title: Mary Mapes Dodge

texts:
<mask> (January 26, 1831 – August 21, 1905) was an American children's author and editor, best known for her novel Hans Brinker. She was the recognized leader in juvenile literature for almost a third of the nineteenth century. <mask> was associated with St. Nicholas Magazine for more than thirty years, and it became one of the most successful magazines for children during the second half of the nineteenth century, with a circulation of almost 70,000 copies. She had the faculty of suggesting, creating, obtaining the contributions she wanted from just the people she wanted to write. She was able to persuade many of the great writers of the world to contribute to her children's magazine – Mark Twain, Louisa May Alcott, Robert Louis Stevenson, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., Bret Harte, John Hay, Charles Dudley Warner, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward, and scores of others. One day, Rudyard Kipling told her a story of the Indian jungle; <mask> asked him to write it down for St. Nicholas. He never had written for children, but he would try.The result was The Jungle Book. After the death of her husband, <mask> turned to literature as a means to earn the money to educate her sons. She began to write short sketches for children, and soon brought out a volume of them, entitled Irvington Stories, (New York, 1864), which was very successful. She next published Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates (New York, 1865); translated into Dutch, French, German, Russian and Italian, and was awarded a prize of 1,500 francs by the French Academy. With Donald Grant Mitchell and Harriet Beecher Stowe, <mask> was one of the earliest editors of Hearth and Home, and for several years, she conducted the household and children's department of that journal. In 1873, when St. Nicholas Magazine was started, she became its editor. Her other published volumes were A Few Friends, and How They Amused Themselves (Philadelphia, i860), Rhymes and Jingles (New York, 1874), Theophilus and Others (New York, 1876) Along the Way, poems (New York, 1879), and Donald and Dorothy (New York, 1883).She was the author of "Miss Maloney on the Chinese Question," published in Scribner's Monthly in 1870. <mask> contributed to Harper's Magazine, Atlantic Monthly, the Centur, and other periodicals. History

<mask> <mask> was born January 26, 1831, in New York City. Her parents were Prof. James Jay <mask>, the distinguished promoter of scientific farming in the United States; and Sophia Furman (or Ferrman). Her siblings included Charles V<mask>, <mask> (Tolles, the artist, and Catherine T. (Bonnell). The daughters of Professor <mask> never went to school. They gained their education at home under the care of tutors and governesses, being carefully trained, not only in the usual English branches, but in French, drawing, music, and Latin.She early showed talents for drawing, modeling and musical and literary composition. In 1851, she married <mask>, a lawyer from New York City. Within the next four years she gave birth to two sons, James and Harrington. In 1857, William faced serious financial difficulties and left his family in 1858. A month after his disappearance, his body was found after he died from an apparent drowning. With her two children, she returned to the family homestead, a large country house near Newark, New Jersey. Here, her life was mainly devoted to her children.As time went on, she found herself obliged to provide the money for their education and it was for this purpose that she turned to writing. A small cottage or farm-house which adjoined the orchard on her father's estate was taken for use as a study, and <mask> and her boys soon transformed it into a cozy "den". In this simply furnished abode, far enough away from the great house to insure quiet, she set to work in earnest. But, one afternoon of every week belonged exclusively to the boys. Editor
In 1859, she began working with her father to publish two magazines, the Working Farmer and the United States Journal. In 1869, after bringing out a book of home pastimes entitled A Few Friends, she accepted the position of associate editor of Hearth and Home in 1870. The publication was a weekly family paper, of which the editors were Harriet Beecher Stowe and Donald Grant Mitchell.For this journal, she took charge of the household and juvenile departments, and before long, <mask>'s reputation as editor equaled that which she had already attained as author. The circulation of the periodical was greatly increased, and the department itself rapidly grew into a very prominent feature of the weekly issues. It was her work in this field which first attracted the attention of Dr. J. G. Holland and Roswell Smith when, early in the 1870s, as directors of the company which published The Century Magazine, they began to consider the publication of a new juvenile monthly. Their decision really hinged upon hers, for they were heartily ready to undertake the project provided they could obtain her consent to assume its management and become its editor. Smith asked <mask> to edit the new magazine for children. Meanwhile, wishing to give her undivided time to writing, she had refused a very handsome offer to become the editor of Hearth and Home. Her two sons were then at college, and it was eventually the younger son that turned the scale in favor of the Scribner proposition.He had studied till he had no strength, and his mother felt that he needed an extended vacation and change of scene. She herself had long wished to go abroad, and so, when she was offered a salary to begin upon the day of the preliminary offer—this was in April or May—with the understanding that the initial number of the magazine was not to appear until January, and freedom to spend the intervening time where and as she chose, she accepted the offer. From the first everything was left entirely in her hands, including the name, for which she chose St. Nicholas. The house decided to bring out the first number in November, and <mask> returned from Europe, having found nothing in the publications there to modify her original plan. At the end of the year, the new magazine had outstripped all competitors. Indeed, within a few months after the issue of the first number, Messrs. Osgood & Co. acknowledged that they could not stand against their rival, and made a, proposition which resulted in the merging of Our Young Folks into St. Nicholas. Early writings

<mask>'s first published article, "Shoddy Aristocracy in America", and the manner of its publication, were as much the outcome of her susceptibility to the human, as well as the literary, appeal of life as to her sense of humor and instinct for artistic expression.Because it was based upon personal observation the article was sent to The Cornhill Magazine, of London, as a publication safely removed from the comedy and the actors it presented. By return post, she received payment of £50 and a request from The Cornhill for a series of papers. To <mask>'s amazement, the article was reprinted in whole or in part by many of the leading newspapers in the United States. Her first short story, "My Mysterious Enemy", was promptly accepted by Harper's Magazine, and "The Insanity of Cain", a brilliant piece of special pleading, and one of her most characteristic essays in the humorous or satirical vein, attained instant popularity at the time of its publication in Scribner's Monthly. This article grew out of a remark to Roswell Smith when <mask> and he were discussing the recent acquittal of a criminal on the plea of emotional insanity. After the publication in leading magazines of several essays and stories for grown-up readers, <mask> brought out, in 1864, her first book – made up of short tales for children – under the title of The Irvington Stories (1864). It was a modest muslin-covered duodecimo, with three or four illustrations by F. O. C. Darley.So great was its popularity that the publisher asked for a second series or a sequel. But <mask>, meantime, had begun work upon a longer narrative. Like the rest of the reading world, she had been thrilled and fascinated by the lately-published histories of John Lothrop Motley, the Rise of the Dutch Republic, and the History of the United Netherlands. She resolved to make the Netherlands the scene of a juvenile tale, and give the youngsters so much of the history of that country as should tell itself, naturally, through the evolution of the story. She was really improvising it as a "good-night story" for her boys – making it up as she went along. In the heat of kindled imagination, she began to tell her children a story of life in the Netherlands, weaving into it much interesting material from the history of that country, which at that time she had never seen. The subject grew more and more absorbing to her.She worked upon the manuscript from morning till night, and sought every source of information which could make her pages more true to life or more entertaining to her readers. She ransacked libraries for books upon the Netherlands; made every traveler whom she knew tell her his tale of that country; and submitted every chapter to the test of the criticism of two accomplished Dutchmen living near her. Upon receiving the manuscript, the publisher, disappointed at not receiving a second collection of short stories, was tempted to reject it. But the author had nothing else ready, he could not afford to forego the prestige of her former success, and so, reluctantly and doubtfully, he issued the most successful juvenile tale of that time, Hans Brinker, or the Silver Skates (1865). It became an instant bestseller and was translated into French, German, Dutch, Russian, and Italian. The French Academy awarded it one of the Montyon Prizes of fifteen hundred francs. Midcareer volumes
In the year 1874, <mask> published Rhymes and Jingles.From the first issue, its success was almost as great as that of Hans Brinker. Three years later, in 1877, she published a book of essays and short stories entitled Theophilus and Others. Theophilus and Others was a book of stories and sketches for grown people. Among its contents were a clever satire, "The Insanity of Cain", which at once attracted wide notice, and the mirth-provoking comicality in Irish dialect, "Miss Maloney on the Chinese Question". This skit – which was compared in rank to Bret Harte's "Heathen Chinee" – had an enormous popularity in its day, and was later included in many collections of humorous masterpieces. It was written in a single evening, to fill a blank space in a magazine. Charlotte Cushman immediately gave it a place of honor in her public readings as one of her favorite selections, and sending for its author, asked her to write a companion-piece.A long and warm friendship between the two distinguished women dated from this interview. In 1879, a collection of poems and verses for grown-up readers, entitled Along the Way, was published. With her usual modesty, <mask> would not dignify her volume of verse by the name of "poems", preferring the simple title of " Along the Way". But, as one critic said of it at the time, "It is a happy thing for those of us who do not walk such ways to have her show us what may there be seen." In 1883, <mask> was persuaded to issue a new edition of this work, under the title Poems and Verses. Throughout, it shows sincerity of poetic feeling; a rich imagination; a genuine love of nature; and a happy serenity of heart. "Enfoldings", the sonnet on "The Stars", "Inverted", "The Two Mysteries", and not a few other pieces are poems indeed – poems that the world will not willingly let die.They have found their way already into various Anthologies of Poetry, whose editors – some of them distinguished critics – are quite willing to call them poems, even if their author was not. In 1894, she brought out two other books: The Land of Pluck, a collection of sketches and stories which takes its name from the opening article about Holland, and When Life is Young, which opens with her well-known poem "The Minuet", and contains many other favorite pieces. Both books won praise from critics, and a very large audience among young readers. During her career as an editor, <mask> published seven books for adults as well as two books for small children, Baby Days and Bay World. "The Two Mysteries", "Enfoldings", and "The Compact " demonstrated her depth and tenderness of feeling, intellectual poise, spiritual insight, and simplicity of expression. Personal life

