, calling for financial support for the revolutionary cause. It is noteworthy for the way that Burney employed her rhetorical skills in the name of tolerance and human compassion.On 18 December 1794, <mask> gave birth to a son, Alexander Charles Louis (died 19 January 1837), who took holy orders, being minister of Ely Chapel, London, and perpetual curate of Camden Town Chapel. Her sister Charlotte's remarriage in 1798 to the pamphleteer Ralph Broome caused her and her father further consternation, as did the move by her sister Susanna and penurious brother-in-law Molesworth Phillips and their family to Ireland in 1796. Camilla
The newly-weds were saved from poverty in 1796 by the publication of <mask>'s "courtesy novel" Camilla, or a Picture of Youth, a story of frustrated love and impoverishment. The first edition sold out; she made £1000 on the novel and sold the copyright for another £1000. This was sufficient for them to build a house in Westhumble near Dorking in Surrey, which they called Camilla Cottage. Their life at this time was by all accounts happy, but the illness and death in 1800 of <mask>'s sister and close friend Susanna cast a shadow and ended a lifelong correspondence that had been the motive and basis for most of Burney's journal writing. However, she resumed her journal at the request of her husband, for the benefit of her son.Comedies
In the period 1797–1801 <mask> wrote three comedies that remained unpublished in her lifetime: Love and Fashion, A Busy Day and The Woman Hater. The last is partly a reworking of subject-matter from The Witlings, but with satirical elements toned down and more emphasis on reforming her characters' faults. First performed in December 2007 at the Orange Tree Theatre in Richmond, it retains one of the central characters, Lady Smatter – an absent-minded but inveterate quoter of poetry, perhaps meant as a comic rendering of a Bluestocking. All other characters in The Woman Hater differ from those in The Witlings. Life in France: revolution and mastectomy
In 1801 d'Arblay was offered service with the government of Napoleon Bonaparte in France, and in 1802 <mask> and her son followed him to Paris, where they expected to remain for a year. The outbreak of war between France and England overtook their visit and they remained there in exile for ten years. Although isolated from her family while in France, <mask> was supportive of her husband's decision to move to Passy, outside Paris.In August 1810 <mask> developed pains in her breast, which her husband suspected could be due to breast cancer. Through her royal network, she was eventually treated by several leading physicians, and a year later, on 30 September 1811, underwent a mastectomy performed by "7 men in black, Dr. Larrey, M. Dubois, Dr. Moreau, Dr. Aumont, Dr. Ribe, & a pupil of Dr. Larrey, & another of M. Dubois". The operation was performed like a battlefield operation under the command of M. Dubois, then accoucheur (midwife or obstetrician) to the Empress Marie Louise and seen as the best doctor in France. <mask> later described the operation in detail, since she was conscious through most of it, as it took place before the development of anaesthetics. I mounted, therefore, unbidden, the Bed stead – & M. Dubois placed me upon the Mattress, & spread a cambric handkerchief upon my face. It was transparent, however, & I saw, through it, that the Bed stead was instantly surrounded by the 7 men & my nurse. I refused to be held; but when, Bright through the cambric, I saw the glitter of polished Steel – I closed my Eyes.I would not trust to convulsive fear the sight of the terrible incision. Yet – when the dreadful steel was plunged into the breast – cutting through veins – arteries – flesh – nerves – I needed no injunctions not to restrain my cries. I began a scream that lasted unintermittingly during the whole time of the incision – & I almost marvel that it rings not in my Ears still? so excruciating was the agony. When the wound was made, & the instrument was withdrawn, the pain seemed undiminished, for the air that suddenly rushed into those delicate parts felt like a mass of minute but sharp & forked poniards, that were tearing the edges of the wound. I concluded the operation was over – Oh no! presently the terrible cutting was renewed – & worse than ever, to separate the bottom, the foundation of this dreadful gland from the parts to which it adhered – Again all description would be baffled – yet again all was not over, – Dr. Larry rested but his own hand, & – Oh heaven!– I then felt the knife (rack)ling against the breast bone – scraping it! She sent her account of this experience months later to her sister Esther without rereading it. It remains one of the most compelling early accounts of a mastectomy. It is impossible to know today whether the breast removed was indeed cancerous. She survived, and returned to England with her son in 1812 to visit her ailing father and to avoid young Alexander's conscription into the French army. <mask> died in 1814, and she went back to France later that year after the Treaty of Paris had been concluded, to be with her husband. In 1815 Napoleon escaped from Elba, and returned to power in France.D'Arblay, who was serving with the King's Guard, remained loyal to King Louis XVIII and became involved in the military actions that followed. <mask> fled to Belgium. When her husband was wounded she joined him at Trèves (Trier) and together they returned to Bath in England, to live at 23 Great Stanhope Street. <mask> wrote an account of this experience and of her Paris years in her Waterloo Journal of 1818–1832. D'Arblay was promoted to lieutenant-general, but died shortly afterwards of cancer, in 1818. The Wanderer and Memoirs of Dr <mask>
<mask> published her fourth novel, The Wanderer: Or, Female Difficulties, a few days before her father's death. "A story of love and misalliance set in the French Revolution", it criticises the English treatment of foreigners in the war years.It also pillories the hypocritical social curbs put on women in general – as the heroine tries one means after another to earn an honest penny – and the elaborate class criteria for social inclusion or exclusion. That strong social message sits uneasily within an unusual structure that might be called a melodramatic proto-mystery novel with elements of the picaresque. The heroine is no scallywag, in fact a bit too innocent for modern taste, but she is wilful and for obscure reasons refuses to reveal her name or origin. So as she darts about the South of England as a fugitive, she arouses suspicions; it is not always easy to agree with the author that these are unfair or unjustified. There are a dismaying number of coincidental meetings of characters. Some parallels of plot and attitude have been drawn between The Wanderer and early novels of Helen Craik, which she could have read in the 1790s. Burney made £1500 from the first run, but the work

