title: Jacques-Louis David

texts:
 completion of the painting. The unity that was to be symbolized in The Tennis Court Oath no longer existed in radicalized 1792. The National Assembly had split between conservatives and radical Jacobins, both vying for political power. By 1792 there was no longer consensus that all the revolutionaries at the tennis court were "heroes". A sizeable number of the heroes of 1789 had become the villains of 1792.In this unstable political climate <mask>'s work remained unfinished. With only a few nude figures sketched onto the massive canvas, <mask> abandoned The Oath of the Tennis Court. To have completed it would have been politically unsound. After this incident, when <mask> attempted to make a political statement in his paintings, he returned to the less politically charged use of metaphor to convey his message. When Voltaire died in 1778, the church denied him a church burial, and his body was interred near a monastery. A year later, Voltaire's old friends began a campaign to have his body buried in the Panthéon, as church property had been confiscated by the French Government. In 1791, <mask> was appointed to head the organizing committee for the ceremony, a parade through the streets of Paris to the Panthéon.Despite rain and opposition from conservatives due to the amount of money spent, the procession went ahead. Up to 100,000 people watched the "Father of the Revolution" being carried to his resting place. This was the first of many large festivals organized by <mask> for the republic. He went on to organize festivals for martyrs that died fighting royalists. These funerals echoed the religious festivals of the pagan Greeks and Romans and are seen by many as Saturnalian. <mask> incorporated many revolutionary symbols into these theatrical performances and orchestrated ceremonial rituals, in effect radicalizing the applied arts themselves. The most popular symbol for which <mask> was responsible as propaganda minister was drawn from classical Greek images; changing and transforming them with contemporary politics.In an elaborate festival held on the anniversary of the revolt that brought the monarchy to its knees, <mask>'s Hercules figure was revealed in a procession following the Goddess of Liberty (Marianne). Liberty, the symbol of Enlightenment ideals was here being overturned by the Hercules symbol; that of strength and passion for the protection of the Republic against disunity and factionalism. In his speech during the procession, <mask> "explicitly emphasized the opposition between people and monarchy; Hercules was chosen, after all, to make this opposition more evident". The ideals that <mask> linked to his Hercules single-handedly transformed the figure from a sign of the old regime into a powerful new symbol of revolution. "<mask> turned him into the representation of a collective, popular power. He took one of the favorite signs of monarchy and reproduced, elevated, and monumentalized it into the sign of its opposite." Hercules, the image, became to the revolutionaries, something to rally around.In June 1791, the King made an ill-fated attempt to flee the country, but was apprehended short of his goal on the Austrian Netherlands border and was forced to return under guard to Paris. Louis XVI had made secret requests to Emperor Leopold II of Austria, Marie-Antoinette's brother, to restore him to his throne. This was granted and Austria threatened France if the royal couple were hurt. In reaction, the people arrested the King. This led to an Invasion after the trials and execution of Louis and Marie-Antoinette. The Bourbon monarchy was destroyed by the French people in 1792—it would be restored after Napoleon, then destroyed again with the Restoration of the House of Bonaparte. When the new National Convention held its first meeting, <mask> was sitting with his friends Jean-Paul Marat and Robespierre.In the convention, <mask> soon earned the nickname "ferocious terrorist". Robespierre's agents discovered a secret vault containing the King's correspondence which proved he was trying to overthrow the government, and demanded his execution. The National Convention held the trial of Louis XVI; <mask> voted for the death of the King, causing his wife, a royalist, to divorce him. When Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793, another man had already died as well—Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau. Le Peletier was killed on the preceding day by a royal bodyguard in revenge for having voted for the death of the King. <mask> was called upon to organize a funeral, and he painted Le Peletier Assassinated. In it, the assassin's sword was seen hanging by a single strand of horsehair above Le Peletier's body, a concept inspired by the proverbial ancient tale of the sword of Damocles, which illustrated the insecurity of power and position.This underscored the courage displayed by Le Peletier and his companions in routing an oppressive king. The sword pierces a piece of paper on which is written "I vote the death of the tyrant", and as a tribute at the bottom right of the picture <mask> placed the inscription "<mask> to Le Peletier. 20 January 1793". The painting was later destroyed by Le Peletier's royalist daughter, and is known by only a drawing, an engraving, and contemporary accounts. Nevertheless, this work was important in <mask>'s career because it was the first completed painting of the French Revolution, made in less than three months, and a work through which he initiated the regeneration process that would continue with The Death of Marat, <mask>'s masterpiece. On 13 July 1793, <mask>'s friend Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday with a knife she had hidden in her clothing. She gained entrance to Marat's house on the pretense of presenting him a list of people who should be executed as enemies of France.Marat thanked her and said that they would be guillotined next week upon which Corday immediately fatally stabbed him. She was guillotined shortly thereafter. Corday was of an opposing political party, whose name can be seen in the note Marat holds in <mask>'s subsequent painting, The Death of Marat. Marat, a member of the National Convention and a journalist, had a skin disease that caused him to itch horribly. The only relief he could get was in his bath over which he improvised a desk to write his list of suspect counter-revolutionaries who were to be quickly tried and, if convicted, guillotined. <mask> once again organized a spectacular funeral, and Marat was buried in the Panthéon. Marat's body was to be placed upon a Roman bed, his wound displayed and his right arm extended holding the pen which he had used to defend the Republic and its people.This concept was to be complicated by the fact that the corpse had begun to putrefy. Marat's body had to be periodically sprinkled with water and vinegar as the public crowded to see his corpse prior to the funeral on 15 and 16 July. The stench became so bad however that the funeral had to be brought forward to the evening of 16 July. The Death of Marat, perhaps <mask>'s most famous painting, has been called the Pietà of the revolution. Upon presenting the painting to the convention, he said "Citizens, the people were again calling for their friend; their desolate voice was heard: <mask>, take up your brushes..., avenge Marat... I heard the voice of the people. I obeyed."<mask> had to work quickly, but the result was a simple and powerful image. The Death of Marat, 1793, became the leading image of the Terror and immortalized both Marat and <mask> in the world of the revolution. This piece stands today as "a moving testimony to what can be achieved when an artist's political convictions are directly manifested in his work". A political martyr was instantly created as <mask> portrayed Marat with all the marks of the real murder, in a fashion which greatly resembles that of Christ or his disciples. The subject although realistically depicted remains lifeless in a rather supernatural composition. With the surrogate tombstone placed in front of him and the almost holy light cast upon the whole scene; alluding to an out of this world existence. "Atheists though they were, <mask> and Marat, like so many other fervent social reformers of the modern world, seem to have created a new kind of religion."At the very center of these beliefs, there stood the republic. After the King's execution, war broke out between the new Republic and virtually every major power in Europe. <mask>, as a member of the Committee of General Security, contributed directly to the Reign of Terror. <mask> organized his last festival: the festival of the Supreme Being. Robespierre had realized what a tremendous propaganda tool these festivals were, and he decided to create a new religion, mixing moral ideas with the Republic and based on the ideas of Rousseau. This process had already begun by confiscating church lands and requiring priests to take an oath to the state. The festivals, called fêtes, would be the method of indoctrination.On the appointed day, 20 Prairial by the revolutionary calendar, Robespierre spoke, descended steps, and with a torch presented to him by <mask>, incinerated a cardboard image symbolizing atheism, revealing an image of wisdom underneath. Soon, the war began to go well; French troops marched across the southern half of the Netherlands (which would later become Belgium), and the emergency that had placed the Committee of Public Safety in control was no more. Then plotters seized Robespierre at the National Convention and he was later guillotined, in effect ending the Reign of Terror. As Robespierre was arrested, <mask> yelled to his friend "if you drink hemlock, I shall drink it with you." After this, he supposedly fell ill, and did not attend the evening session because of "stomach pain", which saved him from being guillotined along with Robespierre. <mask> was arrested and placed in prison, first from 2 August to 28 December 1794 and then from 29 May to 3 August 1795. There he painted his own portrait, showing him much younger than he actually was, as well as that of his jailer.Post-revolution

After <mask>'s wife visited him in jail, he conceived the idea of telling the story of The rape of the Sabine women. The Sabine Women Enforcing Peace by Running between the Combatants, also called The Intervention of the Sabine Women is said to have been painted to honor his wife, with the theme being love prevailing over conflict. The painting was also seen as a plea for the people to reunite after the bloodshed of the revolution. <mask> conceived a new style for this painting, one which he called the "Pure Greek Style", as opposed to the "Roman style" of his earlier historical paintings. The new style was influenced heavily by the work of art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann. In <mask>'s words, "the most prominent general characteristics of the Greek masterpieces are a noble simplicity and silent greatness in pose as well as in expression." Instead of the muscularity and angularity of the figures of his past works, these were smoother, more feminine, and painterly.This work also brought him to the attention of Napoleon. The story for the painting is as follows: "The Romans have abducted the daughters of their neighbors, the Sabines. To avenge this abduction, the Sabines attacked Rome, although not immediately—since Hersilia, the daughter of Tatius, the leader of the Sabines, had been married to Romulus, the Roman leader, and then had two children by him in the interim. Here we see Hersilia between her father and husband as she adjures the warriors on both sides not to take wives away from their husbands or mothers away from their children. The other Sabine Women join in her exhortations." During this time, the martyrs of the Revolution were taken from the Pantheon and buried in common ground, and revolutionary statues were destroyed. When <mask> was finally released to the country, France had changed.His wife managed to get him released from prison, and he wrote letters to his former wife, and told her he never ceased loving her. He remarried her in 1796. Finally, wholly restored to his position, he retreated to his studio, took pupils and for the most part, retired from politics. In August 1796, <mask> and many other artists signed a petition orchestrated by Quatremère de Quincy which questioned the wisdom of the planned seizure of works of art from Rome. The Director Barras believed that <mask> was "tricked" into signing, although one of <mask>'s students recalled that in 1798 his master lamented the fact that masterpieces had been imported from Italy. Napoleon