<mask> lived in a large apartment-building overlooking Central Park in New York City. In 1888, she purchased a cottage, which she named "Yarrow", in the summer colony at Onteora Park, Onteora Park, Tannersville, New York, upon the slope of Onteora Mountain, in the Catskill Mountains.In the beginning, it was a simple little square frame-house, and <mask> took great delight in adding, year by year, a room or a veranda, a bay-window or an extension, until she created, at last, a many-gabled home, to which she returned each season. One of her sons died in 1881, and the other, <mask> <mask>, was a successful inventor and manufacturer, residing in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her daughter-in-law, Mrs. <mask> <mask> (Josephine Kern), was the sculptor of The Good Fairy Statue in 1916. <mask> had been suffering from a severe illness for several months, and it was hoped that the usual sojourn in her summer cottage at Onteora might restore her to health, but she steadily grew weaker until her death on August 21, 1905. Style and themes
<mask>'s writing interpreted childhood. "The child's world is a different world, a preparatory world, a world that is coming on. You must build yourself around the humanity of childhood."And again, "The natural thing is the thing that grasps a child in literature as well as in life." Underlying a style of spontaneous charm, and coupled with humor whose thrusts leave no sting, are intellectual integrity, delight in discovering and acknowledging in others gifts of mind or spirit, responsiveness, a quickness to feel and believe as buoyant as if her energies had not been claimed by an absorbing profession, and an outlook undimmed by ambitions and activities. Selected works
Prose

The Irvington Stories (1864)
Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates (1865)
A Few Friends and How They Amused Themselves (1869)
Baby Days (1876)
Theophilus and Others (1876)
Donald and Dorothy (1883)
Baby World (1884)
The Land of Pluck (1894)

Verse

Rhymes and Jingles (1874)
Along the Way (1879)
When Life Is Young (1894)

References

Attribution

Howard Brown, John, (1904). "<mask>, <mask>es." In The Twentieth Century Biographical Dictionary of Notable Americans, Vol. III, The Biographical Society, p. 274. Bibliography
Jasspon Kunitz, Stanley; Howard Haycraft (1938)."<mask>, <mask> (Mapes)" American Authors 1600–1900, The H. W. Wilson Company, New York, p. 220. Further reading
Gannon, Susan R.; Ruth Anne Thompson (1992). <mask> <mask>, Twayne. Gannon, Susan R.; Ruth Anne Thompson (1992). "Mr. Scudder and Mrs. <mask>: An Editorial Correspondence and What it Tells Us," American Periodicals, Vol. 2.Gannon, Susan R.; Ruth Anne Thompson and Suzanne Rahn (2004). St. Nicholas and Mary Mapes Dodge, MacFarland & Co., Inc.
Howard, Alice Barrett (1943). <mask> <mask> of St. Nicholas, Julian Messner. McEnery, S. S. (1905). "<mask> <mask>: Intimate Tribute," The Critic, Vol. XLVII. Mason, Miriam Evangeline (1962).<mask> <mask>: Jolly Girl, Bobbs-Merrill. Satterie, Mattie Griffith (1912). "Personal Recollections of a Teacher III: Ms. <mask> <mask>," Educational Foundations, Vol. XXIII, pp. 171–172. Sorby, Angela (1998). "A Visit from St. Nicholas: The Poetics of Peer Culture, 1872–1900," American Studies, Vol.39, No. 1. Wright, Catharine Morris (1979). Lady of the Silver Skates: the Life and Correspondence of <mask> <mask>, 1830–1905, Clingstone Press. External links

Works at Open Library
Works by <mask> <mask>, at Hathi Trust

Hans Brinker and the Silver Skates readable free online from the  University of Florida Baldwin Library of Historical Children's Literature
Other works by <mask> <mask> readable free online from the University of Florida Baldwin Library of Historical Children's Literature
A Guide to the Papers of <mask> <mask>

1831 births
1905 deaths
19th-century American novelists
19th-century American poets
19th-century American women writers
American children's writers
American women novelists
American women poets
Burials at Evergreen Cemetery (Hillside, New Jersey)
Writers from New York City
American women children's writers
Novelists from New York (state)
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Woman of the Century

masks:
Mary Elizabeth Mapes Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Mary Elizabeth
Mapes
Mapes
. Mapes
Sophia Mapes
Mapes
William Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
James Mapes
Dodge
James Mapes
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Mary Map
Dodge
Mary Elizabeth
Mary Mapes
Dodge
Dodge
Mary Mapes
Dodge
Mary Mapes
Dodge
Mary Mapes
Dodge
Mary Mapes
Dodge
Mary Mapes
Dodge
Mary Mapes
Dodge
Mary Mapes
Dodge
Mary Mapes
Dodge


title: Nina Rosenblum

type: original

texts:
<mask> (born September 20, 1950) is an American documentary film and television producer and director and member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and the Directors Guild of America. Italian Fotoleggendo magazine said <mask> “is known in the United States as one of the most important directors of the investigative documentary”. Her works as director and producer include Liberators: Fighting on Two Fronts in World War II, PBS, (nominated in 1992 for Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature); The Untold West: The Black West, TBS, (1993 Best Screenwriting Emmy Award); America and Lewis Hine, PBS,  (broadcast nationwide in 1984 on PBS and winner of Special Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival); The Skin I'm In (broadcast in 2000 on Showtime/NY Times Television) and Ordinary Miracles: The Photo League's New York (released theatrically in New York and Los Angeles in 2013). Life and career

After attending Music and Art High School, <mask> earned her Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from Cooper Union and her Master of Fine Arts degree from Queens College after attending both Philadelphia School of the Arts and Yale's Summer School for the Arts. She also received a Mellon Foundation Grant to attend NYU's Graduate Film School. She is the daughter of photographer <mask> and photographic historian <mask>, winners of the International Center for Photography's Lifetime Infinity Award. <mask>'s "America and Lewis Hine", voice of Hine by Jason Robards, about the pioneer photographer Lewis Hine who documented child labor and the building of America from 1900 to 1940, which premiered at the 1984 Sundance Film Festival where it won Special Jury Prize and was broadcast nationally on PBS.Through the Wire, narrated by Susan Sarandon, produced in association with Amnesty International, about the High Security Unit in the Federal Correctional Institution in Lexington, KY and the international movement to shut it down, premiered at the 1992 Berlin Film Festival and won Best Documentary at the 1992 Munich Film Festival. In 2000, Ms<mask> produced and directed a Showtime/ NYT Television documentary, Sly and Jimi: The Skin I'm In, about the music of Jimi Hendrix and Sly and the Family Stone. In 2000 she also produced and directed Twin Lenses, about twin fashion photographer Frances McLaughlin-Gill and Kathryn Abbe. In 1992, Ms<mask> was nominated for an Academy Award for her Denzel Washington and Louis Gossett, Jr. narrated PBS documentary, Liberators: Fighting On Two Fronts In World War II. This film was followed by The Untold West: The Black West, narrated by Danny Glover, which interwove documentary with dramatic segments and won an Emmy Award in 1994 for Best Screenwriting, was nominated for Cable Ace and Vision Awards, and aired on TBS. These documentary achievements added to the acclaimed 1984 Sundance Special Jury Prize-winning America & Lewis Hine, broadcast on PBS. <mask>'s 1990 Susan Sarandon narrated feature documentary, Through The Wire, broadcast on PBS, documents a graphic investigation of small group isolation and America's female political prisoners.Her 1992 feature documentary Lock-Up: The Prisoners Of Rikers Island, produced for HBO's America Undercover series, further solidified <mask> and Daedalus Productions as major producers on the non-fiction scene. In 1999 <mask> produced and directed <mask>: In Search Of Pitt Street, a feature documentary chronicling the photographic career of her father, <mask>, a highly decorated US Army Signal Corps cameraman who documented the D-Day landing on Omaha Beach and the liberation of the concentration camp at Dachau. <mask>: In Search Of Pitt Street premiered at the D-Day Museum, New Orleans, and has been screened at film festivals and broadcast here and abroad, winning numerous awards. In 2000, Ms. <mask> produced a short, Unintended Consequences, about the "Mothers of the NY Disappeared" who protest the Rockefeller Mandatory Minimum Drug Laws. She then produced and directed Code Yellow: Hospital At Ground Zero, which documents the response of the NYU Downtown Hospital to 9/11. In 2004 she completed a feature documentary, Zahira's Peace, in co-production with Sogecable, Spain, which was broadcast on the first anniversary of the March 11 bombing on Canal+ Spain. She produced and directed In The Name Of Democracy, filmed by Haskell Wexler, the story of Lt. Ehren Watada, the first officer to refuse deployment to Iraq and who won his case.In 2013 she produced Ordinary Miracles: The Photo League's New York, the story of the NY Photo League, which has been screened at festivals and educational institutions internationally. Her credits also include Slaveship: The Testimony Of The Henrietta Marie (1995) and A History Of Women Photographers (1997), narrated by Maureen Stapleton, shorts included in traveling exhibitions across the United States. <mask> was credited on Henry Louis Gates PBS series Episode 6 for providing the story of Terrence Stevens, featured in that episode. She also provided his story to NY! For their segment “New Yorker of the Week”. <mask> is currently working on an in-development film with writer/producer Dan Allentuck about the life and career of the renowned actress Maureen Stapleton. <mask> is President of Daedalus Productions, which she and Dan Allentuck founded in 1980 to produce documentary films about issues not covered in the conventional media.In 1994, she received the Washington, D.C. Women of Vision Award celebrating women's creative and technical achievements in media. In 2011, Casa del Cinema in Rome, Italy co-sponsored by Fotoleggendo and ISFCI and the Villa Pignatelli in Naples, Italy held festivals of seven films produced by Daedalus Productions in honor of <mask>'s contribution to cinema. References

Baylis, Sheila Cosgrove. "Twin Lenses Captures Career Photographers Vision"
 , "[Sundance Institute]
 Blau, Eleanor. "A Photographer of Immigrants Is Remembered",  The New York Times, New York, 27 September 1984. Clavin, Tom. "One Pair of Filmmakers, One Documentary About a Pair of Photographers" [The East Hampton Press], New York, 8 October 2008.Harvey, Dennis. "Review: <mask>: In Search of Pitt Street" ‘’[Variety]’’, 21 October 1999. Di Sante, Joseph. “Oscar Award Winning Director <mask> Documents her Legendary Father, <mask>, Photographer” ‘’The Industry’’, Winter 2000. Tucker, Ken. “TV Review: P.O.V. : Through the Wire (1988)” ‘’Entertainment Weekly’’, 22 June 1990.Goodma, Walter. “Review/Television; 3 Women in a High-Security Prison” ‘’The New York Times’’, 25 June 1990. Scott, Tony. “Review: ‘The American Experience Liberators: Fighting on Two Fronts in World War II’” ‘’Variety’’, 10 November 1992. Pristin, Terry. “SHORT TAKES / MOVIES : Documentarians Defend 'Liberators'’’ ‘’Los Angeles Times, 19 February 1993. Behringer, Maggie.“A Conscientious Objector for These Times” ‘’Litchfield County Times’’, 2 April 2009. Wildasin, Kathleen. “Review: The Black West” ‘’The New York Times’’, 1991. ‘’Emmys’’, 1994. External links

