title: Enver Hoxha

texts:
 his own power. He accused <mask> of being responsible for the decline in relations with Yugoslavia and stated that a Soviet military mission should be expelled in favor of a Yugoslav counterpart. <mask> managed to remain firm and his support had not declined. When Yugoslavia publicly broke with the Soviet Union, Hoxha's support base grew stronger. Then, on 1 July 1948, Tirana called on all Yugoslav technical advisors to leave the country and unilaterally declared all treaties and agreements between the two countries null and void.Xoxe was expelled from the party and on 13 June 1949, he was executed by hanging. Relations with the Soviet Union
After the break with Yugoslavia, <mask> aligned himself with the Soviet Union. From 1948 to 1960, $200 million in Soviet aid was given to Albania for technical and infrastructural expansion. Albania was admitted to the Comecon on 22 February 1949 and served as a pro-Soviet force on the Adriatic. A Soviet submarine base was built on the Albanian island of Sazan near Vlorë, posing a hypotethical threat to the U.S. Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean. Relations with the Soviet Union remained close until the death of Stalin in March 1953. It was followed by 14 days of national mourning in Albania – more than in the Soviet Union.Hoxha assembled the population of Tirana in the capital's largest square, featuring a Stalin statue, requested that they kneel take a 2,000-word oath of "eternal fidelity" and "gratitude" to their "beloved father" and "great liberator." Under Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin's eventual successor, aid was reduced and Albania was encouraged to adopt Khrushchev's specialisation policy. Under it, Albania would develop its agricultural output in order to supply the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries while they would be developing products of their own, which would, in theory, strengthen the Warsaw Pact. However, this also meant that Albanian industrial development, which was stressed heavily by Hoxha, would be hindered. In May–June 1955, Nikolai Bulganin and Anastas Mikoyan visited Yugoslavia while Khrushchev renounced the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Communist bloc. Khrushchev also began making references to Palmiro Togliatti's polycentrism theory. <mask> had not been consulted on this and was offended.Yugoslavia began asking for <mask> to rehabilitate the image of Koçi Xoxe, which Hoxha steadfastly rejected. In 1956 at the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev condemned the cult of personality that had been built up around Joseph Stalin and denounced his excesses. Khrushchev then announced the theory of peaceful coexistence, which angered the Stalinist <mask> greatly. The Institute of Marxist–Leninist Studies, led by <mask>'s wife Nexhmije, quoted Vladimir Lenin: "The fundamental principle of the foreign policy of a socialist country and of a Communist party is proletarian internationalism; not peaceful coexistence." Hoxha now took a more active stand against perceived revisionism. Unity within the Albanian Party of Labour began to decline as well, with a special delegate meeting held in Tirana in April 1956, composed of 450 delegates and having unexpected results. The delegates "criticized the conditions in the party, the negative attitude toward the masses, the absence of party and socialist democracy, the economic policy of the leadership, etc."while also calling for discussions on the cult of personality and the Twentieth Party Congress. Movement towards China and Maoism

In 1956, <mask> called for a resolution which would confirm the existing leadership of the Party. The resolution was accepted, and all of the delegates who had spoken against it were expelled from the party and imprisoned. <mask> claimed that Yugoslavia had attempted to overthrow the leadership of Albania. This incident increased <mask>'s power, effectively making Khrushchev-style reforms impossible there. In the same year, <mask> travelled to the People's Republic of China, then embroiled in the Sino-Soviet split, and met Mao Zedong. Chinese aid to Albania rose sharply in the next two years.In an effort to keep Albania in the Soviet sphere, increased Soviet aid was given but relations with the Soviet Union remained at the same level until 1960, when Khrushchev met Sofoklis Venizelos, a liberal Greek politician. Khrushchev sympathised with the concept of an autonomous Greek North Epirus and he hoped to use Greek claims to keep the Albanian leadership in line. Hoxha reacted by only sending Hysni Kapo, a member of the Albanian Political Bureau, to the Third Congress of the Romanian Workers' Party in Bucharest, an event Communist heads of state were normally expected to attend. As relations between the two countries continued to deteriorate in the course of the meeting, Khrushchev said:

Friction with the Soviet Union
Relations with the Soviet Union declined rapidly. A hardline policy was adopted and the Soviets reduced grain shipments at a time when Albania needed them due to the possibility of a flood-induced famine. In July 1960, a plot to overthrow the Albanian government was discovered. It was to be organised by Soviet-trained Rear Admiral Teme Sejko.After this, two pro-Soviet members of the Party, Liri Belishova and Koço Tashko, were expelled. In August, the Party's Central Committee sent a protest to the Central Committee of the CPSU about having an anti-Albanian Soviet Ambassador in Tirana. The Fourth Congress of the Party, held from 13 to 20 February 1961, was the last meeting that the Soviet Union or other Eastern European nations attended in Albania. During the congress, Mehmet Shehu stated that while many members of the Party were accused of tyranny, this was a baseless charge and unlike the Soviet Union, Albania was led by genuine Marxists. The Soviet Union retaliated by threatening "dire consequences" if the condemnations were not retracted. Days later, Khrushchev and Antonín Novotný, President of Czechoslovakia, threatened to cut off economic aid. In March, Albania was not invited to attend the meeting of the Warsaw Pact nations, and in April all Soviet technicians were withdrawn from Albania.In May nearly all Soviet troops at the Soviet submarine base were withdrawn. On 7 November 1961, <mask> made a speech in which he called Khrushchev a "revisionist, an anti-Marxist and a defeatist". <mask> portrayed Stalin as the last Communist leader of the Soviet Union and alluded to Albania's independence. By 11 November, the USSR and every other Warsaw Pact nation broke diplomatic relations with Albania. Albania was unofficially excluded from the Warsaw Pact and Comecon. The Soviet Union also attempted to claim control of the submarine base. The Albanian Party then passed a law prohibiting any other nation from owning an Albanian port.The Soviet–Albanian split was now complete. Later rule (1965–1985)

As <mask>'s leadership continued, he took on an increasingly theoretical stance. He wrote criticisms which were based on theory and current events which occurred at the time; his most notable criticisms were his condemnations of Maoism after 1978. A major achievement under Hoxha was the advancement of women's rights. Albania had been one of the most, if not the most, patriarchal countries in Europe. The ancient Code of Lekë, which regulated the status of women, states, "A woman is known as a sack, made to endure as long as she lives in her husband's house." Women were not allowed to inherit anything from their parents, and discrimination was even made in the case of the murder of a pregnant woman:

Women were forbidden from obtaining a divorce, and the wife's parents were obliged to return a runaway daughter to her husband or else suffer shame which could even result in a generations-long blood feud.During World War II, the Albanian Communists encouraged women to join the partisans and following the war, women were encouraged to take up menial jobs, as the education necessary for higher level work was out of most women's reach. In 1938, 4% worked in various sectors of the economy. In 1970, this number had risen to 38%, and in 1982 to 46%. During the Cultural and Ideological Revolution (discussed below), women were encouraged to take up all jobs, including government posts, which resulted in 40.7% of the People's Councils and 30.4% of the People's Assembly being made up of women, including two women in the Central Committee by 1985. In 1978, 15.1 times as many females attended eight-year schools as had done so in 1938 and 175.7 times as many females attended secondary schools. By 1978, 101.9 times as many women attended higher schools as in 1957. Hoxha said of women's rights in 1967:The entire party and country should hurl into the fire and break the neck of anyone who dared trample underfoot the sacred edict of the party on the defense of women's rights.In 1969, direct taxation was abolished and during this period the quality of schooling and health care continued to improve.An electrification campaign was begun in 1960 and the entire nation was expected to have electricity by 1985. Instead, it achieved this on 25 October 1970, making it the first nation with complete electrification in the world. During the Cultural & Ideological Revolution of 1967–1968 the military changed from traditional Communist army tactics and began to adhere to the Maoist strategy known as people's war, which included the abolition of military ranks, which were not fully restored until 1991. Mehmet Shehu said of the country's health service in 1979:

Hoxha's legacy also included a complex of 173,371 one-man concrete bunkers across a country of 3 million inhabitants, to act as look-outs and gun emplacements along with chemical weapons. The bunkers were built strong and mobile, with the intention that they could be easily placed by a crane or a helicopter in a hole. The types of bunkers vary from machine gun pillboxes, beach bunkers, to underground naval facilities and even Air Force Mountain and underground bunkers. <mask>'s internal policies were true to Stalin's paradigm which he admired, and the personality cult which was developed in the 1970s and organised around him by the Party also bore a striking resemblance to that of Stalin.At times it even reached an intensity which was as extreme as the personality cult of Kim Il-sung (which Hoxha condemned) with <mask> being portrayed as a genius commenting on virtually all facets of life from culture to economics to military matters. Each schoolbook required one or more quotations from him on the subjects being studied. The Party honored him with titles such as Supreme Comrade, Sole Force and Great Teacher. He adopted a different type military salute for the People's Army to render honors which was known as the Hoxhaist Salute, which involves soldiers curling their right fist and raising it to shoulder level. It replaced the Zogist salute, which was used by the Royal Albanian Army for many years. <mask>'s governance was also distinguished by his encouragement of a high birthrate policy. For instance, a woman who bore an above-average number of children would be given the government award of Heroine Mother (in Albanian: Nënë Heroinë) along with cash rewards.Abortion was essentially restricted (to encourage high birth rates), except if the birth posed a danger to the mother's life, though it was not completely banned; the process was decided by district medical commissions. As a result, the population of Albania tripled from 1 million in 1944 to around 3 million in 1985. Relations with China

In Albania's Third Five-year Plan, China promised a loan of $125 million to build twenty-five chemical, electrical and metallurgical plants in accordance to the Plan. However, the nation found difficulty doing so, as Albania's poor relations with its neighbours and the distance between the two nations complicated matters. Unlike Yugoslavia or the USSR, China had less economic influence on Albania during <mask>'s leadership. The previous fifteen years (1946–1961) had at least 50% of the economy under foreign commerce. By the time the 1976 Constitution was promulgated, Albania had become mostly self-sufficient but lacked modern technology.Ideologically, Hoxha found Mao's initial views to be in line with Marxism-Leninism, due to his condemnation of Nikita Khrushchev's alleged revisionism and Yugoslavia. Aid given from China was interest-free and it did not have to be repaid until Albania could afford to do so. China never intervened in Albania's economic output, with Chinese technicians working for the same wages as Albanian workers. Albanian newspapers were reprinted in Chinese newspapers and read on Chinese radio, and Albania led the movement to give the People's Republic of China a seat on the UN Security Council. During this period, Albania became the second largest producer of chromium in the world, which was considered important to the country. Strategically, the Adriatic Sea was attractive to China, as it was hoped that more allies could be gained in Eastern Europe through Albania - which failed. Zhou Enlai visited Albania in January 1964.On 9 January, "The 1964 Sino-Albanian Joint Statement" was signed in Tirana. The statement said of relations between socialist countries:

Like Albania, China defended the "purity" of Marxism by attacking both US imperialism and "Soviet and Yugoslav revisionism", both equally as part of a "dual adversary" theory. Yugoslavia was viewed as both a "special detachment of U.S. imperialism" and a "saboteur against world revolution." These views, however, began to change in China, which was one of the major issues which Albania had with the alliance. Also unlike Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, the Sino-Albanian alliance lacked "... an organisational structure for regular consultations and policy coordination, and it was also characterized by an informal relationship which was conducted on an ad hoc basis." Mao made a speech on 3 November 1966 in which he claimed that Albania was the only Marxist-Leninist state in Europe and in the same speech, he also stated that "an attack on Albania will have to reckon with great People's Republic of China. If the U.S. imperialists, the modern Soviet revisionists or any of their lackeys dare to touch Albania in the slightest, nothing lies ahead for them but a complete, shameful and memorable defeat."<mask> likewise stated that "You may rest assured, comrades, that come what may in the world at large, our two parties and our two peoples will certainly remain together. They will fight together and they will win together." Shift in Chinese foreign policy after the Cultural Revolution
China entered into a four-year period of relative diplomatic isolation following the Cultural Revolution, at which point relations between China and Albania were generally mostly positive. On 20 August 1968, the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was condemned by Albania, as was the Brezhnev doctrine. Albania refused to send troops in support of the invasion, officially withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact on 5 September. Relations with China began to deteriorate on 15 July 1971, when United States President Richard Nixon agreed to visit China to meet with Zhou Enlai. <mask> felt betrayed by this, with the Central Committee of the PLA sending a letter to the Central Committee of the CCP on 6 August calling Nixon a "frenzied anti-Communist".The letter stated:

The result of this criticism was a message from the Chinese leadership in 1971 stating that Albania could not depend on an indefinite flow of further Chinese aid, and in 1972 Albania was advised to "curb its expectations about further Chinese contributions to its economic development". By 1972, <mask> wrote in his diary Reflections on China that China was no longer a socialist country:

And in 1973, wrote that the Chinese leaders:

In response, trade with COMECON (although trade with the Soviet Union was still blocked) and Yugoslavia grew. Trade with Third World nations was $0.5 million in 1973, but $8.3 million in 1974. Trade rose from 0.1% to 1.6%. Following Mao's death on 9 September 1976, <mask> remained optimistic about Sino-Albanian relations, but in August 1977, Hua Guofeng, the new leader of China, stated that Mao's Three Worlds Theory would become official foreign policy. <mask> viewed this as a way for China to justify having the U.S. as the "secondary enemy" while viewing the Soviet Union as the main one, thus allowing China to trade with the U.S. He stated that:
 From 30 August to 7 September 1977, Tito visited Beijing and was welcomed by the Chinese leadership.Following this, the PLA declared

masks: Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha


title: Enver Hoxha

type: original

texts:
 that China was now a revisionist state akin to the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, and that Albania was the only Marxist–Leninist state on Earth. <mask> stated:

On 13 July 1978, China announced that it was cutting off all aid to Albania. For the first time in modern history, Albania did not have either an ally or a major trading partner. Political repressions and emigration

Certain clauses in the 1976 constitution circumscribed the exercise of political liberties which the government interpreted as contrary to the established order. The government denied the population access to information other than that disseminated by the government-controlled media. Internally, the Sigurimi followed the repressive methods of the NKVD, MGB, KGB and the East German Stasi. At one point, every third Albanian had either been interrogated by the Sigurimi or incarcerated in labour camps.The government imprisoned thousands in forced-labour camps or executed them for crimes such as alleged treachery or for disrupting the proletarian dictatorship. After 1968, travel abroad was forbidden to all but those on official business. Western European culture was looked upon with deep suspicion, resulting in bans on any unauthorised foreign material and arrests. Art was required to reflect the styles of socialist realism. Beards were banned as unhygienic in order to curb the influence of Islam (many Imams and Babas had beards) and the Eastern Orthodox faith. The justice system regularly degenerated into show trials. An American human rights group described the proceedings of one trial: In order to lessen the threat of political dissidents and other exiles, relatives of the accused were often arrested, ostracised, and accused of being "enemies of the people".Political executions were common, and at least 5,000 people—possibly as many as 25,000—were killed by the regime. Torture was often used to obtain confessions:
During <mask>'s rule, there were six institutions for political prisoners and fourteen labour camps where political prisoners and common criminals worked together. It has been estimated that there were approximately 32,000 people imprisoned in Albania in 1985. Article 47 of the Albanian Criminal Code stated that to "escape outside the state, as well as refusal to return to the Fatherland by a person who has been sent to serve or has been permitted temporarily to go outside the state" was an act of treason, a crime punishable by a minimum sentence of ten years and a maximum sentence of death. The Albanian government went to great lengths to prevent people from defecting by leaving the country:An electrically-wired metal fence stands 600 meters to one kilometer from the actual border. Anyone touching the fence not only risks electrocution, but also sets off alarm bells and lights which alert guards stationed at approximately one-kilometre intervals along the fence. Two meters of soil on either side of the fence are cleared in order to check for footprints of escapees and infiltrators.The area between the fence and the actual border is seeded with booby traps such as coils of wire, noise makers consisting of thin pieces of metal strips on top of two wooden slats with stones in a tin container which rattle if stepped on, and flares that are triggered by contact, thus illuminating would-be escapees during the night. Religion

