title: Girish Puthenchery

texts:
<mask> (1961–2010) was a noted malayalam Lyricist, Poet, Scriptwriter and Screenwriter. He was always referred to as the aristocratic lyricist of malayalam who had a distinctive writing style of his own. He also served as the director of Indian Performance Rights Society Malayalam division (I.P.R.S) and governing council member of the Kerala Kalamandalam and Kerala  Lalithakala Academy. He debuted with the movie Enquiry in 1989. He won the Kerala State Film Award for Best Lyricist seven times. He also holds the record for writing the highest number of songs in the malayalam film industry within the briefest period of time. He died on 10 february 2010 in a private hospital in kozhikode.Life and career

Personal life
<mask> was born to Pulikkool Krishna Panicker and Meenakshi Amma in Puthenchery near Ulliyeri village in Kozhikode district of Kerala. His father was an astrologer and Ayurvedic practitioner, while his mother was a Carnatic musician.Girish learned the basic lessons of music from his mother and knowledge of Sanskrit from his father. he completed his primary education at GLP School Puthenchery, AUP School Modakkallur, and Palora HSS Ulliyeri after that he pursued a degree in literature at Govt arts and science college, Meenchantha. From a very young age, Girish was drawn towards the language and literature of malayalam, at the age of 14 his first poem named Mochanam (ml:മോചനം) is published in a weekly magazine .During his childhood days  he is an active member of Balasangam (an Indian children's organization wing of the CPIM ) and later he became a noted artist of Chenthara Arts Club (a cultural club located in Puthenchery) by writing and directing many dramas and songs along with his brother Mohanan puthenchery and natives. He is married to Beena and they have two children, Jitin Puthenchery and Din nath Puthenchery. His elder son Jithin started off as an assistant director, working on films Breaking News, Money Rathnam, Rock On 2 and Tharangam. Jithin managed to land his first major acting gig after writer director Shankar Ramakrishnan organised an acting camp to select actors for Pathinettam Padi.Jithin also played major roles in the films include Edakkad Bttalion , Pranaya Meenukalude Kadal. His younger son Din Nath started his career as a lyricist and copywriter who has penned many songs for Malayalam films including Meow Meow Karimpoocha, Matinee , Aasha Black, Money Ratnam , Gunday,Chennai Koottam, Seconds, Moonu Wickettinu 365 Runs, Olappeeppi, Mangalyam Thanthunanena, and is currently working as an assistant director in Malayalam film industry, most recently on the movie Trance. Prior to joining the malayalam film industry, He worked as a collection agent in Kozhikode RTO office and copywriter at All India Radio, Kozhikode. At the same time, he continued to write songs and Lalitha Ganams for popular cassette Recording Companies include Akashvani, HMV, Magnasounds and Tharangini and he also penned many hit songs for Dooradarshan and Asianet. Film Career
In 1989 malayalam movie Director Vijayan Karote introduced Girish to the malayalam film industry. Girish penned lyrics and screenplay for Vijayan karot's movie named Bhramarakashassu,but due to some reasons the initial release of the film was delayed, at the same year Girish got an opportunity to write songs for another movie named Enquiry which was directed by U.V Raveendranath and with Rajamani as the music composer through this film <mask>'s first song "Janmantharangalil" released and it was his debut movie, But the songs didn't gain much popularity. After that director Ranjith scripted for the movie George kutty c\o George kutty  turned Girish to the lyrics writing.Ranjith's recommendation brought him the chance to write songs for director Jayaraj's movie Johny walker which was his breakthrough film, whose track Shanthamee Rathriyil  has become iconic and had brought him critical acclamation, which reflects his career in Malayalam film industry. He was also one of the most honoured lyricists having won the Kerala State Award for best lyricist seven times.Almost all the hit songs from 2000's to late 2010's were penned by him. he had defeated the life with his songs that piles up on his thoughts and vanishes within seconds. With kindness, he subdued the songs with his pen. malayalam cinema's playback stage had that attachment with his life. after Vayalar and P Bhaskaran who had left over the malayalam languages beautiful branch of music, there always he made his presence felt with his beautiful lyrics. He was considered as one in a million song writer, someone who knows singing, that's why music directors tune were recorded on guarantee of this phenomenon lyricist.Other Works
Besides writing lyrics, <mask> had also written the screenplay for the films Brahmarakshassu, Pallavur Devanarayanan, Vadakkumnadhan, and Kinnaripuzhayoram, and the story for Meleparambil Aanveedu, Adivaram, Ikkareyanente Manasam, Oro Viliyum Kathorthu and Kerala House Udan Vilpanakku. <mask> has also published  two poetry collection which contains morethan 100 poems. He also composed music for a devotional album. He was also scripting a film by the name of Raman Police, in which Mohanlal was expected to play the lead role. He was admitted to MIMS hospital near his home on 6 February 2010 after he suffered a massive stroke. He was writing a eulogy on the popular actor and director Cochin Haneefa, who had died four days earlier, when he suffered a stroke. He slipped into a coma soon after reaching hospital.He was twice operated upon, but his condition did not improve and he suffered a brain hemorrhage. Finally he died at the hospital at 8:30 PM on 10 February 2010, aged 48. He was cremated with full state honors at the Mavoor Road crematorium on the next day. Awards

References

External links

Malayalam-language writers
Malayalam-language lyricists
Writers from Kozhikode
Kerala State Film Award winners
1961 births
2010 deaths
Filmfare Awards South winners
Screenwriters from Kerala
20th-century Indian poets
Poets from Kerala
21st-century Indian poets
Malayalam screenwriters

masks:
Girish Puthenchery
Girish
Girish
Girish
Girish


title: Kamil Chadirji

type: original

texts:
<mask> (1897–1968, ), also spelled <mask>-<mask> or Kamel al-Chaderji, was an Iraqi politician, photographer, lawyer, activist, and founder of the National Democratic Party in Iraq. He served as a member of the Chamber of Deputies of Iraq in the 1920s and 1950s. He was the father of notable modernist architect, <mask> and political leader, Naseer al-Chaderchi. He is noted for founding the National Democratic Party with a left-wing program and was an influential political figure in political life who opposed the monarchy and pursued a social reform agenda. Early life
<mask> was born in Baghdad to its mayor. His family was a part of the aristocracy, with roots in Anatolia. Chaderji's father played an important role in democratic reform before British rule.During the First World War, he served in the Ottoman Army. When the British took over Iraq as Mandatory Iraq, <mask>'s family escaped to Istanbul, with <mask> himself enrolling in the medical school there. He never graduated, and instead returned to Baghdad in 1922, following the establishment of the Kingdom of Iraq. He earned a law degree in 1925 and worked for the Municipality of Baghdad as well as for the Department of Finance, working in education. Political career