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 disappointed her followers and did not go into a second English printing, although it met her immediate financial needs.Critics felt it lacked the insight of her earlier novels. It remains interesting today for the social opinions that it conveys and for some flashes of <mask>'s humour and discernment of character. It was reprinted in 1988 with an introduction by the novelist Margaret Drabble in the "Mothers of the Novel" series. After her husband's death at 23 Great Stanhope Street, Bath, <mask> moved to London to be nearer to her son, then a fellow at Christ's College. In homage to her father she gathered and in 1832 published in three volumes the Memoirs of Doctor <mask>. These were written in a panegyric style, praising her father's accomplishments and character, and she drew on many of her own personal writings from years before to produce them. Always protective of her father and the family reputation, she destroyed evidence of facts that were painful or unflattering and was soundly criticised by contemporaries and later by historians for doing so.Later life
<mask> outlived her son, who died in 1837, and her sister Charlotte Broome, who died in 1838. While in Bath, Burney received visits from younger members of the <mask> family, who found her a fascinating storyteller with a talent for imitating the personalities that she described. She continued to write often to members of her family. <mask> died on 6 January 1840. She was buried with her son and her husband in Walcot cemetery in Bath. A gravestone was later erected in the churchyard of St Swithin's across the road, adjacent to that of Jane Austen's father, George Austen. Plaques and memorials
In addition to the gravestone erected in the churchyard of St Swithin, Bath, other memorials and plaques record <mask>'s life.A plaque on the wall at 84 High Street, King's Lynn, shows where she and her father lived in the 1750s. In 1780, two years after the publication of Evelina, she stayed at 14 South Parade, Bath, with Mr and Mrs Thrale, who were great friends of Dr Johnson. A plaque on the wall of the house records her visit. At 78 West Street, Brighton, Sussex a blue plaque records her visits to the Thrales' home there. At Windsor Castle Wall, St Alban's Street, Windsor, a plaque records the residence of Mary Delaney between 1785 and 1788, where she was frequently visited by <mask>. A blue plaque on a wall in Chapel Lane, Westhumble, Surrey records the d'Arblays' life there in their cottage, 'Camilla', which they built and in which they lived between 1797 and 1801. At St Margaret's Vicarage, St Margaret's Place, Kings Lynn a blue plaque records Burney's regular visits there, where she observed the social life of Lynn.A Royal Society of Arts brown plaque records her period of residence at 11 Bolton Street, Mayfair. On 13 June 2002 the Burney Society of North America and the Burney Society UK unveiled a memorial panel in the new Poets' Corner window in Westminster Abbey in memory of <mask>. In 2013, a marble plaque was unveiled in the gallery of St Swithin's Church, Bath, to record <mask>'s life. This replaces two original plaques – one to her and one to her half-sister Sarah Harriet – that were lost. In 1958, the St Swithin's church authorities had sought to protect the plaques by removing them during renovations to the church organ, but they later disappeared. List of works

Fiction
The History of Caroline Evelyn, (ms. destroyed by author, 1767)
Evelina: Or The History of A Young Lady's Entrance into the World, London, 1778
Cecilia: Or, Memoirs of an Heiress, London, 1782
Camilla: Or, A Picture of Youth, London, 1796, revised (shortened) 1802
The Wanderer: Or, Female Difficulties, London: Longmans, 1814

Non-fiction
Brief Reflections Relative to the French Emigrant Clergy. London, 1793
Memoirs of Doctor Burney.London: Moxon, 1832

Journals and letters
Diary and Letters of Madame d'Arblay, 1778-1840. Edited by her niece [Charlotte Barrett]. In 7 vols. London: H. Colburn (1842-46). The Early Diary of <mask> 1768–1778. 2 vols. Ed.Annie Raine Ellis. London: 1889
The Diary and Letters of Madame d'Arblay. Ed. Austin Dobson. London: Macmillan, 1904
The Diary of Fanny Burney. Ed. Lewis Gibbs.London: Everyman, 1971
Dr. Johnson & Fanny Burney [HTML at Virginia], by <mask>. Ed. Chauncy Brewster Tinker. London: Jonathan Cape, 1912
The Early Journals and Letters of <mask>, 1768–1786. 5 vols. Vols. 1–2, ed.Lars Troide; Vol. 3, ed. Lars Troide and Stewart Cooke; Vol. 4, ed. Betty Rizzo; Vol. 5, ed. Lars Troide and Stewart Cooke
The Journals and Letters of <mask> (Madame d'Arblay) 1791–1840, (12 vols.)Vols. I–VI, ed. Joyce Hemlow, with Patricia Boutilier and Althea Douglas; Vol. VII, ed. Edward A. and Lillian D. Bloom; Vol. VIII, ed. Peter Hughes; Vols.IX–X, ed. Warren Derry; Vols. XI–XII, ed. Joyce Hemlow with Althea Douglas and Patricia Hawkins. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972–1984. The Court Journals and Letters of <mask> (1786-1781). In 6 vols.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011-2019. The Additional Journals and Letters of <mask>. 2 vols. Vol. 1 (1784-1786); vol. 2 (1791-1840). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015-2018.Plays
The Witlings, 1779 (satirical comedy)
Edwy and Elgiva, 1790 (verse tragedy). Produced at Drury Lane, 21 March 1795
Hubert de Vere, c. 1788–91 (verse tragedy)
The Siege of Pevensey, c. 1788–91 (verse tragedy)
Elberta, (fragment) 1788–91? (verse tragedy)
Love and Fashion, 1799 (satirical comedy)
The Woman Hater, 1800–01 (satirical comedy)
A Busy Day, 1800–01 (satirical comedy)

References

Notes
Michael E. Adelstein, <mask>. New York: Twayne, 1968
<mask>, The Complete Plays of <mask> (Vol. 1: Comedies; Vol. 2: Tragedies), ed. Peter Sabor, Stewart Cooke, and Geoffrey Sill, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995
<mask>, Journals and Letters.Ed. Peter Sabor and Lars E. Troide: Penguin Classics, 2001
<mask>, The Witlings and The Woman-Hater. Ed. Peter Sabor and Geoffrey Sill, Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2002
"<mask>, Fanny, 1752–1840.” Literature Online Biography. Fredericton: University of New Brunswick. 3 December 2006
"<mask>, Fanny." Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 4, 1971
"<mask>, Fanny." The Bloomsbury Guide to Women's Literature. Ed. Claire Buck. London, New York: Prentice-Hall, 1992. Commire, Anne, and Deborah Klezmer.Women in World History: A biographical encyclopaedia. Waterford: Yorkin, 1999–2002
D.D. Devlin, The Novels and Journals of <mask>. Hampshire: Macmillan, 1987
Marianna D'Ezio, "Transcending National Identity: Paris and London in <mask>'s Novels". Synergies Royaume-Uni et Irlande 3 (2010), pp. 59–74
Margaret Anne Doody, <mask>: The Life in The Works. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988
Julia Epstein, The Iron Pen: <mask> and the Politics of Women's Writing.Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989
Claire Harman, Fanny Burney: A Biography. New York: Knopf, 2001
Joyce Hemlow, The History of Fanny Burney. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958
Judy Simons, Diaries and Journals of Literary Women from <mask> to Virginia Woolf. Hampshire: Macmillan, 1990
Paula Stepankowsky, "<mask>ey

masks:
Burney
Burney
Burney
Burney
Burney
Frances Burney
Burney
Burney
Frances Burney
Burney
Frances Burney
Fanny Burney
Fanny Burney
Fanny Burney
Frances Burney
Frances Burney
Fanny Burney
Fanny Burney
Frances Burney
Fanny Burney
Fanny Burney
Burney
Burney
Burney
Frances Burney
Frances Burney
Frances Burney
Frances Burney
Fanny Burney
Frances Burn


