title: Ģirts Karlsons

texts:
<mask> (born 7 June 1981) is a Latvian football forward, who most recently played for the Latvian Higher League club FK Liepāja. Club career

As a youth player <mask> played for his local club FK Liepājas Metalurgs, being taken to the first team in 1998, at the age of 17. He spent the next six seasons with the club, becoming the second top scorer of the Latvian Higher League in 2003 with 26 goals, completing two hat-tricks during the season. All in all he played 96 matches for his local club, scoring 40 goals. After these bright appearances he had impressed clubs abroad, and in January 2004 <mask> went on a month-long trial with the Russian Premier League club Shinnik Yaroslavl. Afterwards he signed a three-year contract with them. However, his spell there wasn't as successful as expected and was very short.After just one season, during which he played only 8 league matches without scoring goals, <mask> returned to the Latvian Higher League, signing with the newly promoted, ambitious club Venta Kuldiga in 2005. However, the club struggled financially and after just five matches had to let some of their players go, including <mask>, who returned to his hometown club, Liepājas Metalurgs later that year. He spent the next three seasons there, once again showing great performance. He scored a hat-trick in the 2005 season, and he also scored in the Latvian Cup final on 25 September 2005, which Metalurgs lost 2–1 to Venta Kuldīga. Another hat-trick came in the 2006 season, which <mask> finished as the second top scorer with 14 goals. In the Latvian Cup he scored a hat-trick in the 6–1 semi-final victory over Dižvanagi Rēzekne and then scored in the final, which the club won 2–1 over Skonto Riga. In December 2006 <mask> was named the runner-up of the Latvian Player of the Year Award by the Latvian Football Federation behind the winner Aleksandrs Koļinko, who that time was the first-choice keeper for Rubin Kazan in the Russian Premier League.His contract with Metalurgs expired in July 2007 and it was not renewed. Player was then linked with the English Championship club Bristol City, before going on trial with Southampton. In January 2008 he had a two-day trial with Wolverhampton Wanderers. <mask> then had trials in the Netherlands with Zwolle and De Graafschap,
 and on 8 February 2008 he signed for De Graafschap, which that time competed in the Dutch Eredivisie. <mask> returned to Liepājas Metalurgs in the middle of 2008, because of limited game time. After some impressive matches there he attracted interest from several European clubs, but finally settled down in Azerbaijan, signing a contract with Inter Baku in the summer of 2009. The next season, he became the champion of Azerbaijan.He scored 8 goals in 19 matches for Inter in his first season there, but the next two weren't that successful anymore and in July 2012 he was released. In August 2012 <mask> once again returned to Liepājas Metalurgs. The 2012 season saw <mask> scoring 9 goals in 19 league matches. Even though Metalurgs expressed their interest to keep him at the club, <mask> chose to continue his career abroad, joining the Indonesian Premier League club Pro Duta in March 2013. On 14 April 2013 he scored his first two goals in a 3-0 league victory over Bontang. Throughout the season <mask> scored 15 league goals for the club, completing two hat-tricks. He left Pro Duta at the end of his contract in November 2013.In February 2014 <mask> went on trial with the Belarusian Premier League club Neman Grodno alongside his international fellow Igors Tarasovs and signed a contract with the club on 26 February 2014. He scored his first Belarusian Premier League goal in a 3–2 victory over Dnepr Mogilev on 19 April 2014. <mask> left Neman on 9 June 2014 due to family reasons and returned to Latvia. On 3 July 2014 <mask> signed a contract with the Latvian Higher League title holders FK Ventspils. He helped the club retain the title for the second year in a row. <mask> left FK Liepāja at the end of 2018.

International career

<mask> played for the Latvia-U21. <mask> made his first appearance for Latvia national team on 20 December 2003 as a second-half substitute against Kuwait in Cyprus, which Latvia lost 2–0.On 28 December 2005 he scored in Latvia's 2–1 win over Oman national football team to reach the final of the King's Cup in Thailand. Latvia won the cup, beating Korea DPR 2–1 in the final on 30 December with <mask> again scoring. Currently <mask> has 50 international caps under his belt, having scored 9 goals. He played in an international game on 9 February 2011, a 2–1 victory in a friendly match against Bolivia, coming on as a late substitute, which would be his last match for the national team until late 2016. <mask> was recalled to the national team in the autumn of 2016, earning his 50th cap on 7 October 2016 after coming on as a substitute in the 0:2 home loss against the Faroe Islands in a 2018 World Cup qualifier.

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Ģirts Karlsons
Karlsons
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title: Charles C. Richardson

type: original

texts:
<mask> (born May 7, 1935) is an American biochemist and professor at Harvard University. <mask> received his undergraduate education at Duke University, where he majored in medicine. He received his M.D. at Duke Medical School in 1960. <mask> works as a professor at Harvard Medical School, and he served as editor/associate editor of the Annual Review of Biochemistry from 1972 to 2003. <mask> received the American Chemical Society Award in Biological Chemistry in 1968, as well as numerous other accolades. Early life and education
<mask> was born on May 7, 1935, in Wilson, North Carolina.His father, <mask> <mask>, was an accountant at a local automobile dealership. His mother, Elizabeth Barefoot, was a housewife. At 11 years old, <mask> and his family moved to Columbia, South Carolina. <mask> graduated from Dreher High School and received a full scholarship to Duke University in 1953. Without completing a bachelor's degree, <mask> enrolled in Duke Medical School in 1956. In 1959, <mask> completed a Bachelor of Science degree in medicine from Duke through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) United States Public Health Service Post-Sophomore Research Fellowship. <mask> graduated from Duke Medical School and began residency at Duke University Hospital in 1960.On July 29, 1961, <mask> married Ingrid Hanssum at the Gothic Duke Chapel. They have two children. Career and research
In 1961, <mask> obtained a Public Health Service fellowship under Arthur Kornberg in his biochemistry laboratory at Stanford Medical School. As a result, <mask> and Ingrid Hanssum moved to Palo Alto. In Kornberg's lab, <mask> focused on improving the purification technique of DNA polymerase from E. coli. In Kornberg's lab, <mask> worked alongside Paul Berg, Reiji and Tsunko Okazaki, and several others. In 1964, <mask> left Kornberg's lab and began a faculty position at Harvard Medical School, where he was promoted to tenure in 1967.<mask> served as Chairman of the department of biological chemistry from 1978 to 1987. Additionally, <mask> served as editor or associate editor of the Annual Review of Biochemistry from 1972 to 2003. As of 2020, <mask> continues his position as professor at Harvard Medical School. <mask> taught four doctoral students: Dennis M. Livingston, David N. Frick, Richard D<mask>, and Paul L. Modrich. Throughout <mask>'s career, <mask> used bacteriophages in order to investigate DNA replication. <mask> discovered and researched several enzymes throughout his career: E. coli exonuclease III in 1964, T4 DNA ligase in 1967, T7 DNA polymerase in 1971, E. coli exonuclease VII in 1974, E. coli DNA polymerase III in 1975, T4 polynucleotide kinase in 1981, T7 DNA primase in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and T7 DNA helicase in 2004. <mask> used these enzymes to further analyze DNA, develop sequencing reagents, and characterize the mechanisms of DNA replication.<mask>'s most highly-cited accomplishment was made while working with bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase in 1985. <mask> used the T7 RNA polymerase/promoter system to control the expression of a phage T7 gene 5 protein (gp5), which is a subunit of T7 DNA polymerase. By combining the specificity of T7 RNA polymerase for its own promoters with rifampicin's ability to selectively inhibit the host RNA polymerase, <mask> established a method to exclusively express genes, specifically the phage T7 gene 5 protein, under the control of the T7 RNA polymerase promoter. During this process, <mask> constructed a T7 phage with deletions in gene 1 that propagate in E. coli cells expressing T7 RNA polymerase. <mask> proposed the T7 RNA polymerase/promoter system as an "attractive alternative" to the mini- or maxicell. A couple years later, <mask> researched a self-made DNA polymerase for potential use in DNA sequencing. This highly processive DNA polymerase was composed of an 84-kDa T7 gene 5 protein and 12-kDa E. coli thioredoxin at a one-to-one stoichiometric ratio.In his study, <mask> demonstrated that this modified DNA polymerase would be ideal for DNA sequencing by the chain-termination method. <mask> based this finding off of three main factors: high processivity and lack of associated exonuclease activity, ability to use low concentrations of radioactive nucleotides for preparation of DNA probes, and lack of background pause sites and uniform distribution of dideoxy-terminated fragments. In 1998, <mask> examined the crystal structure of a bacteriophage T7 DNA replication complex at 2.2 Å resolution. Before imaging, <mask> complexed the T7 bacteriophage DNA polymerase with a primer-template and a nucleoside triphosphate in the polymerase active site. Through analysis of the crystal structure, <mask> determined how the replication complex selects nucleotides in a template-directed manner. Furthermore, <mask> established an understanding of the basis for phosphoryl transfer by related polymerases with metal. More recently in 2011, <mask> developed a single-molecule assay to measure the activity of the replisome with fluorescently-labeled DNA polymerases.<mask> then used this assay to quantify the process of polymerase exchange. <mask> determined that soluble polymerases are recruited to an actively synthesizing replisome, which leads to a polymerase exchange event between the excess polymerases and the synthesizing polymerase after about 50 seconds. This supports the belief that replisomes are highly dynamic complexes. Awards and honors

National Institutes of Health (NIH) United States Public Health Service Post-Sophomore Research Fellowship, 1958–1959
 Career Development Award, National Institutes of Health, 1967–1976
American Chemical Society Award in Biological Chemistry, sponsored by Eli Lily & Co., 1968
Duke Medical Center Alumni Award, 1972
National Institutes of Health MERIT award, 1986–1995
American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology-Merck
 Award in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1996
 Herbert Tabor/Journal of Biological Chemistry Lectureship Award, 2006
 Weinhouse 2007 Lecturer, Thomas Jefferson University

Memberships
Phi Beta Kappa, Alpha Omega Alpha, Pi Mu Epsilon A.M. (Hon), Harvard University, 1967
 Elected Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1975
 Elected Member, National Academy of Sciences, 1983
 Elected Member, Institute of Medicine, 1986