<mask>'s close association with the Committee of Public Safety during the Terror resulted in his signing of the death warrant for Alexandre de Beauharnais, a minor noble. Beauharnais's widow, Joséphine, went on to marry Napoleon Bonaparte and became his empress; <mask> himself depicted their coronation in the Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine, 2 December 1804.<mask> had been an admirer of Napoleon from their first meeting, struck by Bonaparte's classical features. Requesting a sitting from the busy and impatient general, <mask> was able to sketch Napoleon in 1797. <mask> recorded the face of the conqueror of Italy, but the full composition of Napoleon holding the peace treaty with Austria remains unfinished. This was likely a decision by Napoleon himself after considering the current political situation. He may have considered the publicity the portrait would bring about to be ill-timed. Bonaparte had high esteem for <mask>, and asked him to accompany him to Egypt in 1798, but <mask> refused, seemingly unwilling to give up the material comfort, safety, and peace of mind he had obtained through the years. Draftsman and engraver Dominique Vivant Denon went to Egypt instead, providing mostly documentary and archaeological work.After Napoleon's successful coup d'état in 1799, as First Consul he commissioned <mask> to commemorate his daring crossing of the Alps. The crossing of the St. Bernard Pass had allowed the French to surprise the Austrian army and win victory at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800. Although Napoleon had crossed the Alps on a mule, he requested that he be portrayed "calm upon a fiery steed". <mask> complied with Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard. After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, <mask> became the official court painter of the regime. During this period he took students, one of whom was the Belgian painter Pieter van Hanselaere. One of the works <mask> was commissioned for was The Coronation of Napoleon (1805-1807).<mask> was permitted to watch the event. He had plans of Notre Dame delivered and participants in the coronation came to his studio to pose individually, though never the Emperor (the only time <mask> obtained a sitting from Napoleon had been in 1797). <mask> did manage to get a private sitting with the Empress Joséphine and Napoleon's sister, Caroline Murat, through the intervention of erstwhile art patron Marshal Joachim Murat, the Emperor's brother-in-law. For his background, <mask> had the choir of Notre Dame act as his fill-in characters. Pope Pius VII came to sit for the painting, and actually blessed <mask>. Napoleon came to see the painter, stared at the canvas for an hour and said "<mask>, I salute you." <mask> had to redo several parts of the painting because of Napoleon's various whims, and for this painting, he received twenty-four thousand Francs.<mask> was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur in 1803. He was promoted to an Officier in 1808. And, in 1815, he was promoted to a Commandant (now Commandeur) de la Légion d'honneur. Exile and death

On the Bourbons returning to power, <mask> figured in the list of proscribed former revolutionaries and Bonapartists—for having voted execution for the deposed King Louis XVI; and for participating in the death of Louis XVII. Mistreated and starved, the imprisoned Louis XVII was forced into a false confession of incest with his mother, Queen Marie-Antoinette. This was untrue, as the son was separated from his mother early and was not allowed communication with her; nevertheless, the allegation helped earn her the guillotine. The newly restored Bourbon King, Louis XVIII, however, granted amnesty to <mask> and even

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title: Jacques-Louis David

type: original

texts:
 offered him the position of court painter.<mask> refused, preferring self-exile in Brussels. There, he trained and influenced Brussels artists like François-Joseph Navez and Ignace Brice, painted Cupid and Psyche and quietly lived the remainder of his life with his wife (whom he had remarried). In that time, he painted smaller-scale mythological scenes, and portraits of citizens of Brussels and Napoleonic émigrés, such as the Baron Gerard. <mask> created his last great work, Mars Being Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces, from 1822 to 1824. In December 1823, he wrote: "This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my seventy-five years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush." The finished painting—evoking painted porcelain because of its limpid coloration—was exhibited first in Brussels, then in Paris, where his former students flocked to view it.The exhibition was profitable—13,000 francs, after deducting operating costs, thus, more than 10,000 people visited and viewed the painting. In his later years, <mask> remained in full command of his artistic faculties, even after a stroke in the spring of 1825 disfigured his face and slurred his speech. In June 1825, he resolved to embark on an improved version of his Anger of Achilles (also known as the Sacrifice of Iphigenie); the earlier version was completed in 1819 and is now in the collection of the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas. <mask> remarked to his friends who visited his studio "this [painting] is what is killing me" such was his determination to complete the work, but by October it must have already been well advanced, as his former pupil Gros wrote to congratulate him, having heard reports of the painting's merits. By the time <mask> died, the painting had been completed and the commissioner Ambroise Firmin-Didot brought it back to Paris to include it in the exhibition "Pour les grecs" that he had organised and which opened in Paris in April 1826. When <mask> was leaving a theater, a carriage struck him, and he later died, on 29 December 1825. At his death, some portraits were auctioned in Paris, they sold for little; the famous Death of Marat was exhibited in a secluded room, to avoid outraging public sensibilities.Disallowed return to France for burial, for having been a regicide of King Louis XVI, the body of the painter Jacques-<mask> was buried in Brussels and moved in 1882 to Brussels Cemetery, while some say his heart was buried with his wife at Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris. Freemasonry
The theme of the oath found in several works like The Oath of the Tennis Court, The Distribution of the Eagles, and Leonidas at Thermopylae, was perhaps inspired by the rituals of Freemasonry. In 1989 during the "David against <mask>" conference Albert Boime was able to prove, on the basis of a document dated in 1787, the painter's membership in the "La Moderation" Masonic Lodge. Medical analysis of <mask>'s face
Jacques-<mask>'s facial abnormalities were traditionally reported to be a consequence of a deep facial sword wound after a fencing incident. These left him with a noticeable asymmetry during facial expression and resulted in his difficulty in eating or speaking (he could not pronounce some consonants such as the letter 'r'). A sword scar wound on the left side of his face is present in his self-portrait and sculptures and corresponds to some of the buccal branches of the facial nerve. An injury to this nerve and its branches are likely to have resulted in the difficulties with his left facial movement.Furthermore, as a result of this injury, he suffered from a growth on his face that biographers and art historians have defined as a benign tumor. These, however, may have been a granuloma, or even a post-traumatic neuroma. As historian Simon Schama has pointed out, witty banter and public speaking ability were key aspects of the social culture of 18th-century France. In light of these cultural keystones, <mask>'s tumor would have been a heavy obstacle in his social life. <mask> was sometimes referred to as "<mask> of the Tumor". Portraiture
In addition to his history paintings, <mask> completed a number of privately commissioned portraits. Warren Roberts, among others, has pointed out the contrast between <mask>'s "public style" of painting, as shown in his history paintings, and his "private style", as shown in his portraits.His portraits were characterized by a sense of truth and realism. He focused on defining his subjects' features and characters without idealizing them. This is different from the style seen in his historical paintings, in which he idealizes his figures' features and bodies to align with Greek and Roman ideals of beauty. He puts a great deal of detail into his portraits, defining smaller features like hands and fabric. The compositions of his portraits remain simple with blank backgrounds that allow the viewer to focus on the details of the subject. The portrait he did of his wife (1813) is an example of his typical portrait style. The background is dark and simple without any clues as to the setting, which forces the viewer to focus entirely on her.Her features are un-idealized and truthful to her appearance. There is a great amount of detail that can be seen in his attention to portraying the satin material of the dress she wears, the drapery of the scarf around her, and her hands which rest in her lap. In the painting of Brutus (1789), the man and his wife are separated, both morally and physically. Paintings like these, depicting the great strength of patriotic sacrifice, made <mask> a popular hero of the revolution. In the Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife (1788), the man and his wife are tied together in an intimate pose. She leans on his shoulder while he pauses from his work to look up at her. <mask> casts them in a soft light, not in the sharp contrast of Brutus or of the Horatii.Also of interest—Lavoisier was a tax collector, as well as a famous chemist. Though he spent some of his money trying to clean up swamps and eradicate malaria, he was nonetheless sent to the guillotine during the Reign of Terror as an enemy of the people. <mask>, then a powerful member of the National Assembly, stood idly by and watched. Other portraits include paintings of his sister-in-law and her husband, Madame and Monsieur Seriziat. The picture of Monsieur Seriziat depicts a man of wealth, sitting comfortably with his horse-riding equipment. The picture of the Madame shows her wearing an unadorned white dress, holding her young child's hand as they lean against a bed. <mask> painted these portraits of Madame and Monsieur Seriziat out of gratitude for letting him stay with them after he was in jail.Towards the end of <mask>'s life, he painted a portrait of his old friend Abbé Sieyès. Both had been involved in the Revolution, both had survived the purging of political radicals that followed the reign of terror. Shift in attitude
The shift in <mask>'s perspective played an important role in the paintings of <mask>'s later life, including this one of Sieyès. During the height of The Terror, <mask> was an ardent supporter of radicals such as Robespierre and Marat, and twice offered up his life in their defense. He organized revolutionary festivals and painted portraits of martyrs of the revolution, such as Lepeletier, who was assassinated for voting for the death of the king. <mask> was an impassioned speaker at times in the National Assembly. In speaking to the Assembly about the young boy named Bara, another martyr of the revolution, <mask> said, "O Bara!O Viala! The blood that you have spread still smokes; it rises toward Heaven and cries for vengeance." After Robespierre was sent to the guillotine, however, <mask> was imprisoned and changed the attitude of his rhetoric. During his imprisonment he wrote many letters, pleading his innocence. In one he wrote, "I am prevented from returning to my atelier, which, alas, I should never have left. I believed that in accepting the most honorable position, but very difficult to fill, that of legislator, that a righteous heart would suffice, but I lacked the second quality, understanding." Later, while explaining his developing "Grecian style" for paintings such as The Intervention of the Sabine Women, <mask> further commented on a shift in attitude: "In all human activity the violent and transitory develops first; repose and profundity appear last.The recognition of these latter qualities requires time; only great masters have them, while their pupils have access only to violent passions." Legacy