title: Lewis Tappan

texts:
<mask> (May 23, 1788 – June 21, 1873) was a New York abolitionist who worked to achieve freedom for the enslaved Africans aboard the Amistad. <mask> was also among the founders of the American Missionary Association in 1846, which began more than 100 anti-slavery Congregational churches throughout the Midwest, and after the American Civil War, founded numerous schools and colleges to aid in the education of freedmen. Contacted by Connecticut abolitionists soon after the Amistad arrived in port, <mask> focused extensively on the captive Africans. He ensured the acquisition of high-quality lawyers for the captives, which led to their being set free after the case went to the United States Supreme Court. With his brother Arthur, <mask> not only gained legal help and acquittal for the Africans, but also managed to increase public support and fundraising. Finally, he organized the return trip home to Africa for surviving members of the group. Background
<mask> was the brother of Senator <mask> and abolitionist <mask>.His middle-class parents, <mask> (1747–1831) and Sarah Homes <mask> (1748–1826), were strict Congregationalists. Once <mask> was old enough to work, he helped his father in a dry goods store. On his sixteenth birthday, he ventured into other areas of commerce, and ultimately started The Mercantile Agency in 1841 in New York City. The Mercantile Agency was the precursor to Dun & Bradstreet (D&B) and modern credit-reporting services. (D&B is still in existence today.) Convinced by Arthur to read a biography of William Wilberforce, who led the cause for abolition in Great Britain, <mask> started his quest for abolition in the United States. He is well known for his work to free the Africans from the Spanish ship Amistad.The birth of abolitionism
Despite his Congregationalist upbringing, <mask> became attracted to Unitarianism for intellectual and social reasons. William Ellery Channing, a Unitarian minister, became <mask>'s pastor. As a peace advocate, Channing played an influential role in <mask>'s decision to join the Massachusetts Peace Society. In 1827 his brother Arthur convinced him to return to a Trinitarian denomination. <mask> joined Arthur in the Congregational church. <mask> initially supported the American Colonization Society (ACS), which promoted sending freed blacks from the United States to Africa, based on the assumption that this was their homeland, regardless of where they were born. Frustrated by the slow progress of the ACS, <mask> and a sizable nucleus of men, including his brother Arthur, Theodore Dwight Weld, Gerrit Smith, Amos A. Phelps, and James Gillespie Birney, left the ACS to join what was to become known as the "immediatist" camp, who wanted to end slavery in the United States (US).Weld gained considerable influence following the move of the <mask> brothers to this group. In December 1833, at Philadelphia, <mask> joined activists such as William Lloyd Garrison to form the American Anti-Slavery Society. The departure of the Tappans from the ACS is partially explained by the death of an African whom they repatriated. Captured in Africa and enslaved in Mississippi, Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori was a Fulani prince. He would have had potentially lucrative trade contacts in Africa. Partly for business reasons, the Tappans focused on Ibrahim's repatriation, which was finally achieved. Shortly after reaching his homeland, however, Ibrahim died in 1829.This ended the <mask>s' hopes of easily establishing significant African trade. The <mask> brothers were Congregationalists and uncompromising moralists; even within the abolitionist movement, other members found their views extreme. <mask> advocated intermarriage (at the time called "amalgamation") as the long-range solution to racial issues, as all people would eventually be mixed race. He dreamed of a "copper-skinned" America where race would not define any man, woman, or child. <mask> characterized the arrival of the Amistad and its Africans on American shores as a "providential occurrence" that might allow "the heart of the nation" to be "touched by the power of sympathy." The <mask> brothers created chapters of the American Anti-Slavery Society (AAS) throughout New York state and in other sympathetic areas. Although <mask> was popular among many, opponents of abolition attacked his homes and churches by arson and vandalism.<mask> began a nationwide mailing of abolitionist material, which resulted in violent outrage in the South and denunciation by Democratic politicians, who accused him of trying to divide the Union. In the North, the mailings generated widespread sympathy and financial support for the American Anti-Slavery Society. By 1840, however, the anti-slavery program had expanded and the movement splintered. After 1840, church-oriented abolitionism became dominant. That year <mask> formed the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in disagreement with the AAS. The latter allowed a woman, Abby Kelley, to be elected to serve on the AAS business committee. Because of his strict religious beliefs, <mask> opposed the participation of women in an official capacity in the public society.<mask> founded the abolitionist Human Rights journal and a children's anti-slavery magazine, The Slave's Friend. The manual labor movement in education

"In July, 1831, <mask>, Gale, and others founded the Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institutions ["literary institutions" being schools], and later in the same year persuaded Theodore Weld, a living, breathing, and eloquently-speaking exhibit of the results of manual-labor-with-study, to accept the general agency." Manual labor—most commonly agricultural, or in a print shop—was supposed to bring students the physical and moral (psychological) benefits of exercise, while providing a type of financial aid to needy students. Among the charges to Weld, who in 1832 traveled over  and gave over 200 lectures on manual labor and temperance, was "to find a site for a great national manual labor institution where training for the western ministry could be provided for poor but earnest young men." At the recommendation of Weld, the Tappans supported the new Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati. When Weld led a mass exodus to Oberlin, it then received their support. Amistad case
In 1841, the Amistad case went to trial.<mask> attended each day of the trials and wrote daily accounts of the proceedings for The Emancipator, a New England abolitionist paper. He was a frequent contributor. Throughout the trials in New Haven, Connecticut, <mask> arranged for several Yale University students to tutor the imprisoned Africans in English. The lessons included their learning to read New Testament scriptures and to sing  Christian hymns. The Africans later drew from these skills to raise funds to return to Africa. After achieving legal victory in the US Supreme Court, <mask> planned to use the Amistad Africans as the foundation for his dream to Christianize Africa. The village of Mo Tappan, site of a mission to the Mende people, in modern Sierra Leone, is named for him.Civil War years
In 1846, <mask> was among the founders of the American Missionary Association (AMA), led by Congregational and Presbyterian ministers, both white and black. It linked anti-slavery activists of the East with Ohio and other Midwestern activists. In addition, it took over managing numerous disparate missions: an Oberlin, Ohio mission to the Red Lake-area Ojibwe, a mission to Jamaica, a Mende mission to the Amistad Africans, and a mission to escaped blacks living in Canada. As the AMA grew in influence, it expanded its enterprises. Among these, it began 115 anti-slavery Congregational churches in Illinois, aided by anti-slavery ministers such as Owen Lovejoy there. In 1858, <mask> was the Treasurer of the AMA. Under the leadership of President Lawrence Brainerd, <mask>, Foreign Corresponding Secretary Rev.George Whipple, and Home Missions Corresponding Secretary Rev. S. S. Jocelyn, the AMA opposed the long-established and powerful American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and American Home Missionary Society because of what the AMA alleged was their complicity with slavery. During and after the American Civil War, <mask> and his brother Arthur worked from New York with the AMA on behalf of freedmen in the South. In postwar efforts, it led the founding of numerous schools and colleges for freedmen, the historically black colleges and universities (HBCU). Unwilling to reduce his commitment to U.S. government action against slavery in the southern states, <mask> and other radical political abolitionists denounced the Democratic Party as essentially pro-slavery. Though mistrustful of politicians, <mask> supported various antislavery parties that culminated in formation of the Republican Party. In both 1860 and 1864, <mask> voted for Abraham Lincoln.<mask> supported the Emancipation Proclamation but believed that additional liberties were necessary. He wrote to Charles Sumner: "When will the poor negro have his rights? Not, I believe, until he has a musket in one hand and a ballot in the other." Philanthropy
Recipients of aid from <mask> included:
 American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society
 American Anti-Slavery Society
 American Colonization Society
 American Missionary Association
 Human Rights (journal)
 Lane Theological Seminary
 Oberlin College
 Oneida Institute
 Amistad defendants