Albania, the only predominantly Muslim country in Europe at that time, largely owing to Turkish influence in the region, had not, like the Ottoman Empire, identified religion with ethnicity. In the Ottoman Empire, Muslims were viewed as Turks, Orthodox Christians were viewed as Greeks, and Catholics were viewed as Latins. <mask> believed that this division of Albanian society along religious and ethnic lines was a serious issue, because it fueled Greek separatists in southern Albania and it also divided the nation in general. The Agrarian Reform Law of 1945 confiscated much of the church's property in the country. Catholics were the earliest religious community to be targeted since the Vatican was seen as being an agent of Fascism and anti-Communism. In 1946 the Jesuit Order was banned and the Franciscans were banned in 1947.Decree No. 743 (On religion) sought a national church and forbade religious leaders from associating with foreign powers. Mother Teresa, a Catholic nun whose family resided in Albania during Hoxha's rule, was denied a chance to see them because she was viewed as a dangerous agent of the Vatican. Despite multiple requests and the fact that many countries made requests on her behalf, she was not granted the opportunity to see her mother and sister. Both Mother Teresa's mother and sister died during <mask>'s rule, and the nun herself was only able to visit Albania five years after the Communist regime collapsed. Dom Lush Gjergji in his book "Our Mother Teresa" describes one of her trips to the embassy where she was crying as she was leaving the building, saying:Dear God, I can understand and accept that I should suffer, but it is so hard to understand and accept why my mother has to suffer. In her old age she has no other wish than to see us one last time.The Party focused on atheist education in schools. This tactic was effective, primarily due to the high birthrate policy which was encouraged after the war. During what the religious consider "holy periods", such as Lent and Ramadan, many foods and non-water beverages were distributed in schools and factories, and whoever refused to eat those foods or drink these beverages when offered during their "fasting times" were denounced. Starting on 6February 1967, the Party began to promote secularism in place of Abrahamic religions. <mask>, who had declared a "Cultural and Ideological Revolution" after being partly inspired by China's Cultural Revolution, encouraged communist students and workers to use more forceful tactics to discourage religious practices, although violence was initially condemned. According to Hoxha, the surge in anti-theist activity began with the youth. The result of this "spontaneous, unprovoked movement" was the demolition or conversion of all 2,169 churches and mosques in Albania.State atheism became official policy, and Albania was declared the world's first atheist state. Town and city names which echoed Abrahamic religious themes were abandoned for neutral secular ones, as well as personal names. By 1968, <mask> stated in a speech in that "Religion is a fuel kindling fires of all evils". During this period religiously based names were also made illegal. The Dictionary of People's Names, published in 1982, contained 3,000 approved, secular names. In 1992, Monsignor Dias, the Papal Nuncio for Albania appointed by Pope John Paul II, said that of the three hundred Catholic priests present in Albania prior to the Communists coming to power, only thirty were still active. Promotion of religion was banned and all clerics were outlawed as reactionaries.Those religious figures who refused to embrace the principles of Marxism–Leninism were either arrested or carried on their activities in hiding. Cultivating nationalism

<mask> <mask> had declared during the anti-religious campaign that "the only religion of Albania is Albanianism", a quotation from the poem O moj Shqiperi ("O Albania") by the 19th-century Albanian writer Pashko Vasa. Muzafer Korkuti, one of the dominant figures in post-war Albanian archaeology and now Director of the Institute of Archaeology in Tirana, said this in an interview on 10 July 2002:

Efforts were focused on an Illyrian-Albanian continuity issue. An Illyrian origin of the Albanians (without denying Pelasgian roots) continued to play a significant role in Albanian nationalism, resulting in a revival of given names supposedly of "Illyrian" origin, at the expense of given names associated with Christianity. At first, Albanian nationalist writers opted for the Pelasgians as the forefathers of the Albanians, but as this form of nationalism flourished in Albania under <mask> <mask>, the Pelasgians became a secondary element to the Illyrian theory of Albanian origins, which could claim some support in scholarship. The Illyrian descent theory soon became one of the pillars of Albanian nationalism, especially because it could provide some evidence of continuity of an Albanian presence both in Kosovo and Southern Albania, i.e. areas that were subject to ethnic conflicts between Albanians, Serbs and Greeks.Under the government of <mask> <mask>, an autochthonous ethnogenesis was promoted and physical anthropologists tried to demonstrate that Albanians were different from any other Indo-European populations, a theory now disproved. They claimed that the Illyrians were the most ancient people in the Balkans and greatly extended the age of the Illyrian language. Rejecting Western mass media culture
<mask> and his government were also hostile to Western popular culture as it was manifested in the mass media, along with the consumerism and cultural liberalism which were associated with it. In a speech on the Fourth Plenum of the Central Committee of the PLA (PLA-CC) on 26 June 1973, <mask> declared a definitive break with any such Western bourgeois influence and what he described as its "degenerated bourgeois culture". In a speech in which he also criticised the "spread of certain vulgar, alien tastes in music and art", which ran "contrary to socialist ethics and the positive traditions of our people", including "degenerate importations such as long hair, extravagant dress, screaming jungle music, coarse language, shameless behaviour and so on", Hoxha declared:

Later life and death

In 1974, <mask> accused Beqir Balluku, Minister of Defence and longtime ally, of being an agent of China and attempting a coup d'état, since Balluku had criticized Hoxha's bunker program and stated that a U.S. and Soviet invasion of Albania was unlikely. <mask> sentenced Balluku and a group of his accused associates to death and appointed Mehmet Shehu as Minister of Defence. A new Constitution was decided upon by the Seventh Congress of the Albanian Party of Labour on 1–7 November 1976.According to Hoxha, "The old Constitution was the Constitution of the building of the foundations of socialism, whereas the new Constitution will be the Constitution of the complete construction of a socialist society." Self-reliance was now stressed more than ever. Citizens were encouraged to train in the use of weapons, and this activity was also taught in schools. The purpose of this training was to encourage the creation of quick partisans. Borrowing and foreign investment were banned under Article 26 of the Constitution, which read: "The granting of concessions to, and the creation of foreign economic and financial companies and other institutions or ones formed jointly with bourgeois and revisionist capitalist monopolies and states as well as obtaining credits from them are prohibited in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania." <mask> said of borrowing money and allowing investment from other countries:

During this period, Albania was the most isolated country in Europe. However, as a result of economic self-sufficiency, Albania had a minimal foreign debt.In 1983, Albania imported goods which were worth $280 million but it exported goods which were worth $290 million, producing a trade surplus of $10 million. In 1981, <mask> ordered the execution of several party and government officials in a new purge. Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu, the second-most powerful man in Albania and <mask>'s closest comrade-in-arms for 40 years, was reported to have committed suicide in December 1981. He was subsequently condemned as a "traitor" to Albania and he was also accused of operating in the service of multiple intelligence agencies. It is generally believed that he was either killed or he shot himself during a power struggle which may have resulted from differing foreign policy matters with Hoxha. <mask> also wrote a large assortment of books during this period, resulting in over 65 volumes of collected works, condensed into six volumes of selected works. In 1973, <mask> suffered a heart attack from which he never fully recovered.In increasingly precarious health from the late 1970s onward, he turned most state functions over to Ramiz Alia. In his final days, he was confined to a wheelchair and suffered from diabetes, with which he was diagnosed in 1948, along with cerebral ischemia, with which he was diagnosed in 1983. On 9 April 1985, he was struck by a ventricular fibrillation. Over the next 48 hours, he suffered repeated episodes of this arrhythmia, and he died in the early morning hours of 11 April 1985 at the age of 76. <mask>'s body lay in state at the building of the Presidium of the People's Assembly for three days before he was buried on 15 April after a memorial service on Skanderbeg Square. The government refused to accept any foreign delegations during <mask>'s funeral and it even condemned the Soviet message of condolences as "unacceptable". After his burial, <mask> was succeeded as head of state by Ramiz Alia, who gained control of the party's leadership two days later.<mask>'s death left Albania with a legacy of isolation and fear of the outside world. Despite some economic progress which Albania made during <mask>'s rule, the country was in economic stagnation; Albania had been the poorest European country throughout much of the Cold War period. Following Albania's transition to capitalism in 1992, Hoxha's legacy diminished, so that by the early 21st century very little of it was still in place in Albania. Family

The surname <mask> is the Albanian variant of Hodja (from ), a title given to his ancestors due to their efforts to teach Albanians about Islam. <mask>'s parents were Halil and Gjylihan (Gjylo) <mask>, and <mask> had three sisters, Fahrije, Haxhire and Sanije. Hysen <mask> () was <mask> <mask>'s uncle and was a militant who campaigned vigorously for the independence of Albania, which occurred when <mask> was four years old. His grandfather Beqir was involved in the Gjirokastër section of the League of Prizren.<mask>'s son Sokol <mask> was the CEO of the Albanian Post and Telecommunication service, and is married to Liliana <mask>. Sali Berisha, a later democratic president of Albania, was often seen socialising with Sokol <mask> and other close relatives of leading communist figures in Albania. <mask>'s daughter, Pranvera, is an architect. Along with her husband, Klement Kolaneci, she designed the Enver Hoxha Museum in Tirana, a white-tiled pyramid. Some sources have referred to the edifice, said to be the most expensive ever constructed in Albanian history, as the "Enver Hoxha Mausoleum", though this was not an official appellation. The museum opened in 1988, three years after her father's death, and in 1991 was transformed into a conference centre and exhibition venue renamed Pyramid of Tirana. Assassination attempts
The Banda Mustafaj gang was connected to counter-revolutionary elements such as the Albanian mafia and members of the royal House of Zogu, and in 1982 attempted to assassinate <mask> <mask>.The plan failed and two of its members were killed and another one was arrested. According to <mask>, documents from long-time Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu's vault were found after his death in 1981 pertaining to orders by Yugoslav intelligence to poison him and assume the leadership of the country. In his book The Titoites, <mask> hypotheses that this plan failed because Shehu was a coward who could not go through with the task and figured that suicide would, at the very least, save his family from the punishment for his counter-revolutionary activity. Legacy
A 2016 survey conducted by the Institute for Development Research and Alternatives (IDRA), showed that 45% of Albanians believe that <mask> <mask> had a positive impact on the history of Albania, whereas 42% see his impact as negative. Younger generations (16–35 years old; born after 1981) tend to have a more negative view of Hoxha's contributions, while older generations (over 35 years old; born before 1981) tend to have a more positive view. Citizens in the regions of southeastern and southwestern Albania that were interviewed, had the most positive view of Hoxha, with 50% and 55% respectively. Awards
Albania

Foreign Awards

Partial list of works

See also
 Albanian Resistance of World War II
 Autarky
 Hoxhaism
 History of Albania
 Pyramid of Tirana
 National Martyrs Cemetery of Albania

Further reading
 "Free - Coming of Age at the End of History" - Lea Ypi - Allen Lane - 2021: "a child's memoir into the death throes of the peculiar Albanian

masks: Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Enver Hoxha Enver Hoxha Enver Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Enver Hoxha Enver Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Enver Hoxha Hoxha Hoxha Enver Hoxha


title: Raymond Cottrell

texts:
<mask> (April 21, 1911, Los Angeles, California – January 12, 2003, Calimesa, California) was an Adventist theologian, missionary, teacher, writer and editor. He was an associate editor of both the Adventist Review (the church's official news magazine) and the Seventh-day Adventist Bible Commentary. <mask>, is seen by some as a "progressive Adventist", as he disagreed with certain traditional positions of the church, including the investigative judgment, and served in an editorial role for the independently owned and operated magazine Adventist Today. He was a consulting editor to Spectrum magazine, another independent Adventist paper, both which leaned to progressive Adventist viewpoints. He was the first Adventist to become a member of a scholarly theological society, and was instrumental in the founding of the Biblical Research Institute. Personal life
<mask> was born on April 21, 1911 in Los Angeles, into a family which already had a long history within the Adventist church. His great-grandfather Roswell F<mask> was a Seventh Day Baptist who first listened to William Miller before 1844 and the Great Disappointment, yet did not become a follower.He became a Seventh-day Adventist in 1851. <mask> was married to Elizabeth (who was born May 20, 1912 in Phoenix, Arizona). Career
From 1930 to 1934 <mask> worked as a church pastor in the Pacific Union Conference. From 1934 to 1941 he served in the China Division (which dissolved in 1952, now the Chinese Union Mission ) of the church as an administrator and educator, assisted in missionary work by his wife. They left early because of the hostilities with Japan during World War II, returning to America. <mask> taught biblical exegesis at Pacific Union College for 10 or 11 years, while Elizabeth worked in the business office for several years. Following this appointment, Francis D. Nichol called him to the Review and Herald Publishing Association to commence work on the new Seventh-day Adventist Bible Commentary.The pair arrived in Takoma Park, Maryland in late September 1952, and <mask> began work on the Commentary on October 1. (Elizabeth worked in the Review Book Billing Department until her retirement in 1977.) During the next five years, <mask> reported he spent over 15,000 hours studying the Bible, covering every verse. As well as holding the position of associate editor, <mask> also contributed 2,000 pages to the series, the third largest number of manuscript pages of any author. Yet including his editorial work he probably had more input than any other writer into the Commentary. Articles written by <mask> for the commentary included "The Role of Israel in Old Testament Prophecy" and others. In this article he wrote that the original subject of the Old Testament predictive prophecies was the nation of Israel, their fulfillment being conditional on the response of the Jewish people to the covenant and on accepting the Messiah.However, due to the "overriding pastoral concern" of Nichol, the editor-in-chief overruled the consensus of the other editors – one of only two or three occasions when he did so. He also wrote numerous articles for the Seventh-day Adventist Bible Dictionary and Encyclopedia on topics in Bible and theology. <mask>'s critiques of the manuscript of Questions on Doctrine (published in 1957), were "mostly unheeded" by its authors and "might have prevented much of the upheaval that followed the publication of the book", according to Julius Nam. In 1957 Nichol invited him to be an associate editor of the Adventist Review, a position he held for 7 years. He worked for another 7 years as a book editor. <mask> also served as a member of the Biblical Research Committee (now the Biblical Research Institute). He retired in 1977, to Calimesa, California.There he served at Loma Linda University as an adjunct faculty member of the religion department. He also worked for the General Conference and for the Southeastern California Conference on various commissions and projects. Then <mask> founded Adventist Today, an independent progressive Adventist magazine first published in 1993. He and others at Loma Linda had conceived of the idea for a new magazine in the autumn of the previous year. As well as contributing articles, he was editor and had the title of editor emeritus for the remainder of his life. On February 6, 2002, <mask>'s paper "The 'Sanctuary Doctrine' – Asset or Liability?" was presented by Larry Christoffel at the San Diego, California Adventist Forum in the Tierrasanta Adventist church.His paper deals with the history of the Adventist sanctuary doctrine and argues against William Miller's Biblical interpretation of the "2,300 evenings and mornings" of Daniel 8:14. Miller believed these were literal years, ending in 1844. The Adventist church adopted Miller's view and today forms part of its official beliefs. Cottrell's exegesis of Daniel contends that the historical Adventist sanctuary doctrine can not be sustained using any part of the book of Daniel; specifically Daniel 8:14. As such, this paper is as significant as the one presented by Dr. Desmond Ford at Glacier View; a paper which cost Dr. Ford his ministerial credentials. Christoffel responded in his own paper. His wife Elizabeth died on August 2, 2002 in Calimesa.<mask> died the following year on January 12, 2003, also in Calimesa. He was survived by three adopted children – Ric  W<mask>, Richard E <mask> and Peggy J Tomat, his brother Leland <mask>, four grandsons, sixteen great-grandchildren. Theology
Cottrell described the theological climate of the church as open, favourable and honest during the 1950s when the Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia was published. Nearly all of <mask>'s papers in his Manuscript Collection were unpublished. He said of his "significant work" Eschatology of Daniel which was never formally published, "the manuscript awaits a climate of openness and objectivity in the church, which is essential to a fair examination of the facts." Cottrell has been said to have taken a few progressive positions. It has been argued that <mask>'s began to take more progressive viewpoints after retirement.References