Jacques-<mask> was, in his time, regarded as the leading painter in France, and arguably all of Western Europe; many of the painters honored by the restored Bourbons following the French Revolution had been <mask>'s pupils. <mask>'s student Antoine-Jean Gros for example, was made a Baron and honored by Napoleon Bonaparte's court. Another pupil of <mask>'s, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres became the most important artist of the restored Royal Academy and the figurehead of the Neoclassical school of art, engaging the increasingly popular Romantic school of art that was beginning to challenge Neoclassicism. <mask> invested in the formation of young artists for the Rome Prize, which was also a way to pursue his old rivalry with other contemporary painters such as Joseph-Benoît Suvée, who had also started teaching classes. To be one of <mask>'s students was considered prestigious and earned his students a lifetime reputation. He called on the more advanced students, such as Jérôme-Martin Langlois, to help him paint his large canvases.Musician and artist Therese Emilie Henriette Winkel also studied with <mask>. Despite <mask>'s reputation, he was more fiercely criticized right after his death than at any point during his life. His style came under the most serious criticism for being static, rigid, and uniform throughout all his work. <mask>'s art was also attacked for being cold and lacking warmth. <mask>, however, made his career precisely by challenging what he saw as the earlier rigidity and conformity of the French Royal Academy's approach to art. <mask>'s later works also reflect his growth in the development of the Empire style, notable for its dynamism and warm colors. It is likely that much of the criticism of <mask> following his death came from <mask>'s opponents; during his lifetime <mask> made a great many enemies with his competitive and arrogant personality as well as his role in the Terror.<mask> sent many people to the guillotine and personally signed the death warrants for King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. One significant episode in <mask>'s political career that earned him a great deal of contempt was the execution of Emilie Chalgrin. A fellow painter Carle Vernet had approached <mask>, who was on the Committee of Public Safety, requesting him to intervene on behalf of his sister, Chalgrin. She had been accused of crimes against the Republic, most notably possessing stolen items. <mask> refused to intervene in her favor, and she was executed. Vernet blamed <mask> for her death, and the episode followed him for the rest of his life and after. In the last 50 years <mask> has enjoyed a revival in popular favor and in 1948 his two-hundredth birthday was celebrated with an exhibition at the Musée de l'Orangerie in Paris and at Versailles showing his life's works.Following World War II, Jacques-<mask> was increasingly regarded as a symbol of French national pride and identity, as well as a vital force in the development of European and French art in the modern era. The birth of Romanticism is traditionally credited to the paintings of eighteenth-century French artists such as Jacques-Louis <mask>. There are streets named after <mask> in the French cities of Carcassonne and Montpellier. Filmography
Danton (Andrzej Wajda, France, 1982) – Historical drama. Many scenes include <mask> as a silent character watching and drawing. The film focuses on the period of the Terror. Gallery

See also
 Napoleon legacy and memory
 Neoclassicism in France

References

Sources

Brookner, Anita, Jacques-Louis <mask>, Chatto & Windus (1980)

Chodorow, Stanley, et al.The Mainstream of Civilization. New York: The Harcourt Press (1994) pg. 594

Delécluze, E., <mask>, son école et son temps, Paris, (1855) re-edition Macula (1983)
Dowd, <mask>, Pageant-Master of the Republic, Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, (1948)

Humbert, Agnès, <mask>, peintre et conventionnel: essai de critique marxiste, Paris, Editions sociales internationales (1936)
 Humbert, Agnès, <mask>, collection des Maîtres, 60 illustrations, Paris, Braun (1940)

Johnson, Dorothy, Jacques-Louis <mask>. New Perspectives, Newark (2006)
Lajer-Burcharth, Ewa, Necklines. The art of Jacques-Louis <mask> after the Terror, ed. Yale University Press, New Haven London (1999)
Lee, Simon, <mask>, Phaidon, London (1999). Lévêque, Jean-Jacques, Jacques-Louis <mask> édition Acr Paris (1989)
Leymarie, Jean, French Painting, the 19th century, Cleveland (1962)
Lindsay, Jack, Death of the Hero, London, Studio Books (1960)
Malvone, Laura, L'Évènement politique en peinture.A propos du Marat de <mask> in Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, Italie et Méditerranée 106, 1 (1994)
Michel, R. (ed), <mask> contre <mask>, actes du colloque au Louvre du 6-10 décembre 1989, Paris (1993)
Monneret, Sophie Monneret, <mask> et le néoclassicisme, ed. Terrail, Paris (1998)
Noël, Bernard, <mask>, éd. Flammarion, Paris (1989)

Rosenberg, Pierre, Prat, Louis-Antoine, Jacques-Louis <mask> 1748-1825. Catalogue raisonné des dessins, 2 volumes, éd. Leonardo Arte, Milan (2002)
Rosenberg, Pierre, Peronnet, Benjamin, Un album inédit de David in Revue de l'art, n°142 (2003–04), pp. 45–83 (complete the previous reference)
 Sahut, Marie-Catherine & Michel, Régis, <mask>, l'art et le politique, coll. "Découvertes Gallimard" (nº 46), série Peinture.Éditions Gallimard et RMN Paris (1988)
Sainte-Fare Garnot, N., Jacques-Louis <mask> 1748-1825, Paris, Ed. Chaudun (2005)

Schnapper, Antoine, <mask> témoin de son temps, Office du Livre, Fribourg, (1980)
Thévoz, Michel, Le théâtre du crime. Essai sur la peinture de <mask>, éd. de Minuit, Paris (1989)
Vanden Berghe, Marc, Plesca, Ioana, Nouvelles perspectives sur la Mort de Marat: entre modèle jésuite et références mythologiques, Bruxelles (2004) / New Perspectives on <mask>'s Death of Marat, Brussels (2004) - online on www.art-chitecture.net/publications.php
Vanden Berghe, Marc, Plesca, Ioana, Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau sur son lit de mort par Jacques-Louis <mask>: saint Sébastien révolutionnaire, miroir multiréférencé de Rome, Brussels (2005) - online on www.art-chitecture.net/publications.php
Vaughan, William and Weston, Helen (eds),Jacques-Louis <mask>'s Marat, Cambridge (2000)
 The Death of Socrates. Retrieved 29 June 2005. New York Med. Jacques-Louis <mask>, on An Abridged History of Europe.Retrieved 29 June 2005
 J.L<mask> on CGFA. Retrieved 29 June 2005

Further reading
 (see index)

External links

A Closer Look at <mask>'s Consecration of Napoleon multimedia feature; Louvre museum official website
The Intervention of the Sabines (Louvre museum)
Web Gallery of Art
www.jacqueslouisdavid.org 101 paintings by Jacques-Louis <mask>-<mask> at Olga's Gallery
Jacques-<mask> in the "History of Art"
smARThistory: Death of Socrates
Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute 2005 exhibition, Jacques-Louis <mask>: Empire to Exile
The equestrian portrait of Stanislaw Kostka Potocki at the Wilanow Palace Museum

Jacobins
French neoclassical painters
Prix de Rome for painting
1748 births
1825 deaths
Artists from Paris
University of Paris alumni
Deputies to the French National Convention
Regicides of Louis XVI
First French Empire
French Roman Catholics
Members of the Académie des beaux-arts
Alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
Road incident deaths in Belgium
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
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Pedestrian road incident deaths
18th-century French painters
French male painters
19th-century French painters
French history painters
People of the Reign of Terror
French Freemasons
Presidents of the National Convention
Burials at Brussels Cemetery
Neoclassical artists
French propagandists
Neoclassical