References

Further reading

 <mask>, <mask>. (June 2, 2015) "It Seems Like Only Yesterday." Annual Review of Biochemistry. 84 (1): 1–34. doi:10.1146/annurev-biochem-060614-033850.Kresge, N., Simoni, R. D., and Hill, R. L. (July 13, 2007). "DNA Replication in Bacteriophage: the Work of <mask><mask>." Journal of Biological Chemistry 282, e22. Tabor, S., and <mask>, C. C. (February 2, 1985). "A bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase/promoter system for controlled exclusive expression of specific genes." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.82 (4): 1074–1078. doi:10.1073/pnas.82.4.1074. ISSN 0027-8424. .
Tabor, S.; <mask>, C. C. (July 1, 1987). "DNA sequence analysis with a modified bacteriophage T7 DNA polymerase". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 84 (14): 4767–4771. doi:10.1073/pnas.84.14.4767.ISSN 0027-8424. . External links
Charles C. Richardson Laboratory

1935 births
American biochemists
Duke University alumni
Duke University School of Medicine alumni
Harvard Medical School faculty
Living people
Annual Reviews (publisher) editors

masks:
Charles Clifton Richardson
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Charles Richardson
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Charles C
. Richardson
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title: Charles X

texts:
<mask> (born <mask>, Count of Artois; 9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836) was King of France from 16 September 1824 until 2 August 1830. An uncle of the uncrowned <mask>I and younger brother to reigning kings <mask> and <mask>, he supported the latter in exile. After the Bourbon Restoration in 1814, <mask> (as heir-presumptive) became the leader of the ultra-royalists, a radical monarchist faction within the French court that affirmed rule by divine right and opposed the concessions towards liberals and guarantees of civil liberties granted by the Charter of 1814. <mask> gained influence within the French court after the assassination of his son <mask>, Duke of Berry, in 1820 and succeeded his brother <mask>II in 1824. His reign of almost six years proved to be deeply unpopular amongst the liberals in France from the moment of his coronation in 1825, in which he tried to revive the practice of the royal touch. The governments appointed under his reign reimbursed former landowners for the abolition of feudalism at the expense of bondholders, increased the power of the Catholic Church, and reimposed capital punishment for sacrilege, leading to conflict with the liberal-majority Chamber of Deputies. <mask> also approved the French conquest of Algeria as a way to distract his citizens from domestic problems, and forced Haiti to pay a hefty indemnity in return for lifting a blockade and recognizing Haiti's independence.He eventually appointed a conservative government under the premiership of Prince Jules de Polignac, who was defeated in the 1830 French legislative election. He responded with the July Ordinances disbanding the Chamber of Deputies, limiting franchise, and reimposing press censorship. Within a week France faced urban riots which led to the July Revolution of 1830, which resulted in his abdication and the election of Louis Philippe I as King of the French. Exiled once again, <mask> died in 1836 in Gorizia, then part of the Austrian Empire. He was the last of the French rulers from the senior branch of the House of Bourbon. Childhood and adolescence

<mask> of France was born in 1757, the youngest son of the Dauphin Louis and his wife, the Dauphine Marie Josèphe, at the Palace of Versailles. <mask> was created Count of Artois at birth by his grandfather, the reigning King <mask>.As the youngest male in the family, <mask> seemed unlikely ever to become king. His eldest brother, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, died unexpectedly in 1761, which moved <mask> up one place in the line of succession. He was raised in early childhood by Madame de Marsan, the Governess of the Children of France. At the death of his father in 1765, <mask>'s oldest surviving brother, Louis Auguste, became the new Dauphin (the heir apparent to the French throne). Their mother Marie Josèphe, who never recovered from the loss of her husband, died in March 1767 from tuberculosis. This left <mask> an orphan at the age of nine, along with his siblings Louis Auguste, Louis Stanislas, Count of Provence, Clotilde ("Madame Clotilde"), and Élisabeth ("Madame Élisabeth"). <mask> fell ill on 27 April 1774 and died on 10 May of smallpox at the age of 64.His grandson Louis-Auguste succeeded him as King <mask> of France. Marriage and private life

In November 1773, <mask> married Marie Thérèse of Savoy. In 1775, Marie Thérèse gave birth to a boy, Louis Antoine, who was created Duke of Angoulême by <mask>. Louis-Antoine was the first of the next generation of Bourbons, as the king and the Count of Provence had not fathered any children yet, causing the Parisian libellistes (pamphleteers who published scandalous leaflets about important figures in court and politics) to lampoon <mask>'s alleged impotence. Three years later, in 1778, <mask>' second son, <mask>, was born and given the title of Duke of Berry. In the same year Queen Marie Antoinette gave birth to her first child, Marie Thérèse, quelling all rumours that she could not bear children. <mask> was thought of as the most attractive member of his family, bearing a strong resemblance to his grandfather <mask>.His wife was considered quite ugly by most contemporaries, and he looked for company in numerous extramarital affairs. According to the Count of Hézecques, "few beauties were cruel to him." Among his lovers was notably Anne Victoire Dervieux. Later, he embarked upon a lifelong love affair with the beautiful Louise de Polastron, the sister-in-law of Marie Antoinette's closest companion, the Duchess of Polignac. <mask> also struck up a firm friendship with Marie Antoinette herself, whom he had first met upon her arrival in France in April 1770 when he was twelve. The closeness of the relationship was such that he was falsely accused by Parisian rumour mongers of having seduced her. As part of Marie Antoinette's social set, <mask> often appeared opposite her in the private theatre of her favourite royal retreat, the Petit Trianon.They were both said to be very talented amateur actors. Marie Antoinette played milkmaids, shepherdesses, and country ladies, whereas <mask> played lovers, valets, and farmers. A famous story concerning the two involves the construction of the Château de Bagatelle. In 1775, <mask> purchased a small hunting lodge in the Bois de Boulogne. He soon had the existing house torn down with plans to rebuild. Marie Antoinette wagered her brother-in-law that the new château could not be completed within three months. <mask> engaged the neoclassical architect François-Joseph Bélanger to design the building.He won his bet, with Bélanger completing the house in sixty-three days. It is estimated that the project, which came to include manicured gardens, cost over two million livres. Throughout the 1770s, <mask> spent lavishly. He accumulated enormous debts, totalling 21 million livres. In the 1780s, King <mask> paid off the debts of both his brothers, the Counts of Provence and Artois. In 1781, <mask> acted as a proxy for Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II at the christening of his godson, the Dauphin Louis Joseph. Crisis and French Revolution

<mask>'s political awakening started with the first great crisis of the monarchy in 1786, when it became apparent that the kingdom was bankrupt from previous military endeavours (in particular the Seven Years' War and the American War of Independence) and needed fiscal reform to survive.<mask> supported the removal of the aristocracy's financial privileges, but was opposed to any reduction in the social privileges enjoyed by either the Roman Catholic Church or the nobility. He believed that France's finances should be reformed without the monarchy being overthrown. In his own words, it was "time for repair, not demolition." King <mask> eventually convened the Estates General, which had not been assembled for over 150 years, to meet in May 1789 to ratify financial reforms. Along with his sister Élisabeth, <mask> was the most conservative member of the family and opposed the demands of the Third Estate (representing the commoners) to increase their voting power. This prompted criticism from his brother, who accused him of being "plus royaliste que le roi" ("more royalist than the king"). In June 1789, the representatives of the Third Estate declared themselves a National Assembly intent on providing France with a new constitution.In conjunction with the Baron de Breteuil, <mask> had political alliances arranged to depose the liberal minister of finance, Jacques Necker. These plans backfired when <mask> attempted to secure Necker's dismissal on 11 July without Breteuil's knowledge, much earlier than they had originally intended. It was the beginning of a decline in his political alliance with Breteuil, which ended in mutual loathing. Necker's dismissal provoked the storming of the Bastille on 14 July. With the concurrence of <mask> and Marie Antoinette <mask> and his family left France three days later, on 17 July, along with several other courtiers. These included the Duchess of Polignac, the queen's favourite. His flight was historically attributed to personal fears for his own safety.However recent research indicates that the King had approved his brother's departure in advance, seeing it as a means of ensuring that one close relative would be free to act as a spokesman for the monarchy, after Louis himself had been moved from Versailles to Paris. Life in exile

<mask> and his family decided to seek refuge in Savoy, his wife's native country, where they were joined by some members of the Condé family. Meanwhile, in Paris, <mask> was struggling with the National Assembly, which was committed to radical reforms and had enacted the Constitution of 1791. In March 1791, the Assembly also enacted a regency bill that provided for the case of the king's premature death. While his heir <mask> was still a minor, the Count of Provence, the Duke of Orléans or, if either was unavailable, someone chosen by election should become regent, completely passing over the rights of <mask> who, in the royal lineage, stood between the Count of Provence and the Duke of Orléans. <mask> meanwhile left Turin (in Italy) and moved to Trier in Germany, where his uncle, Clemens Wenceslaus of Saxony, was the incumbent Archbishop-Elector. <mask> prepared for a counter-revolutionary invasion of France, but a letter by Marie Antoinette postponed it until after the royal family had escaped from Paris and joined a concentration of regular troops under François Claude Amour, marquis de Bouillé at Montmédy.After the attempted flight was stopped at Varennes, <mask> moved on to Koblenz, where he, the recently escaped Count of Provence and the Princes of Condé jointly declared their intention to invade France. The Count of Provence was sending dispatches to various European sovereigns for assistance, while <mask> set up a court-in-exile in the Electorate of Trier. On 25 August, the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire and Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which called on other European powers to intervene in France. On New Year's Day 1792, the National Assembly declared all emigrants traitors, repudiated their titles and confiscated their lands. This measure was followed by the suspension and eventually the abolition of the monarchy in September 1792. The royal family was imprisoned, and the king and queen were eventually executed in 1793. The young Dauphin died of illnesses and neglect in 1795.When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in 1792, <mask> escaped to Great Britain, where King George III of Great Britain gave him a generous allowance. <mask> lived in Edinburgh and London with his mistress Louise de Polastron. His older brother, dubbed <mask>II after the death of his nephew in June 1795, relocated to Verona and then to Jelgava Palace, Mitau, where <mask>' son Louis Antoine married <mask>'s only surviving child, Marie Thérèse, on 10 June 1799. In 1802, <mask> supported his brother with several thousand pounds. In 1807, <mask> moved to the United Kingdom. Bourbon Restoration