Kingdom of Iraq
In 1925, <mask>'s reformist ideas drew him to the newly-formed People's Party (Hizb al-Shab), which he joined. He joined the Ahali group, and was elected to parliament in 1927, becoming the minister of works from 1936 to 1937 under Bakr Sidqi and Hikmat Sulayman's government, resigning in protest against army interference in the government. In 1930, <mask>, as a member of the National Party (also known as the Ahali group), worked together with Rashid Ali, Hikmat Sulayman and Yasin al-Hashimi, the leaders of the newly-created National Fraternity Party (Hizb al-Ikha al-Watani).The National Party and the National Fraternity Party issued the Coalition "Fraternal" Communique on November 23, 1930. The party was not much of an organized and legitimate political party, instead serving as an opposition from powerful Iraqi political figures to the British. Its ideals were "Immediate independence for Iraq, the evacuation of British troops, and the development of a democratic and participatory Iraqi state," and they pushed their message through their Baghdad newspaper, al-Bilad (The Country). In 1946, <mask>, along with other left-wing "intelligentsia" types of the landed urban bourgeoisie (the dominant tendency in these isolated urban middle and upper-class communities) organized themselves into the National Democratic Party. Previously, <mask> and his group, made of Ahali reformists, had joined the Comintern in 1935 at the Seventh Comintern Congress in Moscow. <mask> was moderately anti-Zionist and advocated for strengthening the Arab League. In 1937, while serving as Economic Minister under the government of Hikmat Sulayman, Chadirji held talks with Zionist emissaries.He expressed his sympathies to the Zionist movement and his desire to reach a cooperative agreement for them. However, with the Palestinian question becoming important in Iraq towards the mid-1940s, the NDP increased its Palestine-related activity. In 1946, the Ahali Group's newspaper Sawt al-Ahali published editorials against the partition of Palestine and the creation of Israel. The NDP and other parties (including Jews), especially the Iraqi Independence Party, created the Committee for the Defense of Palestine, which organized protests in front of the American and British embassies, as well as calling for a general strike in May 1946 against Western pressure on Palestine. When the Arab-Israeli War started in 1948, <mask> wrote and published a front-page editorial for Sawt al-Ahali titled Palestine, which called for Arab countries to come together to defend Palestine. The NDP suspended their activities voluntarily in 1948, but resumed in 1950. Due to <mask>'s will to redistribute income and achieve a more political society, he was imprisoned 2 times in the 1950s.He was sympathetic to pan-Arab ideas. Sawt al-Ahali also served as an opposition mouthpiece. In 1949, Prime Minister Nuri al-Said had had enough of Sawt al-Ahali and its attacks, so he filed a court case against Chadirji. <mask> arrived at the courthouse accompanied by 21 defense lawyers. Inside the court, he lectured the prosecution and the judge on democratic values. The proceedings were published in Sawt al-Ahali, and <mask> was sentenced to 6 months of hard labor. However, the defense appealed the court ruling, and it was taken back by the court.The NDP helped organized demonstrations in 1948 against the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty (also known as the Portsmouth Treaty). On January 21, the Regent of Iraq called the leaders of the parties involved in the protests to a meeting at the palace. <mask> explained that the people of Iraq wanted the new, finished constitution to be implemented, and additionally demanded the full freedoms "of the press, association and opinion... and you in your capacity as the defender of the constitution must penalize the government when it behaves [anti-democratically]." In 1949, Syrian foreign minister Nazim al-Kudsi informed other Arab countries of Syria's desire for federation. <mask> was skeptical of this proposal, and, as he states in his memoirs, many members of the Iraqi opposition hoped for a collapse of the talks since, if successful, they would strengthen Nuri al-Said and the Sharifian elites. After the war, <mask> focused on trying to unite parties into a grand coalition to oppose the monarchy's authoritarianism. Seeing as the Al-Wathbah uprising of 1948 and the Iraqi Intifada of 1952 had failed, he realized that one party was not enough to bring about sufficient change.His efforts ended in the creation of the National Electoral Front (al-Jabha al-Intikhabiya al-Wataniya), consisting of the NDP, the Iraqi Communist Party, and other parties (only 2 groups in the National Front were legal parties), which contested the June 1954 elections, winning 10 out of 135 seats. <mask> continued to push his anti-British ideals. In August 1958, he met British Oriental Counselor Samuel Falle, and told him about the Arab perspective of events in the Middle East. <mask> talked about the inclination of Arab countries to the Soviet Union, their suspicion at American troops in Lebanon, and their perceived threat of British forces in Jordan. He recommended that Britain withdraw from Jordan and allow a plebiscite to happen to decide its fate. However, this talk worked largely in the opposite direction. After the Revolution
Following Abd al-Karim Qasim's 14 July Revolution in 1958, the Iraqi monarchy was abolished.<mask> was supportive of the revolution. The new regime pushed a message of authority and national legitimacy. The NDP chose to align more with the Communists rather than the pan-Arab parties to the right, even though the NDP was a bourgeois party and the ICP represented the working class. After the Revolution, they formed an immediate alliance with the Communists, but a stable coalition was not achieved, as the alliance came under constant attacks from Ba'athists and Nasserists. The NDP was weakened first, and then the ICP. <mask> disliked Qasim's politics – he believed that Qasim had no real political convictions, and likened him to a rope-dancer, who would "swing from one ideology to another to remain in power" just like a rope-dancer would swing from side to side to remain balanced. In 1963, <mask>, with the NDP now dissolved, sent a memorandum to Iraqi Field Marshal Abdel-Salam Aref, calling for democracy in Iraq.On February 2, 1968, <mask> died at the age of 71 from a heart attack. At about the same time, the NDP called for the signing of a "revolutionary covenant" to oppose the Ba'ath regime and create a popular democratic one. Private life
He was an enthusiastic amateur photographer. After retiring, he travelled across Iraq photographing street life, buildings, historic monuments. He and his son, Rifat, were afraid that Iraq would lose its historic and vernacular architecture as the country embarked on a program of “modernisation” and sought to document what might be lost forever. His son, Rifat, later recalled travelling around the country with his father taking photographs of the people, their culture and their buildings in an effort to preserve Iraq’s culture and history that was in danger of being lost as Iraq on a program of modernisation. Rifat <mask> explained his father’s interest in photography, "His early cameras were the large type that required a particular kind of knowledge in order to operate.He had a bunch of books in his library on how to use a camera. He had several cameras, some of which were the old bulky kind, in which he had to stick his head under a leather cover. Then the new cameras became available, and he bought a small Contax. He developed his own photographs in a dark room at our house. No one in our family, or our friends, had a camera back then. My father was the only one with a camera, going around Baghdad and the rest of Iraq, photographing markets, crafts, and other things. It used to be a hobby that he enjoyed on his own, as his politician friends did not share the same interest.He bought me a small camera when I was in primary school. He guided me through the process and taught me how to take good photographs. Legacy
Following his death, a collection of his photographic negatives was found in a tin box, allowing his son, Rifat <mask> to publish a book of his photographs. The book documents the built environment, daily life, cultural engagement, and social conditions in the Middle East from the 1920s – 1940s. References

External links
 Iraq's First Social Democrat | Mena – Gulf News

1897 births
1968 deaths
Iraqi politicians
National Democratic Party (Iraq) politicians
Political activists
History of Iraq
History of Iraq (1958–present)

masks:
Kamil Chadirji
Kamil al
Chadirji
Rifat Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji
Chadirji


title: Natalia Cruz

texts:
<mask> (born August 18, 1976 in Barranquilla, Colombia) is a Colombian journalist and news anchor in the United States, three time Emmy Award winner, news anchor for "Mega News" on Mega TV and "TV Realtor" at Real Estate TV show "Esta Es Tu Casa" on Mega TV network, previously affiliated to Univision Network, and the show Primer Impacto. Biography
Born to journalist parents, <mask> always had a passion for written works. In her youth she competed in writing contests. She won speech and poetry competitions as well as literature prizes. <mask> attended Universidad del Norte, in Barranquilla, Colombia where she majored in social communications and journalism. While studying, she worked in news radio on "Emisora Atlantico", <mask> began her broadcasting career at 17 as news anchor for the newscast "CV Noticias" on the regional television station Telecaribe. Manuel Teodoro gave <mask> her first exposure on national Colombian TV, as news anchor and reporter on the TV Magazine "Extra" on Caracol Television.In early 2000, <mask> moved to New York and worked for Spanish language Public TV on HITN (Hispanic Information and Telecommunications Network), where she also produced the shows "Corriente Cultural" and "NotiCultura". Later that year, she started as the New York City reporter for the daily morning show "Despierta America", on Univision, and did live shots for the longest-running variety TV show in the world, "Sabado Gigante". In 2001, <mask> was hired by the New York Telemundo affiliate WNJU as a reporter for Noticiero 47. With only one month on the job, she covered the WTC terrorist attacks, being one of the first reporters on the scene at Ground Zero. Her work was noted in the book, "Running Toward Danger: Stories Behind the Breaking News of September 11", and she was featured on the 9/11 Tenth year exhibit on the Newseum on Washington D.C.

After just 18 months working as a morning reporter, <mask> became news anchor on WNJU, now part of NBC, and received the 2004 Emmy Award as Best News Anchor for Tri-State area (NY, NJ, and CT). She was nominated the following year for five awards, winning another Emmy Award, this time for Best Newscast in 2005. Additionally, <mask> won the ACE Award as Best News Anchor in 2005.2006 saw <mask> win her third Emmy Award for Best Series of Social Interest. <mask> then started as New York correspondent for "En Vivo y Directo", on TeleFutura. Only two months later, she was brought to "Primer Impacto" on Univision Network. She won the NY Latin Award for Best National Correspondent in 2008. <mask> transferred to Miami in 2010 and has continued as a correspondent. <mask> often sits in as news anchor for shows at Univision, such as "Primer Impacto", "Despierta América", "Al Punto" and "Desayuno Alegre". She also briefs on "Noticiero Univision".and "Noticias Al Minuto" on TeleFutura. In July 2011, <mask> was promoted to Anchor for Primer Impacto Extra, broadcast on the weekends at 5pm / 4pm center; replacing Weekend Anchor Satcha Pretto who left the program to become the new News Anchor for Despierta America instead of Neida Sandoval. In 2012, <mask> hosted "Es el momento" Special "Primeros pasos hacia el éxito", Highlighting the Importance of Early Childhood Education; recorded at The White House featured artist Shakira and U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan among other experts. In March 2013 she conducted from the studios, Univision's first time ever live broadcast of Easter Mass from Vatican City celebrated by Pope Francis. In July 2016, she was appointed anchor for the TV show "Lo Mejor de Primer Impacto", Sundays at 5 pm / 4 pm Center on Univision. She continued at Univision until May 2018, after 12 years with the network. Starting in December 2018 is the news anchor for “Mega News- Edición de la Tarde” at 5:30pm (EST) / 2:30pm (PST) on Mega TV in addition to host and executive producer of the Hispanic Real Estate TV show "Esta Es Tu Casa" on weekends at Mega TV.The schedule for MegaNews with <mask> was expanded to an hour, starting at 5 pm (EST) / 2 pm (PST) since April 29, 2019. Career
Television

Radio

Awards
 "Latino Show Awards" for her career trajectory on journalism. Medellin, Colombia, October 25th, 2017. Award "Premio Estrellas Digitales" as News anchor Influencer of the year 2017. Coral Gables, June 9, 2017. Award "Angel de Impacto 2016" on Pasarela Angels of the Happy Family Foundation. Miami, October 1st 2016.Award "Mujer de Inspiración 2016" by 'Perla de Esperanza' Foundation. June 2016. Acknowledgment by "Latino Show Magazine" for her outstanding career and work with the Latino community in the United States, and for her 10 years of leadership with the TV show ‘Primer Impacto’. April 2016. Jury at "Premio Águila" 2015, 2016 & 2017, first and only international award for Hispanic media on the Christian industry. Award "Congo de Oro" by Carnaval de Barranquilla Internacional to Best Report 2015, given at Calle 8 Festival in Miami on March 13th, 2016. "National Godmother" at the Colombian Parade of New York in July 2015."Premio Colombia 2013" The Maximum award for Colombians abroad, because of their personal values and services to the international community. Miami (Nov 23rd, 2013)
 "Guest of honor" at the Bicentennial of Barranquilla by the Major Office of Barranquilla City. 2013
 One of the 13 "Top Real Women in Fashion 2012"
 One of the 19 "Most fashionable people of 2011" in Miami
  Featured on the 9/11 Tenth year exhibit on the Newseum on Washington D.C. 2011
 New York Latin Award 2008 as best national TV reporter. Emmy Award 2006 from the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, for her special investigation “Lead on Kids Jewelry” on the category series of social interest. ACE Award 2005 from the Association of Latin Entertainment Critics as best TV Host. Emmy Award winner for Best Newscast in 2005. 5 Nominations to Emmy Award 2005 including one as second consecutive year as best News Anchor/Host, Best Political Segment, Best Special Coverage, and two for best Newscast.Emmy Award 2004 from the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences as best News Anchor/Host. Emmy Award nominee for Best Newscast in 2004. "Nemqueteba" Prize 2004 by Colombians Breaking Barriers, on the Symposium “Promoting the development of the Latin Community” in recognition for her work in favor of the improvement of the Hispanic community in United States of America. Honor of Merit 2004 by Colombian Civic Center, in recognition for her dedication and support to the Hispanic community. Latino Community Leadership Award 2004 by Bergen Community College. Nomination to ACE Award 2003 by Association of Latin Entertainment Critics as best News Anchor / Host. Nomination to ACE Award 2002 by Association of Latin Entertainment Critics as best News Reporter.Honor of Merit 2001 by NJ Hispanic-American Parade for her covering on September 11 attacks. Volunteer promoter of ONG's campaigns such as Red Cross, World Vision and Children International. Several times Godmother of Latin festivals, including: NY Colombian Independence Festival, NY Colombian Parade, Hispanic Parade of New York, Hispanic Parade of New Jersey, Hispanic Parade of Bayonne, NY Puerto Rican Parade, NY Dominican Parade, Cali Fair of Elizabeth. Master of ceremonies for events and community forums in New York, New Jersey, Florida and Washington DC