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title: Zita of Bourbon-Parma

texts:
<mask> of Bourbon-Parma (Zita Maria delle Grazie Adelgonda Micaela Raffaela Gabriella Giuseppina Antonia Luisa Agnese; 9 May 1892 – 14 March 1989) was the wife of Charles, the last monarch of Austria-Hungary. As such, she was the last Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary, in addition to other titles. She is venerated in the Catholic Church, having been declared Servant of God by Pope Benedict XVI. Born as the seventeenth child of the dispossessed Robert I, Duke of Parma, and his second wife, Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal, Zita married the then Archduke Charles of Austria in 1911. Charles became heir presumptive to the Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria in 1914 after the assassination of his uncle Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, and acceded to the throne in 1916 after the elderly emperor's death. After the end of World War I in 1918, the Habsburgs were deposed and the former empire became home to the states of Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia whilst other parts were annexed to or joined the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Italy, Romania and a reconstituted independent Poland. Charles and Zita left for exile in Switzerland and after the failure of attempts to restore royal rule in Hungary, were subsequently removed from that country by the Allies to Madeira, where Charles died in 1922.After her husband's death, <mask> and her son Otto served as symbols of unity for the exiled dynasty. A devout Catholic, she raised a large family after being widowed at the age of 29, and never remarried. Early life
Princess <mask> of Bourbon-Parma was born at the Villa Pianore in the Italian Province of Lucca, 9 May 1892. The unusual name Zita was given to her after <mask>, a popular Italian saint who had lived in Tuscany in the 13th century. She was the third daughter and fifth child of the deposed Robert I, Duke of Parma and his second wife Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal, a daughter of King Miguel of Portugal and his wife Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. <mask>'s father had lost his throne as a result of the movement for Italian unification in 1859 when he was still a child. He fathered twelve children during his first marriage to Princess Maria Pia of the Two Sicilies (six of whom were mentally disabled, and three of whom died young).Duke Robert became a widower in 1882, and two years later he married Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal, Zita's mother. The second marriage produced a further twelve children. <mask> was the 17th child among Duke Robert's 24 children. Robert moved his large family between Villa Pianore (a large property located between Pietrasanta and Viareggio) and his Schwarzau Castle in lower Austria. It was mainly in these two residences that Zita spent her formative years. The family spent most of the year in Austria, moving to Pianore in the winter and returning in the summer. To move between them, they took a special train with sixteen coaches to accommodate the family and their belongings.<mask> and her siblings were raised to speak Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese and English. She recalled:

At the age of ten, <mask> was sent to a boarding school at Zanberg in Upper Bavaria, where there was a strict regime of study and religious instruction. She was summoned home in the autumn of 1907 at the death of her father. Her maternal grandmother sent <mask> and her sister Francesca to a convent on the Isle of Wight to complete her education. Brought up as devout Catholics, the Parma children regularly undertook good works for the poor. In Schwarzau the family turned surplus cloth into clothes. <mask> and Francesca personally distributed food, clothing, and medicines to the needy in Pianore.Three of <mask>'s sisters became nuns and, for a time, she considered following the same path. <mask> went through a patch of poor health and was sent for the traditional cure at a European spa for two years. Marriage

In the close vicinity of Schwarzau castle was the Villa Wartholz, residence of Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, <mask>'s maternal aunt. She was the stepmother of Archduke Otto, who died in 1906, and the step-grandmother of Archduke Charles of Austria-Este, at that time second-in-line to the Austrian throne. The two daughters of Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria were Zita's first cousins and Charles' half-aunts. They had met as children but did not see one another for almost ten years, as each pursued their education. In 1909, his Dragoon regiment was stationed at Brandýs nad Labem, from where he visited his aunt at Františkovy Lázně.It was during one of these visits that Charles and Zita became reacquainted. Charles was under pressure to marry (Franz Ferdinand, his uncle and first-in-line, had married morganatically, and his children were excluded from the throne) and Zita had a suitably royal genealogy. <mask> later recalled:

Archduke Charles traveled to Villa Pianore and asked for Zita's hand and, on 13 June 1911, their engagement was announced at the Austrian court. Zita in later years recalled that after her engagement she had expressed to Charles her worries about the fate of the Austrian Empire and the challenges of the monarchy. Charles and Zita were married at the Schwarzau castle on 21 October 1911. Charles's great-uncle, the 81-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph, attended the wedding. He was relieved to see an heir make a suitable marriage, and was in good spirits, even leading the toast at the wedding breakfast.Archduchess <mask> soon conceived a son, and Otto was born 20 November 1912. Seven more children followed in the next decade. Wife of the heir to Austrian throne
At this time, Archduke Charles was in his twenties and did not expect to become emperor for some time, especially while Franz Ferdinand remained in good health. This changed on 28 June 1914 when the heir and his wife Sophie were assassinated in Sarajevo by Bosnian Serb nationalists. Charles and Zita received the news by telegram that day. She said of her husband, "Though it was a beautiful day, I saw his face go white in the sun." In the war that followed, Charles was promoted to General in the Austrian army, taking command of the 20th Corps for an offensive in Tyrol.The war was personally difficult for <mask>, as several of her brothers fought on opposing sides in the conflict (Prince Felix and Prince René had joined the Austrian army, while Prince Sixtus and Prince Xavier lived in France before the war and enlisted in the Belgian army.) Also her country of birth, Italy, joined the war against Austria in 1915, and so rumours of the 'Italian' Zita began to be muttered. Even as late as 1917, The German ambassador in Vienna, Count Botho von Wedel-Jarlsberg would write to Berlin saying "The Empress is descended from an Italian princely house... People do not entirely trust the Italian and her brood of relatives." At Franz Joseph's request, Zita and her children left their residence at Hetzendorf and moved into a suite of rooms at Schönbrunn Palace. Here, Zita spent many hours with the old Emperor on both formal and informal occasions, where Franz Joseph confided in her his fears for the future. Emperor Franz Joseph died of bronchitis and pneumonia at the age of 86 on 21 November 1916. "I remember the dear plump figure of Prince Lobkowitz going up to my husband," Zita later recounted, "and, with tears in his eyes, making the sign of the cross on Charles's forehead.As he did so he said, 'May God bless Your Majesty.' It was the first time we had heard the Imperial title used to us." Empress and queen

Charles and <mask> were crowned in Budapest on 30 December 1916. Following the coronation there was a banquet, but after that the festivities ended, as the emperor and empress thought it wrong to have prolonged celebrations during a time of war. At the beginning of the reign, Charles was more often than not away from Vienna, so he had a telephone line installed from Baden (where Charles's military headquarters were located) to the Hofburg. He called Zita several times a day whenever they were separated. Zita had some influence on her husband and would discreetly attend audiences with the Prime Minister or military briefings, and she had a special interest in social policy.However, military matters were the sole domain of Charles. Energetic and strong-willed, Zita accompanied her husband to the provinces and to the front, as well as occupying herself with charitable works and hospital visits to the war-wounded. Sixtus affair
By the spring of 1917, the War was dragging on towards its fourth year, and <mask>'s brother Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, a serving officer in the Belgian Army, was a main mover behind a plan for Austria-Hungary to make a separate peace with France. Charles initiated contact with Sixtus through contacts in neutral Switzerland, and Zita wrote a letter inviting him to Vienna. <mask>'s mother Maria Antonia delivered the letter in person. Sixtus arrived with conditions for talks which had been agreed with the French – the restoration to France of Alsace-Lorraine (annexed by Germany after the Franco-Prussian War in 1870); restoration of the independence of Belgium; independence for the kingdom of Serbia; and the handover of Constantinople to Russia. Charles agreed, in principle, to the first three points and wrote a letter to Sixtus dated 25 March 1917 which sent "the secret and unofficial message" to the President of France that "I will use all means and all my personal influence".This attempt at dynastic diplomacy eventually foundered. Germany refused to negotiate over Alsace-Lorraine, and, seeing a Russian collapse on the horizon, was loath to give up the war. Sixtus continued his efforts, even meeting Lloyd George in London about Italy's territorial demands on Austria in the Treaty of London of 1915, but the Prime Minister could not persuade his generals that Britain should make peace with Austria. <mask> managed a personal achievement during this time by stopping the German plans to send airplanes to bomb the home of the King and Queen of Belgium on their name days. In April 1918, after the German-Russian Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Austrian Foreign Minister Count Ottokar Czernin made a speech attacking incoming French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau as being the main obstacle to a peace favouring the Central Powers. Clemenceau was incensed and, after seeing the Emperor Charles's letter of 24 March 1917, had it published. For a while, the life of Sixtus appeared to be in danger, and there were even fears that Germany might occupy Austria.Czernin persuaded Charles to send a 'Word of Honour' to Austria's allies saying that Sixtus had not been authorised to show the letter to the French Government, that Belgium had not been mentioned, and that Clemenceau had lied about the mentioning of Alsace. Czernin had actually been in contact with the German Embassy throughout the whole crisis and attempted to persuade the Emperor to step down because of the Affair. After failing to do so, Czernin resigned as Foreign Minister. End of Empire
By this time, the war was closing in on the embattled Emperor. A Union of Czech Deputies had already sworn an oath to a new Czechoslovak state independent of the Habsburg Empire on 13 April 1918, the prestige of the German Army had taken a severe blow at the Battle of Amiens, and, on 25 September 1918, her brother in law King Ferdinand I of Bulgaria broke away from his allies in the Central Powers and sued for peace independently. Zita was with Charles when he received the telegram of Bulgaria's collapse. She remembered it "made it even more urgent to start peace talks with the Western Powers while there was still something to talk about."On 16 October, the emperor issued a "People's Manifesto" proposing the empire be restructured on federal lines with each nationality gaining its own state. Instead, each nation broke away and the empire effectively dissolved. Leaving behind their children at Gödöllő, Charles and Zita travelled to the Schönbrunn Palace. By this time ministers had been appointed by the new state of "German-Austria", and by 11 November, together with the emperor's spokesmen, they prepared a manifesto for Charles to sign. <mask>, at first glance, mistook it for an abdication and made her famous statement:

Charles gave his permission for the document to be published, and he, his family and the remnants of his Court departed for the Royal shooting lodge at Eckartsau, close to the borders with Hungary and Slovakia. The Republic of German-Austria was proclaimed the next day. Exile

After a difficult few months at Eckartsau, the Imperial Family received aid from an unexpected source.Prince Sixtus had met King George V and appealed to him to help the Habsburgs. George was reportedly moved by the request, it being only months since his