Writings

See also
 United States v. The Amistad, the United States Supreme Court case

References

Sources
 Blue, Frederick J. No Taint of Compromise. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006. Ceplair, Larry.The Public Years of Sarah and Angelina Grimke. New York: Columbia University Press, 1989. Harrold, Stanley. Subversives. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003. Wyatt-Brown, Bertram. <mask> and the Evangelical War Against Slavery, New York: Athenaeum, 1971.External links
 PBS entry
 Origin of the Tappan name
 American National Biography Entry

 American Abolitionists and Antislavery Activists, comprehensive list of abolitionist and anti-slavery activists in the United States, including <mask>, and antislavery organizations. Website includes historic biographies and anti-slavery timelines, bibliographies, etc. American abolitionists
American Congregationalists
1788 births
1873 deaths
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
People from Northampton, Massachusetts
New York (state) Republicans
La Amistad
Businesspeople from New York City
American manual labor schools
Congregationalist abolitionists
19th-century American businesspeople
19th-century American philanthropists
Underground Railroad in New York (state)

masks:
Lewis Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Lewis Tappan
Benjamin Tappan
Arthur Tappan
Benjamin Tappan
Tappan
Lewis
Tappan
Lewis Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Lewis Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Lewis Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Lewis Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Lewis
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Lewis Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Tappan
Lewis Tappan
Lewis Tappan
Lewis Tappan


title: Batsheva Kerem

texts:
<mask> is an Israeli geneticist who was on the research team that identified and cloned the CFTR gene, which when mutated, is responsible for causing cystic fibrosis (CF). She later established the Israel National Center for CF Genetic Research. She discovered the most prevalent cystic fibrosis-causing mutations among the Israeli population, allowing for the establishment of nationwide genetic screening programs to identify carriers of these mutations and enabling prenatal diagnoses. She researches how some CF mutations prevent CFTR protein production by causing nonsense-mediated decay and abnormal mRNA splicing, and how therapies might be able to counteract those problems. She also studies the role of genetic instability in cancer. She is currently a professor at the Hebrew University. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Tel-Aviv in 1955 and raised in Israel.She served as an IDF officer in the military. She received a B.Sc. with distinction in biology from the Hebrew University in 1979, followed by a Ph.D. from the direct doctoral program of Hebrew University's Department of Genetics in 1986. Her Ph.D work was supervised by Menashe Marcus and Howard Cedar. She did a brief post doctoral fellowship with Tamar Schaap in the Department of Genetics at Jerusalem's Hadassah Medical School, from 1986-1987. She then moved to Canada for further postdoctoral training at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, Canada (commonly known as SickKids), where she worked in the laboratory of Lap-Chee Tsui from 1987-1990. Career
<mask> has spent her career at the Hebrew University.She was hired as a senior lecturer in 1990, at which time she established the Israel National Center for CF Genetic Research. She was promoted to associate professor in 1998 and Full Professor in 2003. She established the National Genomic Knowledge Center at Hebrew University's Institute of Life Sciences and served as its chair from 2000-2014. She served as the Head of Authority for research students from 2007-2011. She was appointed President Advisor for Promotion of Women in Science in 2013. She is a member of the European Research Council (ERC) for advanced scientists and has served on the editorial board of the European Journal of Human Genetics and EMBO Reports. She was appointed President of the Genetic Society of Israel in 2007.Research

Kerem helped identify the gene behind cystic fibrosis, the CFTR gene (short for cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator), which was found to be an ion channel. This work was carried out when she was a postdoctoral fellow in the lab of Lap-Chee Tsui at the Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids) in Toronto, Canada, and was a collaboration between Tsui's lab, including fellow postdoctoral researcher Johanna Rommens, and a team of researchers led by Francis Collins at the University of Michigan. The CFTR gene was discovered through genetic linkage analysis involving looking for genetic markers that were present in patients with cystic fibrosis but not present in their non-affected relatives. Due to the phenomenon of recombination, whereby parts of chromosomes swap homologous segments during germ cell development, each chromosome a child inherits is a mix of the both of that parent's copies of that chromosome. Markers would only be consistently co-inherited with the gene behind cystic fibrosis if they were close together on the chromosome, so Kerem and other researchers used markers to find the approximate location of the gene. They then used a combination of chromosome walking and chromosome hopping or jumping to locate the CF gene, which they named cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Kerem helped identify the globally most common CFTR mutation, F508del, a deletion of the 508th amino acid (protein letter) in the CFTR protein, which is normally a phenylalanine (abbreviated F).Part of her work at SickKids involved examining blood samples sent from around the world and, when looking at the CFTR gene in samples sent from Israeli patients, she found that they didn't carry any of the previously-identified mutations. She became intrigued so, when she moved back to Israel in September 1990, she collected blood from most Israeli CF patients and searched their CFTR genes for mutations. She discovered that about 60% of Israel's Ashkenazi Jewish CF patients had a nonsense mutation abbreviated as W1282X (signifying that the genetic instructions for 1282rd amino acid in the protein, which is normally a tryptophan (W), has been mutated to a stop signal (X)). This early stop signal, a premature termination codon (PTC), caused the production of truncated, dysfunctional CFTR protein. She published this finding in 1992 and in 1997, Israel's government introduced population carrier screening for it. Much of Kerem's later contributions to cystic fibrosis research involves studying defects in the production of CFTR caused by premature termination and improper RNA splicing. In order to make a protein, a cell first makes RNA copies of the DNA gene for that protein.These RNA copies contain regulatory regions called introns which are removed in a process called RNA splicing in order to produce mature messenger RNAs (mRNAs) which are used by the cell's protein-making machinery (ribosomes and helpers) to make the corresponding protein in a process called translation. Certain CF-causing mutations, instead of affecting the CFTR protein's shape and functioning, affect how the messenger RNA (mRNA) copies of the genetic recipe for CFTR are processed, thus preventing CFTR protein from being made. In addition to identifying and classifying the wide spectrum of CFTR mutations, Kerem studies how therapies might be able to counteract the problems present among the various classes. For example, <mask> researches how pharmaceutical compounds that promote read-through of these stop codons might be able to counteract problems caused by premature termination codon (PTC) mutations such as the W1282X she discovered was common among Ashkenazi Jewish patients. Additionally, she invented a discovery platform which serves as the basis of the biotechnology company SpliSense, which is working to develop antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to counteract mRNA splicing mutations by using small segments of DNA complementary to specific regions of the RNA in order to hide improper splice sites and promote proper splicing. In the late 1990s she began studying chromosome structure and function. She has investigated genome instability and made significant contributions to knowledge of the involvement of frequent fragile sites in cancer.Personal life
<mask> <mask> is married to Dr. Eitan <mask>, head of the Division of Paediatrics at the Hadassah Medical Organization, who also researches cystic fibrosis. They have carried out collaborative research together, including the development of potential therapeutics. The reason Batsheva chose a postdoctoral fellowship in Tsui's lab at SickKids was in part because she and Eitan were looking for job opportunities where they would be able to work nearby one another. She carried out her groundbreaking CF research in Tsui's lab while a mother to two children. Batsheva has spoken out about gender inequality in science and, when she was one of the few women to receive an EMET Prize, she used the opportunity to advocate for better representation of women among prize recipients. Honors