References

External links

1976 births
Living people
Colombian television presenters
Colombian women television presenters
Colombian television journalists
Colombian women journalists
Colombian reporters and correspondents
Colombian expatriates in the United States
People from Barranquilla
20th-century Colombian businesspeople
20th-century Colombian actresses
21st-century Colombian actresses

masks:
Natalia Andrea
Natalia Andrea
Natalia
Cruz
Natalia
Natalia
Natalia
Cruz
Natalia
Cruz
Natalia
Natalia
Cruz
Cruz
Natalia
Natalia Cruz


title: Benjamin Lee Whorf

texts:
<mask> (; April 24, 1897 – July 26, 1941) was an American linguist and fire prevention engineer. Whorf is widely known as an advocate for the idea that differences between the structures of different languages shape how their speakers perceive and conceptualize the world. This principle has frequently been called the “Sapir–Whorf hypothesis”, after him and his mentor Edward Sapir, but Whorf called it the principle of linguistic relativity, because he saw the idea as having implications similar to Einstein’s principle of physical relativity. The idea, however, follows from post-Hegelian 19th-century philosophy, especially from Wilhelm von Humboldt; and from Wilhelm Wundt's Völkerpsychologie. Throughout his life Whorf was a chemical engineer by profession, but as a young man he took up an interest in linguistics. At first this interest drew him to the study of Biblical Hebrew, but he quickly went on to study the indigenous languages of Mesoamerica on his own. Professional scholars were impressed by his work and in 1930 he received a grant to study the Nahuatl language in Mexico; on his return home he presented several influential papers on the language at linguistics conferences.This led him to begin studying linguistics with Edward Sapir at Yale University while still maintaining his day job at the Hartford Fire Insurance Company. During his time at Yale he worked on the description of the Hopi language, and the historical linguistics of the Uto-Aztecan languages, publishing many influential papers in professional journals. He was chosen as the substitute for Sapir during his medical leave in 1938. Whorf taught his seminar on "Problems of American Indian Linguistics". In addition to his well-known work on linguistic relativity, he wrote a grammar sketch of Hopi and studies of Nahuatl dialects, proposed a deciphering of Maya hieroglyphic writing, and published the first attempt towards a reconstruction of Uto-Aztecan. After his death from cancer in 1941 his manuscripts were curated by his linguist friends who also worked to spread the influence of <mask>'s ideas on the relation between language, culture and cognition. Many of his works were published posthumously in the first decades after his death.In the 1960s <mask>'s views fell out of favor and he became the subject of harsh criticisms by scholars who considered language structure to primarily reflect cognitive universals rather than cultural differences. Critics argued that Whorf's ideas were untestable and poorly formulated and that they were based on badly analyzed or misunderstood data. In the late 20th century, interest in Whorf's ideas experienced a resurgence, and a new generation of scholars began reading Whorf's works, arguing that previous critiques had only engaged superficially with Whorf's actual ideas, or had attributed to him ideas he had never expressed. The field of linguistic relativity studies remains an active focus of research in psycholinguistics and linguistic anthropology, and continues to generate debate and controversy between proponents of relativism and proponents of universalism. By comparison, Whorf's other work in linguistics, the development of such concepts as the allophone and the cryptotype, and the formulation of "Whorf's law" in Uto-Aztecan historical linguistics, have met with broad acceptance. Biography

Early life
The son of Harry Church <mask> and Sarah Edna <mask>, <mask> <mask> was born on April 24, 1897 in Winthrop, Massachusetts. Harry Church <mask> was an artist, intellectual, and designer – first working as a commercial artist and later as a dramatist.<mask> had two younger brothers, John and Richard, who both went on to become notable artists. John became an internationally renowned painter and illustrator; Richard was an actor in films such as Yankee Doodle Dandy and later an Emmy-nominated television director of such shows as The Beverly Hillbillies. <mask> was the intellectual of the three and at a young age he conducted chemical experiments with his father's photographic equipment. He was also an avid reader, interested in botany, astrology, and Middle American prehistory. He read William H. Prescott's Conquest of Mexico several times. At the age of 17 he began to keep a copious diary in which he recorded his thoughts and dreams. Career in fire prevention
Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1918 with a degree in chemical engineering where his academic performance was of average quality.In 1920 he married Celia Inez Peckham, who became the mother of his three children, Raymond Ben, Robert Peckham and <mask>. Around the same time he began work as a fire prevention engineer (an inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company. He was particularly good at the job and was highly commended by his employers. His job required him to travel to production facilities throughout New England to be inspected. One anecdote describes him arriving at a chemical plant in which he was denied access by the director because he would not allow anyone to see the production procedure which was a trade secret. Having been told what the plant produced, Whorf wrote a chemical formula on a piece of paper, saying to the director: "I think this is what you're doing". The surprised director asked Whorf how he knew about the secret procedure, and he simply answered: "You couldn't do it in any other way."Whorf helped to attract new customers to the Fire Insurance Company; they favored his thorough inspections and recommendations. Another famous anecdote from his job was used by Whorf to argue that language use affects habitual behavior. Whorf described a workplace in which full gasoline drums were stored in one room and empty ones in another; he said that because of flammable vapor the "empty" drums were more dangerous than those that were full, although workers handled them less carefully to the point that they smoked in the room with "empty" drums, but not in the room with full ones. Whorf argued that by habitually speaking of the vapor-filled drums as empty and by extension as inert, the workers were oblivious to the risk posed by smoking near the "empty drums". Early interest in religion and language
Whorf was a spiritual man throughout his lifetime although what religion he followed has been the subject of debate. As a young man he produced a manuscript titled "Why I have discarded evolution", causing some scholars to describe him as a devout Methodist, who was impressed with fundamentalism, and perhaps supportive of creationism. However, throughout his life Whorf's main religious interest was theosophy, a nonsectarian organization based on Buddhist and Hindu teachings that promotes the view of the world as an interconnected whole and the unity and brotherhood of humankind "without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color".Some scholars have argued that the conflict between spiritual and scientific inclinations has been a driving force in Whorf's intellectual development, particularly in the attraction by ideas of linguistic relativity. Whorf said that "of all groups of people with whom I have come in contact, Theosophical people seem the most capable of becoming excited about ideas—new ideas." Around 1924 Whorf first became interested in linguistics. Originally he analyzed Biblical texts, seeking to uncover hidden layers of meaning. Inspired by the esoteric work La langue hebraïque restituée by Antoine Fabre d'Olivet, he began a semantic and grammatical analysis of Biblical Hebrew. Whorf's early manuscripts on Hebrew and Maya have been described as exhibiting a considerable degree of mysticism, as he sought to uncover esoteric meanings of glyphs and letters. Early studies in Mesoamerican linguistics
Whorf studied Biblical linguistics mainly at the Watkinson Library (now Hartford Public Library).This library had an extensive collection of materials about Native American linguistics and folklore, originally collected by James Hammond Trumbull. It was at the Watkinson library that Whorf became friends with the young boy, John B. Carroll, who later went on to study psychology under B. F. Skinner, and who in 1956 edited and published a selection of Whorf's essays as Language, Thought and Reality . The collection rekindled Whorf's interest in Mesoamerican antiquity. He began studying the Nahuatl language in 1925, and later, beginning in 1928, he studied the collections of Maya hieroglyphic texts. Quickly becoming conversant with the materials, he began a scholarly dialog with Mesoamericanists such as Alfred Tozzer, the Maya archaeologist at Harvard University, and Herbert Spinden of the Brooklyn Museum. In 1928 he first presented a paper at the International Congress of Americanists in which he presented his translation of a Nahuatl document held at the Peabody Museum at Harvard. He also began to study the comparative linguistics of the Uto-Aztecan language family, which Edward Sapir had recently demonstrated to be a linguistic family.In addition to Nahuatl, Whorf studied the Piman and Tepecano languages, while in close correspondence with linguist J. Alden Mason. Field studies in Mexico
Because of the promise shown by his work on Uto-Aztecan, Tozzer and Spinden advised Whorf to apply for a grant with the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) to support his research. Whorf considered using the money to travel to Mexico to procure Aztec manuscripts for the Watkinson library, but Tozzer suggested he spend the time in Mexico documenting modern Nahuatl dialects. In his application Whorf proposed to establish the oligosynthetic nature of the Nahuatl language. Before leaving Whorf presented the paper "Stem series in Maya" at the Linguistic Society of America conference, in which he argued that in the Mayan languages syllables carry symbolic content. The SSRC awarded Whorf the grant and in 1930 he traveled to Mexico City where Professor Robert H Barlow put him in contact with several speakers of Nahuatl to serve as his informants, among whom were Mariano Rojas of Tepoztlán and Luz Jimenez of Milpa Alta. The outcome of the trip to Mexico was Whorf's sketch of Milpa Alta Nahuatl, published only after his death, and an article on a series of Aztec pictograms found at the Tepozteco monument at Tepoztlán, Morelos in which he noted similarities in form and meaning between Aztec and Maya day signs.At Yale