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title: Zita of Bourbon-Parma

texts:
 imperial relatives in Russia had been executed by revolutionaries, and promised "We will immediately do what is necessary." Several British Army officers were sent to help Charles, most notably Lieutenant-Colonel Edward Lisle Strutt, who was a grandson of Lord Belper and a former student at the University of Innsbruck. On 19 March 1919, orders were received from the War Office to "get the Emperor out of Austria without delay". With some difficulty, Strutt managed to arrange a train to Switzerland, enabling the Emperor to leave the country with dignity without having to abdicate. Charles, Zita, their children and their household left Eckartsau on 24 March escorted by a detachment of British soldiers from the Honourable Artillery Company under the command of Strutt. Hungary and exile in Madeira

The family's first home in exile was Wartegg Castle in Rorschach, Switzerland, a property owned by the Bourbon-Parmas.However, the Swiss authorities, worried about the implication of the Habsburgs living near the Austrian border, compelled them to move to the western part of the country. The next month, therefore, found them moving to Villa Prangins, near Lake Geneva, where they resumed a quiet family life. This abruptly ended in March 1920 when, after a period of instability in Hungary, Miklós Horthy was elected regent. Charles was still technically King (as Charles IV) but Horthy sent an emissary to Prangins advising him not to go to Hungary until the situation had calmed. After the Trianon Treaty Horthy's ambition soon grew. Charles became concerned and requested the help of Colonel Strutt to get him into Hungary. Charles twice attempted to regain control, once in March 1921 and again in October 1921.Both attempts failed, despite <mask>'s staunch support (she insisted on travelling with him on the final dramatic train journey to Budapest). Charles and Zita temporarily resided at Castle Tata, the home of Count Esterházy, until a suitable permanent exile could be found. Malta was mooted as a possibility, but was declined by Lord Curzon, and French territory was ruled out given the possibility of <mask>'s brothers intriguing on Charles's behalf. Eventually, the Portuguese island of Madeira was chosen. On 31 October 1921, the former Imperial couple were taken by rail from Tihany to Baja, where the Royal Navy monitor HMS Glowworm was waiting. They finally arrived at Funchal on 19 November. Their children were being looked after at Wartegg Castle in Switzerland by Charles's step-grandmother Maria Theresa, although Zita managed to see them in Zurich when her son Robert needed an operation for appendicitis.The children joined their parents in Madeira in February 1922. Death of Charles
Charles had been in poor health for some time. After going shopping on a chilly day in Funchal to buy toys for Carl Ludwig, he was struck by an attack of bronchitis. This rapidly worsened into pneumonia, not helped by the inadequate medical care available. Several of the children and staff were also ill, and Zita (at the time eight months pregnant) helped nurse them all. Charles weakened and died on 1 April, his last words to his wife being "I love you so much." Charles was 34 years old.After his funeral, a witness said of Zita "This woman really is to be admired. She did not, for one second, lose her composure... she greeted the people on all sides and then spoke to those who had helped out with the funeral. They were all under her charm." Zita wore mourning black in Charles's memory throughout sixty-seven years of widowhood. Widowhood

After Charles's death, the former Austrian imperial family were soon to move again. Alfonso XIII of Spain had approached the British Foreign Office via his ambassador in London, and they agreed to allow Zita and her seven (soon to be eight) children to relocate to Spain. Alfonso duly sent the warship Infanta Isabel to Funchal and this took them to Cadiz.They were then escorted to the Pardo Palace in Madrid, where shortly after her arrival Zita gave birth to Archduchess Elisabeth. Alfonso XIII offered his exiled Habsburg relatives the use of Palacio Uribarren at Lekeitio in the Bay of Biscay. This appealed to Zita, who did not want to be a heavy burden to the state that harboured her. For the next six years Zita settled in Lekeitio, where she got on with the job of raising and educating her children. They lived with straitened finances, mainly living on income from private property in Austria, income from a vineyard in Johannisberg in the Rhine Valley, and voluntary collections. Other members of the exiled Habsburg dynasty, however, claimed much of this money, and there were regular petitions for help from former Imperial officials. Move to Belgium
By 1929, several of the children were approaching the age to attend university and the family sought to move to the Belgian village of Steenokkerzeel near Brussels, where they were closer to several members of their family.Zita continued her political lobbying on behalf of the Habsburg family, even sounding out links with Mussolini's Italy. There was even a possibility of a Habsburg restoration under the Austrian Chancellors Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg, with Crown Prince Otto visiting Austria numerous times. These overtures were abruptly ended by the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938. As exiles, the Habsburg family took the lead in resisting the Nazis in Austria, but this foundered because of opposition between monarchists and socialists. Flight to North America
With the Nazi invasion of Belgium on 10 May 1940, Zita and her family became war refugees. They narrowly missed being killed by a direct hit on the castle by German bombers and fled to Prince Xavier's castle at Bostz in France. The Habsburgs then fled to the Spanish border, reaching it on 18 May.They moved on to Portugal where the U.S. Government granted the family exit visas on 9 July. After a perilous journey they arrived in New York City on 27 July, having family in Long Island and Newark, New Jersey; at one point, <mask> and several of her children lived, as long-term house-guests, in Tuxedo Park, New York. The Austrian imperial refugees eventually settled in Quebec, which had the advantage of being French-speaking (the younger children were not yet fluent in English). As they were cut off from all European funds, finances were more stretched than ever. At one stage, Zita was reduced to making salad and spinach dishes from dandelion leaves. However, all her sons were active in the war effort. Otto promoted the dynasty's role in a post-war Europe and met regularly with Franklin Roosevelt; Robert was the Habsburg representative in London; Carl Ludwig and Felix joined the United States Army, serving with several American-raised relatives of the Mauerer line; Rudolf smuggled himself into Austria in the final days of the war to help organise the resistance.In 1945 Empress <mask> celebrated her birthday on the first day of peace, 9 May. She was to spend the next two years touring the United States and Canada to raise funds for war-ravaged Austria and Hungary. Post-War

After a period of rest and recovery, <mask> found herself regularly going back to Europe for the weddings of her children. She decided to move back to the continent full-time, in 1952, to Luxembourg, in order to look after her aging mother. Maria Antonia died at the age of 96 in 1959. The bishop of Chur proposed to Zita that she move into a residence that he administered (formerly a castle of the Counts de Salis) at Zizers, Graubünden in Switzerland. As the castle had enough space for visits from her large family and a nearby chapel (a necessity for the devoutly Catholic <mask>), she accepted with ease.<mask> occupied herself in her final years with her family. Although the restrictions on the Habsburgs entering Austria had been lifted, this only applied to those born after 10 April 1919. This meant <mask> could not attend the funeral of her daughter Adelheid in 1972, which was painful for her. She also involved herself in the efforts to have her deceased husband, the "Peace Emperor" canonised. In 1982, the restrictions were eased, and she returned to Austria after having been absent for six decades. Over the next few years, the Empress made several visits to her former Austrian homeland, even appearing on Austrian television. In a series of interviews with the Viennese tabloid newspaper Kronen Zeitung, Zita expressed her belief that the deaths of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria and his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera, at Mayerling, in 1889, were not a double suicide, but rather murder by French or Austrian agents.Death
After a memorable 90th birthday, at which she was surrounded by her now vast family, Zita's habitually robust health began to fail. She developed inoperable cataracts in both eyes. Her last big family gathering took place at Zizers, in 1987, when her children and grandchildren joined in celebrating Empress Zita's 95th birthday. While visiting her daughter, in summer 1988, she developed pneumonia and spent most of the autumn and winter bedridden. Finally, she called Otto, in early March 1989, and told him she was dying. He and the rest of the family travelled to her bedside and took turns keeping her company until she died in the early hours of 14 March 1989. She was 96 years old, and was the last surviving child of Robert, Duke of Parma from both his marriages.Her funeral was held in Vienna on 1 April. The government allowed it to take place on Austrian soil providing that the cost was borne by the Habsburgs themselves. <mask>'s body was carried to the Imperial Crypt  under Capuchin Church in the same funeral coach she had walked behind during the funeral of Emperor Franz Joseph in 1916. It was attended by over 200 members of the Habsburg and Bourbon-Parma families, and the service had 6,000 attendees including leading politicians, state officials and international representatives, including a representative of Pope John Paul II. Following an ancient custom, the Empress had asked that her heart, which was placed in an urn, stay behind at Muri Abbey, in Switzerland, where the Emperor's heart had rested for decades. In doing so, Zita assured herself that, in death, she and her husband would remain by each other's side. When the procession of mourners arrived at the gates of the Imperial Crypt, the herald who knocked on the door during this traditional "admission ceremony" introduced her as  Zita, Her Majesty the Empress and Queen.Cause of beatification and canonization

On 10 December 2009, Mgr Yves Le Saux, Bishop of Le Mans, France, opened the diocesan process for the beatification of Zita. Zita was in the habit of spending several months each year in the diocese of Le Mans at St. Cecilia's Abbey, Solesmes, where three of her sisters were nuns. The actor is the French Association pour la Béatification de l'Impératrice Zita. The postulator for the cause is Alexander Leonhardt. Vice postulator for Hungary is Catholic theologian Norbert Nagy. The judge of the tribunal is Bruno Bonnet. The promoter of justice is François Scrive.With the opening of her cause, the late Empress has been accorded the title Servant of God. Honours

 :
 Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross
 Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Elizabeth
  Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Bailiff Dame Grand Cross