External links

Articles by <mask>. He was a prolific author, although he chose not to publish many of his articles:

 The "Sanctuary Doctrine" – Asset or Liability? (Adventist Today version)
 The Ethos of Adventism in Adventist Today March/April 1999 extras
 "The Untold Story of the Bible Commentary" in Spectrum 16:3 (August 1985), p. 35–51
 The Sanctuary Review Committee and its New Consensus Spectrum magazine, 11:2 (November 1980), p. 2–26
Exegesis of Daniel (chapters 22 and 23 about Desmond Ford and Glacier View), of the unpublished manuscript by Cottrell
 <mask>. Cottrell Collection, an index of published and unpublished papers from the Center for Adventist Research, also containing a brief biography
 Articles by <mask> as cataloged in the Seventh-day Adventist Periodical Index (SDAPI)

Tributes:
 <mask>, A Historical Biography by Douglas Hackleman in Adventist Today January/February 2003
 <mask><mask>: A Tribute by Jim Walters in Adventist Today January/February 2003
 The Legacy of a Rose, opening remarks at the memorial service held for Dr. <mask> at the Yucaipa Seventh-day Adventist Church, by Dr. C. Norman Farley

Pacific Union College faculty
Seventh-day Adventist religious workers
Writers from Los Angeles
People from Calimesa, California
1911 births
2003 deaths
American Seventh-day Adventist missionaries
Seventh-day Adventist theologians
Seventh-day Adventist missionaries in China

masks:
Raymond Forrest Cottrell
Raymond Cottrell
Raymond Cottrell
. Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Raymond
. Cottrell
Cottrell
Horton Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Cottrell
Raymond F
Cottrell
Raymond Cottrell
Raymond F
. Cottrell
Raymond Cottrell


title: Roger I of Sicily

texts:
<mask> (, Arabic: روجر, Rūjar;  – 22 June 1101), nicknamed <mask> and The Great, was a Norman nobleman who became the first Count of Sicily from 1071 to 1101. He was a member of the House of Hauteville, and his descendants in the male line continued to rule Sicily down to 1194. <mask> was born in Normandy, and came to southern Italy as a young man in 1057. He participated in several military expeditions against the Emirate of Sicily beginning in 1061. He was invested with part of Sicily and the title of count by his brother, Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia, in 1071. By 1090, he had conquered the entire island. In 1091, he conquered Malta.The state he created was merged with the Duchy of Apulia in 1127 and became the Kingdom of Sicily in 1130. Conquest of Calabria and Sicily
<mask> was the youngest son of Tancred of Hauteville by his second wife Fredisenda. <mask> arrived in Southern Italy in the summer of 1057. The Benedictine monk, <mask> Malaterra, who compares Robert Guiscard and his brother <mask> to "Joseph and Benjamin of old," said of <mask>:

In 1057 he shared the conquest of nearly all of Calabria excepting Reggio with his brother Robert. For a time <mask> lived like a bandit in his castle of Scalea, near Cosenza. In a treaty of 1062, the brothers divided the conquest so that each was to have half of every castle and town in Calabria. It was about this same time that <mask> married Judith d'Évreux.<mask> had first thought of conquering Sicily when he and his brother conquered Calabria. At the time, it was ruled by Muslims and the population were mostly Byzantine Greek Christians. The Arab princes had become all but independent of the sultan of Tunis. In May 1061 the brothers crossed from Reggio and captured Messina. In June 1063, <mask> defeated a Muslim army at the Battle of Cerami and would strike another victory at the Battle of Misilmeri in 1068. After they took Palermo in January 1072, Robert Guiscard, as suzerain, invested <mask> as Count of Sicily. Robert retained Palermo, half of Messina, and the north-east portion (the Val Demone).Not till 1085 was <mask> able to undertake a systematic conquest. In March 1086 Syracuse surrendered, and when in February 1091 Noto yielded, the conquest of Sicily was complete. Much of Robert's success had been due to <mask>'s support. After Robert died and Count <mask> became the senior member of the family, he supported his nephew, Duke <mask>, against his other nephew, Prince Bohemund of Taranto, Lando <mask> of Capua, and other rebels. In return for his uncle's aid against Bohemund and the rebels, Duke <mask> surrendered his share in the castles of Calabria to his <mask> in 1085, and in 1091 his inheritance in Palermo, likewise. <mask>'s rule in Sicily became more absolute than that of Robert Guiscard in Italy. In addition, due to immigration by Lombards and Normans, Latin Christianity gradually replaced that of the Greek Byzantine tradition.At the enfeoffments of 1072 and 1092, no great undivided fiefs were created. The mixed Norman, French and Italian vassals all owed their benefices to the count. No feudal revolt of importance arose against <mask>. Conquest of Malta

In 1091 <mask>, in order to avoid an attack from North Africa, set sail with a fleet to conquer Malta. His ship reached the island before the rest. On landing, the few defenders the Normans encountered retreated and the following day <mask> marched to the capital Mdina. Terms were discussed with the local qadi.It was agreed that the islands would become tributaries of the count himself and that the qadi should continue to administer the islands. With the treaty many Greek and other Christian prisoners were released, who chanted to <mask> the Kyrie eleison. He left the islands with many who wished to join him and so many were on his ship that it nearly sank, according to <mask>ra. The invasion was romanticized in later centuries, and legends arose that the Count gave the Maltese their red and white flag by cutting a part of his banner. Mass is said once a year in remembrance of the Count at the Cathedral of Mdina, as a recognition for the Count's role in liberating Maltese Christians from Muslim dominance and rule. Rule of Sicily