Until his return from Mexico in 1930 Whorf had been entirely an autodidact in linguistic theory and field methodology, yet he had already made a name for himself in Middle American linguistics. Whorf had met Sapir, the leading US linguist of the day, at professional conferences, and in 1931 Sapir came to Yale from the University of Chicago to take a position as Professor of Anthropology. Alfred Tozzer sent Sapir a copy of <mask>'s paper on "Nahuatl tones and saltillo". Sapir replied stating that it "should by all means be published"; however, it was not until 1993 that it was prepared for publication by Lyle Campbell and Frances Karttunen. Whorf took Sapir's first course at Yale on "American Indian Linguistics". He enrolled in a program of graduate studies, nominally working towards a PhD in linguistics, but he never actually attempted to obtain a degree, satisfying himself with participating in the intellectual community around Sapir. At Yale, Whorf joined the circle of Sapir's students that included such luminary linguists as Morris Swadesh, Mary Haas, Harry Hoijer, G. L. Trager and Charles F. Voegelin.Whorf took on a central role among Sapir's students and was well respected. Sapir had a profound influence on Whorf's thinking. Sapir's earliest writings had espoused views of the relation between thought and language stemming from the Humboldtian tradition he acquired through Franz Boas, which regarded language as the historical embodiment of volksgeist, or ethnic world view. But Sapir had since become influenced by a current of logical positivism, such as that of Bertrand Russell and the early Ludwig Wittgenstein, particularly through Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning, from which he adopted the view that natural language potentially obscures, rather than facilitates, the mind to perceive and describe the world as it really is. In this view, proper perception could only be accomplished through formal logics. During his stay at Yale, Whorf acquired this current of thought partly from Sapir and partly through his own readings of Russell and Ogden and Richards. As Whorf became more influenced by positivist science he also distanced himself from some approaches to language and meaning that he saw as lacking in rigor and insight.One of these was Polish philosopher Alfred Korzybski's General semantics, which was espoused in the US by Stuart Chase. Chase admired Whorf's work and frequently sought out a reluctant Whorf, who considered Chase to be "utterly incompetent by training and background to handle such a subject." Ironically, Chase would later write the foreword for Carroll's collection of Whorf's writings. Work on Hopi and descriptive linguistics
Sapir also encouraged Whorf to continue his work on the historical and descriptive linguistics of Uto-Aztecan. Whorf published several articles on that topic in this period, some of them with G. L. Trager, who had become his close friend. Whorf took a special interest in the Hopi language and started working with Ernest Naquayouma, a speaker of

masks:
Benjamin Lee Whorf
Whorf
Whorf
Whorf
Lee Whorf
Benjamin Lee
Whorf
Whorf
Benjamin
Benjamin
Celia Lee
Whorf


title: Benjamin Lee Whorf

texts:
 Hopi from Toreva village living in Manhattan, New York. Whorf credited Naquayouma as the source of most of his information on the Hopi language, although in 1938 he took a short field trip to the village of Mishongnovi, on the Second Mesa of the Hopi Reservation in Arizona.In 1936, Whorf was appointed Honorary Research Fellow in Anthropology at Yale, and he was invited by Franz Boas to serve on the committee of the Society of American Linguistics (later Linguistic Society of America). In 1937, Yale awarded him the Sterling Fellowship. He was a lecturer in Anthropology from 1937 through 1938, replacing Sapir, who was gravely ill. Whorf gave graduate level lectures on "Problems of American Indian Linguistics". In 1938 with Trager's assistance he elaborated a report on the progress of linguistic research at the department of anthropology at Yale. The report includes some of Whorf's influential contributions to linguistic theory, such as the concept of the allophone and of covert grammatical categories. has argued, that in this report Whorf's linguistic theories exist in a condensed form, and that it was mainly through this report that Whorf exerted influence on the discipline of descriptive linguistics. Final years
In late 1938, Whorf's own health declined.After an operation for cancer he fell into an unproductive period. He was also deeply influenced by Sapir's death in early 1939. It was in the writings of his last two years that he laid out the research program of linguistic relativity. His 1939 memorial article for Sapir, "The Relation of Habitual Thought And Behavior to Language", in particular has been taken to be Whorf's definitive statement of the issue, and is his most frequently quoted piece. In his last year Whorf also published three articles in the MIT Technology Review titled "Science and Linguistics", "Linguistics as an Exact Science" and "Language and Logic". He was also invited to contribute an article to a theosophical journal, Theosophist, published in Madras, India, for which he wrote "Language, Mind and Reality". In these final pieces he offered a critique of Western science in which he suggested that non-European languages often referred to physical phenomena in ways that more directly reflected aspects of reality than many European languages, and that science ought to pay attention to the effects of linguistic categorization in its efforts to describe the physical world.He particularly criticized the Indo-European languages for promoting a mistaken essentialist world view, which had been disproved by advances in the sciences, whereas he suggested that other languages dedicated more attention to processes and dynamics rather than stable essences. Whorf argued that paying attention to how other physical phenomena are described in the study of linguistics could make valuable contributions to science by pointing out the ways in which certain assumptions about reality are implicit in the structure of language itself, and how language guides the attention of speakers towards certain phenomena in the world which risk becoming overemphasized while leaving other phenomena at risk of being overlooked. Posthumous reception and legacy
At Whorf's death his friend G. L. Trager was appointed as curator of his unpublished manuscripts. Some of them were published in the years after his death by another of Whorf's friends, Harry Hoijer. In the decade following, Trager and particularly Hoijer did much to popularize Whorf's ideas about linguistic relativity, and it was Hoijer who coined the term "Sapir–Whorf hypothesis" at a 1954 conference. Trager then published an article titled "The systematization of the Whorf hypothesis", which contributed to the idea that Whorf had proposed a hypothesis that should be the basis for a program of empirical research. Hoijer also published studies of Indigenous languages and cultures of the American South West in which Whorf found correspondences between cultural patterns and linguistic ones.The term, even though technically a misnomer, went on to become the most widely known label for Whorf's ideas. According to John A. Lucy "Whorf's work in linguistics was and still is recognized as being of superb professional quality by linguists". Universalism and anti-Whorfianism
Whorf's work began to fall out of favor less than a decade after his death, and he was subjected to severe criticism from scholars of language, culture and psychology. In 1953 and 1954 psychologists Roger Brown and Eric Lenneberg criticized Whorf for his reliance on anecdotal evidence, formulating a hypothesis to scientifically test his ideas, which they limited to an examination of a causal relation between grammatical or lexical structure and cognition or perception. Whorf himself did not advocate a straight causality between language and thought; instead he wrote that "Language and culture had grown up together"; that both were mutually shaped by the other. Hence,  has argued that because the aim of the formulation of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis was to test simple causation, from the outset it failed to test Whorf's ideas. Focusing on color terminology, with easily discernible differences between perception and vocabulary, Brown and Lenneberg published in 1954 a study of Zuni color terms that slightly support a weak effect of semantic categorization of color terms on color perception.In doing so they began a line of empirical studies that investigated the principle of linguistic relativity. Empirical testing of the Whorfian hypothesis declined in the 1960s to 1980s as Noam Chomsky began to redefine linguistics and much of psychology in formal universalist terms. Several studies from that period refuted Whorf's hypothesis, demonstrating that linguistic diversity is a surface veneer that masks underlying universal cognitive principles. Many studies were highly critical and disparaging in their language, ridiculing Whorf's analyses and examples or his lack of an academic degree. Throughout the 1980s most mentions of Whorf or of the Sapir–Whorf hypotheses continued to be disparaging, and led to a widespread view that Whorf's ideas had been proven wrong. Because Whorf was treated so severely in the scholarship during those decades, he has been described as "one of the prime whipping boys of introductory texts to linguistics". In the late 1980s, with the advent of cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics some linguists sought to rehabilitate Whorf's reputation, as scholarship began to question whether earlier critiques of Whorf were justified.By the 1960s analytical philosophers also became aware of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, and philosophers such as Max Black and Donald Davidson published scathing critiques of Whorf's strong relativist viewpoints. Black characterized Whorf's ideas about metaphysics as demonstrating "amateurish crudity". According to Black and Davidson, Whorf's viewpoint and the concept of linguistic relativity meant that translation between languages with different conceptual schemes would be impossible. Recent assessments such as those by Leavitt and <mask>, however, consider Black and Davidson's interpretation to be based on an inaccurate characterization of Whorf's viewpoint, and even rather absurd given the time he spent trying to translate between different conceptual schemes. In their view the critiques are based on a lack of familiarity with Whorf's writings; according to these recent Whorf scholars a more accurate description of his viewpoint is that he thought translation to be possible, but only through careful attention to the subtle differences between conceptual schemes. Eric Lenneberg, Noam Chomsky, and Steven Pinker have also criticized Whorf for failing to be sufficiently clear in his formulation of how language influences thought, and for failing to provide real evidence to support his assumptions. Generally Whorf's arguments took the form of examples that were anecdotal or speculative, and functioned as attempts to show how "exotic" grammatical traits were connected to what were considered equally exotic worlds of thought.Even Whorf's defenders admitted that his writing style was often convoluted and couched in neologisms – attributed to his awareness of language use, and his reluctance to use terminology that might have pre-existing connotations. argues that Whorf was mesmerized by the foreignness of indigenous languages, and exaggerated and idealized them. According to Lakoff, Whorf's tendency to exoticize data must be judged in the historical context: Whorf and the other Boasians wrote at a time in which racism and jingoism were predominant, and when it was unthinkable to many that "savages" had redeeming qualities, or that their languages were comparable in complexity to those of Europe. For this alone Lakoff argues, Whorf can be considered to be "Not just a pioneer in linguistics, but a pioneer as a human being". Today many followers of universalist schools of thought continue to oppose the idea of linguistic relativity, seeing it as unsound or even ridiculous. For example, Steven Pinker argues in his book The Language Instinct that thought exists prior to language and independently of it, a view also espoused by philosophers of language such as Jerry Fodor, John Locke and Plato. In this interpretation, language is inconsequential to human thought because humans do not think in "natural" language, i.e.any language used for communication. Rather, we think in a meta-language that precedes natural language, which Pinker following Fodor calls "mentalese." Pinker attacks what he calls "Whorf's radical position", declaring, "the more you examine Whorf's arguments, the less sense they make." Scholars of a more "relativist" bent such as John A. Lucy and Stephen C. Levinson have criticized Pinker for misrepresenting Whorf's views and arguing against strawmen. Resurgence of Whorfianism
Linguistic relativity studies have experienced a resurgence since the 1990s, and a series of favorable experimental results have brought Whorfianism back into favor, especially in cultural psychology and linguistic anthropology. The first study directing positive attention towards Whorf's relativist position was George Lakoff's "Women, Fire and Dangerous Things", in which he argued that Whorf had been on the right track in his focus on differences in grammatical and lexical categories as a source of differences in conceptualization. In 1992 psychologist John A. Lucy published two books on the topic, one analyzing the intellectual genealogy of the hypothesis, arguing that previous studies had failed to appreciate the subtleties of Whorf's thinking; they had been unable to formulate a research agenda that would actually test Whorf's claims.Lucy proposed a new research design so that the hypothesis of linguistic relativity could be tested empirically, and to avoid the pitfalls of earlier studies which Lucy claimed had tended to presuppose the universality of the categories they were studying. His second book was an empirical study of the relation between grammatical categories and cognition in the Yucatec Maya language of Mexico. In 1996 <mask>'s reappraisal of Whorf's writings was published, reinstating Whorf as a serious and capable thinker. <mask> argued that previous explorations of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis had largely ignored Whorf's actual writings, and consequently asked questions very unlike those Whorf had asked. Also in that year a volume, "Rethinking Linguistic Relativity" edited by John J. Gumperz and Stephen C. Levinson gathered a range of researchers working in psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology to bring renewed attention to the issue of how Whorf's theories could be updated, and a subsequent review of the new direction of the linguistic relativity paradigm cemented the development. Since then considerable empirical research into linguistic relativity has been carried out, especially at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics with scholarship motivating two edited volumes of linguistic relativity studies, and in American Institutions by scholars such as Lera Boroditsky and Dedre Gentner. In turn universalist scholars frequently dismiss as "dull" or "boring", positive findings of influence of linguistic categories on thought or behavior, which are often subtle rather than spectacular, suggesting that Whorf's excitement about linguistic relativity had promised more spectacular findings than it was able to provide.<mask>'s views have been compared to those of philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche and the late Ludwig Wittgenstein, both of whom considered language to have important bearing on thought and reasoning. His hypotheses have also been compared to the views of psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, whose social constructivism considers the cognitive development of children to be mediated by the social use of language. Vygotsky shared Whorf's interest in gestalt psychology, and he also read Sapir's works. Others have seen similarities between Whorf's work and the ideas of literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin, who read Whorf and whose approach to textual meaning was similarly holistic and relativistic. Whorf's ideas have also been interpreted as a radical critique of positivist science. Work