Children
Charles and <mask> had eight children and thirty three grandchildren:

Ancestry

References

Bibliography
 Beeche, Arturo & McIntosh, David. (2005). Empress <mask> of Austria, Queen of Hungary (1892–1989) Eurohistory. ASIN: B000F1PHOI
 Bogle, James and Joanna. (1990). A Heart for Europe: The Lives of Emperor Charles and Empress <mask> of Austria-Hungary, Fowler Wright, 1990,
 Brook-Shepherd, Gordon.(1991). The Last Empress – The Life and Times of Zita of Austria-Hungary 1893–1989. Harper-Collins. Harding, Bertita. (1939). Imperial Twilight: The Story of Karl and Zita of Hungary. Bobbs-Merrill Company Publishers.ASIN: B000J0DDQO
  Bernhard A. Macek: Kaiser Karl I. Der letzte Kaiser Österreichs. Ein biografischer Bilderbogen, Sutton Verlag, Erfurt 2012,
 (in French) Debris, Cyrille. (2013). Zita, Portrait intime d'une imperatrice. Cerf, Paris, 2013,

External links

Film of Zita of Bourbon-Parma's funeral

1892 births
1989 deaths
People from the Province of Lucca
Princesses of Bourbon-Parma
House of Bourbon-Parma
Italian nobility
Italian Roman Catholics
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
Burials at the Imperial Crypt
Austrian empresses
Austrian Roman Catholics
Bohemian queens consort
Hungarian queens consort
Hungarian Roman Catholics
Austrian people of Italian descent
Hungarian people of Italian descent
Dames of Malta
Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel
Austrian Servants of God
Roman Catholic royal saints
Deaths from pneumonia in

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title: William Cotton (missionary)

texts:
Rev <mask> (30 January 1813 – 22 June 1879) was an Anglican priest, a missionary and an apiarist. After education at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford he was ordained and travelled to New Zealand as chaplain to George Augustus Selwyn, its first bishop. He introduced the skills of beekeeping to North Island and wrote books on the subject. Later as vicar of Frodsham, Cheshire, England, he restored its church and vicarage but was limited in his activities by mental illness. Early life
<mask> was born in Leytonstone, Essex, England, the eldest child of <mask> and his wife Sarah. His father was a businessman who became Governor of the Bank of England. His younger brother was the jurist <mask>.He was initially educated at home by tutors, until at the age of 14 he was sent to Eton College. There he became an accomplished rower and had a fine scholastic record, winning the Newcastle Prize for excellence in divinity and the classics in his final year. In 1832 he matriculated to Christ Church, Oxford, and graduated BA in 1836, with first class honours in Classics and second class honours in Mathematics. He decided on a career in the church and was appointed as a curate at Baston, Lincolnshire. He was ordained as a deacon in 1837, in 1838 was promoted to MA by seniority, and in 1839 was ordained a priest and was appointed as curate at St Edward's Church, Romford, Essex. Even at this stage of his life, there were concerns about his mental health. He then moved to a curacy at the parish church of St John, Windsor.Here he became a good friend of George Augustus Selwyn, a fellow curate five years his senior. Missionary
In summer 1841 Selwyn was appointed to be the first Anglican Bishop of New Zealand and <mask> offered to go with him as his chaplain. This decision met with disapproval from <mask>'s father who said "You are not missionary material". <mask> did have some of the practical skills which would be valuable; he could use various tools, including a lathe, ride a horse, and row and sail boats. The Tomatin sailed from London for Plymouth Sound without its clerical cargo who went overland to Plymouth before eventually boarding the ship there. <mask> had loaded some hives of bees aboard but had not packed them securely within a hogshead as planned in My Bee Book. Delayed in the English Channel by contrary winds the bee hives were so thrown about aboard the Tomatin that they were jettisoned overboard in Plymouth Sound in <mask>'s absence.The missionary party of 23 members set sail from Plymouth late on 26 December 1841 on board the barque Tomatin. On the ship, in addition to their luggage, were various animals and possibly, an unknown number of hives of bees. <mask>'s letter dated 30 December 1841, passed to a homeward bound brig on 21 January, stated the bees were safe. However, given the short time available from the Tomatin's arrival in Plymouth Sound on 19 December, the daily hope that contrary winds would abate so they could sail "on the morrow," and the party boarding on 23 December, there's little likelihood he had the time to organize a replacement lot of bees. Either way, the fate of the bees is unknown, they did not survive the trip to Sydney. Also on board was a Māori boy who taught many of the passengers, including <mask>, to speak the Māori language. In April 1842 the Tomatin arrived in Sydney.The boat was damaged by a rock on entering their landing place and, rather than wait for its repair, some of the party, including Selwyn and <mask>, set sail for New Zealand on the brig Bristolian on 19 May. They arrived in Auckland on 30 May. After spending some time as guests of Captain <mask>, the first Governor of New Zealand, Selwyn and <mask> set sail for the Bay of Islands on the schooner Wave on 12 June, arriving on 20 June. Amongst the party was a clerk, <mask>, who was an accomplished artist and was later to become photographer to Queen Victoria. Selwyn had decided to set up residence at the Waimate Mission Station, some  inland from Paihia where the Church Missionary Society had established a settlement 11 years earlier. On 5 July 1842 Selwyn set out on a six-month tour of his diocese leaving the Mission Station in the care of Sarah, his wife, and <mask>. While he was away <mask> was effectively the head of the mission, director of the college and minister at the church.By October 1843 more missionaries had arrived at Waimate and <mask> was able to accompany Bishop Selwyn on his second tour, this time to mission stations and native settlements in the southern part of North Island. Their journey was made partly by canoe but mainly by walking, often for large distances over difficult and dangerous terrain. Part way through the tour Selwyn decided to split the party into two sections with one section led by himself and the other by <mask>. After being away for nearly three months, <mask> arrived back at Waimate early in 1844 and Selwyn returned a few weeks later. Later in 1844 Selwyn decided to move some  south to Tamaki near Auckland where he bought  of land, giving it the name of Bishop's Auckland. The party left on 23 October and arrived in Auckland on 17 November. During the first six months of 1845 Selwyn was away for much of the time and management of the settlement, and particularly the schools, fell to <mask>.<mask> continued to work in Bishop's Auckland particularly as headmaster of St John's College, and also with ecclesiastical duties and practical tasks. He finally left New Zealand in December 1847, together with Bambridge, arriving in England in May 1848. Apiarist
From his childhood <mask> had a passionate interest in bees and beekeeping. At Oxford University he was a founder and the first secretary of the Oxford Apiarian Society. In 1837 he published his first work about bees, A Short and Simple Letter to Cottagers from a Bee Preserver, which sold 24,000 copies. A second Letter followed three years later. In 1842 he published My Bee Book which amongst other advice suggested ways to render bees semiconscious to obtain the honey rather than by killing them.New Zealand had two native species of bees but neither was suitable for producing honey. The first honey bees in New Zealand had been introduced by Mary Bumby, the sister of a Wesleyan minister, in March 1839. While <mask> was in Sydney in April 1842 he arranged for hives of bees to be sent to him after his arrival in New Zealand. This took longer than <mask> had expected and it was not until March 1844 that he received his first colony of honey bees at Waimate. When he moved to Bishop's Auckland he successfully transferred them. He spent much time in training settlers and Māori in the practices of keeping bees and gathering their honey. Towards the end of 1844 he published A Few Simple Rules for New Zealand Beekeepers.He later wrote a series of articles on beekeeping in The New Zealander and these were published together in 1848 as A Manual for New Zealand Beekeepers. Another book, written in Māori, Ko nga pi (The Bees) was published the following year. There is a tradition that <mask> introduced bees to New Zealand but this is incorrect, although he was largely responsible for teaching the skills of beekeeping to the immigrants and the natives. When <mask> was later appointed vicar of Frodsham he continued his interest in beekeeping and carried out experiments on bees. On one of his trips to the Continent <mask> purchased a copy of a book called Schnurrdiburr by Wilhelm Busch which contained comical illustrated stories about a beekeeper and his bees. <mask> produced his own version of the book with his own verses attached to the illustrations entitled Buzz a Buzz or The Bees – Done freely into English. He took an active part in the discussions which led to the formation of the British Beekeepers' Association and became one of its vice presidents.He collected a library of over 200 books on bees and beekeeping which was bequeathed to the parish of Frodsham on his death. In 1932 it was deposited with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, and in 1987 transferred to Reading University Library. Oxford
There is little information about the nine years following <mask>'s return from New Zealand. He remained a Fellow of Christ Church, Oxford, but was in residence in the college only intermittently. He spent some of this time travelling on the Continent. In 1855 he was in Constantinople and in the summer of 1857 he visited Avignon and Paris. In December 1855 he was appointed as curate to St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, a position from which he resigned in May 1857.While in Oxford he met Lewis Carroll, with whom he shared an interest in photography. Vicar of Frodsham