In January 1814, <mask> covertly left his home in London to join the Coalition forces in southern France. <mask>, by then wheelchair-bound, supplied <mask> with letters patent creating him Lieutenant General of the Kingdom of France.On 31 March, the Allies captured Paris. A week later, Napoleon I abdicated. The Senate declared the restoration of <mask> as the Bourbon King of France. <mask> arrived in the capital on 12 April and acted as Lieutenant General of the realm until <mask> arrived from England. During his brief tenure as regent, <mask> created an ultra-royalist secret police that reported directly back to him without <mask>'s knowledge. It operated for over five years. <mask>II was greeted with great rejoicing from the Parisians and proceeded to occupy the Tuileries Palace.The Count of Artois lived in the Pavillon de Mars, and the Duke of Angoulême in the Pavillon de Flore, which overlooked the River Seine. The Duchess of Angoulême fainted upon arriving at the palace, as it brought back terrible memories of her family's incarceration there, and of the storming of the palace and the massacre of the Swiss Guards on 10 August 1792. Following the advice of the occupying allied army, <mask> promulgated a liberal constitution, the Charter of 1814, which provided for a bicameral legislature, an electorate of 90,000 men and freedom of religion. After the Hundred Days, Napoleon's brief return to power in 1815, the White Terror focused mainly on the purging of a civilian administration which had almost completely turned against the Bourbon monarchy. About 70,000 officials were dismissed from their positions. The remnants of the Napoleonic army were disbanded after the Battle of Waterloo and its senior officers cashiered. Marshal Ney was executed for treason, and Marshal Brune was murdered by a crowd.Approximately 6,000 individuals who had rallied to Napoleon were brought to trial. There were about 300 mob lynchings in the south of France, notably in Marseilles where a number of Napoleon's Mamluks preparing to return to Egypt, were massacred in their barracks. King's brother and heir presumptive
While the king retained the liberal charter, <mask> patronised members of the ultra-royalists in parliament, such as Jules de Polignac, the writer François-René de Chateaubriand and Jean-Baptiste de Villèle. On several occasions, <mask> voiced his disapproval of his brother's liberal ministers and threatened to leave the country unless <mask>II dismissed them. Louis, in turn, feared that his brother's and heir presumptive's ultra-royalist tendencies would send the family into exile once more (which they eventually did). On 14 February 1820, <mask>'s younger son, the Duke of Berry, was assassinated at the Paris Opera. This loss not only plunged the family into grief but also put the succession in jeopardy, as <mask>'s elder son, the Duke of Angoulême, was childless.The lack of male heirs in the Bourbon main line raised the prospect of the throne passing to the Duke of Orléans and his heirs, which horrified the more conservative ultras. Parliament debated the abolition of the Salic law, which excluded females from the succession and was long held inviolable. However, the Duke of Berry's widow, Caroline of Naples and Sicily, was found to be pregnant and on 29 September 1820 gave birth to a son, Henry, Duke of Bordeaux. His birth was hailed as "God-given", and the people of France purchased for him the Château de Chambord in celebration of his birth. As a result, his granduncle, <mask>II, added the title Count of Chambord, hence Henri, Count of Chambord, the name by which he is usually known. Reign

Ascension and Coronation
<mask>' brother King <mask>II's health had been worsening since the beginning of 1824. Suffering from both dry and wet gangrene in his legs and spine, he died on 16 September of that year, aged almost 69.<mask>, by now in his 67th year, succeeded him to the throne as King <mask> of France. On 29 May 1825, King <mask> was anointed at the cathedral of Reims, the traditional site of consecration of French kings; it had been unused since 1775, as <mask> had forgone the ceremony to avoid controversy and because his health was too precarious. It was in the venerable cathedral of Notre-Dame at Paris that Napoleon had consecrated his revolutionary empire; but in ascending the throne of his ancestors, <mask> reverted to the old place of coronation used by the kings of France from the early ages of the monarchy. Like the regime of the Restoration itself, the coronation was conceived as a compromise between the monarchical tradition and the charter of 1814: it took up the main phases of traditional ceremonial such as the seven anointings or the oaths on the Gospels, all by associating with it the oath of fidelity taken by the King to the Charter of 1814 or the participation of the great princes in the ceremonial as assistants of the Archbishop of Reims . A commission was charged with simplifying and modernizing the ceremony and making it compatible with the principles of the monarchy according to the Charter (deletion of the promises of struggle against heretics and infidels, of the twelve peers, of references to Hebrew royalty, etc.) - it lasted three and a half hours. In fact, the choice of the coronation was applauded by the royalists in favor of a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy and not only by those nostalgic for the Ancien Régime; The fact that the ceremony was modernized and adapted to new times encouraged Chateaubriand, a non-absolutist royalist and enthusiastic supporter of the Charter of 1814, to invite the king to be crowned.In the brochure The King is Dead! Long live the king! Chateaubriand explains that a coronation would have being the "link in the chain which united the oath of the new

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Charles X
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title: Charles X

texts:
 monarchy to the oath of the old monarchy"; it is continuity with the Ancien Régime more than its return that the royalists extol, <mask> having inherited the qualities of his ancestors: "pious like Saint Louis, affable, compassionate and vigilant like <mask>, courteous like Francis I, frank as Henry IV". The coronation showed that dynastic continuity goes hand in hand with political continuity; for Chateaubriand: "The current constitution is only the rejuvenated text of the code of our old franchises" . This coronation took several days: the May 28, vespers ceremony;  May 29, ceremony of the coronation itself, chaired by the Archbishop of Reims, Mgr. Jean-Baptiste de Latil, in the presence in particular of Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, and a large audience; May 30, award ceremony for the Knights of the Order of the Holy Spirit and finally, May 31st, the Royal touch of scrofula. The coronation of <mask> therefore appeared to be a compromise between the tradition of the Ancien Régime and the political changes that have taken place since the Revolution.The coronation nevertheless had a limited influence on the population, mentalities no longer being those of yesteryear. From then on, the coronation caused incomprehension in certain sectors of public opinion. It was Luigi Cherubini who composed the music for the Coronation Mass. For the occasion, the composer Gioachino Rossini composed the Opera Il Viaggio a Reims. Domestic policies

Like Napoleon and then <mask>II before him, <mask> resided mainly at the Tuileries Palace and, in summer, at the Château de Saint-Cloud, two monuments that no longer exist today. Occasionally he stayed at the Château de Compiègne and the Château de Fontainebleau. Under his reign, the Palace of Versailles, where he was born, remains uninhabited.The reign of <mask> began with some liberal measures such as the abolition of press censorship, but the king renewed Joseph de Villèlle, president of the council since 1822, and allowed his reign to be marked by the domination of the ultraroyalists. He got closer to the population by the trip he made to the north of France in September 1827, then by the one he made to the east of France in September 1828. In these two trips, he is accompanied by his dynastic heir, his eldest son, the Duke of Angoulême, now being the Dauphin of France. In his first act as king, <mask> attempted to unify the House of Bourbon by granting the style of Royal Highness to his cousins of the House of Orléans, who had been deprived of this by <mask> because of the former Duke of Orléans' role in the death of <mask>. <mask> gave his Prime Minister, Jean-Baptiste de Villèle, lists of laws that he wanted ratified every time he opened parliament. In April 1825, the government approved legislation proposed by <mask>II but implemented only after his death, that paid an indemnity to nobles whose estates had been confiscated during the Revolution (the biens nationaux). The law gave government bonds to those who had lost their lands in exchange for their renunciation of their ownership.This cost the state approximately 988 million francs. In the same month, the Anti-Sacrilege Act was passed. <mask>'s government attempted to re-establish male only primogeniture for families paying over 300 francs in tax, but the measure was voted down in the Chamber of Deputies. That <mask> was not a popular ruler in the mostly-liberal minded urban Paris became apparent in April 1827, when chaos ensued during the king's review of the National Guard in Paris. In retaliation, the National Guard was disbanded but, as its members were not disarmed, it remained a potential threat. After losing his parliamentary majority in a general election in November 1827, <mask> dismissed Prime Minister Villèle on 5 January 1828 and appointed Jean-Baptise de Martignac, a man the king disliked and thought of only as provisional. On 5 August 1829, <mask> dismissed Martignac and appointed Jules de Polignac, who, however, lost his majority in parliament at the end of August, when the Chateaubriand faction defected.To stay in power, Polignac would not recall the Chambers until March 1830. Conquest of Algeria

On 31 January 1830, the Polignac government decided to send a military expedition to Algeria to put an end to the threat the Algerian pirates posed to Mediterranean trade and also increase the government's popularity with a military victory. The reason given for the war was that the Viceroy of Algeria, angry about French failure to pay debts stemming from Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, had struck the French consul with the handle of his fly swat. French troops occupied Algiers on 5 July. July Revolution