1950 births
Living people
American documentary film directors
Cooper Union alumni
Queens College, City University of New York alumni

masks:
Nina Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Walter Rosenblum
Naomi Rosenblum
Rosenblum
. Rosenblum
. Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Walter Rosenblum
Walter Rosenblum
Walter Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Rosenblum
Walter Rosenblum
Nina Rosenblum
Walter Rosenblum


title: Mahdi Abdul Hadi

texts:
<mask> (born 22 March 1944) is a political scientist, historian, columnist, author, founder and member of various Palestinian, Arab and International institutions. He founded and heads the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs. <mask> was born in Nablus but has spent most of his life in Jerusalem. He holds a Ph.D. from the School of Peace Studies at the University of Bradford in the United Kingdom. He has devoted most of his life to academic research and dialogue, as well as the publication of this research with the aim of providing a deep understanding of Palestinian issues, past and present – the land, the people, their rights and their leadership – to interested audiences in the region and beyond. He has founded and co-founded numerous forums and institutes. For example, he co-founded the Al-Fajr Palestinian daily newspaper in 1972 as well as the Palestinian Council for Higher Education (1977–1980).Family
Hadi's family roots can be traced back to the seventh century when – according to one theory – the <mask> family then an Arab tribe from Yemen came to Jerusalem with Umar ibn al-Khattab. Later the family used to govern the area of Nablus as well as Acre and was widely known as landlords. Until today they own large areas of property around Nablus and Jenin. During the Ottoman rule over Palestine, members of the <mask> family were not only active in government positions but also in opposition movements. Since then, the family has played a central role in Palestinian society in general and, especially, within the Palestinian national movement. Early life
<mask> was born in Nablus on 22 March 1944 and spent most of his early childhood in Jaffa where his father Fouad <mask> was a landlord in Palestine (the Arabian Triangle – Khidara). During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the family had to leave their home and they became refugees in Lebanon.Together with his two brothers, <mask> and Salameh, <mask> <mask> joined the Jesuit St. Joseph School in Junieh, Beirut. He was taught in Beirut upon the family's return to Nablus in 1950 where his father worked as judge in the district court which had by then became part of the Jordanian Ministry of Justice. Education
In the following decade <mask> received his primary and secondary education at various institutions in the West Bank, such as the national Najah School (1950–1952), Ahliya School (1952–1955), the Ibn Rushd School in Hebron (1955–1957), the German Schneller School in Bethlehem (1958), the Friends Boys School in Ramallah (1959–1960), the Khalil Sakakani School in Jerusalem (1961–1962) and the Rashidiya School (1962–1963). He completed his secondary education (Tawjihi) in Cairo at the National Educational School Zamalek in Cairo (1964). Afterwards, he enrolled at law school in Damascus which he completed with a bachelor's degree in Law (1965–1970). During the time of his studies he worked as a clerk in the district court in Jerusalem under the judges Tayseer Kan’an and Fahad Abu al-Atham until Jerusalem was occupied by the Israeli army during the Six-Day War in June 1967. Subsequently, he joined the general strike by Arab lawyers protesting against the Israeli occupation in general and the annexation of Jerusalem in particular.Career
After studying law at Damascus University and he started his career as a lawyer continuing the family tradition. However, realizing that the law was not the best way to confront the many challenges the Palestinians were facing, he soon moved into the realm of mass media and established, along with Yousef Nasri Naser and Jamil Hamad, Al-Fajr (the dawn) newspaper (1972). He worked as editor for Al-Fajr and published a large number of articles and editorials under an alias. After the kidnapping of Naser in 1972, <mask> felt the urge to start writing about the Palestinian question. Thus, soon after he published his first book, The Question of Palestine and Peaceful Solutions, which focused on debates, initiatives and ideas on a settlement of the conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians in the period of 1934 to 1974, which was published in Lebanon. In 1977, <mask> founded the Arab Thought Forum, a Palestinian think-tank, which brought together a range of intellectuals, academics and politicians. Within the forum the group developed the idea of the National Guidance Committee and later also established it.The Committee was successful in governing Palestinian society, in terms of building consensus and harmony, breaking the ice between opposing factions and maintaining the balance between the leadership inside and outside the occupied Palestinian territories. <mask> was elected its President and functioned as such until 1980. <mask> also worked with Birzeit University (1977–1980) to set up the first Palestinian public relations office in 1977. The office was established to build a deeper and wider understanding of the political situation through the exchange of ideas and the spread of information which was undertaken via bulletins, leaflets, publications, articles and meetings between active individuals and institutions. In 1977 <mask> co-founded the Council for Higher Education in the West Bank together with Ibrahim Dakak, Gires Khouri and Gabi Baramki and served as its elected Secretary General until 1980. In 1981 he decided to continue his higher education and enrolled at the School of Peace Studies at Bradford University in the United Kingdom from where he obtained his Ph.D. in 1984 focusing his dissertation on Palestinian-Jordanian relations during the period from 1921 until 1951. In order to even further broaden his grasp of global issues, he continued his education at the Harvard Center of International Affairs where he stayed as fellow for one year (1984–1985).During this time <mask> further developed his ideas about and knowledge of international and global affairs. After becoming a special adviser of the Jordanian-Palestinian Joint Committee in Amman, Jordan, <mask> accepted the post of special adviser to the Ministry of Occupied Land Affairs (1985–1986). He used his post to publish a booklet on the affairs of the occupied territories for the Jordanian community. With the Jordanian deportation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) figure Abu Jihad and the continued crisis between the Jordanians and the Palestinians, among other reasons, <mask> resigned and returned to Jerusalem. Academics
<mask> participated in many conferences, among them the Salzburg Seminar for Divided Cities - Berlin, Jerusalem, and Belfast in February 1987. The same year, together with a group of Palestinian intellectuals and academics <mask> founded the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs (PASSIA) in March 1987 to provide a forum for the free debate and analysis of a plurality of local and foreign perspectives. PASSIA is involved in four main areas.As part of its Research and Publication Programme, PASSIA has published over 120 different studies on a large diversity of subjects relevant to the Palestine question and the Palestinians, in addition to its highly popular annual diary. Another major component is the Dialogue Programme providing a venue for the presentation and discussion of a wide range of issues and viewpoints on matters of concern to Palestinians, with a focus on topical political events, interfaith issues and, most importantly, the question of Jerusalem which is a primary focus of <mask>’s interests and a core topic in PASSIA’s work. Speakers and participants at these meetings include local and foreign scholars, professionals, activists as well as representatives of political factions and the diplomatic corps. It can be said that PASSIA has proved most successful in serving as a catalyst for civic dialogue and in fostering a better understanding of Palestinian affairs - be they in the domestic or international context. A third pillar of the work undertaken by PASSIA is its Training and Education Programme, which provides a much-needed platform for Palestinian practitioners and professionals to deepen their knowledge and expertise in specific areas of international affairs and institutional/personal capacity building (with courses on strategic planning, leadership, management, and communication skills, to name a few). Furthermore, <mask> has been involved in many projects throughout the region and worldwide. In 1990 he established the Black Sea University Institute in Bucharest and was active as external lecturer at Israeli and international universities, among them the distinguished Royal College of Defence Studies in Great Britain (1992–1997).His teachings focused on the Palestinian narrative and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Together with Faisal Husseini he co-founded the Jerusalem National Committee in 1992 which later became the Jerusalem Arab Council (1993), as <mask> functioned at the Orient House under Faisal Husseini’s leadership. Also in 1995 he co-founded the EuroMeSCo Network and together with Hedra <mask>fi and many others created the Palestinian Council for Peace and Justice. In 2000 he was part of the founders of the Arab Team for Muslim and Christian Dialogue in Beirut and one year later became a member of the Arab Thought Forum of Prince Hassan bin Talal in Jordan (2001). In 2006 he was honored by King Albert II of Belgium with the title Commander of the Order of the Crown. Since 2009 <mask> was also active as member of Board of Trustees of the Yasser Arafat Foundation and contributed in many statements, meetings and dialogue to end the Palestinian disengagement (since 2008). In 2011 he contributed to establishing the Arab Society for Development in Jerusalem.Furthermore, he was an active member in the Palestinian independent personality team which in many sessions worked towards Palestinian reconciliation and in 2011 <mask> witnessed the official signing of the Cairo reconciliation document, or Palestinian Prisoners' Document as it is also known. Publications
<mask> has published numerous articles, monographs, and essays and edited several publications, including, most recently, 100 Years of Palestinian History, A 20th Century Chronology (2001). Some other important publications include the following:
Palestine: Social Impact of the Islamist-Secularist Struggle, Carnegie Endowment, September 2006. Sub-Regional Cooperation: The Case of the Middle East - A View from Palestine. Unpublished conference paper presented at a EuroMeSCO Working Group. Cairo: April 1999. Dialogue on Palestinian State-Building and Identity - PASSIA Meetings 1995–1998.Jerusalem: PASSIA, January 1999. Oslo: The Conflict, the Mediators and the Breakthrough. Conference paper presented at the Jeffrey Z. Rubin Memorial Conference of the Program on Negotiations, Harvard University. Massachusetts: October 1996. "Palestinian Security Concerns," in: Common Security in the Middle East, Research Group on European Affairs, conference paper, 1996. "The Future of Jerusalem - A Palestinian Perspective," in: Shu'un Tanmawiyyeh, Vol. 5, Nos.2 & 3, Winter 1995/1996. Israeli Settlements in Occupied Jerusalem and the West Bank 1967–1977. Jerusalem: Arab Thought Forum, 1978. The Palestine Question and Peaceful Solutions 1934–1974. Saidun: Al-Assriya Publishing House, 1974