In the summer of 1857 <mask> was appointed vicar of Frodsham, a market town in north Cheshire. At the time there were problems in the parish, in particular there was little financial provision for the outlying townships and the fabric of the parish church of St Laurence was in a bad condition. To make matters worse, the church stood in an elevated position above the town, making access difficult. <mask> sank into a state of apathy and despondence, and in the autumn of 1865 he was admitted for several weeks to Manor House Asylum, Chiswick, an asylum, under the care of Dr Seymour Tuke. There was some improvement in his mental condition and by 1870 <mask> was making arrangements for the restoration of the parish church. At this time there was competition from other denominations, particularly the Wesleyan Methodists.Financed by Thomas Hazlehurst, a member of the family business of Hazlehurst & Sons, soap and alkali manufacturers of nearby Runcorn, one small chapel had already been built near the parish church and another chapel, larger and more splendid, was planned for the centre of town. <mask> organised the building of a temporary chapel of ease in the middle of the town. This was constructed of iron (and known as the Iron Church) and was erected in a very short time on land donated by the Marquess of Cholmondeley. In addition to restoring the parish church, <mask> began to organise the restoration of the vicarage, in autumn 1872 hiring John Douglas to draw up plans. He also employed Douglas to design a house for him to live in while the vicarage was being renovated. <mask> successfully improved the provision of church schools in his parish. During his ministry he took boys from his parish to various events, both locally and to Manchester and Liverpool.In the late 1870s <mask>'s mental health began to deteriorate to such a degree that he became unable to carry out his duties. In 1879 a sequestration order was obtained to allow John Ashton to take charge of the affairs of the parish; <mask> was readmitted to Manor House in the early summer and died there in June. His funeral took place at St John the Baptist's Church in Leytonstone and he was buried in the family grave in the churchyard. On the same day a memorial service was held for him in his Frodsham church. A memorial to his memory is in Frodsham Parish Church. The symbol of the honey bee appears on the chain of office of Frodsham's mayor and in various other places in the town, a Frodsham street is named Maori Drive and a Māori inscription is still present on the doorstep of <mask>'s Old Vicarage. Mental health
There is no doubt that <mask> was a talented man whose achievements were limited by his mental ill-health.Numerous references have been made to <mask>'s erratic behaviour, in particular his over-spending, and his periods of depression. There can be little doubt that he suffered from bipolar disorder; <mask>'s biographer Smith refers to his "manic depression". He did achieve much, particularly during his years as a missionary, and in the field of apiculture. As he became older his condition deteriorated, especially during the time he was vicar of Frodsham. However, in view of his achievements in Frodsham, including the building of the Iron Church, the restoration of the parish church and vicarage, and the development of the church schools in his parish, the comment that while he was there "he had occasional periods of effectiveness" seems unfair. References
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1813 births
1879 deaths
19th-century English Anglican priests
British beekeepers
People with bipolar disorder
People from Frodsham
People from Leytonstone
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford
Anglican missionaries in New Zealand
English Anglican missionaries
<mask> family

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William Charles Cotton
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William Cotton
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Nathaniel Cotton


title: Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone

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Major General <mask>, 1st Earl of Athlone (<mask>; born <mask> of Teck; 14 April 1874 – 16 January 1957), was a British Army commander and major-general who served as Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and as Governor General of Canada. <mask> was born in London to the Duke and Duchess of Teck and was educated at Eton College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In 1904, he married Princess Alice of Albany and rose in the military ranks through his service on the western front of the First World War, receiving numerous honours and decorations. A cousin and also brother-in-law of King George V, he relinquished his German titles in 1917, including that of Prince of Teck in the Kingdom of Württemberg, and was elevated to the peerage as the Earl of Athlone. He was in 1923 appointed as South Africa's governor-general by the King, on the recommendation of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Stanley Baldwin, to replace Prince Arthur of Connaught, and he occupied the viceregal post until succeeded by the Earl of Clarendon in 1930. Athlone then served as Chancellor of the University of London until, in 1940, he was appointed as Canada's governor general by King George VI, on the recommendation of Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King, to replace Lord Tweedsmuir (John Buchan), and he occupied the post until succeeded by Viscount <mask> of Tunis in 1946. Athlone helped galvanise the Canadian war effort and was a host to British and American statesmen during the Second World War.After returning to the United Kingdom, <mask> sat on the organising committee for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. He died at Kensington Palace in 1957 and was interred in the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore. Early life, education, and military career

<mask> of Teck was born at Kensington Palace on 14 April 1874, the fourth child and third son of Prince Francis, Duke of Teck, and Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck. Although his mother was a granddaughter of King George III and first cousin to Queen Victoria, <mask>, as the son of a prince of Teck in Württemberg, was styled from birth as His Serene Highness and held the title <mask> of Teck. He was known, however, to his family and friends as Alge, derived from the first two letters of <mask> and George, and was characterised as a meticulous individual with a quick, but short-lived, temper and an ability to be cautious and tactful. When <mask> was nine years old, his parents fled the United Kingdom for continental Europe to escape their high debts. They stayed there for two years.The Prince remained at Eton College before moving on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In October 1894, having completed his officer's training, Prince <mask> was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 7th Queen's Own Hussars, and shortly after served in the Second Matabele War. He was mentioned in despatches during the conflict and, after its cessation, was appointed on 8 December 1898 by Queen Victoria as a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order. He received a promotion to lieutenant in June 1899 and to captain the following April. For his actions in the Second Boer War, <mask> was in April 1901 appointed by King Edward VII as a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order. The announcement came on 16 November 1903 that <mask> had become engaged to his second cousin once removed, Princess Alice of Albany, daughter of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, and thus a granddaughter of Queen Victoria and niece of the then soon-to-be Governor General of Canada, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn. The two were wed at St. George's Chapel, in Windsor Castle, on 10 February 1904 and, six days later, in celebration of the wedding, the Prince was promoted to the grade of a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order.The couple thereafter had three children: Princess May of Teck, born 1906; Prince Rupert of Teck, born 1907; and Prince Maurice Francis George of Teck. Maurice, however, lived only for less than six months, between 29 March and 14 September 1910. In the same year <mask> was appointed Chairman of Middlesex Hospital. First World War
Prior to the outbreak of the Great War in 1914, <mask>, who had been promoted to major in January 1911 and was a brevet lieutenant-colonel commanding the 2nd Life Guards, was nominated by the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to serve as Governor General of Canada. However, the Prince was called up for active service with his regiment. taking him to battle in France and Flanders. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, with the temporary rank of brigadier-general, in December 1915.For his service on the battlefields, in June 1917 Prince <mask> was appointed by his brother in law, King George V, as a Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. During the war, anti-German sentiment throughout the British Empire led the King to change the name of the royal house from the Germanic House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to the more English House of Windsor, while simultaneously renouncing all Germanic titles for himself and all members of the Royal Family. Through a royal warrant issued on 14 July 1917, <mask>, along with his brother, Prince Adolphus, Duke of Teck, similarly relinquished all of his German titles, styles, and honours, choosing instead the name of Cambridge, after his grandfather, Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge. <mask> was then known simply as <mask> Cambridge (being entitled to the honorific Sir through his knighthoods in the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of the Bath), until, on 7 November 1917, the King created him Earl of Athlone and Viscount Trematon. Athlone had declined a marquessate, as he thought the title did not sound British enough. Athlone's wife retained her royal style and title, while their surviving children became the Lady May Cambridge and Rupert Cambridge, Viscount Trematon. Rupert was to inherit the title of Earl of Athlone, but he died on 15 April 1928, ten days shy of his twenty-first birthday, meaning the third creation of the title became extinct with the death of the first earl.Post-war career and Governor-General of the Union of South Africa
Following the cessation of hostilities in Europe in 1918, Athlone was promoted to the brevet rank of colonel in June 1919, and retired from the army that November, with the honorary rank of brigadier-general. He took up posts in the civilian world, continuing at Middlesex Hospital. Because of his experience there, he was appointed in 1921 to chair an investigative committee on the needs of doctors. Known as the Athlone Committee, its work resulted in the creation of post-graduate schools for medical education and research, such as the Royal Postgraduate Medical School at Hammersmith Hospital and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. In March 1922, he was promoted to the rank of colonel in the Regular Army Reserves, retaining his honorary rank of brigadier-general, and, in 1937, was appointed chair of a committee of inquiry into the arrangements for "recruitment, training and registration and terms and conditions of service" for nurses. For their London residence, the Athlones used the grace and favour apartments of Princess Alice's mother, the late Duchess of Albany, in the Clock House at Kensington Palace and, in 1923, they acquired a country residence, Brantridge Park, in West Sussex. In December of the same year, Athlone was appointed by the King as both an honorary major-general and as the Governor-General of the Union of South Africa, replacing his wife's cousin, Prince Arthur of Connaught.He arrived in Pretoria in January 1924 and was immediately at work with his viceregal duties, opening the newly finished parliament building, just weeks before his South African prime minister, Jan Smuts, suddenly advised him to prorogue the legislature. In the ensuing election—the running of which forced Athlone to cancel the planned tour of Prince Edward, Prince of Wales—the National Party won a majority of seats in the National Assembly, meaning Athlone appointed the party's leader, James Barry Munnik Hertzog, as his new prime minister. At the time, Afrikaner nationalism was increasing in the dominion, and Hertzog was a republican who promoted the secession of South Africa from the British Empire. As such, he proposed the country adopt its own flag over the Union Flag. Athlone, however, proved sympathetic and tactful, and resolved the issue by advancing a flag that was unique to South Africa, but which still contained the Union Flag within it, despite opposition from numerous Afrikaners. He also gained popularity with South Africans of all races through his frequent tours of the country, performing a number of ceremonial duties, including opening Pioneer Park in Johannesburg. For his service to the Crown in South Africa, Athlone was appointed by George V as a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter, on 17 April 1928, and, upon his return to the UK, was made on 4 August 1931 the Governor and Constable of Windsor Castle.The following year, he was also selected as the Chancellor of the University of London, which post he held until 1955. In January 1939, Athlone was appointed president of The Football Association. The move represented the first time the FA had appointed someone that was not a football administrator to the position. Governor General of Canada