The Chambers convened on 2 March 1830, as planned, but <mask>'s opening speech was greeted by negative reactions from many deputies. Some introduced a bill requiring the King's minister to obtain the support of the Chambers. On 18 March, 221 deputies, a majority of 30, voted in favor of the bill.However, the King had already decided to hold general elections, and the chamber was suspended on 19 March. Elections were held on 23 June, but did not produce a majority favorable to the government. On 6 July, the king and his ministers decided to suspend the constitution, as provided for in Article 14 of the Charter in case of an emergency, and on 25 July, from the royal residence in Saint-Cloud, issued four ordinances that censored the press, dissolved the newly elected chamber, altered the electoral system, and called for elections in September. The Ordinances were intended to quell the people of France. However, the ordinances had the opposite effect of angering the French citizens. Journalists gathered in protest at the headquarters of the National daily, founded in January 1830 by Adolphe Thiers, Armand Carrel, and others. When the official government newspaper, Le Moniteur Universel, published the ordinances on Monday, 26 July, Adolphe Thiers published a call to revolt, which was signed by forty-three journalists:
"The legal regime has been interrupted: that of force has begun... Obedience ceases to be a duty!"In the evening, a crowds assembled in the gardens of the Palais-Royal, shouting "Down with the Bourbons!" and "Long live the Charter!". As the police closed off the gardens during the nights, the crowd regrouped in a nearby street, where they shattered streetlamps. The next morning, 27 July, police raided and shut down the newspapers that continued to publish (including Le National). When the protesters, who had re-entered the Palais-Royal gardens, heard of this, they threw stones at the soldiers, prompting them to shoot. By evening, the city was dominated by violence and shops were looted. On 28 July, the rioters began to erect barricades in the streets.Marshal Marmont, who had been called in the day before to remedy the situation, took the offensive against the rioters, but some of his men defected to the rioters, and by afternoon he had to retreat to the Tuileries Palace. The members of the Chamber of Deputies sent a five-man delegation to Marmont, urging him to advise the king to assuage the protesters by revoking the four Ordinances. On Marmont's request, the prime minister applied to the king, but <mask> refused all compromise and dismissed his ministers that afternoon, realizing the precariousness of the situation. That evening, the members of the Chamber assembled at Jacques Laffitte's house and decided that Louis Philippe d'Orléans should take the throne from King <mask>. They printed posters endorsing Louis Philippe and distributed them throughout the city. By the end of the day, the government's authority was trampled. A few minutes after midnight on 31 July, warned by General Gresseau that Parisians were planning to attack the residence, <mask> decided to leave Saint-Cloud and seek refuge in Versailles with his family and the court, with the exception of the Duke of Angoulême, who stayed behind with the troops, and the Duchess of Angoulême, who was taking the waters at Vichy.Meanwhile, in Paris, Louis Philippe assumed the post of Lieutenant General of the Kingdom. The road to Versailles was filled with disorganized troops and deserters. The Marquis de Vérac, governor of the Palace of Versailles, came to meet the king before the royal cortège entered the town, to tell him that the palace was not safe, as the Versailles national guards wearing the revolutionary tricolor were occupying the Place d'Armes. <mask> then gave the order to go to the Trianon. It was five in the morning. Later that day, after the arrival of the Duke of Angoulême from Saint-Cloud with his troops, <mask> ordered a departure for Rambouillet, where they arrived shortly before midnight. On the morning of 1 August, the Duchess of Angoulême, who had rushed from Vichy after learning of events, arrived at Rambouillet.The following day, 2 August, King <mask> abdicated, bypassing his son the Dauphin in favor of his grandson Henry, Duke of Bordeaux, who was not yet ten years old. At first, the Duke of Angoulême (the Dauphin) refused to countersign the document renouncing his rights to the throne of France. According to the Duchess of Maillé, "there was a strong altercation between the father and the son. We could hear their voices in the next room." Finally, after twenty minutes, the Duke of Angoulême reluctantly countersigned the following declaration:

"My cousin, I am too deeply pained by the ills that afflict or could threaten my people, not to seek means of avoiding them. Therefore, I have made the resolution to abdicate the crown in favor of my grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. The Dauphin, who shares my feelings, also renounces his rights in favor of his nephew.It will thus fall to you, in your capacity as Lieutenant General of the Kingdom, to proclaim the accession of Henri V to the throne. Furthermore, you will take all pertinent measures to regulate the forms of government during the new king's minority. Here, I limit myself to stating these arrangements, as a means of avoiding further evils. You will communicate my intentions to the diplomatic corps, and you will let me know as soon as possible the proclamation by which my grandson will be recognized as king under the name of Henri V."

Louis Philippe ignored the document and on 9 August had himself proclaimed King of the French by the members of the Chamber. Second exile and death

When it became apparent that a mob of 14,000 people was preparing to attack, the royal family left Rambouillet and, on 16 August, embarked for the United Kingdom on packet steamers provided by Louis Philippe. Informed by the British Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, that they needed to arrive in Britain as private citizens, all family members adopted pseudonyms; <mask> styled himself "Count of Ponthieu". The Bourbons were greeted coldly by the English, who upon their arrival mockingly waved the newly adopted tri-colour flags at them.<mask> was quickly followed to Britain by his creditors, who had lent him vast sums during his first exile and were yet to be paid back in full. However, the family was able to use money <mask>'s wife had deposited in London. The Bourbons were allowed to reside in Lulworth Castle in Dorset, but quickly moved to Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh, where the Duchess of Berry also lived at Regent Terrace. <mask>' relationship with his daughter-in-law proved uneasy, as the Duchess claimed the regency for her son Henry, whom the abdications of Rambouillet had left the legitimist pretender to the French throne. <mask> at first denied her demands, but in December agreed to support her claim once she had landed in France. In 1831 the Duchess made her way from Britain by way of the Netherlands, Prussia and Austria to her family in Naples. Having gained little support, she arrived in Marseilles in April 1832, made her way to the Vendée, where she tried to instigate an uprising against the new regime, and was imprisoned, much to the embarrassment of her father-in-law.He was further dismayed when after her release the Duchess married the Count of Lucchesi Palli, a minor Neapolitan noble. In response to this morganatic match, <mask> banned her from seeing her children. At the invitation of Emperor Francis I of Austria, the Bourbons moved to Prague in winter 1832/33 and were given lodging at the Hradschin Palace by the Austrian Emperor. In September 1833, Bourbon legitimists gathered in Prague to celebrate the Duke of Bordeaux's thirteenth birthday. They expected grand celebrations, but <mask> merely proclaimed his grandson's majority. On the same day, after much cajoling by Chateaubriand, <mask> agreed to a meeting with his daughter-in-law, which took place in Leoben on 13 October 1833. The children of the Duchess refused to meet her after they learned of her second marriage.<mask> refused the various demands by the Duchess, but after protests from his other daughter-in-law, the Duchess of Angoulême, acquiesced. In the summer of 1834, he again allowed the Duchess of Berry to see her children. Upon the death of Emperor Francis in March 1835, the Bourbons left Prague Castle, as the new Emperor Ferdinand wished to use it for coronation ceremonies. The Bourbons moved initially to Teplitz. Then, as Ferdinand wanted the continued use of Prague Castle, Kirchberg Castle was purchased for them. Moving there was postponed due to an outbreak of cholera in the locality. In the meantime, <mask> left for the warmer climate on Austria's Mediterranean coast in October 1835.Upon his arrival at Görz (Gorizia) in the Kingdom of Illyria, he caught cholera and died on 6 November 1836. The townspeople draped their windows in black to mourn him. <mask> was interred in the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady, in the Franciscan Kostanjevica Monastery (now in Nova Gorica, Slovenia), where his remains lie in a crypt with those of his family. He is the only King of France to be buried outside of France. A movement advocating for <mask>'s remains to be buried along with other French monarchs in Basilica of St Denis reportedly began a process of repatriation in late 2016, although the current head of the House of Bourbon, Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou has stated, in early 2017, that he wishes the remains of his ancestors to remain at the monastery crypt. The couple had four children – two sons and two daughters – but the daughters did not survive childhood. Only the oldest son survived his father.The children were:

 Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême (6 August 1775 – 3 June 1844), sometimes called <mask>X. Married first cousin Marie Thérèse of France, no issue. Sophie, Mademoiselle d'Artois (5 August 1776 – 5 December 1783), died in childhood. <mask>, Duke of Berry (24 January 1778 – 13 February 1820), married Marie-Caroline de Bourbon-Sicile, had issue. Marie Thérèse, Mademoiselle d'Angoulême (6 January 1783 – 22 June 1783), died in childhood. In fiction and film

The Count of Artois is portrayed by Al Weaver in Sofia Coppola's motion picture Marie Antoinette. References

Further reading
 Artz, Frederick Binkerd.France Under the Bourbon Restoration, 1814–1830 (1931). online free
 Artz, Frederick B. Reaction and Revolution 1814–1832 (1938), covers Europe. online
 Brown, Bradford C. "France, 1830 Revolution." in by Immanuel Ness, ed., The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest (2009): 1–8. Frederking, Bettina. "'Il ne faut pas être le roi de deux peuples': strategies of national reconciliation in Restoration France."French History 22.4 (2008): 446–468. in English
 Rader, Daniel L. The Journalists and the July Revolution in France: The Role of the Political Press in the Overthrow of the Bourbon Restoration, 1827–1830 (Springer, 2013). Weiner, Margery. The French Exiles, 1789–1815 (Morrow, 1961). Wolf, John B. France 1814–1919: the Rise of a Liberal Democratic Society'' (1940) pp 1–58. Historiography

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title: Harry Van Surdam

texts:
Henderson Edmund "<mask>" "Dutch" <mask> (September 28, 1881 – May 28, 1982) was an American football player, coach, and official, musician, composer, bandleader, and superintendent of the El Paso Military Institute. <mask> played college football at Wesleyan University from 1902 to 1905. <mask> then served as the head football coach at Marietta College in 1906 and 1907, at Sewanee in 1908, at the El Paso Military Institute from 1909 to 1912, and at the Texas School of Mines (now known as the University of Texas at El Paso) in 1920, compiling a career record of 22–8–3. He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1972. Early years
<mask> was born in 1881 in Hoosick Falls, a village in upstate New York. His father was a bandleader, and <mask> began playing with his father's band at age 12. After graduating from high school in 1898, <mask> attended the Michigan Military Academy on a music scholarship.He also played clarinet with the Detroit City Band in 1901. He next received a music scholarship at Wesleyan University in Connecticut and enrolled there in the fall of 1901. He played football at Wesleyan under head coach Howard R. Reiter who has been credited by some with the development of the overhand spiral forward pass. <mask> played halfback and end on Reiter's 1903 team and was the quarterback of the 1904 and 1905 teams. As a senior in 1904, he was selected as an All-New England quarterback. He returned to Wesleyan in the fall of 1905 for post-graduate study in chemistry, and he led the 1905 Wesleyan football team to a 7–2–1 record. <mask> was also a member of the school's track team and glee club.At Wesleyan, he joined Delta Kappa Epsilon Fraternity. <mask> worked in 1906 as a metallurgical chemist for Westinghouse Laboratories in New York City and taught at the Choate School in Connecticut in 1907. Coaching career