External links

Dr. <mask> F. <mask>i

1944 births
Alumni of the University of Bradford
Harvard University alumni
Living people
Palestinian lawyers
People from Nablus

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Mahdi Abdul Hadi
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title: Robert Brattain

texts:
R<mask> (May 21, 1911 – November 17, 2002) was an American physicist at Shell Development Company. He was involved in a number of secret projects during World War II. He is recognized as one of America's leading infrared spectroscopists for his work in designing several models of spectrophotometer, and for using the infrared spectrophotometer to determine the β-lactam structure of penicillin. His instrumentation work was essential to the subsequent study and understanding of structures in organic chemistry. Biography
R<mask> was born May 21, 1911, to Ross R<mask> and <mask>. Both parents were graduates of Whitman College; <mask> was a gifted mathematician. During much of <mask>'s childhood, the family lived on a cattle ranch near Tonasket, Washington.<mask> attended Whitman College in Walla Walla, Washington, following his older brother, Walter Houser <mask>. He then completed a master's degree in physics at the University of Washington in 1933. He went on to attend Princeton University, studying physics. There he met John Bardeen, a frequent bridge and bowling partner. <mask> introduced John Barden to his brother, <mask>, with whom Bardeen would win a Nobel Prize. Initially interested in mathematical physics, <mask> soon became interested in experimental physics. After his advisor Edward Condon suggested that he assist R. Bowling Barnes, an expert in infrared spectrometry, Brattain became fascinated with infrared research and instrument design.<mask>, Barnes, and others in the laboratory built a research-quality infrared spectrophotometer, using a rock salt prism, a strip of platinum as an infrared radiation source, a thermopile to measure radiation, and two galvanometers to display results. They used the instrument to begin studying the molecular structure of organic molecules. After Barnes left Princeton for American Cyanamid, he directed funding to <mask> and others to study the infrared absorption spectra of organic compounds such as benzene, toluene, and naphthalene. Shell Development Company
Due to financial pressures of the Great Depression, <mask> left Princeton in 1938 without completing his degree. He was hired by Otto Beeck and joined Shell Development Company in Emeryville, California. There he began to use infrared spectroscopy to study the molecular structures of petroleum and related products. He was recognized as an early leader in the area.<mask>'s work on   gas mixtures was "one of the first applications [of spectrophotometry] of major importance to the petroleum industry". Aviation fuels
One of the areas <mask> studied was isomers of butane, which were used to make high-octane aviation fuel. His goal was to use infrared spectrometry as an analytical tool for industrial chemical process control, reliably measuring the isomers in petroleum mixtures. <mask> again began to build a research-quality infrared spectrophotometer, this time incorporating the ideas of E. Bright Wilson and Harold Gershinowitz at Harvard University. By incorporating two prisms, one of rock salt and one of potassium bromide, it was possible to examine a greater range of infrared wavelengths. By 1939 <mask> was able to use his "IRS #1" to distinguish between the isomers isobutane and n-butane by measuring a single wavelength of infrared radiation. While continuing to study butanes with the IRS #1, <mask> designed a simpler model, the "IRS #2," for use in process control in Shell's refineries.He presented his designs for the IRS #1 (research) and the IRS #2 (process control) to the American Physical Society in Pasadena, California in June 1941. After further development, <mask> proposed a new design for the IRS #4, and approached Arnold Orville Beckman  at National Technical Laboratories (later Beckman Instruments) to make it. By partnering with John U. White of Standard Oil, <mask> was able to put together an order of 10 instruments - enough to convince Beckman to go into production. Beckman's chief engineer Howard Cary suggested a simplification to the design, which was approved by <mask> as the Beckman IR-1. The IR-1 used a Littrow prism mounting featuring a single rock salt prism with a mirrored back, and an analog galvanometer for presenting results. Users could quickly select between 18 specified wavelengths.Beckman Instruments shipped the first 1R-1 spectrophotometer to Shell on September 18, 1942. Synthetic rubber
Brattain's examination of isomers proved doubly important to the war effort. In addition to the C4 hydrocarbon isomers isobutane and n-butane (important  in aviation fuels) Brattain was able to identify a set of four butenes, 1-butene, cis-2-butene, trans-2-butene, and isobutene. The butylene isomers were critical for the development of synthetic rubber, another essential material for the war effort. Compared to previous distillation methods, infrared spectrophotometry offered a tremendous time savings, reducing testing time from as much as 15 or 20 hours down to 15 minutes. During World War II, North America was faced with a shortage of natural rubber, because the war cut off supplies from rubber-growing countries. The Office of Rubber Reserve of the United States government recognized a need to develop synthetic rubber.Brattain's former professor R. Bowling Barnes, now at Cyanamid, promoted the use of infrared spectrophotometers in the US synthetic rubber program. In 1942 the Office of Rubber Reserve arranged secret meetings in Detroit between <mask> of the Shell Development Company, Arnold O. Beckman of Beckman Instruments, and R. Bowling Barnes of American Cyanamid, seeking a source of reliable instruments for infrared spectroscopy and the analysis of butadiene polymers. Choosing to adopt Bob Brattain's existing design for a single-beam infrared spectrophotometer, they commissioned Beckman Instruments to mass-produce standardized instruments for scientists to use as part of the U.S. government's synthetic-rubber war effort. Production of the instruments was given a AAA priority rating, which ensured that they had access to limited war-time resources. However, the instruments could only be sold to AAA-certified customers, and the research, the instrument design, and the instruments were kept classified until after the war. No one was allowed to publish or discuss anything related to the new machines. With orders from both government and industry, National Technical Laboratories  produced and shipped 77 Beckman IR-1s by 1945.They were a critical contribution to the war effort. This government-supported collaboration led to quick development and rapid transmission of the technology within a network of war-time companies, but the secrecy restrictions limited the extent to which the Brattain-Beckman work became publicly known. Companies such as Perkin-Elmer whose work was not as restricted, were able to publish about their work in infrared spectroscopy before Brattain and Beckman could do so. After the war, such instruments were adopted widely by chemists because they were simple to use, reliable, and reasonably priced. Penicillin
Penicillin, a powerful antibiotic, was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Sir Alexander Fleming. During World War II, the drug was in demand to treat both wounds and life-threatening illnesses such as meningitis, pneumonia and syphilis. Production of penicillin increased from 400 million units in early 1943 to more than 650 billion units per month by the end of the war.There was tremendous pressure to find ways to increase production. Researchers hoped that by understanding the chemical structure of penicillin they could a way to synthesize it. Several possible structures were hypothesized, including an oxazalone structure with 2 linked 5-member rings, and a β-lactam structure involving a 4-member ring, something that had not been observed naturally. A transatlantic research project was developed to determine the structure of penicillin. It included infrared spectroscopy researchers at Cambridge (G.B.B.M. Sutherland), at Oxford (Harold Warris Thompson), and universities and companies in the United States (the Department of Physics at the University of Michigan, Shell Development Company, Merck & Co., Pfizer, and the Russell Sage Institute of Cornell University Medical College). The US Office of Scientific Research and Development approached Shell during the summer of 1944, and <mask> assembled a team to study the problem using infrared spectrophotometry.Another team at Shell used chemical synthesis techniques. By November 1944 both teams agreed that penicillin had a β-lactam structure. Only that structure explained the presence of strong bands at frequencies of 1785, 1740, 1667 and 1538 cm-1 on the spectroscopy results. <mask> and his co-workers released a report to the government describing their results in 1944. A full report of the international infrared spectroscopy work appeared in 1949. Working independently in Britain, Dorothy Crowfoot and Barbara Low in Oxford, England used x-ray diffraction to study penicillin's structure, as did researchers at Imperial Chemical Industries. At much the same time as <mask>'s group, Dorothy Crowfoot's x-ray crystallography group found results supporting the conclusion that penicillin had a β-lactam structure.Her research was reported in early 1945. For this and other research using x-ray diffraction Dorothy Crowfoot would eventually earn a Nobel Prize. Nerve gas
After the war, <mask> was asked to carry out hazardous research studying the structure of German nerve gases that had been used in World War II. After retirement, <mask> lived in Monterey, California. References

1911 births
2002 deaths
20th-century American physicists
Whitman College alumni
University of Washington College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Princeton University alumni
People from Tonasket, Washington

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. Robert Brattain
. Robert Brattain
. Brattain
Ottilie Houser Brattain
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title: Max Harris (poet)

texts:
<mask> AO (13 April 1921 – 13 January 1995), generally known as <mask>, was an Australian poet, critic, columnist, commentator, publisher, and bookseller. Early life
<mask> was born in Adelaide, South Australia, and raised in the city of Mount Gambier, where his father was based as a travelling salesman. His early poetry was published in the children's pages of The Sunday Mail. He continued to write poetry through his secondary schooling after winning a scholarship to St Peter's College, Adelaide. By the time he began attending the University of Adelaide, he was already known as a poet and intellectual. In 1941, he edited two editions of the student newspaper On Dit. Angry Penguins