Politically supreme, the count also became master of the insular church. The Papacy, favouring a prince who had recovered Sicily from Greeks and Muslims, in 1098 granted <mask> and his heirs the Apostolic Legateship of the island.<mask> created new Latin bishoprics at Syracuse, Girgenti and elsewhere, nominating the bishops personally, while he turned the archbishopric of Palermo into a Catholic see. Of these bishops and other important clergy positions, a minority were French, and of those even fewer were Norman. Of the five new sees he founded, one bishop was Norman and three others were from other parts of France. He practiced general toleration towards Arabs and Greeks, even sponsoring the construction of over twelve Greek monasteries in the Val Demone region. In the cities, the Muslims, who had generally secured such rights in their terms of surrender, retained their mosques, their qadis, and freedom of trade; in the country, however, they became serfs. <mask> drew the mass of his infantry from the Muslims; Saint Anselm, visiting him at the siege of Capua, 1098, found "the brown tents of the Arabs innumerable". Nevertheless, the Latin element began to prevail, as Lombards and other Italians flocked to the island in the wake of the conquest, and the conquest of Sicily proved decisive in the steady decline of Muslim power in the western Mediterranean from this time.Death and succession
<mask> died on 22 of June 1101 in Mileto and was buried at the Benedictine Abbey of the Holy Trinity. The abbey was destroyed in the earthquake of 1783. Its ruins are currently located in the Mileto Antica archaeological park. Upon <mask>'s death, his son, Simon of Hauteville, became the Count of Sicily, with his mother, Adelaide del Vasto, acting as his regent. On 28 September 1105, at the age of 12, Simon died, and the title of count passed to his younger brother, <mask> II of Sicily, with Adelaide continuing on as regent, being the mother of <mask> II as well. Family

<mask>'s eldest son, Jordan, predeceased him. <mask>'s second son, <mask>, possibly illegitimate, was a leper with no chance of inheriting.<mask>'s first marriage took place in 1062, to Judith d'Évreux. She died in 1076, leaving daughters:

 A daughter, married Hugh of Jarzé (died 1075/6), the first count of Paternò
 Matilda (1062 – before 1094), wife of Robert, Count of Eu and Raymond IV of Toulouse
 Adelisa (died 1096), married in 1083 to Henry, Count of Monte Sant'Angelo
 Emma (died 1120), briefly engaged to <mask> of France; married firstly <mask> of Auvergne and secondly Rudolf of Montescaglioso. In 1077, <mask> married a second time, to Eremburga of Mortain, and their children were:
 Mauger, Count of Troina
 Matilda, wife of Ranulf II, Count of Alife
 Muriel (died 1119), married Josbert de Lucy
 Constance
 Felicia, wife of Coloman, King of Hungary
 Violante, married Robert, son of <mask> of Burgundy
 Flandina, married Henry del Vasto
 Judith (died 1136), married <mask> of Bassunvilla

<mask>'s last wife was Adelaide del Vasto, a sister of his son-in-law Henry del Vasto. They married in 1087. <mask> and Adelaide's children were:
 Simon of Sicily
 <mask> II of Sicily
 Maximilla (Matilda), wife of Conrad II of Italy

<mask>'s other daughter called Matilda married Guigues <mask>, Count of Albon. Ancestry

References

Sources

Further reading
Aubé, Pierre. <mask> II de Sicile.Un Normand en Méditerranée. Payot, 2001. Alex Metcalfe. The Muslims of Medieval Italy. Edinburgh, 2009. Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016–1130.London: Longmans, 1967. 1030s births
1101 deaths
11th-century monarchs in Europe
Counts of Sicily
Italo-Normans
Norman warriors
Hauteville family
Norman conquest of southern Italy
Counts
Counts of Malta

masks:
Roger I
Roger Bosso
Roger
Roger
Roger
Goffredo
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger Borsa
IV
Roger Borsa
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Geoffrey Malater
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger I
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
Geoffrey
Roger
Philip I
William VI
Roger
Robert I
Robert I
Roger
Roger
Roger
Roger
III
Roger


title: Moshe Shmuel Glasner

texts:
Rabbi <mask> (1856–1924), a Hungarian Talmudic scholar and communal leader, served as chief rabbi of Klausenburg (Kolozsvár in Hungarian, Cluj in Romanian) from 1877 to 1923. In 1923 he left Klausenburg for Jerusalem where he resided until his death in 1924. He is best known as the author of Dor Revi'i, a classic commentary on the tractate Hullin, and as a supporter of Zionism and a founder of Mizrachi. His father was Rabbi <mask> (1825–1877), who preceded him as chief rabbi of Klausenburg, and was his only teacher. His mother, Raizl (née Ehrenfeld), was the oldest granddaughter of the Chatam Sofer. Method of study
He was noted for his independence as a halakhic authority. He advocated a return to the method of study of the Rishonim (pre-1500 CE rabbinic scholars) which the introduction to the Dor Revi'i states "was to explain with crystal clearness, to examine, to search for truth without any respect for any person"; he opposed the method of pilpul (casuistry) that arose during the era of the Acharonim (post-1500 CE scholars), saying pilpul is "as far from the path of wisdom as East is from West" (id.)and "a weakness developed in the Galut during whose millennia of persecutions and migrations our capacity for straight thinking had been well-nigh destroyed". Similarly, in his monograph "Ohr Bahir" (on the laws of mikva'ot), he rejected halakhic reasoning based on esoteric sources or divine inspiration, arguing that only arguments that can be subjected to rational criticism and evaluated in terms of halakhic sources known to halakhic experts at large carry weight in arriving at halakhic decisions. His work also developed a method in understanding and applying the code of Maimonides (Rambam). Many of codifications of the Rambam were said by commentators to be at odds with the relevant Talmudic sources. These seemingly anomalous rulings have led to attempts at rationalization by later scholars. <mask> suggested that the source of the difficulty was often that the scholars had assumed that the Rambam had interpreted the problematic Talmudic sources for the codification in the same way that the Franco-German school of Rashi and Tosafot had understood those sources. However, Rabbi <mask> maintained, there was usually another approach to understanding the Talmudic sources than that followed by Rashi and Tosafot, often stemming from the Babylonian Geonic school which the Rambam had followed in reaching his codification.<mask>'s methods coincided with those of Lithuanian Rabbi Haim Soloveichik. When Rabbi <mask>'s major work, Dor Revi'i came to the attention of the Lithuanian yeshivot in the late 1920s and early 1930s, it surprised many Lithuanian scholars that a rabbi from Hungary (where theoretical acuity was generally less emphasized than breadth of knowledge of the sources) had independently formulated a method of study so similar to the method of Rabbi Soloveichik. Zionist activity

<mask>'s supported Zionism, which was highly unusual among the Hungarian Orthodox rabbinate. A founder of Mizrachi (religious Zionism), he became personally close to Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, especially after taking up residence in Jerusalem in 1923. His independence and in particular his outspoken Zionism led to his estrangement from many of his rabbinical colleagues in Hungary. After the First World War, he increased his efforts in support of the Zionist enterprise. His "Zionism in the Light of the Faith" is the primary source for his philosophy of Zionism.He criticized his colleagues in the Hungarian rabbinate for not supporting Zionism while proclaiming themselves to be nothing more than Hungarians of the Mosaic faith. In 1921 he represented Mizrachi at the 12th World Zionist Congress in Carlsbad, and he undertook speaking tours on behalf of Zionism. His outspoken support of Zionism caused elements of the Orthodox community in Klausenburg to break away from the community that he had headed for over 40 years. In 1923, <mask> retired from his position as chief rabbi and was succeeded by his son, Rabbi Akiva <mask>. In his farewell address to his community at the Klausenburg train station as he left for to Palestine, he called for his listeners to follow him to Palestine while they were still able to do so, because he greatly feared that a time would come when they would want to leave Europe to go to Palestine but then would no longer be able to leave. See further under "Philosophy of the Oral Law and Zionism" below. Dor Revi'i