In Canada in the late 1930s, there had been calls from government circles and the media alike for the King to appoint a Canadian-born individual as governor general. However, with the rush to fill the post after the unexpected death of the incumbent viceroy, Lord Tweedsmuir, and with the country embroiled in the Second World War, Canadian prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King advised King George VI that the time was not right for such a change in viceregal tradition. Instead, it was George's uncle, the Earl of Athlone, whose name Mackenzie King put forward and the Earl accepted. Subsequently, Athlone, along with his wife and his aide-de-camp, Alastair Windsor, Earl of Macduff, voyaged to Canada to take up his position, their liner using a submarine-evading zig-zag pattern across the Atlantic Ocean to Halifax, Nova Scotia.After travelling on to Ottawa by train, Athlone was sworn in during a ceremony in the Senate chamber on 21 June 1940. The Athlones' three grandchildren, Anne, Richard, and Elizabeth (children of their daughter May), lived with them in Canada for the duration of the war. Athlone immediately made himself active in the support of the war effort, travelling across the country and focusing much of his attention on the troops, either those training at military facilities or those injured and in hospital. Viewing his position as governor general as a link between Canadians and their monarch, Athlone also communicated in speeches that the King stood with them in their fight against Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime. The war was brought close to home for the Athlones also because many of those belonging to displaced European royal families sought refuge in Canada and resided at or near the royal and viceroyal residence, Rideau Hall. Among the royal guests were Crown Prince Olav and Crown Princess Märtha of Norway; Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix of Luxembourg; King Peter of Yugoslavia; King George of Greece; Empress Zita of Bourbon-Parma (Austria) and her daughters; as well as Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and her daughter, Princess Juliana. Further, in December 1941, British prime minister Winston Churchill arrived at the residence, where he presided over British Cabinet meetings via telephone from his bed.It was Athlone's duty to play host at Quebec City to his prime minister, still Mackenzie King, as well as Churchill and United States president Franklin D. Roosevelt, who all gathered to take part in what would become known as the Quebec Conferences, with the first taking place between 17 and 24 August 1943 at the viceregal residence in La Citadelle, and the second occurring from 12 to 16 September 1944 at the Château Frontenac. It was at these meetings that the four men discussed the Allied strategies that would eventually lead to victory over Nazi Germany and Japan. When Germany fell on 8 May 1945 and Japan on 15 August of the same year, Athlone led the national celebrations held on Parliament Hill and elsewhere. He thereafter spoke in speeches about Canada's future being marked not by war but by a strong role in reconstruction and reconciliation. During his time as the Canadian viceroy, Athlone also lent his status to various charitable and other social events, and mounted a number of activities of his own, such as tobogganing parties and skating lessons on the grounds of Rideau Hall, as well as skiing in Gatineau Park. When he departed Canada at the end of his time as the King's representative, Athlone left as a legacy the Athlone Fellowship, awarded by the Engineering Institute of Canada. Post-viceregal life

After Lord Athlone's replacement as governor general was appointed on 21 March 1946, he returned to the United Kingdom to retirement, taking up residence again in a grace and favour apartment at Kensington Palace and, on 1 September of that year, resigning as colonel of the 7th Queen's Own Hussars.He did not completely remove himself from public activity, however, and was, along with his Canadian viceregal successor, Lord <mask> of Tunis, appointed to the committee charged with organising the coronation in 1953 of Athlone's great-niece, Queen Elizabeth II, and continued to sit as Chancellor of the University of London until 1955. The Earl of Athlone died at Kensington on 16 January 1957, and he was interred in the Royal Burial Ground at Frogmore. He was the last surviving great-grandchild of George III.

masks: Alexander Augustus Frederick William Alfred George


title: Erik Wøllo

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<mask> (born 1961) is a Norwegian composer and musician, guitarist and synthesist. He has a background in various genres in music. As a solo recording artist, he is most known for his electronic and ambient musical soundscapes. Music that can be classified in the genres of space, drone, new age, and electronic music. Through his many albums he has gained recognition for his unique sound and style. Using guitar as the primary instrument in a highly imaginary and emotional music, building a bridge between grand symphonic realms and gentle, minimalistic and serene atmospheres. History and Overview
Born and raised in Norway (Hemsedal).In the era when he grew up in Norway, the local folk music is very much dominated by the Hardanger fiddle, and his grandfather once offered him a fiddle as a birthday present, if he wanted to start playing. But he went for the guitar, and started to play at age 11. His first influence was the evolving heavy/progressive rock music in the seventies, although he once said his first guitar hero was John Fogerty. He soon discovered the more complicated and intricate styles of rock, like Pink Floyd, Yes and Emerson Lake and Palmer. Which led him gradually into more contemporary electronic music genres. He started his professional career in 1980, playing and touring around Norway in various jazz/rock and fusion bands. But in 1984, he decided to concentrate full-time on his own solo career, building his own studio Wintergarden, where he started to explore and create his new soundworld.His third album "Traces" (1985), was a turning point in his creative musical approach, and pointed out his unique style in instrumental music. This album represented an important and seminal time for <mask>'s artistic development. <mask> says in a private interview: “I quit all the bands I played in, I wanted to work on my own using the modern electronic studio as an instrument. Like a painter with his oil canvasses. I wanted to make a music that had expansive synthesizer textures and sequencer patterns, layered together with expressive melodic electric guitars. Working with depth, time and space. In those years in the early eighties the studio technology was new and revolutionary, and I wanted to explore all the new possibilities.To be able to control the infinite variations of electronic sound, using an endless palette for creative expression. Musically this technology opened up a new possible world for me, and I have continued to further develop and refine these musical ideas on later recordings. Also for the last decades, I have been able to bring this my musical concept to the stage, performing live. I have been doing several tours, as well as releasing a double CD set live album "Silent Currents" (Projekt, CD-2011). As well as two download live albums "Silent Currents 3" (2013), and "Star’s End 2015" (Silent Currents 4). I have also done several live concerts with Ian Boddy and Steve Roach. In August 2019, I performed a main act concert with special written music for an outdoor festival in Norway, featuring Trey Gunn, Kouame Sereba and Jerry Marotta."<mask> has also written music for diverse acoustic ensembles, such as string quartets, wind quintets and sinfoniettas. As one of very few Norwegian composers, these scores were all written in the classical minimalistic tradition. He has released more than 50 solo albums and several smaller format EP's, all distributed globally and he has gained a large audience for his music. Collaborations
<mask> has also collaborated and released album works together with some of the most respected artists in the ambient music world: with Steve Roach ("Stream of Thought", CD-2009 & "The Road Eternal", CD-2011), Michael Stearns ("Convergence", CD-2020), Ian Boddy ("Frontiers", CD-2012, "EC12", Digital-2014, and "Meridian, CD-2018), Byron Metcalf ("Earth Luminous", CD-2016), Bernhard Wöstheinrich ("Arcadia Borealis", CD-2009 and "Weltenuhr, CD-2014), and several others. One of the areas Wøllo has been deeply exploring for many decades, is the connections between the various art forms. Focusing on finding mutual and parallel aspects, he has been making music for use together with other media, like film, modern ballet and theater. Also together with diverse experimental visual art forms for gallery exhibitions.(photography, fine art, literature and video art). Personal
<mask> currently lives on Hvaler, an island in the south of Norway. He is married, and has one son. Gallery
Wøllo with Fender Stratocaster at Schallwelle 2012. Re-released on Spotted Peccary Music, CD-2012)
 1990 - "IMAGES OF LIGHT" (Origo Sound, CD-1990. Re-released on Spotted Peccary Music, CD-2012)
 1986 - "SILVER BEACH" (Originally released 1986. Re-release Projekt 2013) Digital Download
 1985 - "TRACES" (Cicada Rec/Badland, LP-1985/CD-1988.7" - (Echoes, CD)
 2002 - "Lights Out VIII" - (KINK fm102, CD)
 2003 - "The Echoes Living Room Concerts, vol. 9" - (Echoes, CD)
 2004 - "Michael Garrison Tribute Collection" - (Groove Unlimited, CD)
 2005 - "Lights Out IX" - (KINK fm102, CD)
 2006 - "Lights Out X" - (KINK fm102, CD)
 2007 - "Stars End 30th Anniversary Anthology CD" (CD)
 2009 - "The Projekt Sampler 2009" - (Projekt, CD)
 2010 - "Afar" - (Projekt, CD)
 2011 - "E-Day 2011" - (GROOVE Unlimited, CD)
 2011 - "The Rope 25" - (Projekt, CD)
 2011 - "The Echoes Living Room Concerts, Vol. 1998 - "Rift" (Continental Drift) -Video from Iceland (Patrick Huse/Aschehoug). Also diverse Film/Documentaries for TV and Radio in Europe, Japan and USA. Several Multimedia / Exhibitions
 "Off The Wall" - World music concert project for schools, produced by Rikskonsertene 2005. (Kouame Sereba/<mask>llo/Uriel Seri)

External links

 <mask>, official website
 Steve Roach
 Michael Stearns
 Ian Boddy
 Echoes
 Stars End
 Hearts of Space

1961 births
Living people
Norwegian composers
Norwegian male composers
Hot Club Records artists
People from Hemsedal

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Erik Wøllo
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Erik Wøllo