Harris's passion for poetry and modernism were driving forces behind the creation in 1940 of a literary journal called Angry Penguins.His co-founders were D.B. "Sam" Kerr, Paul G. Pfeiffer and Geoffrey Dutton. The first issue attracted the interest of Melbourne lawyer and arts patron John Reed, who offered to collaborate on publishing further issues. <mask>, already trying to establish a South Australian branch of the Contemporary Art Society, was lured to the Reeds' art enclave at Heide. By the second issue of Angry Penguins, <mask> had incorporated visual art into the journal. Sidney Nolan later joined the editorial team. Other artists associated with Angry Penguins include Albert Tucker, Joy Hester, James Gleeson, Arthur Boyd and John Perceval.Traditionalist poets were outraged by the success of Angry Penguins with its promotion of surrealism and publication of progressive writers such as Dylan Thomas, Gabriel García Márquez, James Dickey and the American poet Harry Roskolenko. The poet and critic A. D. Hope was among those virulently opposed to <mask> and the modernists. Hope inspired two young poets serving in the army, Harold Stewart and James McAuley, to "get <mask>y". Under the name of "Ern Malley", the pair crafted a series of poems in the modernist style and submitted them to <mask> at Angry Penguins. <mask> thought the poems brilliant and published them with some fanfare in Angry Penguins. The poems were controversial but well received. However, police in South Australia interpreted some lines in the poetry as lewd (one poem used the word "incestuous") and <mask> was charged with obscenity.Reed and <mask>, who were by this time also publishing books, employed a detective to discover more about the mystery poet. Word emerged that Ern Malley was a hoax. The obscenity trial attracted international press attention. <mask> was found guilty and fined five pounds despite noted literary critics testifying for the defence. <mask> never wavered in his belief in the quality of the Ern Malley poems, which continue to be published and studied. Later life
<mask> ran the Mary Martin Bookshop in Adelaide with his university friend Mary Maydwell Martin. They published a monthly newsletter with literary criticism, comment and book reviews.After Mary Martin moved to India, <mask> expanded the book chain across Australia and Hong Kong. The chain pioneered the remaindered book industry in Australia by offering quality titles at reasonable prices. <mask> fought the stranglehold which overseas publishers had on the Australian book market, taking on major publishing houses to ensure accessibly-priced books for Australian readers. The Mary Martin chain was sold to Macmillans in the late 1970s. <mask> founded and co-edited the Australian Book Review and another literary journal, Australian Letters, which continued the practice of commissioning artists to illustrate poetry. He was also, together with Geoffrey Dutton and Brian Stonier, a founder of Sun Books. <mask> published his poetry privately, although it was often included in classic Australian anthologies.He became a long-serving and controversial columnist for The Australian, with many of his "Browsing" columns later published in book form. It was in this context that he was dubbed "Australia's Cultural Catalyst". He also wrote columns for Adelaide newspapers. <mask> campaigned against censorship, and was an early voice in the Australian republican movement. Although he was not a Catholic, <mask> championed the then little-known nun and teacher, Mary MacKillop, founder of the Josephite order, calling her "a saint for all Australians". He became a prominent lay spokesman for her canonisation. Josephite nuns visited <mask> in later life when he was ill. His ashes lie in a park between the Mary MacKillop College and the Josephite Convent in Adelaide.A collection of his work was published posthumously by the National Library of Australia as The Angry Penguin. <mask> was made an Officer of the Order of Australia. The Alumni Association of Adelaide University awarded him the title of "Father of Modernism in the Australian Arts". Personal life
<mask> was the father of journalist and columnist Samela <mask>. Popular culture
Richard Flanagan makes reference to <mask> in his novel The Narrow Road to the Deep North.

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title: Matt Meyer

texts:
<mask><mask> is an attorney, entrepreneur, former diplomat, and educator who is currently serving his second term as New Castle County Executive. Born in Michigan, <mask> currently resides in Wilmington, Delaware. He was elected New Castle County Executive in 2016 and again in 2020. <mask> speaks fluent Swahili and conversational Spanish. He has also studied Hebrew, Arabic, French and Wolof. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Bay City, Michigan, and grew up in Wilmington, Delaware. He graduated from Wilmington Friends School, Brown University (cum laude in political science and computer science), and the University of Michigan Law School (member, Michigan Law Review).<mask> worked on then-U.S. Senator Joe Biden’s first presidential campaign in 1988 while in high school at the Wilmington Friends School. He then worked on the upstart, though successful, 1990 gubernatorial campaign of Bruce Sundlun while attending Brown University. Career
<mask> taught public school in Washington, D.C., through Teach for America for three years. He also taught at Prestige Academy in Wilmington. He won a Skadden Fellowship upon graduation from law school and used it to work for Community Legal Aid in Wilmington. He then became an attorney working in mergers and acquisitions with Simpson Thatcher and Bartlett.He served in Iraq as a diplomat for the U.S. State Department, as a senior economic adviser on the ground in Mosul, Iraq, working with military and economic aid leaders to assist the Iraqi people. <mask> learned more about Americans and military leadership style after living on a base for about a year with 10,000 soldiers. Later, he worked as an economic advisor to Delaware Governor Jack Markell and was a partner at Potomac Law Group. He has started two businesses, Ecosandals and VituMob, both in Kenya. He appeared on CNN to discuss Ecosandals and on using technology to create jobs in poor neighborhoods. In 2003 at the Kennedy Center in Washington, <mask> was awarded the Sam Beard Jefferson Award for the Greatest Public Service by an Individual 35 Years and Under; at that same ceremony Condoleezza Rice received a Jefferson Award. Al Gore's Current TV called him an "all around super human."New Castle County Executive

2016 election
In the Democratic primary for New Castle County Executive, <mask>'s campaign focused on integrity and economic policy. On September 13, <mask> upset three-term incumbent Tom Gordon by a margin of 4.66% in the primary, winning 21,487 votes (52.33%) to Gordon's 19,678 votes (47.67%). <mask> defeated Republican Mark Blake in the general election in November with 67% of the vote. He took office on January 3, 2017. 2020 election
On September 15, <mask> clinched the Democratic nomination again for County Executive, defeating challenger Maggie Jones in the Democratic primary. <mask> clinched a key endorsement video days before the election from Hollywood star and Delaware native, Aubrey Plaza. <mask> won 43,833 votes (56.51%), while Jones received 33,735 votes (43.49%).Appointments
<mask> selected the first African-American police chief and chief administrative officer in the 106-year history of the New Castle County Police Department. Environmentalism
New Castle County Executive <mask> and Delaware Wild Lands’ Executive Director Kate Hackettsigned a first-of-its-kind partnership agreement on June 30, 2021 to preserve over 220 acres of land in southern New Castle County, named Fortner Farm. Resolution 20-060 was co-sponsored by County Councilmembers Bell, Kilpatrick, and Sheldon in March 2020, which urged the County administration to investigate acquiring the property, initiating the process that resulted in this partnership. Jack Markell <mask> helped open the Jack A. Markell Trail (JAM) which connects New Castle to Wilmington by a mixed-use trail. COVID-19 response
A joint report by National Association of Counties and National Academy of Public Administration on the use of federal CARES Act funds recognized New Castle County for using “innovative strategies in deploying Coronavirus Relief Fund dollars, with special attention to programs focusing on inclusive economic recovery and on assisting vulnerable and underserved populations.”

In a July 2020 editorial for The News Journal, <mask> advocated for sending all teachers and students back to school in the fall during the coronavirus pandemic. Using CARES funds the county began paying Delawareans in the HealthCorps to "provide translation services at vaccination sites, assist with social media campaigns, participate in community outreach efforts, [and] conduct research", among other activities. In October 2020, New Castle County purchased the former Sheraton South Hotel at auction with a winning bid of $19.5 million, also using CARES funds.The hotel can house more than 350 residents. The facility officially opened its doors in December 2020. <mask> also directed the county to invest $5,500,000 in Delaware State University's new genomics testing laboratory, which opened on January 29, 2021. Potential 2024 gubernatorial run
<mask>, as a second-term County Executive, is limited to serving two consecutive terms in office. He is widely considered a front-runner for the Democratic Party's nomination for Governor of Delaware in 2024. Controversies
In June 2020, six current and former New Castle County employees filed a federal lawsuit against <mask> and other New Castle County officials alleging serial sexual harassment and assault by former New Castle County Police lieutenant colonel Quinton Watson. These accusations were made prior to <mask> being County Executive.The lawsuit calls New Castle County government a “sanctuary” for sexual harassers. In July 2020, <mask> faced allegations he made "belligerent" calls to two mayors who were supporting his opponent, Maggie Jones, in the 2020 Democratic primary for New Castle County Executive. Both Elsmere mayor Eric Scott Thompson and Newark mayor Jerry Clifton said <mask>'s phone conversations with them were heated, and they felt the county executive made threats toward their communities by telling them that he "will remember this." <mask> refused to specifically address the accusations. Awards
On November 11, Delaware Chapter of the American Planning Association awarded County Executive <mask> their 2021 Distinguished Leadership Award for his work on water quality protection, limiting rural sprawl, and better planning for how communities sustainably grow. On Saturday, October 23, 2021 County Executive <mask> was recognized by Premiere Charities in "appreciation for his dedication to serving the homeless in our community." In Spring of 2019, <mask> was awarded the Military Order of the Purple Heart Special Recognition Award for 'dedication and support honoring America's combat wounded veterans becoming the 'Purple Heart County.'The award was presented by The Patriot Members of The Department of Delaware Military Order of the Purple Heart, USA. In 2018, <mask> was presented a Delaware Hispanic Award for 'increasing access and opportunities for the local Latino community.' In 2018, <mask> was recognized by the AIA for the 2018 AIA Delaware Design Award in recognition for design excellence for the Route 9 Library and Innovation Center, and recognizing the design team of Tetra Tech. On April 24, 2019, <mask> was presented a Public Service Commendation Medal for 'exceptional service contributing to the defense of the United States while serving as New Castle County Executive and supporting the mission of the Aberdeen Proving Grounds.' On March 10, 2020, <mask> was presented with the 2019 Legislative Award by Carol Dougherty, President, Delaware Recreation and Parks Society in recognition of his support for parks and recreation in New Castle County. September 2020, <mask> was honored by Nuestras Raices Delaware for continued support and contributions to the Hispanic community. On May 6, 2001, the Delaware Library Association awarded <mask> its Distinguished Service Citation, with Delaware State Librarian Annie Norman saying, “The selection of County Executive <mask> as the recipient of the Delaware Library Association’s highest honor is a great choice.County Executive <mask> is an effective collaborator and appreciates libraries’ leadership role in the social infrastructure for the benefit of Delawareans.”