Rabbi <mask>'s most notable work is Dor Revi'i (New York: Im haSefer, 2004), a commentary on mesechet (tractate) Hullin, which largely concerns the laws of shehitah (ritual slaughter) and other aspects of Jewish dietary laws.The work analyses the laws of shehitah in the context of a dispute between Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Yishmael at Hullin 16b-17a about the interpretation of the verses in Deuteronomy (12:20-21) which state for the first time (just prior to the entry into the promised land) an obligation to perform shehitah on hullin (animals not offered as sacrifices). R. Yishmael interprets the verse to mean that for the preceding forty years the Israelites had been forbidden to eat any animal not offered as a sacrifice. However, R. Akiva states the verses mean that prior to entry into the promised land the Israelites had been allowed to eat non-sacrificial meat by performing nehirah, a minimal form of ritual slaughter that was superseded by the obligation to perform shehitah which had previously been reserved for sacrifices. Although all the standard commentaries interpret the verses in Deuteronomy in accord with the opinion of R. Yishmael, the Rambam in his code (Hilkhot Shehitah 4:17) rules according to the opinion of Rabbi Akiva. In Dor Revi'i, <mask> provides an explanation of the opinions of R. Yishmael and R. Akiva as well as the various interpretations of the dispute by Rashi, the Tosafot and the Rambam and links this see dispute to other disputes in the rest of the tractate. Philosophy of the Oral Law and Zionism

Apart from its importance as a traditional Talmudic commentary, Dor Revi'i is also noteworthy because of the philosophy of the Oral Law that is expounded in the introduction (haqdamah) to the work. A distinct philosophical essay is contained in the conclusion of his comprehensive introductory statement (petiha) of the ten main halakhic principles of ritual slaughter (shehitah) that underlie the main halakhic discussion of the tractate.The latter essay argues that the Torah presupposes basic principles of morality that are incumbent on all human beings independently of any explicit commandment (e.g., a prohibition against eating human flesh). In the haqdamah, <mask> develops a philosophy in which halakhah is seen not as the pure expression of Divine Will, but as a creative process in which man is an active participant. Halakhah is the outgrowth of an evolving tradition that encompasses the attempts of the Sages of each generation to apply Divinely sanctioned principles of interpretation to the Written text received at Sinai. That process of interpreting the written text and applying it to ever-changing circumstances constitutes the Oral Law or Tradition. The Oral Law cannot remain static and unchanging. Nor was it intended by the Divine Author of Written Law that the Oral Law be static. Indeed, the dynamic nature of the Tradition was imbedded in the Oral Law by the ancient prohibition against writing down the rulings of the Oral Law in an authoritative text.As long as the Oral Law was transmitted orally and not in writing, later authorities had the right to overturn the rulings of their predecessors that were predicated on a particular interpretation of the Scriptures (Maimonides Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Mamrim 2:1-2). This purely oral transmission of the Oral Law ensured its flexibility and adaptability to changing circumstances. However, the right of later authorities to change the rulings of earlier authorities was radically circumscribed when the prohibition against writing down the Oral Law in a canonical text was abrogated by Rabbi Judah the Prince (second century of the common era) in order to produce the Mishnah. The justification for abrogating the prohibition against creating an authoritative text of the Oral Law was that the onset of the Diaspora would make preserving the Oral Law as it had been known previously impossible. Only through the creation of an authoritative text could the integrity of halakhah be maintained under the unprecedented conditions of prolonged exile in the absence of any supreme halakhic authority. But the resulting ossification of the Oral Law owing to the combined effects of exile, persecution and an authoritative written text was seen as distinct from the process of halakhic evolution and development which Rabbi <mask> believed was the Divine intention. It was from this philosophical perspective that he conceived using Zionism for restoring the Oral Law to its ancient position as the means by which Jewish people in each generation could find concrete expression.A similar philosophy of the Oral Law, also emphasizing the distinction between written and oral transmission, was subsequently articulated in several works by Rabbi Eliezer Berkovits, who was a student of Rabbi <mask>'s son and successor as chief rabbi of Klausenburg Rabbi Akiva <mask>. Character and personality

<mask> was embroiled in controversies in his tenure as chief rabbi of Klausenburg. He responded to his critics by seeking to demonstrate, through the force of his own arguments, the validity of his position. At the end of his haqdamah to Dor Revi'i, he summarized his approach. "The reader of this work should not suspect that I would imagine that in every place that I have criticized rabbis who came before us, I have discerned the truth, for such a haughty spirit would be incomparably ignorant ... [I]t would contradict my approach completely, for my having dared to criticize is built on the principle that every person ... is liable to err ... [Others] will undoubtedly find many mistakes that I have made, because man is biased in favor of his own words and ideas. I, too, could not be secure from the snare of error that lies beneath the feet of all men. But this is the way of the Torah: one builds and another comes after and examines his words and removes the chaff from the wheat in order to find truth, which is beloved above all" (haqdamah 5a-b).Other works

<mask> also published Shevivei Eish, a shorter work of commentary on the weekly Torah reading and the Festivals (translated in Resources below) which also includes novellae on various discussions in the Talmud and codifications in Maimonides Code. He also published five short halakhic monographs: Ohr Bahir (1908) on the laws of purity and mikvaot; Halakhah l'Moshe (1908) and Yeshnah li-Shehitah on shehitah; Haqor Davar (1908) on conversion in cases of intermarriage; Matzah Shemurah on matzot for Passover. These works were republished in a single volume called Ohr Bahir (2008). He wrote an essay (German) on Zionism, Der Zionismus und seine Nebenerscheinungen im Lichte der Religion (Klausenburg, 1920). The work was translated into Hebrew as haTzionut b'Ohr haEmuna and published in a volume edited by Simon Federbush, Torah u-Meluhah (Jerusalem: Mosad haRav Kook, 1961). An English translation, Zionism in the Light of Faith is available online (see Resources). <mask> wrote manuscripts, including novellae on most of the Talmud and hundreds of responsa, whose whereabouts are now unknown.About 200 of his responsa dating from the late 1880s through the 1890s were recovered and published posthumously (She'eilot u-Teshuvot Dor Revi'i, two volumes). He was also a frequent contributor to the rabbinic journal Tel Talpiot. References
Webpage dedicated to <mask>

The following are the exclusive sources from which this article has been compiled (except for the personal testimony of Professor <mask> regarding Rabbi Berkovits's relationship to Rabbi Akiva <mask>). An article about him including bibliographic information, his scholarly works, and his views on Oral Law and Zionism. - <mask>, David. "<mask> <mask> <mask>, The Dor Revi'i". Tradition, vol.32, no. 1, Winter 1997, pp. 40-56. Another biographical article; similar to the above, briefer. - <mask>, Isaac. "<mask> <mask> <mask> (1856–1924)", appeared originally in "Men of the Spirit", edited by Leo Jung, Kymson Publishing Company, New York, 1964, pp. 459-466.An abridged translation of his introduction to the Dor Revi'i, on the nature of the Oral Law. - Elman, Yaakov. "Rabbi Moses Samuel <mask>: The Oral Torah". Tradition, vol. 25, no. 3, Spring 1991, pp. 63-69."Zionism in the Light of Faith." - English translation by <mask> of Rabbi <mask>'s essay on Zionism, translated from the Hebrew translation of Naftali ben Menahem ("haTzionut b'Ohr haEmuna", pub. Mosad haRav Kook) from the German original. Translations of his commentary on the weekly Torah reading and the festivals from Shevivei Eish