Linguistic relativity

Whorf is best known as the main proponent of what he called the principle of linguistic relativity, but which is often known

masks:
Lee
Penny Lee
Lee
Whorf


title: Benjamin Lee Whorf

texts:
 as "the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis", named for him and Edward Sapir. Whorf never stated the principle in the form of a hypothesis, and the idea that linguistic categories influence perception and cognition was shared by many other scholars before him.But because Whorf, in his articles, gave specific examples of how he saw the grammatical categories of specific languages related to conceptual and behavioral patterns, he pointed towards an empirical research program that has been taken up by subsequent scholars, and which is often called "Sapir–Whorf studies". Sources of influence on Whorf's thinking

Whorf and Sapir both drew explicitly on Albert Einstein's principle of general relativity; hence linguistic relativity refers to the concept of grammatical and semantic categories of a specific language providing a frame of reference as a medium through which observations are made. Following an original observation by Boas, Sapir demonstrated that speakers of a given language perceive sounds that are acoustically different as the same, if the sound comes from the underlying phoneme and does not contribute to changes in semantic meaning. Furthermore, speakers of languages are attentive to sounds, particularly if the same two sounds come from different phonemes. Such differentiation is an example of how various observational frames of reference leads to different patterns of attention and perception. Whorf was also influenced by gestalt psychology, believing that languages require their speakers to describe the same events as different gestalt constructions, which he called "isolates from experience". An example is how the action of cleaning a gun is different in English and Shawnee: English focuses on the instrumental relation between two objects and the purpose of the action (removing dirt); whereas the Shawnee language focuses on the movement—using an arm to create a dry space in a hole.The event described is the same, but the attention in terms of figure and ground are different. Degree of influence of language on thought
If read superficially, some of Whorf's statements lend themselves to the interpretation that he supported linguistic determinism. For example, in an often-quoted passage Whorf writes:

The statements about the obligatory nature of the terms of language have been taken to suggest that Whorf meant that language completely determined the scope of possible conceptualizations. However neo-Whorfians argue that here Whorf is writing about the terms in which we speak of the world, not the terms in which we think of it. Whorf noted that to communicate thoughts and experiences with members of a speech community speakers must use the linguistic categories of their shared language, which requires moulding experiences into the shape of language to speak them—a process called "thinking for speaking". This interpretation is supported by Whorf's subsequent statement that "No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality, but is constrained by certain modes of interpretation even when he thinks himself most free". Similarly the statement that observers are led to different pictures of the universe has been understood as an argument that different conceptualizations are incommensurable making translation between different conceptual and linguistic systems impossible.Neo-Whorfians argue this to be a misreading since throughout his work one of his main points was that such systems could be "calibrated" and thereby be made commensurable, but only when we become aware of the differences in conceptual schemes through linguistic analysis. Hopi time

Whorf's study of Hopi time has been the most widely discussed and criticized example of linguistic relativity. In his analysis he argues that there is a relation between how the Hopi people conceptualize time, how they speak of temporal relations, and the grammar of the Hopi language. Whorf's most elaborate argument for the existence of linguistic relativity was based on what he saw as a fundamental difference in the understanding of time as a conceptual category among the Hopi. He argued that the Hopi language, in contrast to English and other SAE languages, does not treat the flow of time as a sequence of distinct countable instances, like "three days" or "five years", but rather as a single process. Because of this difference, the language lacks nouns that refer to units of time. He proposed that the Hopi view of time was fundamental in all aspects of their culture and furthermore explained certain patterns of behavior.In his 1939 memorial essay to Sapir he wrote that “... the Hopi language is seen to contain no words, grammatical forms, construction or expressions that refer directly to what we call 'time', or to past, present, or future...”

Linguist Ekkehart Malotki challenged Whorf's analyses of Hopi temporal expressions and concepts with numerous examples how the Hopi language refers to time. Malotki argues that in the Hopi language the system of tenses consists of future and non-future and that the single difference between the three-tense system of European languages and the Hopi system, is that the latter combines past and present to form a single category. Malotki's critique was widely cited as the final piece of evidence in refuting Whorf's ideas and his concept of linguistic relativity while other scholars defended the analysis of Hopi, arguing that Whorf's claim was not that Hopi lacked words or categories to describe temporality, but that the Hopi concept of time is altogether different from that of English speakers. Whorf described the Hopi categories of tense, noting that time is not divided into past, present and future, as is common in European languages, but rather a single tense refers to both present and past while another refers to events that have not yet happened and may or may not happen in the future. He also described a large array of stems that he called "tensors" which describes aspects of temporality, but without referring to countable units of time as in English and most European languages. Contributions to linguistic theory
Whorf's distinction between "overt" (phenotypical) and "covert" (cryptotypical) grammatical categories has become widely influential in linguistics and anthropology. British linguist Michael Halliday wrote about Whorf's notion of the "cryptotype", and the conception of "how grammar models reality", that it would "eventually turn out to be among the major contributions of twentieth century linguistics".Furthermore, Whorf introduced the concept of the allophone, a word that describes positional phonetic variants of a single superordinate phoneme; in doing so he placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by G. L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition. Whorf considered allophones to be another example of linguistic relativity. The principle of allophony describes how acoustically different sounds can be treated as reflections of a single phoneme in a language. This sometimes makes the different sound appear similar to native speakers of the language, even to the point that they are unable to distinguish them auditorily without special training. Whorf wrote that: "[allophones] are also relativistic. Objectively, acoustically, and physiologically the allophones of [a] phoneme may be extremely unlike, hence the impossibility of determining what is what.You always have to keep the observer in the picture. What linguistic pattern makes like is like, and what it makes unlike is unlike". (Whorf, 1940)