References

External links
 Ecosandals
 VituMob
 2020 campaign website

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Delaware Democrats
New Castle County Executives
People from Wilmington, Delaware
Brown University alumni
University of Michigan Law School alumni
Simpson Thacher & Bartlett

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title: Rudolf Bahro

texts:
<mask> (18 November 1935 – 5 December 1997) was a dissident from East Germany who, since his death, has been recognised as a philosopher, political figure and author. <mask> was a leader of the West German party The Greens, but became disenchanted with its political organization, left the party and explored spiritual approaches to sustainability. Early life and education
<mask> was the eldest of three children of <mask>, a livestock-industry consultant, and <mask> (née Conrad). Until 1945, the family lived in Lower Silesia: first in the spa town of Bad Flinsberg and then in neighboring Gerlachsheim, where Bahro attended the village school. Towards the end of World War II <mask> was drafted into the Volkssturm, and, after his capture, detained as a Polish prisoner. As the Eastern Front approached, the family was evacuated and Bahro was separated from his mother and siblings during the flight (the rest of <mask>'s family, with the exception of his father, died of typhoid soon afterwards). Bahro lived with an aunt in Austria and Hesse, spending several months in each location and eventually reuniting with his father, who was managing a widow's farm in Rießen (now part of Siehdichum).From 1950 to 1954, <mask> attended high school in Fürstenberg (now part of Eisenhüttenstadt). Since it was assumed that all high-school students would join the Free German Youth (FDJ), Bahro reluctantly joined in 1950. This was, as he later commented, the only time he did something against his will under pressure. In 1952 he applied for membership in the Socialist Unity Party (SED), which he joined in 1954. <mask> was regarded as intelligent, and graduated from high school with honors. He attended Humboldt University in Berlin from 1954 to 1959 and studied philosophy. Among his teachers were Kurt Hager (who later became the philosopher of the SED), Georg Klaus and Wolfgang Heise.The topic of his thesis was "Johannes R. Becher and the relationship of the German working class and its party to the national question of our people". Until 1956, <mask> was an admirer of Lenin and Stalin; Khrushchev's leaked "secret speech" in February 1956 changed his views. He followed the Polish October and the Hungarian Revolution with great interest, expressed his solidarity with the insurgents in a wall newspaper and openly criticized the restricted-information policy of the GDR leadership. As a result of his views, national security spied on him for two years. Party work
After passing the government licensing examination, the SED sent <mask> to Sachsendorf (a part of Lindendorf). He edited a local newspaper, Die Linie (The Line) and encouraged the area's farmers to join the LPG agricultural cooperative. In 1959 <mask> married Gundula Lambke, a Russian language teacher.The couple had two daughters (one of whom died at birth) and a son, in addition to Gundula's daughter. In 1960 <mask> was appointed to the party leadership of the University of Greifswald, where he founded the Unsere Universität ("Our University") newspaper and served as editor-in-chief. The same year saw the publication of his first book, a collection of poems entitled In dieser Richtung (In This Direction). Beginning in 1962, <mask> worked as a consultant for the Corporate Executive Committee of the Union of Science (one of the divisions of the Free German Trade Union Federation) in Berlin; in 1965 he was appointed deputy chief of the Freie Deutsche Jugend (FDJ) student magazine, Forum. During <mask>'s tenure with the FDJ he was hampered by conflict with the increasingly restrictive policies of the SED, which made him a target of criticism. Due to the unauthorized publication of an article by Volker Braun, <mask> was dismissed as deputy chief in 1967. Evolution of ideas
From 1967 to 1977 Bahro worked for a number of companies in the rubber and plastics industry as an organization development specialist.Seeing conditions in the factories soon brought him to the conclusion that the East German economy was in a crisis and the primary reason for this was that workers had little voice in the workplace. He expressed this view in a December 1967 letter to the Chairman of the State Council, Walter Ulbricht, proposing a transfer of workplace responsibility to the workers with grassroots democracy. A few weeks later, the Prague Spring began; <mask> took a lively interest, supported the movement. In May 1968 he was interviewed by a member of the Central Committee, who made it clear that his solidarity with the "counter-revolution" was no longer tolerated. This led <mask> to develop his ideas systematically, and to publish them. His decision was reinforced by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia on 21 August. This was, as Bahro later said, "the blackest day" of his life and the reason for his final break with the SED.He decided not to make the break publicly, to protect his book project. In 1972 <mask> began part-time work on his dissertation on development conditions of high-school and technical-college groups in the VEBs (state-owned enterprises of the GDR). At the same time, he secretly wrote a thematically broader manuscript which later became The Alternative. In 1973, Gundula filed for divorce; both spouses said later this was as a precautionary measure to protect the children against government reprisals. However, in 1974 Gundula informed state security about the secret book project and handed over a copy of the manuscript; after that, Bahro was under surveillance. In 1975 <mask> submitted his dissertation at the Technische Hochschule Leuna-Merseburg, which was evaluated favorably by three reviewers. The Stasi intervened, engineering two opposing reviews.His work on The Alternative was unhindered, but <mask> was convinced that he would be unable to disseminate his book to the GDR citizenry. In December 1976 he learned that one of his samizdats had fallen into Stasi hands, which prompted him to finish his work quickly. Intermediaries arranged a contract with Europäische Verlagsanstalt, a West German publisher. Swiss musicologist Harry Goldschmidt smuggled the finished manuscript into West Berlin, and copies of the manuscript reached individuals in the GDR by mail. Later in West Germany, <mask> said that the theoretical bases for The Alternative were Karl August Wittfogel's 1957 Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power and earlier Marxist works. He was unable to cite Wittfogel because of the latter's anticommunism. Wittfogel also influenced <mask>'s later ecological work.The Alternative
The Alternative is divided into three parts:
 The non-capitalist path to an industrial society
 Anatomy of socialism
 Strategy for a communist alternative
The introduction begins with the premise that the Communist movement did not lead to the theoretically expected situation, but instead continued on the capitalist path with only superficial changes. "Alienation and the subaltern mentality of the working masses continue on a new level." The book analyzes the reasons for this, and offers solutions. The first part is a historical analysis of the development of socialism in the Soviet Union. <mask> concludes that in the Soviet Union (and, consequently, also in countries such as the GDR) not the theoretically expected socialism but a form of proto-socialism had emerged. For the reason, he posits that at the time of the October Revolution the Soviet Union was far from the stage of development presumed in Marx's theory of history. Nevertheless, the path chosen by Lenin was correct.<mask> regards Stalin's subsequent massive industrialization as a necessary development, justifying the party purge as inevitable. In the second part, <mask> analyzes the existing social system, which he believes was incorrectly called "real socialism" when in reality it was still a class society. He detailed how this society worked, and argues that this provided the rationale for the observed economic stagnation. In the third part, he developed solutions, including a call for a new revolution which would transform not only the social circumstances but the people. Its intention is to overcome the subaltern mentality, the "form of existence and way of thinking of ordinary people." He demanded the abolition of the division of labor; all should participate in science, art and menial work. Response
On 22 August 1977, the West German magazine Der Spiegel published an extract from The Alternative and an interview with <mask>, during which he admitted writing the book.The next day, <mask> was arrested and taken to the Berlin-Hohenschönhausen prison. That evening, West German television stations ARD and ZDF broadcast <mask>'s interview. In early September, the book went on sale. The first edition was sold out before delivery, and was translated into other languages. The Alternative sparked debate in the West European left about the nature of socialism. For Herbert Marcuse, <mask>'s book was "the most important contribution to Marxist theory and practice that has appeared in recent decades"; a similar view was expressed by the Trotskyist Ernest Mandel. To Lawrence Krader, Bahro was the "conscience of the revolution, the strength of the truth".Rudi Dutschke was critical, classifying <mask> as detached from Leninism with too little respect for human rights and calling his suggestions "totally unrealistic". These analyses were accompanied by a broad wave of publicly expressed solidarity with <mask>, climaxing in a letter by Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass in The Times on 1 February 1978 which was also signed by Arthur Miller, Graham Greene, Carol Stern, Mikis Theodorakis and other celebrities. In the GDR, however, <mask>'s recognition was suppressed and he was told nothing of the reaction to his book and subsequent arrest. About half of the copies of The Alternative which <mask> had posted shortly before his arrest in the GDR were intercepted by the authorities. His influence of East German students was limited. To write and publish a book was, in itself, legal in the GDR; however, <mask> was accused of working for the West German intelligence service (from whom he was thought to have obtained his information). On 30 June 1978, <mask> was convicted in camera of treason and betraying state secrets, and sentenced to eight years' imprisonment.Evidence indicates a kangaroo court, with a predetermined verdict; an appeal to the Supreme Court of the GDR filed by defense attorney Gregor Gysi was summarily rejected as unfounded. The verdict immediately sparked violent protests and expressions of solidarity in the West. The Committee for the Release of Rudolf Bahro organized an international conference, held 16 to 19 November 1978 in West Berlin and attended by over 2,000 participants. The depth of solidarity is illustrated by an appeal to the State Council of the GDR in the Frankfurter Rundschau of 11 May 1979, organized by Bahro Committee in 12 countries and signed by a number of celebrities. <mask> was awarded the Carl von Ossietzky Medal by the International League for Human Rights (Berlin) and made a member of the Swedish and Danish chapters of PEN International. On 11 October 1979, the 30th anniversary of the founding of the GDR, <mask> was granted amnesty. On 17 October he was deported with his former wife, their two children and his partner Ursula Beneke to the Federal Republic of Germany, in accordance with his July request.West German work
In West Germany <mask> soon joined the nascent Greens party, making a commitment to unite socialist and values-based coservatism currents in the new