Marietta
<mask> was the head coach of the football team at Marietta College in Ohio for the 1906 and 1907 seasons. <mask>'s 1906 Marietta team compiled a 9–1 record, and his 1907 team went 7–2. Coaching at a small school, he made do with only 13 players and no assistant coaches. He later recalled: "I remember my team in Marietta had 13 men. It was rough on them when we had to play two games in two days.My pay there was $400 a year and there were no assistants or scouts to help." The forward pass became legal in 1906, and <mask> was credited with being one of the first coaches to incorporate the new tactic during the 1906 season at Marietta. On November 29, 1906, Marietta's Petey Gilman threw a 52-yard pass that stood as the longest forward pass in college football until 1920. <mask> later described the play: The passer had to stand back five yards and you could only throw flat passes. Throwing down the middle was still illegal. We had a tailback standing 12 yards back with two blockers in front of him. The quarterback took the direct snap from center -- paused briefly -- and then passed back to the tailback.Meanwhile the left end was streaking down the field. The ball was pumpkin-shaped and you had to sling it side arm, but you could get the job done. He recalled the reaction to the play: "When we threw it, the other team was dumbfounded. So were the referees. They were so confused they let it stand. Sewanee
In 1908, <mask> coached the 1908 Sewanee Tigers football team to a 4–1–3 record. Sewanee was one of the major powers in the early years of Southern football, and <mask>'s 1908 team defeated Georgia Tech (coached by John Heisman), played Vanderbilt (coached by Dan McGugin) to a 6–6 tie, and suffered its only loss in a close game with Auburn.At Sewanee, <mask> became friends with Grantland Rice with whom he later composed songs – Rice composing the lyrics and <mask>dam the music. El Paso Military Institute
In 1908, after finishing the football season at Sewanee, <mask> was hired as an instructor at the El Paso Military Institute in El Paso, Texas. He developed the football program at the Institute and coached the team. Though he was in his later 20s, <mask> also played on occasion for the Institute's football team. He played quarterback for the 1909 Institute team that shut out New Mexico, 11-0, in 1909. With respect to his eligibility to participate as a player, he later explained: "There was no NCAA west of the Pecos." In 1910, <mask> became the superintendent of the Institute.<mask> later recalled that he had taken time off from the Institute to pursue Pancho Villa after his 1913-1914 campaign into Ciudad Juárez, across the river from El Paso. When <mask> returned to El Paso, the Institute had been closed, and he was out of work. (In 1914, the Institute ceased operation, and its campus became the Texas School of Mines, later renamed the University of Texas at El Paso.) Texas School of Mines
<mask> returned to coaching in 1920 as the head football coach at the Texas School of Mines. He led the 1920 Miners to a 2-4 record. The season began with losses to Arizona (7-60), New Mexico (0-78), and New Mexico A&M (7-12) and ended with victories over the Base Hospital (28-0) and Aviation Corps (3-0). Music career and later years
<mask> also worked as a musician and composer for many years, beginning as a player in his father's band at age 12.He played with the Military Military Institute band and the Detroit city band in the early 1900s. He played for the Tent City Band in Coronado, California, from 1906 to 1909 and was the director of the El Paso City Band from 1910 to 1917. He organized an orchestra that conducted a world tour from 1923 to 1924 and also organized the El Paso Symphony Orchestra. He also organized and directed an orchestra at the Hotel Statler in Buffalo for two years. He also composed many songs, including songs about football. <mask> also worked officiating football games for 40 years, ending with the 1962 Army-Navy game. In 1972, <mask> was selected for the pioneer gallery in the College Football Hall of Fame.In May 1982, <mask> died at age 100 at the Hoosick Falls Health Center. Head coaching record

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title: Xuanzang

texts:
<mask>  (; fl. 602 – 664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of his journey to India in 629–645 CE, his efforts to bring over 657 Indian texts to China, and his translations of some of these texts. <mask> was born on 6 April 602 in Chenliu, what is now Kaifeng municipality in Henan province. As a boy, he took to reading religious books, and studying the ideas therein with his father. Like his elder brother, he became a student of Buddhist studies at Jingtu monastery. <mask> was ordained as a śrāmaṇera (novice monk) at the age of thirteen.Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty, he went to Chengdu in Sichuan, where he was ordained as a bhikṣu (full monk) at the age of twenty. He later travelled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism. At length, he came to Chang'an, then under the peaceful rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang, where Xuanzang developed the desire to visit India. He knew about Faxian's visit to India and, like him, was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist texts that had reached China. He was also concerned about the competing Buddhist theories in variant Chinese translations. He sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues. At age 27, he began his seventeen-year overland journey to India.He defied his kingdom's ban on travel abroad, making his way through central Asian cities such as Khotan to India. He visited, among other places, the famed Nalanda monastery in modern day Bihar, India where he studied with the monk, Śīlabhadra. He departed from India with numerous Sanskrit texts on a caravan of twenty packhorses. His return was welcomed by Emperor Taizong in China, who encouraged him to write a travelogue. This Chinese travelogue Dà Táng Xīyù Jì (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions) is a notable source about Xuanzang, and also for scholarship on 7th-century India and Central Asia. His travelogue is a mix of the implausible, the hearsay and a firsthand account. Selections from it are used, and disputed,  as a terminus ante quem of 645 CE for events, names and texts he mentions.His text in turn provided the inspiration for the novel Journey to the West written by Wu Cheng'en during the Ming dynasty, around nine centuries after <mask>'s death. Nomenclature, orthography and etymology

Less common romanizations of "Xuanzang" include Hyun Tsan, Hhuen Kwan, Hiuan Tsang, Hiouen Thsang, Hiuen Tsang, Hiuen Tsiang, Hsien-tsang, Hsyan-tsang, Hsuan Chwang, Huan Chwang, Hsuan Tsiang, Hwen Thsang, Hsüan Chwang, Hhüen Kwān, Xuan Cang, Xuan Zang, Shuen Shang, Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang. Hsüan, Hüan, Huan and Chuang are also found. The sound written x in pinyin and hs in Wade–Giles, which represents the s- or sh-like [ɕ] in today's Mandarin, was previously pronounced as the h-like [x] in early Mandarin, which accounts for the archaic transliterations with h.

Another form of his official style was "Yuanzang," written 元奘. It is this form that accounts for such variants as Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang. Tang Monk (Tang Seng) is also transliterated /Thang Seng/. Another of <mask>'s standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi (): 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit "Dharma" or Pali/Prakrit Dhamma, the implied meaning being "Buddhism"."Sanzang" is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon, or Tripiṭaka ("Three Baskets"), and in some English-language fiction and English translations of Journey to the West, Xuanzang is addressed as "Tripitaka." Early life

<mask> was born Chen Hui (or Chen Yi) on 6 April 602 in Chenhe Village, Goushi Town (), Luozhou (near present-day Luoyang, Henan) and died on 5 February 664 in Yuhua Palace (玉華宮, in present-day Tongchuan, Shaanxi). His family was noted for its erudition for generations, and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children. His ancestor was Chen Shi (陳寔, 104-186), a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty. His great-grandfather Chen Qin (陳欽) served as the prefect of Shangdang (上黨; present-day Changzhi, Shanxi) during the Eastern Wei; his grandfather Chen Kang (陳康) was a professor in the Taixue (Imperial Academy) during the Northern Qi. His father Chen Hui (陳惠) served as the magistrate of Jiangling County during the Sui dynasty. According to traditional biographies, Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness, studied with his father, and amazed him by his careful observance of filial piety after one such study about that topic.His elder brother was already a monk in a Buddhist monastery. Inspired, at a young age, Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like his brother. After the death of his father in 611, he lived with his older brother Chén Sù (), later known as Zhǎng jié (), for five years at Jingtu Monastery () in Luoyang, supported by the Sui state. During this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools. In 618, the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Chang'an, which had been proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty, and thence southward to Chengdu, Sichuan. Here the two brothers spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui, including the Abhidharma-kośa Śāstra. The abbot Zheng Shanguo allowed Xuanzang to study these advanced subjects though he was young.Taking the monastic name <mask>, he was fully ordained as a monk in 622, at the age of twenty. The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the Chinese translations at that time prompted <mask> to decide to go to India and study in the cradle of Buddhism. He knew about Faxian's visit to India and, like him, sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues. Pilgrimage

Dates
<mask> started his pilgrimage to India in either 627 or 629 CE, according to two East Asian versions. The 627 CE version is found in Guang hongming ji from Daoxun and is also in Japanese and Korean texts. The 629 CE is found in Chinese and western versions. This confusion, though merely of two years, is of significance to western history.The date when <mask>'s pilgrimage started is not resolved in any of the texts that Xuanzang himself wrote. Further, he did not write his own biography or travelogue, rather he recited it to his fellow monks after his return from India. Three of his immediate collaborators wrote his biography, and thus leaving three versions and with variant details. All three of these versions begin his pilgrimage in 629 CE. Yet, one version by Huili, states that Xuanzang met Yabghu Qaghan, someone who died in 628 CE according to Persian and Turkish records. If this detail in Xuanzang's biography and Persian-Turkish records are true, then Xuanzang must have left before Qaghan's death, or in 627 CE. In other words, some of the details in the surviving versions of Xuanzang biography were invented or a paleographic confusion introduced an error, or the Persian-Turkish records are unreliable.The Japanese version is based on 8th to 10th-century translations of texts that ultimately came from <mask>'s monastery, which unfortunately has added to the confusion. Most sources state that Xuanzang started his pilgrimage in 629 CE. Travel through Central Asia