Central to Whorf's inquiries was the approach later described as metalinguistics by G. L. Trager, who in 1950 published four of Whorf's essays as "Four articles on Metalinguistics". Whorf was crucially interested in the ways in which speakers come to be aware of the language that they use, and become able to describe and analyze language using language itself to do so. Whorf saw that the ability to arrive at progressively more accurate descriptions of the world hinged partly on the ability to construct a metalanguage to describe how language affects experience, and thus to have the ability to calibrate different conceptual schemes. Whorf's endeavors have since been taken up in the development of the study of metalinguistics and metalinguistic awareness, first by Michael Silverstein who published a radical and influential rereading of Whorf in 1979 and subsequently in the field of linguistic anthropology. Studies of Uto-Aztecan languages
Whorf conducted important work on the Uto-Aztecan languages, which Sapir had conclusively demonstrated as a valid language family in 1915.Working first on Nahuatl, Tepecano, Tohono O'odham he established familiarity with the language group before he met Sapir in 1928. During <mask>'s time at Yale he published several articles on Uto-Aztecan linguistics, such as "Notes on the Tübatulabal language". In 1935 he published "The Comparative Linguistics of Uto-Aztecan", and a review of Kroeber's survey of Uto-Aztecan linguistics. Whorf's work served to further cement the foundations of the comparative Uto-Aztecan studies. The first Native American language Whorf studied was the Uto-Aztecan language Nahuatl which he studied first from colonial grammars and documents, and later became the subject of his first field work experience in 1930. Based on his studies of Classical Nahuatl Whorf argued that Nahuatl was an oligosynthetic language, a typological category that he invented. In Mexico working with native speakers, he studied the dialects of Milpa Alta and Tepoztlán.His grammar sketch of the Milpa Alta dialect of Nahuatl was not published during his lifetime, but it was published posthumously by Harry Hoijer and became quite influential and used as the basic description of "Modern Nahuatl" by many scholars. The description of the dialect is quite condensed and in some places difficult to understand because of Whorf's propensity of inventing his own unique terminology for grammatical concepts, but the work has generally been considered to be technically advanced. He also produced an analysis of the prosody of these dialects which he related to the history of the glottal stop and vowel length in Nahuan languages. This work was prepared for publication by Lyle Campbell and Frances Karttunen in 1993, who also considered it a valuable description of the two endangered dialects, and the only one of its kind to include detailed phonetic analysis of supra-segmental phenomena. In Uto-Aztecan linguistics one of Whorf's achievements was to determine the reason the Nahuatl language has the phoneme , not found in the other languages of the family. The existence of  in Nahuatl had puzzled previous linguists and caused Sapir to reconstruct a  phoneme for proto-Uto-Aztecan based only on evidence from Aztecan. In a 1937 paper published in the journal American Anthropologist, Whorf argued that the phoneme resulted from some of the Nahuan or Aztecan languages having undergone a sound change from the original * to  in the position before *.This sound law is known as "Whorf's law", considered valid although a more detailed understanding of the precise conditions under which it took place has since been developed. Also in 1937, <mask> and his friend G. L. Trager, published a paper in which they elaborated on the Azteco-Tanoan language family, proposed originally by Sapir as a family comprising the Uto-Aztecan and the Kiowa-Tanoan languages—(the Tewa and Kiowa languages). Maya epigraphy
In a series of published and unpublished studies in the 1930s, <mask> argued that Mayan writing was to some extent phonetic. While his work on deciphering the Maya script gained some support from Alfred Tozzer at Harvard, the main authority on Ancient Maya culture, J. E. S. Thompson, strongly rejected Whorf's ideas, saying that Mayan writing lacked a phonetic component and is therefore impossible to decipher based on a linguistic analysis. Whorf argued that it was exactly the reluctance to apply linguistic analysis of Maya languages that had held the decipherment back. Whorf sought for cues to phonetic values within the elements of the specific signs, and never realized that the system was logo-syllabic. Although <mask>'s approach to understanding the Maya script is now known to have been misguided, his central claim that the script was phonetic and should be deciphered as such was vindicated by Yuri Knorozov's syllabic decipherment of Mayan writing in the 1950s.Notes

Commentary notes

References

Sources

External links

 B. L<mask>, . <mask> Whorf Papers (MS 822). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. What Whorf Really Said – Evaluation of Pinker's (1994) critique of Whorf, by Nick Yee

1897 births
1941 deaths
People from Winthrop, Massachusetts
Linguists from the United States
American anthropologists
American Mesoamericanists
MIT School of Engineering alumni
Linguists of Mesoamerican languages
Mesoamerican epigraphers
Mayanists
American translation scholars
20th-century Mesoamericanists
Yale University alumni
Linguists of Aztec–Tanoan languages
Linguists of Uto-Aztecan languages
Linguists of Tanoan languages
Paleolinguists
20th-century linguists
Linguists of indigenous languages of North America
American chemical engineers
20th-century

masks:
Whorf
Whorf
Whorf
Whorf
. Whorf
Benjamin Lee


title: Linda Evans (author)

texts:
<mask> (born December 6, 1958) is an American science fiction writer currently residing in Archer, Florida. She is an author of ten novels and four anthologies, as well as of several other co-authored novels. In 1996 her published novels had sold more than 100,000 copies. She has been published in English, German, and Russian, as well as hardback, paperback, and book-club editions. Early life
<mask> was born December 25, 1958. She grew up in Crawfordsville, Indiana and attended Crawfordsville High School. After graduation she attended Flagler College in St. Augustine, Florida.She began a career at the University of Florida in the 1980s, working in the university's College of Dentistry and its Gator Band office. During the 1990s, <mask> was employed at the University of Florida’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences as a writer in the department of Marketing and Communications and during the late 2000s in the Institute's International Programs office. Her title was Coordinator Educational Media/Communications and International Focus Newsletter Editor. She was writer, editor, webmaster and web graphic designer, photographer and print-document graphic designer, marketing and public relations specialist, event coordinator, and international-visitor tour organizer. <mask> retired from the University of Florida after a 28-year career there. Works
Sleipnir — Baen (1994), read online  As <mask>' first published work, Sleipnir required ten years to produce between beginning to write and its first printing. Far Edge of Darkness — Baen; First Edition (July 1, 1996) read online

While many assume that Sleipnir was intended to be part of a series, this is not actually true.The novel was always intended to be a stand-alone work. A possible sequel has been contemplated. The ending is Heinleinian, in that it suggests action to come without actually intending for the story to continue. While some readers find this unsatisfying, the book did not, as is sometimes reported, end on a cliffhanger. The second novel, Far Edge of Darkness, was intended as the first half of the story and it does end with a literal cliffhanger, meaning the story is unfinished and has been since 1996. The sequel is currently in outline stage. The "Hell's Gate" series, for which nothing has been added since 2007, is still in development.The first two books have been published in the "Hell's Gate" series and a third book is under development. The author apologizes to her readers, but continuing serious health problems have made writing difficult for her. ANTHOLOGIES:

"Bolos 3: The Triumphant"
Novellas Included:
"The Farmer's Wife"
"Little Red Hen" (co-written with Robert R. Hollingsworth)
"Little Dog Gone"
(See "With David Weber" below for further details)

"Bolos 4:  Last Stand" (1996)
In this anthology, <mask> wrote a fictional "historical essay" of humanity's contacts with alien races. "Bolos 6:  Cold Steel" (2002)
In this anthology, <mask> wrote the second of two novellas in the collection, titled "Though Hell Should Bar the Way". "Worlds of Honor", in David Weber's Honor Harrington Universe:
In this anthology, <mask> wrote the opening novella, "The Stray", which is a far-future murder mystery in which the sole witness is an alien incapable of producing verbal language. (See below for further details)

With David Weber
Bolos: Book 3 The Triumphant
In this anthology, <mask> wrote 3 novellas (one in collaboration with Robert R. Hollingsworth) and David Weber wrote a fourth novella. The works by <mask>, "The Farmer's Wife", "Little Red Hen", and "Little Dog Gone", were her own work, not co-written with Weber; similarly, the novella by Weber was his own work, not written in collaboration with <mask>.Worlds of Honor"
In this anthology, <mask> wrote the opening novella, "The Stray", while writing in Weber's Honor Harrington universe. Weber did not co-author that novella. Hell's Gate seriesHell's Gate   (2006)Hell Hath No Fury   (2007)

With John RingoThe Road to Damascus   (read online) (2004)
NOTE:  This novel, written by <mask> from an outline by John Ringo, is also set in the Bolos universe created by Keith Laumer. With Robert AsprinFor King and Country (2002)
This novel, written (as were all the <mask>rin collaborations) by <mask> from an outline by Asprin, is a stand-alone novel of time-travel and the historical "King Arthur," the 5th Century Dux Bellorum (Duke of Battle) Artorius, a Romanized Briton, fighting invasions from all four compass points approximately one century after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain. NOTE:  The "Time Scout" series below, all written by <mask> from outlines by Robert Asprin (which <mask> changed considerably), is set in a near-future time period when time travel is made possible through gates in time. Time travel has become a big tourism business, with "time terminals" like airport terminals, where tourists and scholars can depart for destinations such as the American "Wild West", the early Roman Empire, or Victorian London. Unknown gates are explored by "time scouts" who searching to discover where these "gates" go.Unstable gates can dump "downtimers" unexpectedly into the station, where they must forge a way to live, since they cannot return to their own time periods. Other unstable gates dump even stranger surprises into the time terminals! The titles below are listed in reverse story order. "Time Scout", the first book, is a stand-alone novel, as is "Wagers of Sin". However, "Ripping Time" and "The House That Jack Built" constitute one complete story, told across the two books.The House That Jack Built (2001)Ripping Time (2000)Wagers of Sin (1996)Time Scout'' (1995)

References

External links
<mask> at Baen Books

20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American science fiction writers
American women short story writers
American women novelists
Crawfordsville High School alumni
Flagler College alumni
Living people
1958 births
Novelists from Indiana
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers

masks:
Linda Ellen Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Evans
Linda Evans
Evans Asp
Linda Evans
Linda Evans
Evans
Linda Evans


title: John P. O'Neill

texts:
<mask>'Neill (February 6, 1952September 11, 2001) was an American counter-terrorism expert who worked as a special agent and eventually a Special Agent in Charge in the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In 1995, O'Neill began to intensely study the roots of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing after he assisted in the capture of Ramzi Yousef, who was the leader of that plot. He subsequently learned of al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden, and investigated the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing in Saudi Arabia and the 2000 USS Cole bombing in Yemen. Partly due to personal friction he had within the FBI and federal government, O'Neill left the Bureau in August 2001. He became the head of security at the World Trade Center, where he died at age 49 while helping to evacuate the North Tower during the September 11 attacks. O'Neill's life has been featured in a number of documentaries and books. Early life
O'Neill was born in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on February 6, 1952.As a child, his favorite television show was The F.B.I., a crime drama based around true cases the bureau had handled. In 1971, after graduating from Holy Spirit High School, he enrolled at American University in Washington, D.C. While there, O'Neill also started working at the FBI's Washington headquarters, first as a fingerprint clerk and later as a tour guide. He graduated with a degree in administration of justice from American University in 1974 and later obtained a master's degree in forensics from George Washington University. Career