Julodan Prize for Contribution to Medicine (1993)
 Teva Prize for Excellence in Human Genome Research (1993)
Joels Senior Lectureship for Excellence in Science (1996)
 Abisch-Frenkel Prize for Excellence in Life Sciences (2004)
 EMET Prize Laureate – Life Sciences: Genetics (2008)

Key publications

References

Molecular geneticists
1955 births
Israeli geneticists
Living people

masks:
Batsheva Kerem
Batsheva Kerem
Kerem
Kerem
Batsheva
Kerem
Kerem


title: Manolo Badrena

texts:
<mask> (born March 17, 1952 in San Juan, Puerto Rico) is a percussionist most noted for his work with Weather Report from 1976 to 1977. He has made contributions to over 100 recordings that span jazz, world music, pop, and Latin music. <mask>e, Joni Mitchell, Spyro Gyra, Art Blakey, Bill Evans, Steve Khan, Carla Bley, Talking Heads, Blondie, Michael Franks, Ahmad Jamal, Hugo Fattoruso,  and others. <mask> lives in Fair View, New Jersey. He is the leader (drums, percussion, guitar, vocals) of the Latin jazz band Trio Mundo. (Candid, 2008)
 Laurie Anderson, Strange Angels (Warner Bros., 1989)
 Philip Bailey, Love Will Find a Way (Verve, 2019)
 Victor Bailey, Slippin' 'n' Trippin'  (Studio V, 2009)
 Louie Bellson, Ecue (Pablo, 1978)
 Bob Berg, Back Roads (Denon, 1991)
 Charles Blenzig, Say What You Mean (Big World, 1993)
 Carla Bley, Heavy Heart (WATT/ECM, 1984)
 Carla Bley, Night-glo (WATT/ECM, 1985)
 Blondie, The Hunter (Chrysalis, 1982)
 Brecker Brothers, Straphangin'  (Arista, 1981)
 Randy Brecker & Eliane Elias, Amanda (Passport, 1985)
 Till Brönner, Midnight (Button, 1996)
 Chic, Take It Off (Atlantic, 1981)
 Ronnie Cuber, The Scene Is Clean (Milestone, 1994)
 Ronnie Cuber, Passion Fruit (Electric Bird, 1985)
 Paquito D'Rivera, Why Not! (Pete Levin, 2010)
 Jakob Magnusson, Special Treatment (Warner Bros., 1979)
 Mike Mainieri, Wanderlust (Warner Bros., 1981)
 Herbie Mann, See Through Spirits (Atlantic, 1985)
 Tania Maria, Bela Vista (World Pacific, 1990)
 Lou Marini, Starmaker (Blujazz, 2012)
 Hector Martignon, Portrait in White and Black (Candid, 1996)
 Hugh Masekela, Main Event Live (A&M, 1978)
 Sleepy Matsumoto, Papillon (Compose, 1992)
 John Mayer, Continuum (Columbia, 2006)
 Vince Mendoza, Instructions Inside (Manhattan, 1991)
 Bob Mintzer, Source (Agharta, 1982)
 Joni Mitchell, Don Juan's Reckless Daughter (Asylum, 1977)
 Airto Moreira, I'm Fine.How Are You? Meinl Percussion Artist <mask> <mask>, USA
 Weather Report @ MySpace

 Review of Manolo DVD - All that Percussion

1952 births
Living people
Puerto Rican percussionists
Weather Report members
The Zawinul Syndicate members

masks:
Manolo Badrena
Badrenafort
Badrena
Manolo
Badrena


title: Georges Clemenceau

texts:
<mask> (, also , ; 28 September 1841 – 24 November 1929) was a French statesman who served as Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909 and again from 1917 until 1920. A key figure of the Independent Radicals, he was a strong advocate of separation of church and state, amnesty of the Communards exiled to New Caledonia, as well as opposition to colonisation. <mask>, a physician turned journalist, played a central role in the politics of the Third Republic, most notably successfully leading France through the end of the First World War. After about 1,400,000 French soldiers were killed between the German invasion and Armistice, he demanded a total victory over the German Empire. <mask> stood for reparations, a transfer of colonies, strict rules to prevent a rearming process, as well as the restitution of Alsace-Lorraine, which had been annexed to Germany in 1871. He achieved these goals through the Treaty of Versailles signed at the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920). Nicknamed Père la Victoire ("Father of Victory") or Le Tigre ("The Tiger"), he continued his harsh position against Germany in the 1920s, although not quite so much as President Raymond Poincaré or former Supreme Allied Commander Ferdinand Foch, who thought the treaty was too lenient on Germany, famously stating: "This is not peace.It is an armistice for twenty years." Clemenceau obtained mutual defence treaties with the United Kingdom and the United States, to unite against a possible future German aggression, but these never took effect. Early years
<mask> was a native of Vendée, born at Mouilleron-en-Pareds. During the period of the French Revolution, Vendée had been a hotbed of monarchist sympathies. The department was remote from Paris, rural, and poor. His mother, Sophie Eucharie Gautreau (1817–1903), was of Huguenot descent. His father, <mask> (1810–1897), came from a long line of physicians, but lived off his lands and investments and did not practice medicine.Benjamin was a political activist; he was arrested and briefly held in 1851 and again in 1858. He instilled in his son a love of learning, devotion to radical politics, and a hatred of Catholicism. The lawyer <mask> (1861–1955) was his brother. His mother was a devout Protestant; his father was an atheist and insisted that his children should have no religious education. <mask> was interested in religious issues. He was a lifelong atheist with a sound knowledge of the Bible. He became a leader of anti-clerical or "Radical" forces that battled against the Catholic Church in France and the Catholics in politics.He stopped short of the more extreme attacks. His position was that if church and state were kept rigidly separated, he would not support oppressive measures designed to further weaken the Catholic Church. After his studies in the Lycée in Nantes, <mask> received his French baccalaureate of letters in 1858. He went to Paris to study medicine and eventually graduated with the completion of his thesis "De la génération des éléments anatomiques" in 1865. Political activism and American experience