Kingdom of Agni
In 630 CE, he arrived in the kingdom of Agni (Yanqi, in a place called Turpan). Here he met the king, a Buddhist along with his uncle Jnanachandra and precept Mokshagupta, who tried to persuade him to quit his journey and teach them Buddhist knowledge. He declined and they equipped him further for his travels with letters of introduction and valuables to serve as funds. Xuanzang observed that the country of Agni had more than ten monasteries following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, with two thousand monks who ate "three kinds of pure meat" with other foods, rather than non-vegetarian food only that would be consistent with Mahayana Buddhist teachings. Therefore, the Buddhists in this country had stagnated in their Buddhist teachings.Kingdom of Kuchi
Moving further westward, Xuanzang met about two thousand Turkish robbers on horses who had looted others. The robbers began fighting with each other on how to fairly divide the loot. After the loot had thus been lost, they dispersed. Xuanzang thereafter reached the country of Kuchi. This country of 1000 li by 600 li, had over one hundred monasteries with five thousand monks following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, and studying its texts in "original Indian language". The biographies of Xuanzang then describe implausible tales of a dragon race. This region was created by dragons from the waters metamorphosing into horses to mate and create dragon-horses, also into men and mating with women near this region to create dragon-men who ran as fast as the dragon-horses.These were men who would massacre an entire city and leave a deserted place. Baluka and other kingdoms
Further west he passed Aksu before turning northwest to cross the Tian Shan and then Tokmak on its northwest. He met the great Khagan of the Göktürks. After a feast, Xuanzang continued west then southwest to Tashkent, capital of modern Uzbekistan. Xuanzang describes more monasteries, such as the Eastern Cakuri monastery and Ascarya monastery, with Buddha's footprints and Buddha idols. According to Xuanzang's accounts, mystical light emanated from Buddha's footprints on "fast days". In the country of Baluka, the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism was in vogue.He crossed the countries of Samarkand, Mimohe, Kaputana, Kusanika, Bukhara, Betik, Horismika and Tukhara. These had cities near rivers or lakes, then vast regions with no inhabitants, little water or grass. He describes warring factions of Turk chieftains in control, with "illness and pestilence" rampant. From here, he crossed a desert, icy valleys and the Pamir range (which link Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges). Here, observed Xuanzang, the wind is cold and "blows with a piercing vehemence" (Li Rongxi translation). Ferocious dragons live here and trouble the travellers particularly those who wear "reddish brown" color clothes. Thereafter, he crossed past a salty sea, one narrow from north to south and long from east to west, he calls the Great Pure Lake.He describes supernatural monsters, fishes and dragons living in this lake. The Xuanzang travelogues then rush through the names of many countries, stating that more details are provided in the return part of his journey, as he crosses into country of Baktra. He adds that the Hinayana Buddhist schools were followed in all these regions. In the capital of the country of Baktra, states Xuanzang, is a monastery with a Buddha's idol decorated with jewels and its halls studded with rare precious substances. The Buddhist monastery also has an image of Vaishravana deity as its guardian. The monastery and the capital attracts repeated raids from the Turk chieftains who seek to loot these precious jewels. This monastery has a large bathing pot that looks dazzlingly brilliant and has a Buddha's tooth relic and Buddha's broom made of "kasa grass".Outside is a vihara built ages ago, and many stupas to honor the arhats (Buddhist saints). Kingdom of Bamiyana
South of Baktra is the country of Kacik, then the Great Snow Mountains with valleys "infested with gangs of brigands" (Li Rongxi translation). Crossing this pass, thereafter is the country of Bamiyana (a part of modern Afghanistan). There, state his travelogue is a colossal statue of standing Buddha, carved from a rock in the mountains, some one hundred and forty feet tall and decorated with gems. This valley has Buddhist monasteries, and also a colossal copper statue of the Buddha, that is over a hundred foot tall. He was told that it was cast in separate parts and then joined up together. To the east of a monastery in the Bamiyana valley was a Reclining Buddha entering Parinirvana that was over one thousand foot long.The people and the king of this valley serve the Buddhist monks, records Xuanzang. Heading east and crossing the Black range, Xuanzang describes the country of Kapishi, where the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism had come in vogue. It had over 100 monasteries with stupas. More than 6000 monks, mostly Mahayana, studied here. Along with these Buddhist monasteries, states his travelogue, there were over ten Deva temples (Hindu) with "heretical believers who go about naked and smear dust over their bodies", translates Li Rongxi. Furthermore, in the same capital region, there is a Hinayana monastery with 300 monks at the northern foothills. The citizens of this country, adds Xuanzang, fondly recall "King Kanishka of Gandhara" (2nd-century CE, Kushan empire).To its east are the "City of Svetavat temple" and the Aruna Mountain known for its frequent avalanches. His travelogue then describes several popular legends about a Naga king. He also describes miraculous events from a Buddhist stupa, such as raging flames bursting out of them leaving behind stream of pearls. The citizens here, states Xuanzang, worship pieces of Buddha's remains that were brought here in more ancient times. He mentions four stupas built in this area by king Ashoka. Travel through India

To Xuanzang, he entered India as he crossed the Black range and entered the country of Lampa. His travelogue presents India in fascicles separate from those for Central Asia.He, however, does not call it India, but the phonetic equivalent of what previously has been variously interpreted as "Tianzhu" or "Shengdu" or "Xiandou". More recent scholarship suggests the closest pronunciation of the 7th-century term in his travelogues would be "Indu". Xuanzang states that India is a vast country over ninety thousand li in circuit, with seventy kingdoms, sea on three sides and snow mountains to its north. It is a land that is rich and moist, cultivation productive, vegetation luxuriant. He adds that it has its own ancient customs, such as measuring its distance as "yojana", equal to forty li, but varying between thirty to sixteen depending on the source. They divide day and night into kala, and substances into various divisions, all the way to a fineness that they call indivisible and emptiness. The country has three seasons: hot, cold, rainy according to