1976–1995
The FBI hired O'Neill as an agent in 1976. Over the next 15 years, he worked on issues such as white-collar crime, organized crime, and foreign counterintelligence while based at the Washington bureau. In 1991, he received an important promotion and was moved to the FBI's Chicago field office, where he was Assistant Special Agent in Charge.While there, he established the Fugitive Task Force in an effort to promote inter-agency cooperation and enhance ties between the FBI and local law enforcement. In 1994, O'Neill also became supervisor of VAPCON, a task force investigating abortion clinic bombings. 1995–1999
In 1995, he returned to the FBI's Washington, D.C. headquarters and became chief of the counter-terrorism section. On his first day, he received a call from his friend Richard Clarke, who had just learned that Ramzi Yousef had been located in Pakistan. O'Neill worked continuously over the next few days to gather information and coordinate the successful capture and extradition of Yousef. Intrigued by the case, O'Neill continued to study the 1993 bombing Yousef had masterminded and other information about Islamic militants. He was directly involved in the investigation into the June 1996 bombing of the Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia, which took place during a retreat O'Neill had organized in Quantico for FBI and CIA counter-terrorism agents.Frustrated by the level of cooperation from the Saudis, O'Neill purportedly vented to FBI Director Louis Freeh, saying they were "blowing smoke up your ass," although Freeh later denied this, claiming they had an excellent relationship. In 1996 and 1997, O'Neill continued to warn of growing threats of terrorism, saying that modern groups are not supported by governments and that there are terrorist cells operating within the United States. He stated that veterans of the insurgency by Afghan rebels against the Soviet Union's invasion in the 1980s had become a major threat. In January 1997, he moved to New York City to be Special Agent in Charge of the FBI's National Security Division, the FBI's "largest and most prestigious field office." By 1998, O'Neill had become focused on Osama bin Laden and created an al-Qaeda desk in his division. In August 1998, two United States embassies were bombed in quick succession in simultaneous attacks in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. O'Neill hoped to be involved in the investigation because he had gained a tremendous knowledge of Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda terrorist network.He persuaded FBI Director Freeh to let his office handle the case, and prosecutor Mary Jo White later said, "<mask>'Neill, in the investigation of the bombings of our embassies in East Africa, created the template for successful investigations of international terrorism around the world." When his friend Chris Isham, a producer for ABC News, arranged for an interview between bin Laden and correspondent <mask>, Isham and Miller used information put together by O'Neill to formulate the questions. After the interview aired, O'Neill pushed Isham hard to release an unedited version so he could carefully dissect it. O'Neill's rise through the ranks at the bureau began to slow as his personal style chafed others, and he made a few slip-ups by losing a bureau cell phone and PalmPilot, improperly borrowing a car from a safe house, and losing track of a briefcase with sensitive documents for a short period. He was a Catholic, married with two children, but separated from his wife; his family continued to live in Atlantic City, and he supported them financially and paid the mortgage on their house. According to Lawrence Wright in The Looming Tower, O'Neill was involved simultaneously in extramarital relationships with three named women during the 1990s, each of whom he had told either that he was not married or that he was divorced, and that he planned to marry her. He was officially reprimanded and docked 15 days' pay in summer 1999 over the incident involving the safe house because he had allowed his girlfriend to enter it.His lifestyle, which involved frequently giving gifts to his girlfriends and lavish expenditures with his colleagues, resulted in substantial credit card debts which he found difficult to manage on his salary, and consequently, he borrowed substantial sums from wealthy friends. In 1999, O'Neill sent a close associate named Mark Rossini to work in the CIA's Bin Laden Issue Station in Virginia. O'Neill had a conflict with CIA station chief Michael Scheuer: O'Neill wanted Rossini to stay at the station and feed him information about what the CIA was doing, while Rich Blee, who had been appointed by CIA chief George Tenet to head of the Bin Laden Issue Station, wanted Rossini out working in the field. Later, when the Bin Laden Issue Station learned that bin Laden's associates Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar were headed to the US with visas, Rossini and his colleague Doug Miller attempted to alert O'Neill, but Blee blocked the message. Mihdhar and Hazmi became two of the hijackers of American Airlines Flight 77 on 9/11. Following the December 1999 arrest of Ahmed Ressam, O'Neill coordinated the investigation into the 2000 millennium attack plots, described by Richard Clarke as "the most comprehensive investigation ever conducted before September 11th." O'Neill has been described as having a close working relationship with Ali Soufan.2000
After being passed over for multiple promotions (to assistant director in charge of national security in 1999 and to head of the FBI's New York office in early 2000), O'Neill was pleased to be assigned as commander of the FBI's investigation into the USS Cole bombing in October 2000. However, upon arriving in Yemen, he complained about inadequate security. As his team investigated, O'Neill came into conflict with Barbara Bodine, the U.S. ambassador to Yemen. The two had widely divergent views on how to handle searches of Yemeni property, and interviews with citizens and government officials, and they only grew further apart as time progressed. After two months in Yemen, O'Neill returned to New York. He hoped to go back to Yemen to continue the investigation, but was blocked by Bodine and others; the dispute made the US press. Following threats against the remaining FBI investigators, FBI Director Freeh withdrew the team, on O'Neill's recommendation, in June 2001.Retirement

In early 2001, Richard A. Clarke, the National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counter-terrorism wanted to move to another position; he insisted O'Neill was the best person to replace him. O'Neill proved reluctant, not least because of the relatively low salary. When O'Neill heard of upcoming leaks to The New York Times about the May 2000 incident in which his briefcase had been stolen, he decided to retire from the bureau and take a higher-paying job in the private sector, as chief of security at the World Trade Center. An August 19, 2001, The New York Times report by James Risen and <mask> suggested that O'Neill had been the subject of an "internal investigation" at the FBI because O'Neill was responsible for losing a briefcase with "highly classified information" in it, including among other things "a description of every counterespionage and counterterrorism program in New York." The briefcase was recovered shortly after its disappearance. The FBI investigation was reported to have concluded that the briefcase had been snatched by local thieves involved in a series of hotel burglaries and that none of the documents inside had been removed or even touched. Several people came to O'Neill's defense, suggesting that he was the subject of a "smear campaign".One of O'Neill's associates later claimed that O'Neill believed the source for the Times story was FBI official Thomas J<mask>. The Times reported that O'Neill was expected to retire in late August. O'Neill started his new job at the World Trade Center on August 23, 2001. In late August, he talked to his friend Chris Isham about the job. Jokingly, Isham said, "At least they're not going to bomb it again", a reference to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. O'Neill replied, "They'll probably try to finish the job." Death

O'Neill was killed on September 11, 2001, in the collapse of the World Trade Center towers; his remains were recovered from the site on September 21.Wesley Wong, an FBI agent who had known O'Neill for more than twenty years, and in the command center with O'Neill that had been set up following the North Tower crash, last saw O'Neill walking toward a tunnel leading to the South Tower, likely to assist in that building's evacuation and gather surveillance footage from the security offices located there. O'Neill is buried in Holy Cross Cemetery in Mays Landing, New Jersey. At the National 9/11 Memorial, O'Neill is memorialized at the North Pool, on Panel N-63.

masks:
John Patrick O
John O
John Miller
David Johnston
. Pickard


title: Paul McCartney

texts:
<mask>  (born 18 June 1942) is an English singer, songwriter, musician and record and film producer who gained worldwide fame as co-lead vocalist, co-songwriter and bassist for the Beatles. One of the most successful composers and performers of all time, he is known for his melodic approach to bass-playing, his versatile and wide tenor vocal range, and his musical eclecticism, exploring styles ranging from pre-rock 'n' roll pop to classical and electronica. His songwriting partnership with John Lennon remains the most successful in history. Born in Liverpool, <mask> taught himself piano, guitar and songwriting as a teenager, having been influenced by his father, a jazz player, and rock 'n' roll performers such as Little Richard and Buddy Holly. He began his career as a member of the Quarrymen in 1957, which evolved into the Beatles in 1960. Sometimes called "the cute Beatle", <mask> later involved himself with the London avant-garde and spearheaded the incorporation of experimental aesthetics into the Beatles' studio productions. Starting with the 1967 album Sgt.Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, he gradually became the band's de facto leader, providing the creative impetus for most of their music and film projects. Many of his Beatles songs, including "And I Love Her", "Yesterday", "Eleanor Rigby" and "Blackbird", rank among the most covered songs in history. After the Beatles disbanded, he debuted as a solo artist with the 1970 album <mask> and formed the band Wings with his first wife, Linda, and Denny Laine. Led by <mask>, Wings was one of the most successful bands of the 1970s, with more than a dozen international top 10 singles and albums. He resumed his solo career in 1980 and has toured as a solo artist since 1989. Without Wings, his UK or US number-one hits have included "Uncle Albert/Admiral Halsey" (with Linda), "Coming Up", "Pipes of Peace", "Ebony and Ivory" (with Stevie Wonder) and "Say Say Say" (with Michael Jackson). Beyond music, he has taken part in projects to promote international charities related to such subjects as animal rights, seal hunting, land mines, vegetarianism, poverty and music education.<mask> has written or co-written 32 songs that have topped the Billboard Hot 100, and, , had sales of 25.5 million RIAA-certified units in the US. His honours include two inductions into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (as a member of the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 1999), an Academy Award, 18 Grammy Awards, an appointment as a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1965 and a knighthood in 1997 for services to music. As of 2020, he was one of the wealthiest musicians in the world, with an estimated fortune of £800 million. Early life