In Paris, the young <mask> became a political activist and writer. In December 1861, he and some friends co-founded a weekly newsletter, Le Travail. On 23 February 1862, he was arrested by the imperial police for having placed posters summoning a demonstration.He spent 77 days in the Mazas Prison. Around the same time, Clemenceau also visited the old French revolutionary Auguste Blanqui and another Republican activist, Auguste Scheurer-Kestner, in jail, further deepening his hatred of the Napoleon III regime and advancing his fervent republicanism. He was graduated as a doctor of medicine on 13 May 1865, founded several literary magazines, and wrote many articles, most of which attacked the imperial regime of Napoleon III. After a failed love affair, Clemenceau left France for the United States as the imperial agents began cracking down on dissidents and sending most of them to the bagne de Cayennes (Devil's Island Penal System) in French Guiana. <mask> worked in New York City during the years 1865–69, following the American Civil War. He maintained a medical practice, but spent much of his time on political journalism for a Parisian newspaper, Le Temps. He taught French in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, and also taught and rode horseback at a private girls' school in Stamford, Connecticut, where he would meet his future wife.During this time, he joined French exile clubs in New York that were opposing the imperial regime. As part of his journalistic activity, Clemenceau covered the country's recovery following the Civil War, the workings of American democracy, and the racial questions related to the end of slavery. From his time in America, he retained a strong faith in American democratic ideals as opposed to France's imperial regime, as well as a sense of political compromise that later would become a hallmark of his political career. Marriage and family

On 23 June 1869, he married Mary Eliza Plummer (1849–1922), in New York City. She had attended the school where he taught horseback ridding and was one of his students. She was the daughter of Harriet A. Taylor and William Kelly Plummer. Following their marriage, the Clemenceaus moved to France.They had three children together, Madeleine (born in 1870), Thérèse (1872) and Michel (1873). Although <mask> had many mistresses, when his wife took a tutor of their children as her lover, Clemenceau had her put in jail for two weeks and then sent her back to the United States on a steamer in third class. The marriage ended in a contentious divorce in 1891. He obtained custody of their children. He then had his wife stripped of French nationality. Beginning of the Third Republic
Clemenceau had returned to Paris after the French defeat at the Battle of Sedan in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War and the fall of the Second French Empire. After returning to medical practice as a physician in Vendée, he was appointed mayor of the 18th arrondissement of Paris, including Montmartre, and he also was elected to the National Assembly for the 18th arrondissement.When the Paris Commune seized power in March 1871, he tried unsuccessfully to find a compromise between the more radical leaders of the Commune and the more conservative French government. The Commune declared that he had no legal authority to be mayor and seized the city hall of the 18th arrondissement. He ran for election to the Paris Commune council, but received fewer than eight hundred votes and took no part in its governance. He was in Bordeaux when the commune was suppressed by the French Army in May 1871. After the fall of the commune, he was elected to the Paris municipal council on 23 July 1871 for the Clignancourt quarter and retained his seat until 1876. He first held the offices of secretary and vice-president, then he became president in 1875. Chamber of Deputies

In 1876, <mask> stood for the Chamber of Deputies (which replaced the National Assembly in 1875) and was elected for the 18th arrondissement.He joined the far left and his energy and mordant eloquence speedily made him the leader of the radical section. In 1877, after the Crisis of 16 May 1877, he was one of the republican majority who denounced the ministry of the Duc de Broglie. Clemenceau led resistance to the anti-republican policy of which the incident of 16 May was a manifestation. In 1879, his demand for the indictment of the Broglie ministry brought him prominence. From 1876 to 1880, Clemenceau was one of the main defenders of the general amnesty of thousands of Communards, members of the revolutionary government of the 1871 Paris Commune who had been deported to New Caledonia. Along with other radicals and figures such as poet and then-Senator Victor Hugo, as well as a growing number of republicans, he supported several unsuccessful proposals. Finally a general amnesty was adopted on 11 July 1880.The "reconciliation" envisaged by Clemenceau could begin, as the remaining deported Communards returned to France, including his friend Louise Michel. In 1880, <mask> started his newspaper, La Justice, which became the principal organ of Parisian Radicalism. From this time, throughout the presidency of Jules Grévy (1879–1887), he became widely known as a political critic and destroyer of ministries (le Tombeur de ministères) who avoided taking office himself. Leading the far left in the Chamber of Deputies, he was an active opponent of the colonial policy of Prime Minister Jules Ferry, which he opposed on moral grounds and also as a form of diversion from the more important goal of "Revenge against Germany" for the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine after the Franco-Prussian War. In 1885, his criticism of the conduct of the Sino-French War contributed strongly to the fall of the Ferry cabinet that year. During the French legislative elections of 1885, he advocated a strong radical programme and was returned both for his old seat in Paris and for the Var, district of Draguignan. He chose to represent the latter in the Chamber of Deputies.Refusing to form a ministry to replace the one he had overthrown, he supported the right in keeping Prime Minister Charles de Freycinet in power in 1886 and was responsible for the inclusion of <mask> Boulanger in the Freycinet cabinet as war minister. When General Boulanger revealed himself as an ambitious pretender, <mask> withdrew his support and became a vigorous opponent of the heterogeneous Boulangist movement, although the radical press continued to patronize the general. By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal plain speaking, Clemenceau contributed largely to the resignation of Jules Grévy from the presidency of France in 1887. He had declined Grévy's request to form a cabinet upon the downfall of the cabinet of Maurice Rouvier by advising his followers not to vote for Charles Floquet, Jules Ferry, nor Charles de Freycinet, Clemenceau was primarily responsible for the election of an "outsider," Marie François Sadi Carnot, as president. The split in the Radical Party over Boulangism weakened his hand and its collapse meant that moderate republicans did not need his help. A further misfortune occurred in the Panama affair, as <mask>'s relations with the businessman and politician Cornelius Herz led to his being included in the general suspicion. In response to accusations of corruption leveled by the nationalist politician Paul Déroulède, <mask> fought a duel with him on 23 December 1892.Six shots were discharged, but neither participant was injured. <mask> remained the leading spokesman for French radicalism, but his hostility to the Franco-Russian Alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the French legislative elections of 1893, he was defeated for his seat in the Chamber of Deputies after having held it continuously since 1876. Dreyfus Affair
For nearly a decade after his 1893 defeat, <mask> confined his political activities to journalism. His career was further clouded by the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which he took an active part as a supporter of Émile Zola and an opponent of the anti-Semitic and nationalist campaigns. In all, during the affair <mask> published 665 articles defending Dreyfus. On 13 January 1898, <mask> published Émile Zola's J'Accuse...! on the front page of the Paris daily newspaper, L'Aurore, of which he was owner and editor.He decided to run the controversial article that would become a famous part of the Dreyfus Affair in the form of an open letter to Félix Faure, the president of France. In 1900, he withdrew from La Justice to found a weekly review, Le Bloc, to which he practically was the sole contributor. The publication of Le Bloc lasted until 15 March 1902. On 6 April 1902, he was elected senator for the Var district of Draguignan, although he had previously called for the suppression of the French Senate, as he considered it a strong-house of conservatism. He served as the senator for Draguignan until 1920. <mask> sat with the Independent Radicals in the Senate and moderated his positions, although he still vigorously supported the Radical-Socialist ministry of Prime Minister Émile Combes, who spearheaded the anti-clericalist republican struggle. In June 1903, he undertook the direction of L'Aurore, the journal that he had founded.In it, he led the campaign to revisit the Dreyfus affair and to create a separation of church and state in France. The latter was implemented by the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State. Cabinet and office of Prime Minister
In March 1906, the ministry of Maurice Rouvier fell as a result of civil disturbances provoked by the implementation of the law on the separation of church and state and the victory of radicals in the French legislative elections of 1906. The new government of Ferdinand Sarrien appointed <mask> as minister of the interior in the cabinet. On a domestic level, <mask> reformed the French police forces and ordered repressive policies toward the workers movement. He supported the formation of scientific police by Alphonse Bertillon and founded the Brigades mobiles (French for "mobile squads") led by Célestin Hennion. These squads were nicknamed Brigades du Tigre ("The Tiger's Brigades") after <mask>, who was nicknamed "The Tiger".The miners strike in the Pas de Calais after the Courrières mine disaster, which resulted in the death of more than one thousand persons, threatened widespread disorder on 1 May 1906. <mask> ordered the military against the strikers and repressed the wine growers strike in the Languedoc-Roussillon. His actions alienated the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) socialist party, from which he definitively broke in his notable reply in the Chamber of Deputies to Jean Jaurès, leader of the SFIO, in June 1906. <mask>'s speech positioned him as the strong man of the day in French politics; when the Sarrien ministry resigned in October, Clemenceau became premier. After a proposal by the deputy Paul Dussaussoy for limited women's suffrage in local elections, <mask> published a pamphlet in 1907 in which he declared that if women were given the vote France would return to the Middle Ages. As the revolt of the Languedoc winegrowers developed Clemenceau at first dismissed the complaints, then sent in troops to keep the