masks: Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang


title: Xuanzang

texts:
 some Buddhists; while others say it is four: three months each of spring, summer, monsoon, and autumn.The kingdoms of India have numerous villages and cities. Their towns and cities have square walls, streets are winding and narrow, with shops lined along these roads. Wine is sold in shops on the side streets. Those whose profession is butchering, fishing, executioners, scavengers (castes that kill living beings and deal with products derived from them) are not allowed to live inside the cities. The cities are built from bricks, while homes are either made mostly from bricks or from "wattled bamboo or wood". Cottages are thatched with straw and grass. The residents of India clean their floor and then smear it with a preparation of cow dung, followed by decorating it with flowers, unlike Chinese homes.Their children go to school at age seven, where they begin learning a number of treatises of the five knowledges – first grammar, second technical skills which he states includes arts, mechanics, yin-yang and the calendar, third medicine, fourth being logic, and fifth field of knowledge taught is inner knowledge along with theory of cause and effect. After further similar introduction covering the diverse aspects of the Indian culture he observed, including fashion, hair styles, preference for being barefoot, ritual washing their hands after releasing bodily waste, cleaning teeth by chewing special tree twigs, taking baths before going to their temples, worshipping in their temples, their alphabet that contains forty seven letters, the diversity of languages spoken, how harmonious and elegant they sound when they speak their languages, Xuanzang presents the various kingdoms of India. Xuanzang includes a section on the differences between the Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhist communities. There are eighteen sects in Buddhism, according to Xuanzang. They stand against each other, debate "various viewpoints, as vehemently as crashing waves". Though they share the same goal, they study different subjects and use sharp words to argue. Each Buddhist sect has different set of rules and regulations for their monks.The monks who cannot expound a single text must do the routine monastic duties (cleaning monastery and such). Those who can expound one Buddhist text flawlessly is exempt from such duties. Those who can recite two texts, get better quality rooms. Monks who can expound three Buddhist texts get attendants to serve them, while the few monks who can expound all four are provided with lay servants. Expounders of five texts have elephants for travel, while six texts entitles them to security retinue. Kingdom of Lampa, Nagarahara and Gandhara
Xuanzang describes Lampaka (modern Laghman, near the source of Kabul river) as the territory of north India, one whose circuit is more than 1000 li and where all monasteries studied Mahayana Buddhism. They have tens of Deva temples (Hindu) which heretics (non-Buddhists) frequent.To its southeast is the country of Nagarahara, with many Buddhist monasteries and five Deva temples. The number of monks here, however, are few. The stupa are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. The local Buddhists believe that the Buddha taught here while flying in the air, because were he to walk here, it caused many earthquakes. Nagarahara has a 300 feet high stupa built by Ashoka, with marvellous sculptures. Xuanzang paid homage by circling it. Both Lampaka and Nagarahara countries were independent with their own kings, but they have become a vassal of the Buddhist Kapishi kingdom found near Bamiyana.The monasteries in these kingdoms are splendid, with four corner towers and halls with three tiers. They have strange looking figures at the joints, rafters, eaves and roof beams. The Indians paint the walls, doors and windows with colors and pictures. People prefer to have home that look simple from outside, but is much decorated inside. They construct their homes such a way that they open towards the east. Xuanzang also describes implausible events such as glowing rock footprints of Buddha, dragons, tales of Naga, a stupa in which is preserved the Buddha's eyeball as "large as a crabapple" and that is "brilliant and transparent" throughout, a white stone Buddha idol that worked miracles and "frequently emitted light". The travelogue states that Xuanzang went into a dark cave here where dangerous beings lived, recited Srimaladevi Simhanadasutra, and they became Buddhists.Thereafter they all burnt incense and worshipped the Buddha with flowers. Some five hundred li (~200 kilometer in 7th-century) to the southeast is the country of Gandhara – which some historic Chinese texts phonetically transcribed as Qiantuowei. On its east, it is bordered by the Indus river, and its capital is Purusapura (now Peshawar, Pakistan). This is the land of ancient sages and authors of Indian sastras, and they include Narayanadeva, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmatrata, Monaratha and Parshva. To the southeast of Purusapura city is a 400 feet high stupa built by king Kanishka, one with nearly 2000 feet in diameter and a 25 layer wheel on the top. There is a large monastery near it. Gandhara has numerous holy Buddhist sites, and Xuanzang visited and worshipped all of them.He calls the stupas and the Buddha images in this region as "magnificent" and made with "perfect craftmanship". Kingdom of Udayana, Kashmira
Heading north towards Kashmir, he arrived in the city of Pushkalavati, with many holy Buddhist sites. Xuanzang worshipped at these "great stupas and big monasteries". Thereafter he reached the country of Udayana, through which flowed the Subhavastu river (now called Swat river). It had 1400 monasteries of five early Buddhist schools (of 18 sub-traditions) – Sarvastivada, Mahāsāṃghika, Kasyapiya, Mahisasaka and Dharmagupta. These schools became unpopular, as the later form of Mahayana prospered. According to Xuanzang, these monasteries of early Buddhist schools are desolate and attract few monks.he then reaches the city of Hi-lo and Manglaur. In all these places, he mentions how Buddha lived here in one his previous lives (Jataka legends) and illustrated compassion-strength through his actions. There is a Buddhist temple northeast of Manglaur with the Avalokitesvara Bodhusattva image, one is noted for "its miraculous manifestations". Crossing another 1000 li, he reached Darada valley – the old capital of Udayana, with a 100 feet golden wood statue of Maitreya Boddhisattva. This statue, states his travelogue, was built by an artist who went three times into heaven to see how he looks and then carve the realistic image of him on earth. <mask> arrived in Taxila, after crossing a river with "poisonous dragons and evil animals". There, he visited a major Buddhist monastery of the Sautrantika school.From there, after covering some 2200 li, he passed through the country of Simhapura (Kalabagh), of Urasa (now Hazara), and then into Kashmira. He was received by the king, and numerous monks from the Jayendra monastery. Kashmira is land with a very cold climate and is often calm without any wind. The region has lakes, grows plenty of flowers and fruit, saffron and medicinal herbs. Kashmira has over 100 monasteries and more than 5000 monks. The residents revere four large stupas that were built in ancient times by Ashoka. King Kanishika too built many Buddhist monasteries here.He also had treatises with 960,000 words written on copper plates and had them stored in a newly built great stupa. The Kashmira region has numerous monks well versed with the Tripitaka, states Xuanzang. He stays in Kashmira for two years and studies the treatises with them. Xuanzang describes many events where he is helped by both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. For example, he describes leaving the city of Sakala and Narasimha, then passing with his companions through the Great Palasha forest. They get robbed and are walked towards some dry pond to be killed. A monk and he slip away.They hurry towards a village. Near it, they meet a Brahmin who is tilling his land. They tell him that robbers attacked them and their companions. The Brahmin goes to the village and beats a drum and blows a conch. About 80 men gather, and together they proceed to rescue the companions of Xuanzang. While other rescued companions of his wail about the loss of all their property, Xuanzang reminds them that they should all be happy to be alive and not worry about the loss of property. The villagers help his companions and him by hosting them before the resume their journey.Yet, elsewhere, Xuanzang also recites the implausible tale of meeting a Brahmin who was 700 years old and had two associates, each over a 100 year old, who had mastered all of the Hindu Vedas and the Buddhist Madhyamika sastra. He calls them heretics (non-Buddhists). These heretics help him and his companions get new garments and food. He stayed with this implausibly old Brahmin for a month, and studied the Madhyamika sastra with him. The memorial of Pāṇini
To the northeast of Varsha country, states Xuanzang, there is a lofty mountain with a bluish stone image of Bhimadevi. She is the wife of Mahesvara (Shiva). It is a great site of pilgrimage, where Indians from very far come with prayers.At the foot of this mountain is another temple for Mahesvara where ceremonies are performed by naked heretics who smear ash on their body. About 30 li (about 12 kilometers in 7th-century) southeast from these temples is Salatura, which says Xuanzang was the birthplace of rishi Pāṇini and the author of "Sabda-vidya-sastra". Inspired by Mahesvara, this rishi set out to "make inquiries into the way of learning" (Li Rongxi translation). He thoroughly studied all written and spoken language, words in ancient and his times, then created a treatise of one thousand stanzas. The heretics (Hindus) transmit this text orally from teacher to pupil, and it is this that makes the Brahmins of this city "great scholars of high talent with knowledge of wide scope". They have an image of Pāṇini installed in reverence of him in this city of Salatura. Kingdoms of Takka, Jalamdhara, Sthanesvara, Mathura, Matipura, Kapitha
The country of Takka is south of Kashmira, extending from the Indus river to its west and Vipasha river to its east.They produce abundant quantities of non-sticky rice and wheat, also gold, brass, iron and other metals. They do not believe in Buddhism, and pray in several hundred deva temples. This country has ten Buddhist monasteries left. There were many more before, states Xuanzang. These were destroyed few hundred years ago, during the rule of a king named Mahirakula (Mihirakula). The king did this in anger because when he asked the monasteries in his domain for a Buddhist teacher to teach him Buddhism, the Buddhists did not send to him any learned scholar. Mahirakula cruel deed against the Buddhists triggered the king of Magadha to go to war with him.Mahirakula is defeated, forgiven but returns to power by assassinating the king of Kashmira and Gandhara. <mask> recites the hearsay stories he heard about Mahirakula's continued cruelty and destruction of 1600 stupas and monasteries. <mask> then describes the surviving monasteries in Sagala with hundreds of Buddhist monks, along with its three colossal stupas, each over 200 feet tall, two built by Ashoka. <mask> visited the country of Chinabhukti next, which he states got its name because a region west of the Yellow river was a vassal state of king Kanishka. From there, during Kanisha's reign, peaches and pears plantations were imported into Chinabhukti, north India. Further northeast, he visited a Buddhist monastery of the Sarvastivada school with 300 monks. He describes another colossal stupa that is over 200 feet tall built by Ashoka.Near this, states Xuanzang, are numerous small stupas and large Buddhist caves. Around this monastery in the Himalayan hills are "hundreds and thousands of stupas, built so closely together than their shadows touch one another" (Li Rongxi translation). From there, he visited Jalamdhara. It grows non-sticky rice and cereals, its forest are luxuriant, the region is lush with flowers and fruits. They have 50 monasteries with over 2000 monks studying Mahayana and Hinayana traditions of Buddhism. They also have deva temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes (Shiva-Hinduism). From Jalambhara, Xuanzang travelled northeast through jagged peaks, deep valleys and dangerous trails into the Himalayan country of Kuluta.It is surrounded by mountains, and has abundant fruits, flowers and trees. It has twenty monasteries and over a thousand Buddhist monks studying mostly Mahayana Buddhism. It has fifteen deva temples frequented by heretics (Hindus). This region has many caves where Buddhist arhats and Hindu rishis live. He then headed south, into the country of Shatadru. Here, writes Xuanzang, people wear "gorgeous, extravagant" clothes, the climate is hot and citizens are honest and friendly by custom. It has ten monasteries, but ruined and with few monks.He visits the country of Pariyatra, where they have plenty of cattle and sheep, as well as a type of rice that they harvest in sixty days after planting. This region has eight ruined monasteries and ten deva temples. The monks study Hinayana Buddhism here. Xuangzang next arrived in the country of Mathura, calling it a part of central India. This region is fertile, people love mangoes, they produce cloth and gold. The climate is hot, the people are genial and good by custom, they advocate learning and virtue, states Xuanzang. This country has over twenty monasteries with over two thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism.Many deva temples are also found in this country. He describes the ritual carrying and worship of the Buddha and Buddhist deities in this country with incense and flowers scattered in streets. He visits and praises the Govinda monastery in the Mathura country. Next he visits the country of Sthanesvara, which has wealthy but unkind citizens who show off their wealth. It has three Buddhist monasteries with over seven hundred monks, a lustrous and clean colossal stupa which witnesses "many divine manifestations". It also has well over hundred deva temples and numerous heretics. The country of Shrughna has Ganges river to its east and Yamuna river in the middle of it.These people are like those in Sthanesvara country. They believe in heretical ideas (Hindu) and are honest by nature, states Xuanzang. They cherish learning,