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title: Rudolf Bahro

texts:
 party since compromise was a necessity. A 1980 book formulated elements of a new policy: the relationship between ecology and socialism. Breaking from his position in The Alternative, <mask> now felt that classical Marxism was no longer appropriate. Another new motif in <mask>'s thinking was religion. While in custody he had studied the Bible, and when he moved to the west he noticed unhappiness in spite of material prosperity. He interpreted this as a lack of introspection and transcendence, rejecting the traditionally materialistic outlook of socialism. The goal of human emancipation was represented (in different ways) by Karl Marx and Jesus Christ.In this context, Bahro referred to early Christianity and liberation theology. At the beginning of 1980, Bahro studied with Oskar Negt at the Leibniz University Hannover. His thesis appeared as a book, A Plea for Creative Initiative. In 1983, he earned his habilitation in social philosophy. In 1982, <mask> adopted a more radical position due to the contemporary economic crisis. He advocated a restructuring of society in economic, environmental and social-policy terms, which should be linked to a broad retreat from the world market and a move away from capitalist industry. Bahro also became involved in the peace movement, advocating a nuclear-free Europe.Bahro's Dare Commune was an alternative community during the early days of the Greens. He believed that the transformation of society must begin on a small scale, requiring a change in the people themselves and a rediscovery of spirituality. <mask> was influenced by the Congregation of the Benedictines and the mystical experience of God. In 1981 Bahro visited the North Korea, where he was received as a guest of the state. He saw this as his most important trip, to a state he admired with a system "to satisfy all the basic requirements of security". As part of a lecture tour of the United States in summer 1983, Bahro enjoyed several weeks at Rajneeshpuram with Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (Osho). After the Green Party entered the Bundestag for the first time in March 1983, the question arose whether they would join a coalition with the Social Democratic Party of Germany (the SPD) or remain in opposition.<mask> strongly favored the latter option (which placed him in opposition to Joschka Fischer), and believed in renewal rather than reform. In his December 1984 "Hamburg speech", <mask> made a comparison with the political and social situation in the Weimar Republic: At that time, there had also been a broad movement in society which was dissatisfied with prevailing conditions and wanted change. What mattered now was to prevent the errors and political disasters of the past. In the Weimar Republic, the "brown" pole of the political spectrum (the Nazis) overpowered the left with "nationalist mythology in disguise; therefore, resistance to capitalist development" could not begin. <mask>'s "popular uprising" could occur this time without violence, but it was important that the Greens "are not lost" in the system. Bahro also called for the conquest of the right-left divide; to escape its minority position, the Greens should also "penetrate the territory of the Bavarian CSU". <mask>'s Hamburg speech ended with the allegation that Joschka Fischer's supporters had a lust for power, a situation that could lead to civil war and subsequent dictatorship.During the summer of 1985 <mask> left the Greens and focused on his new book, which was published in 1987 as Logic of Salvation. In it he described a "logic of self-extermination" and its consequences for humanity at present, presenting a "logic of life" requiring a "leap in consciousness" and a withdrawal from the industrial "mega-machine". It was important to implement a "rescue policy", before the worsening environmental crisis leads to an emergency government. <mask> called for long-term goals, the elimination of short-term tactics and government decentralization. He advocated an "invisible church", which would provide the necessary spiritual dimension. As a conservative on the left, he noted common ground with CDU politician and critic Kurt Biedenkopf. Inspired by Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika, <mask> hoped for a "prince of environmental change" and suggested the establishment of a consensus-oriented body similar to the British House of Lords.The book met a mostly negative response, and <mask>'s references to a prince and an invisible church were criticized. In 1986, Bahro held "learning workshops" at his home in Worms, which featured discussion of his ideas and meditation. He met Beatrice Ingermann, who had been conducting a similar project since 1983 that was also a community in the Eifel. <mask> joined her group; they married in 1988, and had a daughter. In Berlin after the fall of the Wall
Seeing the rapid decline of the GDR, at the end of 1989 Bahro went to East Berlin to fight against the feared  "sellout of the GDR," its absorption by the Federal Republic. He wanted to work to ensure that the regime could keep its autonomy and maintain what he thought was its greatest political achievement: the primacy of politics over economics. On 16 December 1989, Bahro had the opportunity of speaking to the assembled delegates of the extraordinary party conference of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, whose chairman had, a week ago, been his former legal counsel, Gysi.The main item on the agenda was whether the party should continue or be dissolved. What was finally decided was that the party should continue under a new name: Socialist Unity Party of Germany – Party of Democratic Socialism (German: Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands – Partei des Demokratischen Sozialismus, abbreviated SED-PDS). <mask>'s request to address the conference as a guest speaker found only a slight majority (54%), and he was granted only 30 minutes, not the requested 45 minutes. <mask> was annoyed at this and had to improvise. After reading out the names of all the people who had helped him with his book, Die Alternative, he criticized the previous speaker, Minister President and Deputy Party Chairman Hans Modrow, as well as Karl Marx, Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin. He went on to present his vision of a "socio- ecological" restructuring of the GDR. His radical environmental ideas, which were hardly known in the GDR at that time, were far removed from the problems that interested the delegates, and his polemical introduction provoked fierce resentment.<mask> concluded that he no longer had anything in common with this party. In the spring of 1990, he began setting up an "Institute for Social Ecology" at the Humboldt University of Berlin. Instead of the usual discussion of the ecological crisis, he wanted this institute to address the issue holistically and, above all, study the deeper social and cultural causes of the crisis and develop practical alternatives. <mask> thus set up his own school of social science that is not to be confused with others that also go by the name of social ecology. On 16 June 1990, again represented by Gysi, <mask> was rehabilitated by the Supreme Court of the GDR. On 15 September, shortly before the end of the GDR, the Minister of Education and Science appointed him associate professor of social ecology at Humboldt University. From the winter semester 1990/1991, <mask> regularly held lectures on issues of the environmental crisis, where he further developed the theories that he had put forward in his book Logik der Rettung (published in English as Avoiding social and ecological disaster: the politics of world transformation: an inquiry into the foundations of spiritual and ecological politics).The lectures, to which he frequently invited guest speakers, were aimed at students in all years and also attracted an audience from outside the university. In the first years, the main lecture hall (auditorium maximum)  of the university was consistently full, and this also resulted in increased sales of his book on which the lectures were based. However, the Institute remained a temporary arrangement that could only exist thanks to financial support from the Schweisfurth Foundation. It was not until 1995 that the institute was integrated into the university as a working group of the Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture. In 1990, there were accusations that <mask> was striving for "eco-dictatorship". This accusation was made particularly aggressively by the , a right-wing organization founded in Zurich which, in a work entitled The Fascism of the New Left, claimed that <mask>'s real goal was an "eco-fascist dictatorship". <mask> indignantly denied this but soon found himself confronted with more accusations of this nature.The accusations were based on quotations from his book Logik der Rettung. In 1992, a former party colleague of his, Jutta Ditfurth joined the debate when, in her book Feuer in die Herzen [Putting Fire in the Hearts], she accused him of turning to esoteric, authoritarian and nationalist ideas. In addition to his activities in Berlin, until 1991 Bahro also active in the Lernwerkstatt [Learning Workshop] a non-profit organization in Niederstadtfeld, and he planned similar experiments with new sustainable living and economic systems in the former GDR. A conversation with the Minister-President of Saxony, Kurt Biedenkopf, in the summer of 1991 led to the socio-ecological futurology project LebensGut in the village of Pommritz, near Bautzen. There, the socio-ecological research begun at the Humboldt University is also being continued, mainly by Bahro's former associate Maik Hosang. In September 1993, <mask>'s wife Beatrice committed suicide following a marital dispute. He was so devastated that he had to cancel a semester of lectures.In the spring of 1994, he also became physically ill, and in the autumn of that year he was diagnosed with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. <mask> was convinced that his illness was the consequence of traumatic experiences such as the suicide of his wife and resisted conventional therapy, instead trying various alternative methods of diagnosis and therapy and temporarily moving into a monastery. Only after his condition deteriorated dramatically, he agreed to another course of chemotherapy. In May 1995, on his sickbed, he married his girlfriend and companion Marina Lehnert, who had been caring for his daughter for some time. After a year's break due to illness, in summer 1996 <mask> resumed teaching, but only to a limited extent. He gave his last lecture in July 1997. After that, he caught pneumonia and the cancer broke out again.<mask> died in Berlin on 5 December 1997 and was buried at the Dorotheenstadt cemetery in Berlin. Publications available in English

 The Alternative In Eastern Europe, New Left Books/Verso,  [1977 (German), 1978 (English)]
 Socialism and Survival [1980 (German); 1982 (English)]
 From Red To Green [1984]
 Building The Green Movement [1986]
 Avoiding Social & Ecological Disaster: The Politics of World Transformation [1987 (German), 1994 (English)]

Selected publications

 "Rapallo? Why Not? Reply to Gorz". TELOS 51 (Spring 1982). New York: Telos Press

References

External links

 Criticism of <mask>'s claimed ecofascism
 Answer to this criticism and general analysis of <mask>'s ideas

1935 births
1997 deaths
East German journalists
East German writers
Ecosocialists
German anti-capitalists
German communists
German male non-fiction writers
German Marxists
German politicians
German socialists
People from the Province of Lower Silesia
People from Świeradów-Zdrój
Anti-Stalinist

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title: Brian David Ellis

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<mask>  (born 1929) is an Australian philosopher. He is an Emeritus Professor in the philosophy department at La Trobe University in Victoria, Australia, and Professional Fellow in philosophy at the University of Melbourne. He was the Editor of the Australasian Journal of Philosophy for twelve years. He is one of the major proponents of the New Essentialist school of philosophy of science. Philosophical work

New essentialism
The new essentialism is a comprehensive philosophy of nature. Philosophers around the world, including Sydney Shoemaker, Charles Martin, George Molnar, George Bealer, John Bigelow, Caroline Lierse, Evan Fales, Crawford Elder, Nicholas Maxwell, Nancy Cartwright and John Heil, have contributed to in various ways to its development. The new essentialism is an emerging metaphysical perspective that is the culmination of many different attempts to arrive at a satisfactory post-Humean philosophy of nature.However, this list of claimed allies has been disputed by Stephen Mumford, at least with regard to Shoemaker, Martin, Molnar, Heil and Cartwright. "Causal Powers and Categorical Properties"

In the chapter "Causal Powers and Categorical Properties" of The Metaphysics of Powers: Their Grounding and Their Manifestations, <mask> argues that categorical properties and causal powers are distinct from one another, and that categorical properties are not dispositional, but quiddities. Quidditism accounts for identity of a property based only on what it is rather than what it disposes its bearer to do. Although categorical properties do not necessarily dispose their bearers to do anything, they do determine where active properties of things may exist, or be distributed, and thus where the effects of such activities can be observed. He gives a detailed logical account of how a causal power can be defined. <mask> defines a causal power as a quantitative property that positions its bearer in specific circumstances to take part in a physical causal process with a certain outcome. Such powers are to either act or resist change within the bearer (e.g.temperature, elasticity). All causal powers must meet two criteria. First, they must all have contingent locations, since they have to act from somewhere. Second, they all must have laws of action outlining their nature. Such laws reference both the location of the object that possesses the power, as well as the location of things it interacts with. Locations, however, are impotent. <mask> argues that neither locations nor categorical properties such as shape and size are causal powers, yet they can make a difference in outcomes.Publications