<mask> was born on 18 June 1942 at Walton Hospital in the Walton area of Liverpool, where his mother, Mary Patricia (née Mohin), had qualified to practise as a nurse. His father, James ("Jim") <mask>, was absent from his son's birth, due to his work as a volunteer firefighter during World War II. <mask> has a younger brother, Peter Michael, and a younger stepsister, Ruth, born to his father's second wife Angie during her first marriage. <mask> and Michael were baptised in their mother's Catholic faith, even though their father was a former Protestant who had turned agnostic.Religion was not emphasised in the household. According to his biographer Peter Ames Carlin, <mask>'s parents came from the "lowest rungs of the working class", but had experienced some upward social mobility during their lifetimes. Before the war, Jim had worked as a salesman for the cotton merchants A. Hannay and Co., having been promoted from his job as a sample boy in their warehouse; when the war broke out, Hannay's was shuttered and Jim was employed as a lathe turner at Napier's defence engineering works, volunteering for the fire brigade at night. The growing family was rehoused at a flat in Knowsley in 1944 and then in a council housing development in Speke in 1946. After the war, Jim returned to his job at the cotton merchants though with a reduced income. Mary's work as a visiting midwife was much more remunerative. <mask> attended Stockton Wood Road Primary School in Speke from 1947 until 1949, when he transferred to Joseph Williams Junior School in Belle Vale because of overcrowding at Stockton.In 1953, he was one of only three students out of 90 to pass the 11-Plus exam, meaning he could attend the Liverpool Institute, a grammar school rather than a secondary modern school. In 1954, he met schoolmate George Harrison on the bus from his suburban home in Speke. The two quickly became friends; <mask> later admitted: "I tended to talk down to him because he was a year younger." <mask>'s mother, Mary, was a midwife and the family's primary wage earner; her earnings enabled them to move into 20 Forthlin Road in Allerton, where they lived until 1964. She rode a bicycle to her patients; <mask> described an early memory of her leaving at "about three in the morning [the] streets ... thick with snow". On 31 October 1956, when <mask> was 14, his mother died of an embolism as a complication of surgery for breast cancer. <mask>'s loss later became a connection with John Lennon, whose mother, Julia, had died when he was 17.<mask>'s father was a trumpet player and pianist who led Jim Mac's Jazz Band in the 1920s. He kept an upright piano in the front room, encouraged his sons to be musical and advised <mask> to take piano lessons. However, <mask> preferred to learn by ear. When <mask> was 11, his father encouraged him to audition for the Liverpool Cathedral choir, but he was not accepted. <mask> then joined the choir at St Barnabas' Church, Mossley Hill. <mask> received a nickel-plated trumpet from his father for his fourteenth birthday, but when rock and roll became popular on Radio Luxembourg, <mask> traded it for a £15 Framus Zenith (model 17) acoustic guitar, since he wanted to be able to sing while playing. He found it difficult to play guitar right-handed, but after noticing a poster advertising a Slim Whitman concert and realising that Whitman played left-handed, he reversed the order of the strings.<mask> wrote his first song, "I Lost My Little Girl", on the Zenith, and composed another early tune that would become "When I'm Sixty-Four" on the piano. American rhythm and blues influenced him, and Little Richard was his schoolboy idol; "Long Tall Sally" was the first song <mask> performed in public, at a Butlin's Filey holiday camp talent competition. Career

1957–1960: The Quarrymen

At the age of fifteen on 6 July 1957, <mask> met John Lennon and his band, the Quarrymen, at the St Peter's Church Hall fête in Woolton. The Quarrymen played a mix of rock and roll and skiffle, a type of popular music with jazz, blues and folk influences. Soon afterwards, the members of the band invited <mask> to join as a rhythm guitarist, and he formed a close working relationship with Lennon. Harrison joined in 1958 as lead guitarist, followed by Lennon's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe on bass, in 1960. By May 1960, the band had tried several names, including Johnny and the Moondogs, Beatals and the Silver Beetles.They adopted the name the Beatles in August 1960 and recruited drummer Pete Best shortly before a five-engagement residency in Hamburg. 1960–1970: The Beatles

In 1961, Sutcliffe left the band and <mask> reluctantly became their bass player. While in Hamburg, they recorded professionally for the first time and were credited as the Beat Brothers, who were the backing band for English singer Tony Sheridan on the single "My Bonnie". This resulted in attention from Brian Epstein, who was a key figure in their subsequent development and success. He became their manager in January 1962. Ringo Starr replaced Best in August, and the band had their first hit, "Love Me Do", in October, becoming popular in the UK in 1963, and in the US a year later. The fan hysteria became known as "Beatlemania", and the press sometimes referred to <mask> as the "cute Beatle".<mask> co-wrote (with Lennon) several of their early hits, including "I Saw Her Standing There", "She Loves You", "I Want to Hold Your Hand" (1963) and "Can't Buy Me Love" (1964). In August 1965, the Beatles released the <mask> composition "Yesterday", featuring a string quartet. Included on the Help! LP, the song was the group's first recorded use of classical music elements and their first recording that involved only a single band member. "Yesterday" became one of the most covered songs in popular music history. Later that year, during recording sessions for the album Rubber Soul, <mask> began to supplant Lennon as the dominant musical force in the band. Musicologist Ian MacDonald wrote, "from [1965] ... [<mask>] would be in the ascendant not only as a songwriter, but also as instrumentalist, arranger, producer, and de facto musical director of the Beatles."Critics described Rubber Soul as a significant advance in the refinement and profundity of the band's music and lyrics. Considered a high point in the Beatles catalogue, both Lennon and <mask> said they had written the music for the song "In My Life". <mask> said of the album, "we'd had our cute period, and now it was time to expand." Recording engineer Norman Smith stated that the Rubber Soul sessions exposed indications of increasing contention within the band: "the clash between John and <mask> was becoming obvious ... [and] as far as <mask> was concerned, George [Harrison] could do no right—<mask> was absolutely finicky." In 1966, the Beatles released the album Revolver. Featuring sophisticated lyrics, studio experimentation, and an expanded repertoire of musical genres ranging from innovative string arrangements to psychedelic rock, the album marked an artistic leap for the Beatles. The first of three consecutive <mask> A-sides, the single "Paperback Writer" preceded the LP's release.The Beatles produced a short promotional film for the song, and another for its B-side, "Rain". The films, described by Harrison as "the forerunner of videos", aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966. Revolver also included <mask>'s "Eleanor Rigby", which featured a string octet. According to Gould, the song is "a neoclassical tour de force ... a true hybrid, conforming to no recognizable style or genre of song". Except for some backing vocals, the song included only <mask>'s lead vocal and the strings arranged by producer George Martin. The band gave their final commercial concert at the end of their 1966 US tour. Later that year, <mask> completed his first musical project independent of the group—a film score for the UK production The Family Way.The score was a collaboration with Martin, who used two <mask> themes to write thirteen variations. The soundtrack failed to chart, but it won <mask> an Ivor Novello Award for Best Instrumental Theme. Upon the end of the Beatles' performing career, <mask> sensed unease in the band and wanted them to maintain creative productivity. He pressed them to start a new project, which became Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, widely regarded as rock's first concept album. <mask> was inspired to create a new persona for the group, to serve as a vehicle for experimentation and to demonstrate to their fans that they had musically matured. He invented the fictional band of the album's title track.As <mask> explained, "We were fed up with being the Beatles. We really hated that fucking four little mop-top approach. We were not boys we were men ... and [we] thought of ourselves as artists rather than just performers." Starting in November 1966, the band adopted an experimental attitude during recording sessions for the album. Their recording of "A Day in the Life" required a forty-piece orchestra, which Martin and <mask> took turns conducting. The sessions produced the double A-side single "Strawberry Fields Forever"/"Penny Lane" in February 1967, and the LP followed in June. Based on an ink drawing by <mask>, the LP's cover included a collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth, featuring the Beatles in costume as the Sgt.Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, standing with a host of celebrities. The cover piqued a frenzy of analysis. Epstein's death in August 1967 created a void, which left the Beatles perplexed and concerned about their future. <mask> stepped in to fill that void and gradually became the de facto leader and business manager of the group that Lennon had once led. In his first creative suggestion after this change of leadership, <mask> proposed that the band move forward on their plans to produce a film for television, which was to become Magical Mystery Tour. According to Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn, the project was "an administrative nightmare throughout". <mask> largely directed the film, which brought the group their first unfavourable critical response.However, the film's soundtrack was more successful. It was released in the UK as a six-track double extended play disc (EP), and as an identically titled LP in the US, filled out with five songs from the band's recent singles. The only Capitol compilation later included in the group's official canon of studio albums, the Magical Mystery Tour LP achieved $8 million in sales within three weeks of its release, higher initial sales than any other Capitol LP up to that point. The Beatles' animated film Yellow Submarine, loosely based on the imaginary world evoked by <mask>'s 1966 composition, premiered in July 1968. Though critics admired the film for its visual style, humour and music, the soundtrack album issued six months later received a less enthusiastic response. By late 1968, relations within the band were deteriorating. The tension grew during the recording of their eponymous double album, also known as the "White Album".Matters worsened the following year during the Let It Be sessions, when a camera crew filmed <mask> lecturing the group: "We've been very negative since Mr. Epstein passed away ... we were always fighting [his] discipline a bit, but it's silly to fight that discipline if it's our own". In March 1969, <mask> married his first wife, Linda Eastman, and in August, the couple had their first child, Mary, named after his late mother. Abbey Road was the band's last recorded album, and Martin suggested "a continuously moving piece of music", urging the group to think symphonically. <mask> agreed, but Lennon did not. They eventually compromised, agreeing to <mask>'s suggestion: an LP featuring individual songs on side one, and a long medley on side two. In October 1969, a rumour surfaced that <mask> had died in a car crash in 1966 and was replaced by a lookalike, but this was quickly refuted when a November Life magazine cover featured him and his family, accompanied by the caption "<mask> is still with us". John Lennon privately left the Beatles in September, 1969, though agreed to not go public with the information so as to not jeopardize ongoing business negotiations.<mask> was in the midst of business disagreements with his bandmates, largely concerning Allen Klein's management of the group, when he announced his own departure from the group on 10 April 1970. He filed a suit for the band's formal dissolution on 31 December 1970, and in March 1971 the court appointed a receiver to oversee the finances of the Beatles' company Apple Corps. An English court legally dissolved the Beatles' partnership on 9 January 1975, though sporadic lawsuits against their record company EMI, Klein, and each other persisted until 1989. 1970–1981: Wings

As the Beatles were breaking up in 1969–70, <mask> fell into a depression. His wife helped him pull out of that condition by praising his work as a songwriter and convincing him to continue writing and recording. In her honour, he wrote "Maybe I'm Amazed", explaining that with the Beatles breaking up, "that was my feeling: Maybe I'm amazed at what's going on ... Maybe I'm a man and maybe you're the only woman who could ever help me; Baby won't you help me understand ... Maybe I'm amazed at the way you pulled me out of time, hung me on the line, Maybe I'm amazed at the way I really need you." He added that "every love song I write is for Linda."In 1970, <mask> continued his musical career with his first solo release, <mask>, a US number-one album. Apart

masks:
Sir James Paul McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
Paul
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
Paul
Paul
Paul
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
Paul
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney
McCartney