masks: Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang Xuanzang


title: Xuanzang

texts:
 arts and crafts, and cultivate wisdom, blessedness. In this country are five Buddhist monasteries, over thousand monks mostly studying Hinayana, and over one hundred deva temples with numerous heretics. East of this region is the Ganges river with dark blue waters and strange creatures living in it, but these creatures do not harm people. The water of Ganges is sweet in taste, and the heretics believe it to contain the "water of blessedness", and that bathing in it causes sins to be expiated. After crossing Ganges, he entered into the country of Matipura.Here, according to Xuanzang, half of the population is Buddhist and the other believe in heterodox religions. The climate is cooler and more temperate, its people are honest and esteem learning. The king is Shudra by caste and worships at the deva temples. The Matipura country has ten monasteries and over eight hundred monks, mostly studying Hinayana. Over fifty deva temples are frequented by the heretics here. Xuanzang describes the sastras composed and under study at the major Buddhist monasteries of Matipura. This region has the city of Mayura, densely populated and with a great deva temple near the Ganges river.The heretics call it the "Gate of the Ganges". People from all five parts of India – east, north, west, south, central – come here crossing long distances on pilgrimage and to bathe at these gates. This place has numerous rest and almshouses, where the "isolated, solitary and needy people get free food and medical service". North of this place is the country of Brahmapura, densely populated with prosperous and rich people. Colder in climate, here people are rude and violent by custom. This region has five Buddhist monasteries and ten deva temples. Southeast of here, states Xuanzang, is the country of Ahicchattra with ten monasteries and a thousand monks belonging to the Sammitiya sect of Hinayana Buddhism.It has five deva temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes. The country of Vilashana and Kapitha are south and southeast of Ahicchattra. Most people in Vilashana are non-Buddhists, and there are two monasteries here with three hundred Buddhist monks. In Kapitha, there are four monasteries teaching Hinayana Buddhism, and they have over a thousand monks. Along with these Buddhist institution, Kapitha has ten deva temples. Kapitha, states Xuanzang, has a "beautifully constructed monastery with many lofty and spacious buildings adoerned with exquisite carvings" (Li Rongxi translation). It has Buddha statue at the top, Indra statue at left of the entrance and Brahma statue to the right.Kingdoms of Kanyakubja, Ayodhya, Prayaga, Kausambi, Visaka
The country of Kanyākubja, also called Kusumapura, has the Ganges River to its west, with flowery forests of brilliant colors, transparent waters and prosperous people. They are simple and honest by custom, states Xuanzang, with handsome and graceful features. They cherish arts and literature, speak lucidly. Half of the population is Buddhist, half heretics. The Buddhists study both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings. The heretics have over two hundred deva temples. The current king is Harshavardhana, a Hindu of Bais kshatriya caste descent.Three of his ancestors were also kings, and they were all known to the Chinese kings as virtuous. Xuanzang then recites, at length, the story of prince Shiladitya and how he constructed both major monasteries and temples, feeding hundreds of Buddhist monks and hundreds of Hindu Brahmins on festive days. He describes numerous monasteries in the southeast of its capital, along with large Buddhist temple made of stone and brocks, with a thirty feet tall Buddha statue. To the south of this is temple, states Xuanzang, is a Surya temple built from bluestone. Next to the Surya temple is a Mahesvara (Shiva) temple also made from bluestone. Both are profusely carved with sculptures. About 100 li to the southeast of Shiladitya's capital, states Xuanzang, is the Navadevakula city on the eastern bank of Ganges eiver.It is surrounded by flowery wood, has three monasteries with five hundred monks, and a multitiered terraced deva temple that is "exquisitely constructed" (Li Rongxi translation). About 600 li to the southeast is the country of Ayodhya. It grows abundant amounts of cereals, is blessed with fruits and flowers. People are benign and dedicate themselves to arts and crafts. Ayodhya has over a hundred monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. Its capital has ten deva temples. This is the country where some of the key sastras of the Sautrantika school of Buddhism were composed.A few hundred li east of Ayodhya is the country of Ayamukha. Here too, states Xuanzang, people are honest and simple. They have five monasteries with over one thousand monks, mostly studying Hinayana. Near them are ten deva temples. About 700 li southeast is the country of Prayaga, on the banks of Yamuna river. It has luxuriant fruit trees and cereal crops, its people are kind and helpful. Most of them believe in heretical religions, and Prayaga has several hundreds of deva temples.At the south of this great city here is a forest full of champaka flowers with a 100 foot ancient stupa with collapsed foundation, originally built by Ashoka. The city has a great temple with decorated buildings. At the east of this great city two rivers meet forming a dune that is over ten li wide, and it is this place that wealthy people and kings such as Shaliditya come on pilgrimage from ancient times and give alms. It is called the Grand Place of Almsgiving. Numerous people gather here and bathe at the confluence of two rivers, some drown themselves, believing that this washes away their sins and that it will give them a better rebirth. Five hundred li from Prayaga is the country of Kausambi. It produces abundant quantities of non-sticky rice and sugarcane.The citizens are bold, furious and dedicated to good deeds by custom. It has ten deserted and dilapidated Buddhist monasteries, attended by about three hundred monks. The country has fifty deva temples and numerous non-Buddhists. In the capital, within the palace is a Buddhist temple with a Buddha statue made from sandalwood. This Buddha image "emits divine light" sometimes, states Xuanzang. He adds that Kausambi is the place that Buddhists text predict is where the Buddha Dharma will come to an end in a distant future, therefore anyone who comes to this place feels sad and "sheds tears" (Li Rongxi translation). He headed northeast, crossed Ganges river again, and this came to the country of Vishaka.He calls its people sincere and honest by custom, fond of learning. It has twenty monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana Buddhism. Vishaka has numerous non-Buddhists and over fifty deva temples. Kingdoms of Sravasti Kushinagara, Baranasi, Nepala
In Fascicle 6 of the travelogue manuscript, <mask> focuses on some of the holiest sites in Buddhism. He begins with Shravasti (now northeast Uttar Pradesh), describing it to be a country of over six thousand li in circuit. The capital city is desolate, states Xuanzang, though some residents still live here. There are over hundred monasteries in its capital city, many dilapidated, where monks study Hinayana Buddhism.The country has hundred deva temples. He saw the decaying remains of Prasenajit's palace, then to its east the Great Dhamma Hall stupa, another stupa and a temple for the maternal aunt of the Buddha. Next to these, states Xuanzang, is the great stupa of Angulimala. About five li (~2 kilometers in 7th century) south of the city is the Jetavana garden with two 70 feet high pillars standing, but the monastery there is in ruins. One pillar has a wheel carved at its top, the other a bull. Xuanzang saw all the monuments associated with the Sravasti legends with the Buddha, though many of these were in dilapidated condition. He also a Buddhist temple 60 feet high with a seated Buddha image, and a deva temple about the same size as the Buddha temple, both in good condition.Over sixty li to the northwest of Sravasti capital, he saw a series of stupas built by Ashoka for Kasyapa Buddha, one who lived for "twenty thousand" years, states Xuanzang. From Sravasti, Xuanzang travelled southeast to the country of Kapilavastu. This country has no ruler, he states, and every city has its own lord. Well over a thousand monasteries were in this region, but most are dilapidated. Some three thousand monks continue to study Hinayana Buddhism in many of these monasteries. This country has two deva temples. He also describes a Buddhist temple with painting of a prince riding on a white horse, as well many Buddhist monuments and legends about the Buddha's early life in this region, as well as those of the Sakya clan.After Kapilavastu, he went eastward to the country of Ramagrama (Rama). The region is sparsely populated, the towns and villages in a dilapidated condition. He mentions a stupa where a snake-dragon comes out of the pond to circumambulate it, as well as elephants pick flowers and come to scatter on this stupa, according to Xuanzang. There is a monastery near this special stupa, where monks study Hinayana. Some hundred li to the east is another colossal stupa in good condition, one built by Ashoka. Past this forest is the country of Kushinagara, where towns and villages are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. He describes a large brick temple with reclining Buddha.He describes many monuments and sites he was able to see where numerous legends of the Buddha played out, including the site where he was creamted. In Fascicle 7, Xuanzang describes five countries. He starts with Baranasi (now Varanasi), stating the country has Ganges river to its west. The city is densely populated, with tightly packed homes in its lanes. The people are "enormously wealthy", mild and courteous by nature. Few here believe in Buddhism, most are heretics (Hindus). The country has over thirty Buddhist monasteries with three thousand monks studying Hinayana.There are over one hundred deva temples, most dedicated to Mahesvara (Shiva). Some of these heretic followers go naked and smear their bodies with ash. On the west bank of Varana river near Baranasi, is a great stupa that is 100 feet tall and was built by Ashoka. Before it is a standing green-stone pillar polished as smooth as a mirror, states Xuanzang. He describes many more stupas, pillars and monasteries in Baranasi country. After Baranasi, he visits the country of Garjanapati, where he finds the Aviddhakarna monastery that is "very exquisitely" carved with decorative sculptures. It is lush with flowers, with reflections in the pond nearby.From there he heads north of Ganges and visits a large Narayana temple (Vishnu). It has storied pavilions and terraces, the numerous deva statues are "carved from stone with the most exquisite craftsmanship". About thirty li to the east of this Narayana temple is a Ashoka built stupa, with a twenty feet high pillar and lion image on its top. From there he walked to Vaishali, where says Xuanzang, people are honest and simple by custom. They study both orthodox Buddhist and heterodox non-Buddhist doctrines. The country of Vaishali has hundreds of monasteries, but only a few have monks and are in good condition. He describes the Svetapura monastery with lofty buildings and magnificent pavilions.After Vaishali, he headed north and reached the country of Vriji. This country mostly venerates the non-Buddhist deva temples and doctrines, states Xuanzang. It has over ten monasteries with less than a thousand Buddhist monks. He then travelled to the country of Nepala, near the Snow Mountains. It has many flowers and fruits, yaks and two-headed birds. The people here, says Xuanzang, are rude and disparaging by nature, but skilled in craftsmanship. Their Buddhist monasteries and deva temples touch each other, and people simultaneously believe in Buddhist and non-Buddhist doctrines.The country has two thousand monks who study Hinayana and Mahayana teachings. Kingdoms of Magadha, Iranaparvata, Champa, Kajangala, Kamarupa
In Fascicle 8 of the travelogue, Xuanzang begins with the country of Magadha. The country and its capital is sparsely populated. A fertile land, it produces a fragrant form of rice with extraordinary lustre. It regularly floods during the monsoon season, and during these months one can use a boat to travel. People are honest and simple here, and they revere Buddhism. Magadha has fifty monasteries and over ten thousand monks.It also has tens of deva' temples. According to Xuanzang, there is city south of river Ganges in Magadha. It is very ancient. When human life was "innumerable years" long, it was called Kusumapura. One can see the very ancient foundations of Kusumapura. Later, when human life span reduced to "several thousand years", its name was changed to Pataliputra. Towards the north of his royal city is a huge standing pillar of Ashoka.There once were many monasteries, deva temples and stupas here, but several hundred such Buddhist and non-Buddhist monuments are in dilapidated and ruined condition, states Xuanzang. He then describes several legends associated with Ashoka, along with several stupas and monasteries he found in good condition. For example, he describes the Tiladhaka monastery about 300 li southeast of the Magadha capital. It has four courts, lofty terraces, multi-storied pavilions where thousands of monks continue to study Mahayana Buddhism. Within this monastery complex, states Xuanzang, there are three temples, the center one with a thirty foot tall Buddha idol, another has a statue of Tara Bodhisattva, the third has Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva statue. He visits Gaya and the Bodhi tree. Near the tree, he states there is the Mahabodhi monastery with many buildings  and courtyards.Inside these buildings are "most wonderful, and exquisitely done decorative paintings", states Xuanzang. It is painted in gold, silver, pinkish blue, lustrous white and semitransparent pigments, with the Buddha's ornaments in the panel embedded with gems and jewels. After crossing the Maha river, visiting many stupas, monasteries, rishi Vyasa hill, Vipula hill, Pippala Cave, Bamboo temple and other monuments, Xuanzang arrived in Rajagriha city (Rajgir) and Nalanda monastery. He stayed and studied at Nalanda. At Nalanda, he was in the company of several thousand monks. <mask> studied logic, grammar, Sanskrit, and the Yogacara school of Buddhism during his

masks: Xuanzang Xuanzang