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 peace in June 1907. During 1907 and 1908, he led the development of a new Entente cordiale with Britain, which gave France a successful role in European politics.Difficulties with Germany and criticism by the Socialist party in connection with the handling of the First Moroccan Crisis in 1905–06 were settled at the Algeciras Conference. <mask> was defeated on 20 July 1909 in a discussion in the Chamber of Deputies on the state of the navy, in which bitter words he exchanged with Théophile Delcassé, the former president of the Council whose downfall <mask> had aided. Refusing to respond to Delcassé's technical questions, <mask> resigned after his proposal for the order of the day vote was rejected. He was succeeded as premier by Aristide Briand, with a reconstructed cabinet. Between 1909 and 1912, <mask> dedicated his time to travel, conferences, and the treatment of his illness. He went to South America in 1910, traveling to Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina (where he went as far as Santa Ana {Tucuman] in northwest Argentina). There, he was amazed by the influence of French culture and of the French Revolution on local elites.He published the first issue of the Journal du Var on 10 April 1910. Three years later, on 6 May 1913, he founded L'Homme libre ("The Free Man") newspaper in Paris, for which he wrote a daily editorial. In these media, Clemenceau focused increasingly on foreign policy and condemned the anti-militarism of the Socialists. First World War

At the outbreak of World War I in France in August 1914, <mask>'s newspaper was one of the first to be censored by the government. It was suspended from 29 September 1914 to 7 October. In response, <mask> changed the newspaper's name to L'Homme enchaîné ("The Chained Man") and criticized the government for its lack of transparency and its ineffectiveness, while defending the patriotic union sacrée against the German Empire. In spite of the censorship imposed by the French government on Clemenceau's journalism at the beginning of World War I, he still wielded considerable political influence.As soon as the war started, <mask> advised Interior Minister Malvy to invoke Carnet B, a list of known and suspected subversives who were supposed to be arrested upon mobilisation, in order to prevent the collapse of popular support for a war effort. The Prefect of Police gave the same advice, but the government did not follow it. In the end, 80% of the 2,501 people listed on Carnet B as subversives volunteered for service. In autumn 1914, <mask> declined to join the government of national unity as justice minister. He suggested transportation of T. G. Masaryk's Czechoslovak Legion from Russia to France s. c. "North trip" (by North sea) as first (the first realization 15 October 1917 from Archangelsk). He was a vehement critic of the wartime French government, asserting that it was not doing enough to win the war. His stance was driven by a will to regain the province of Alsace-Lorraine, a view shared by public opinion.The autumn of 1917 saw the disastrous Italian defeat at the Battle of Caporetto, the Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, and rumours that former Prime Minister Joseph Caillaux and Interior Minister Louis Malvy might have engaged in treason. Prime Minister Paul Painlevé was inclined to open negotiations with Germany. Clemenceau argued that even German restitution of Alsace-Lorraine and the liberation of Belgium would not be enough to justify France abandoning her allies. This forced Alexandre Ribot and Aristide Briand (both the previous two prime ministers, of whom the latter was by far the more powerful politician who had been approached by a German diplomat) to agree in public that there would be no separate peace. For many years, <mask> was blamed for having blocked a possible compromise peace, but it is now clear from examination of German documents that Germany had no serious intention of handing over Alsace-Lorraine. The prominence of his opposition made him the best known critic and the last man standing when the others had failed. "Messieurs, les Allemands sont toujours à Noyon" (Gentlemen, the Germans are still at Noyon) wrote Clemenceau's paper endlessly.Second term as prime minister
In November 1917, at one of the darkest hours for the French war effort in World War I, <mask> was appointed to the prime ministership. Unlike his predecessors, he discouraged internal disagreement and called for peace among the senior politicians. 1917: return to power
Clemenceau governed from the Ministry of War on Rue Saint-Dominique. Almost his first act as prime minister was to relieve General Maurice Sarrail from his command of the Salonika Front. This was the main topic of discussion at the first meeting of the war committee on 6 December, at which <mask> stated, "Sarrail cannot remain there". The reason for Sarrail's dismissal was his links with the socialist politicians Joseph Caillaux and Louis Malvy (at that time suspected of treasonable contacts with the Germans)