Articles

"Basic concepts of measurement". Physics Today. American Institute of Physics, 1966. "Casual Laws and Singular Causation". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 61:329–351. Wiley-Blackwell, 2000."Critical Notice of Scientific Realism: How Science Tracks the Truth by Stathis Psillos". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 68:495–497. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. "Has the Universe a Beginning in Time?". Australasian Journal of Philosophy 32–37. Routledge, 1955."Humanism and Morality". Sophia: an International Journal for Philosophical Theology and Cross-Cultural Philosophy of Religion. 50:135–139. Springer Verlag, 2011. "Internal Realism". Synthese. 76: 409–434.Springer Verlag, 1988. "Katzav on the Limitations of Dispositionalism". Analysis. 65(285). Oxford University Press, 2005. "Marc Lange on Essentialism". Australasian Journal of Philosophy.83:75–79. Routledge, 2005. "Physical Realism". Ratio: an International Journal of Analytic Philosophy. 18:371–384. Wiley, 2005. "Retrospective and Prospective Utilitarianism".Nous. 15: 325–328. Wiley, 1981. "Scientific Platonism". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 23:665–679. Elsevier, 1992."Two Theories of Indicative Conditionals". Australian Journal of Philosophy. 62: 50–66. Routledge, 1984. "Truth and Objectivity". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. Wiley, 1993."Universals, the Essential Problem and Categorical Properties". Ratio: an International Journal of Analytic Philosophy. 18:462–472. Wiley, 2005. "What Science Aims to Do". Images of Science: Essays on Realism and Empiricism. 48–74.University of Chicago Press, 1985. Books

Labor's Historic Mission, Vol.1. Vic Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2015. The Metaphysics of Scientific Realism. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009. The Philosophy of Nature: A Guide to the New Essentialism. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002.Scientific Essentialism. Cambridge University Press, 2001. Social Demand: and How to Provide for It, Vol.2. Vic Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2016. Social Humanism: A New Metaphysics. Routledge, 2012. Chapters

 "The Categorical Dimensions of the Causal Powers".Properties, Powers and Structures: Issues in the Metaphysics of Realism. 11–26. Routledge, 2012. "Causal Powers and Categorical Properties". The Metaphysics of Powers: Their Grounding and Their Manifestations. 133–142. Routledge, 2010."Constructing an Ontology". Topics on General and Formal Ontology. 15–26. Polimetrica, 2006. "From Conventionalism to Scientific Metaphysics". History of Philosophy in Australia and New Zealand. 329–359.Springer Netherlands, 2014. "A Review Essay on God, Chance and Necessity". Sophia, 38. 311–316. Springer Verlag, 2007. "History and Philosophy of Science". Idealist Origins: 1920s and Before.707–772. Springer Netherlands, 2014. "Human Agency, Realism and the New Essentialism". Australian Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. 193–208. Springer Dordrecht, 2002. La Trobe University.238–242. 2010. La Trobe University. 248–252. 2014. "Universals, the Essential Problem and Categorical Properties". Ratio.88–97. Wiley, 2006. References

Further reading
 Bird, Alexander. Nature's Metaphysics: Laws and Properties. Oxford University Press, 2010. Lange, Marc. Laws and Lawmakers: Science, Metaphysics, and the Laws of Nature.Oxford University Press, 2009. External links
 His University of Melbourne Faculty Page
 His La Trobe University Faculty Page

20th-century Australian philosophers
21st-century Australian philosophers
Essentialism
Metaphysics of science
Philosophers of science
Living people
1929 births

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title: John IV, Duke of Brittany

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<mask> the Conqueror KG (in Breton Yann IV, in French Jean IV, and traditionally in English sources both <mask> of Montfort and <mask>) (1339 – 1 November 1399), was Duke of Brittany and Count of Montfort from 1345 until his death and 7th Earl of Richmond from 1372 until his death. Ordinal number
He was the son of <mask> of Montfort and Joanna of Flanders. His father claimed the title Duke of Brittany, but was largely unable to enforce his claim for more than a brief period. Because his father's claim to the title was disputed, with only the English king recognising it, the subject of this article is often numbered in French sources as "<mask> IV" and his father as simply "<mask> of Montfort" (Jean de Montfort), while in English sources he is known as  "<mask>". However, the epithet of "The Conqueror" makes his identity unambiguous. Conquest
The first part of his rule was tainted by the Breton War of Succession, fought by his father against his cousin Joanna of Penthièvre and her husband Charles of Blois. With French military support Charles was able to control most of Brittany.After his father's death, <mask>'s mother Joanne attempted to continue the war in the name of her baby son. She became known as "Jeanne la Flamme" (Fiery Joanna) for her fiery personality. However, she was eventually forced to retreat with her son to England to ask for the aid of Edward III. She was later declared insane and imprisoned in Tickhill Castle in 1343. <mask> and his sister Joan of Brittany were taken into the King's household afterwards. <mask> returned to Brittany to enforce his claim, with English help. In 1364, <mask> won a decisive victory against the House of Blois in the Battle of Auray, with the support of the English army led by <mask>.His rival Charles was killed in the battle and Charles's widow Joanna was forced to sign the Treaty Guérande on 12 April 1365. In the terms of the treaty, Joanna gave up her rights to Brittany and recognized <mask> as sole master of the duchy. Power struggles
Having achieved victory with English support (and having married into the English royal family), Duke <mask> was constrained to confirm several English barons in positions of power within Brittany, especially as controllers of strategically important strongholds in the environs of the port of Brest, which gave the English military access to the peninsula, and which took revenue from Brittany to the English crown. This English power-base in Brittany was resented by the Breton aristocrats and the French monarchy, as was <mask>'s use of English advisers. However, <mask> declared himself a vassal to king Charles V of France, not to Edward III of England. Nevertheless, this gesture did not placate his critics, who saw the presence of rogue English troops and lords as destabilizing. Faced with the defiance of the Breton nobility, <mask> was unable to muster military support against King Charles V, who took the opportunity to exert pressure over Brittany.Without local support, in 1373, he was once more forced into exile to England. However, King Charles V made the mistake of attempting to completely adjoin the duchy of Brittany to France. Bertrand de Guesclin was sent to make the duchy submit to the French king by force of arms in 1378. The Breton barons revolted against the takeover and invited Duke <mask> back from exile in 1379. He landed in Dinard and took control of the duchy once more with the support of local barons. An English army under Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester, landed at Calais and marched towards Nantes to take control of the city. However, <mask> subsequently reconciled with the new French king, Charles VI of France, and paid off the English troops to avoid a confrontation.He ruled his duchy thereafter in peace with the French and English crowns for over a decade, maintaining contact with both, but minimizing open links to England. Between 1380 and 1385, <mask> built the Château de l'Hermine (Castle of Hermine) in Vannes, which became a defensive fortress and dwelling for the Dukes of Brittany. He built it in order to benefit from the central position of the city of Vannes in his duchy. In 1397, Duke <mask> finally managed to extricate Brest from English control by using diplomatic pressure and financial inducements. Clisson affair
In 1392 an attempt was made to kill Olivier V de Clisson, the Constable of France, in Paris who was an old enemy of the duke's. The attacker, Pierre de Craon, fled to Brittany. <mask> was assumed to be behind the plot, and Charles VI took the opportunity to attack Brittany once more.Accompanied by the Constable, he marched on Brittany, but before he reached the duchy the king was seized with madness. Relatives of Charles VI blamed Clisson, and instituted legal proceedings against him to undermine his political position. Stripped of his status as Constable, Clisson now took refuge in Brittany himself, and was reconciled with <mask> (1397), becoming a close adviser to the duke. English knighthood
<mask> was knighted by King Edward III between 1375 and 1376 as a member of the Order of the Garter. He is believed to be the only Duke of Brittany to have attained this English honour. Family

Marriages
Duke <mask> married three times:
1) Mary of England (1344–1362), daughter of King Edward III and Philippa of Hainault. 2) Lady Joan Holland (1350–1384), daughter of Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent and Joan of Kent, in London, in May 1366.3) Joan of Navarre (1370–1437), daughter of King Charles II of Navarre and Joan of Valois, at Saillé-près-Guérande, near Nantes, on 2 October 1386. Joan of Navarre was the mother of all of <mask>'s children. After his death, she served as Regent to their son, <mask>, Duke of Brittany, and eventually married King Henry IV of England. Children
 Jeanne of Brittany (Nantes, 12 August 1387 – 7 December 1388). Isabelle of Brittany (October 1388 – December 1388). <mask>, Duke of Brittany (Château de l'Hermine, near Vannes, Morbihan, 24 December 1389 – manoir de La Touche, near Nantes on 29 August 1442). Marie of Brittany (Nantes, 18 February 1391 – 18 December 1446), Lady of La Guerche, married at the Château de l'Hermine on 26 June 1398 <mask> of Alençon.Marguerite of Brittany (1392 – 13 April 1428), Lady of Guillac, married on 26 June 1407, Alain IX, Viscount of Rohan and Count of Porhoët (d. 1462)
 Arthur III, Duke of Brittany (Château de Succinio, 24 August 1393 – Nantes, 26 December 1458). Gilles of Brittany (1394 – Cosne-sur-Loire, 19 July 1412, Bourges), Lord of Chantocé and Ingrande. Richard of Brittany (1395 – Château de Clisson 2 June 1438), Count of Benon, Étampes, and Mantes, married at the Château de Blois, Loir-et-Cher on 29 August 1423 Margaret d'Orléans, Countess of Vertus, daughter of Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans. Blanche of Brittany (1397 – bef. 1419), married at Nantes on 26 June 1407 <mask>, Count of Armagnac. See also
Dukes of Brittany family tree

References

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1339 births
1399 deaths
14th-century dukes of Brittany
14th-century peers of France
14th-century English nobility
Dukes of Brittany
Earls of Richmond (1268)
Knights of the Garter
House of Montfort
Montfort of Brittany
Medieval Brittany

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