Churchill later wrote that Clemenceau "looked like a wild animal pacing to and fro behind bars" in front of "an assembly which would have done anything to avoid putting him there, but, having put him there, felt they must obey". When <mask> became prime minister in 1917 victory seemed to be elusive.There was little activity on the western front because it was believed that there should be limited attacks until the American support arrived. At this time, Italy was on the defensive, Russia virtually had stopped fighting – and it was believed (correctly – Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) that they would be making a separate peace with Germany. At home, the government had to deal with increasing demonstrations against the war, a scarcity of resources, and air raids that were causing huge physical damage to Paris as well as undermining the morale of its citizens. It also was believed that many politicians secretly wanted peace. It was a challenging situation for Clemenceau; after years of criticizing other men during the war, he suddenly found himself in a position of supreme power. He was isolated politically, however. He did not have close links with any parliamentary leaders (especially after he had antagonized them so relentlessly during the course of the war) and so, had to rely on himself and his own circle of friends.Clemenceau's assumption of power meant little to the men in the trenches at first. They thought of him as "just another politician", and the monthly assessment of troop morale found that only a minority found comfort in his appointment. Slowly, however, as time passed, the confidence he inspired in a few, began to grow throughout all the fighting men. They were encouraged by his many visits to the trenches. This confidence began to spread from the trenches to the home front and it was said, "We believed in Clemenceau rather in the way that our ancestors believed in Joan of Arc." After years of criticism against the French army for its conservatism and Catholicism, Clemenceau would need help to get along with the military leaders to achieve a sound strategic plan. He nominated General Henri Mordacq to be his military chief of staff.Mordacq helped to inspire trust and mutual respect from the army to the government which proved essential to the final victory. <mask> also was well received by the media, because they felt that France was in need of strong leadership. It was widely recognized that throughout the war he was never discouraged and never stopped believing that France could achieve total victory. There were skeptics, however, who believed that Clemenceau, like other war time leaders, would have a short time in office. It was said, "Like everyone else... Clemenceau will not last long—only long enough to clean up [the war]." 1918: crackdown
As the military situation worsened in early 1918, <mask> continued to support the policy of total war – "We present ourselves before you with the single thought of total war" – and the policy of "la guerre jusqu'au bout" (war until the end). His speech of 8 March advocating this policy was so effective that it left a vivid impression on Winston Churchill, who would make similar speeches upon becoming British prime minister in 1940.<mask>'s war policy encompassed the promise of victory with justice, loyalty to the fighting men, and immediate and severe punishment of crimes against France. Joseph Caillaux, a former French prime minister, disagreed with <mask>'s policies. He wanted to surrender to Germany and negotiate a peace, thus Clemenceau viewed Caillaux as a threat to national security. Unlike previous ministers, <mask> moved against Caillaux publicly. As a result, a parliamentary committee decided that Caillaux would be arrested and imprisoned for three years. <mask> believed, in the words of Jean Ybarnégaray, that Caillaux's crime "was not to have believed in victory [and] to have gambled on his nation's defeat". The arrest of Caillaux and others raised the issue of Clemenceau's harshness, who in turn argued that the only powers he assumed were those necessary for winning the war.The many trials and arrests aroused great public excitement. These trials, far from making the public fear the government, inspired confidence, as the public felt that for the first time in the war, action was being taken and they were being firmly governed. The claims that <mask>'s "firm government" was a dictatorship found little support. <mask> was still held accountable to the people and media. He relaxed censorship on political views as he believed that newspapers had the right to criticize political figures: "The right to insult members of the government is inviolable." In 1918, <mask> thought that France should adopt Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, mainly because of its point that called for the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France. This meant that victory would fulfill the war aim that was crucial for the French public.Clemenceau was skeptical about some other points, however, including those concerning the League of Nations, as he believed that the latter could succeed only in a utopian society. As war minister, Clemenceau was also in close contact with his generals, but he did not always make the most effective decisions concerning military issues (although he did heed the advice of the more experienced generals). As well as talking strategy with the generals, he also went to the trenches to see the poilus, the French infantrymen. He would speak to them and assure them that their government was looking after them. The poilus had great respect for Clemenceau and his disregard for danger, as he often visited soldiers only yards away from German front lines. The government was worried about the visits of Clemenceau to the front lines, as most of the time he was risking his own life by insulting and threatening the German soldiers in person directly from the trenches. These visits, his speech, and his verbal threats directly to the enemy impressed the soldiers and contributed to Clemenceau's title  "Père la Victoire" (Father of Victory).1918: German spring offensive
On 21 March 1918, the Germans began their great spring offensive. The allies were caught off guard and a gap was created in the British and French lines that risked handing over access to Paris to the Germans. This defeat cemented <mask>'s belief, and that of the other allies, that a coordinated, unified command was the best option. It was decided that Ferdinand Foch would be appointed as "generalissimo". The German line continued to advance and Clemenceau believed that the fall of Paris could not be ruled out. Public opinions arose that if "the Tiger", as well as, Foch and Philippe Pétain stayed in power for even another week, France would be lost and that a government headed by Aristide Briand would be beneficial to France, because he would make peace with Germany on advantageous terms. Clemenceau adamantly opposed these opinions and he gave an inspirational speech in the Chamber of Deputies; the chamber subsequently voted their confidence in him by 377 votes to 110.1918: allied counter-offensive and armistice
As the allied counter-offensives began to push the Germans back, it became clear that the Germans could no longer win the war. Although they still occupied vast amounts of French territory, they did not have sufficient resources and manpower to continue their attack. As countries allied to Germany began to ask for an armistice, it was obvious that Germany would soon follow. On 11 November 1918, an armistice with Germany was signed. <mask> was embraced in the streets and attracted many admiring crowds. He was viewed by the French public as a strong, energetic, positive leader who was key to the allied victory of 1918. Paris Peace Conference
To settle the international political issues left over from the conclusion of World War I, it was decided that a peace conference would be held in Paris, France.Famously, the Treaty of Versailles between Germany and the Allied Powers to conclude the conflict was signed in the Palace of Versailles, but the deliberations on which it was based were conducted in Paris, hence the name given to the meeting of the victorious heads of state that produced the treaties signed with the defeated powers: the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. On 13 December 1918, United States president Woodrow Wilson received an enthusiastic welcome in France. His Fourteen Points and the concept of a League of Nations had made a big impact on the war-weary French. At their first meeting, <mask> realized that Wilson was a man of principle and conscience. The powers agreed that since the conference was being held in France, <mask> would be the most appropriate president. Also, he spoke both English and French, the official languages of the conference. Clemenceau had an unassailable position of full control of the French delegation.Parliament gave him a vote of confidence on December 30, 1918, by a vote of 398 to 93. The rules of the conference allowed France five plenipotentiaries. They became <mask> and four others who were his pawns. He excluded all military men, especially Foch. He excluded the president of France, Raymond Poincaré, keeping him in the dark on the progress of negotiations. He excluded all parliamentary deputies, saying he would negotiate the treaty and it would be

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