References

1856 births
1924 deaths
Hungarian Orthodox rabbis
Religious Zionist Orthodox rabbis
Talmudists
Philosophers of Judaism
Hungarian emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Burials at the Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives

masks:
Moshe Shmuel Glasner
Avraham Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Glasner
Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Glasner
Glasner
Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
Rabbi Glasner
David Glasner
Glasner
Glasner
Rabbi Moshe
Shmuel
Glasner
Glasner
Moshe
Shmuel
Glasner
Glasner
David Glasner
Glasner


title: Edgar Lee Masters

texts:
<mask>  (August 23, 1868 – March 5, 1950) was an American attorney, poet, biographer, and dramatist. He is the author of Spoon River Anthology, The New Star Chamber and Other Essays, Songs and Satires, The Great Valley, The Serpent in the Wilderness, An Obscure Tale, The Spleen, Mark Twain: A Portrait, Lincoln: The Man, and Illinois Poems. In all, <mask> published twelve plays, twenty-one books of poetry, six novels and six biographies, including those of Abraham Lincoln, Mark Twain, Vachel Lindsay, and Walt Whitman. Life and career
Born in Garnett, Kansas, to attorney <mask> and Emma J. Dexter, his father had briefly moved to set up a law practice, then soon moved back to his paternal grandparents' farm near Petersburg in Menard County, Illinois. In 1880 they moved to Lewistown, Illinois, where he attended high school and had his first publication in the Chicago Daily News. The culture around Lewistown, in addition to the town's cemetery at Oak Hill and the nearby Spoon River, were the inspirations for many of his works, most notably Spoon River Anthology, his most famous and acclaimed work. He attended Knox Academy in 1889–90, a now defunct preparatory program run by Knox College, but was forced to leave due to his family's inability to finance his education.After working in his father's law office, he was admitted to the Illinois bar and moved to Chicago, where he established a law partnership in 1893 with the law firm of Kickham Scanlan. He married twice. In 1898 he married Helen M. Jenkins, the daughter of Robert Edwin Jenkins, a lawyer in Chicago, and had three children. During his law partnership with Clarence Darrow from 1903 to 1908, <mask> defended the poor. In 1911 he started his own law firm, despite three years of unrest (1908–11) caused by extramarital affairs and an argument with Darrow. Two of his children followed him with literary careers. His daughter Marcia pursued poetry, while his son <mask> became a novelist.Hilary and his half-brother Hardin wrote a memoir of their father. <mask> died in poverty at a nursing home on March 5, 1950, in Melrose Park, Pennsylvania, age 81. He is buried in Oakland cemetery in Petersburg, Illinois. His epitaph includes his poem, "To-morrow is My Birthday" from Toward the Gulf (1918):

"Good friends, let's to the fields ...
After a little walk, and by your pardon,
I think I'll sleep. There is no sweeter thing,
Nor fate more blessed than to sleep. I am a dream out of a blessed sleep –
Let's walk, and hear the lark." Family history
<mask>'s father was Hardin <mask>, whose father was Squire <mask>, whose father was <mask>, whose father was Hillery <mask>, the son of <mask> (born c. 1715, Prince George's County, Maryland, the son of William W<mask> and wife Mary Veatch <mask>).<mask> <mask> wrote in his autobiography, Across Spoon River (1936), that his ancestor Hillery <mask> was the son of "Knotteley" <mask>, but family genealogies show that Hillery and Notley <mask> were, in fact, brothers. Poetry

<mask> first published his early poems and essays under the pseudonym Dexter Wallace (after his mother's maiden name and his father's middle name) until the year 1903, when he joined the law firm of Clarence Darrow. <mask> began developing as a notable American poet in 1914, when he began a series of poems (this time under the pseudonym Webster Ford) about his childhood experiences in Western Illinois, which appeared in Reedy's Mirror, a St. Louis publication. In 1915 the series was bound into a volume and re-titled Spoon River Anthology. Years later, he wrote a memorable and invaluable account of the book's background and genesis, his working methods and influences, as well as its reception by the critics, favorable and hostile, in an autobiographical article notable for its human warmth and general interest. Although he never matched the success of his Spoon River Anthology, he did publish several other volumes of poems including Book of Verses in 1898, Songs and Sonnets in 1910, The Great Valley in 1916, Song and Satires in 1916, The Open Sea in 1921, The New Spoon River in 1924, <mask> in 1926, Jack Kelso in 1928, Lichee Nuts in 1930, Gettysburg, Manila, Acoma in 1930, Godbey, sequel to Jack Kelso in 1931, The Serpent in the Wilderness in 1933, Richmond in 1934, Invisible Landscapes in 1935, The Golden Fleece of California in 1936, Poems of People in 1936, The New World in 1937, and More People in 1939. Life of Stephen Douglas.Levy Mayer and the New Industrial Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1927). Chicago attorney Levy Mayer (1858–1922). Lincoln: The Man (1931)
Vachel Lindsay: A Poet in America (1935)
Across Spoon River: An Autobiography (memoir) (1936)
Whitman (1937)
Mark Twain: A Portrait (1938)

Books
Maxmilian: A Drama (1902)
The New Star Chamber and Other Essays (1904)
The Blood of the Prophets (1905) (play)
Althea (1907) (play)
The Trifler (1908) (play)
Mitch Miller (novel) (1920)
Skeeters Kirby (novel) (1923)
The Nuptial Flight (novel) (1923)
Kit O'Brien (novel) (1927)
The Fate of the Jury: An Epilogue to Domesday Book (1929)
Gettysburg, Manila, Acoma: Three Plays (1930)
The Tale of Chicago (1933)
The Tide of Time (novel) (1937)
The Sangamon (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1942, 1988)

Awards and honors

<mask> was awarded the Mark Twain Silver Medal in 1936, the Poetry Society of America medal in 1941, the Academy of American Poets Fellowship in 1942, and the Shelly Memorial Award in 1944. In 2014, he was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame. References

External links

 <mask> <mask> at the Modern American Poetry Site of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

 Books by <mask> <mask> in PDF at Penn State's Electronic Classics Series site
  A large collection of <mask> <mask>' papers is held at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin
 Complete text of Spoon River Anthology
 Spoon River Anthology online edition with cross-references and comments
 <mask> – <mask> <mask> Papers at Newberry Library
 Dorothy Dow papers, including correspondence with Edgar Lee Masters at Newberry Library
 Finding aid to Edgar <mask> Masters papers, 1910-1942, at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. 1868 births
1950 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American poets
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American biographers
American male novelists
American male poets
American male dramatists and playwrights
American people of Welsh descent
Illinois lawyers
Knox College (Illinois) alumni
People from Lewistown, Illinois
People from Garnett, Kansas
People from Cheltenham, Pennsylvania
People from Petersburg, Illinois
Novelists from Illinois
Historians from Kansas
20th-century American male writers
Historians from Illinois
Historians of Abraham Lincoln
Novelists from Kansas
Poets from Illinois
Poets from Kansas
American male biographers

masks:
Edgar Lee Masters
Masters
Hardin Wallace Masters
Masters
Hilary Masters
Masters
Edgar
Wallace Masters
Davis Masters
Thomas Masters
Masters
Robert Masters
. Masters
Masters
Edgar Lee
Masters
Masters
Masters
Masters
Masters
Masters
Lee
Masters
Edgar Lee
Masters
Edgar Lee
Masters
Edgar Lee
Masters
Agnes Lee
Edgar Lee
Masters
Lee


title: Maria Stona

texts:
<mask>; Marie Scholz; <mask> (1859–1944) was a Silesian German writer and poet. Her daughter was the sculptor Helen Zelezny-Scholz. In Třebovice she led artistic salon. She drew into her circles many noticeable persons, world-famous artists, politicians and writers such as Georg Brandes, Georges Clemenceau, Berta von Suttner, Flinders Petrie, Stefan Zweig, being among her guests in her home the Chateau of Třebovice (Strzebowitz). She corresponded regularly with Georg Brandes from 1899 to his death 1927. <mask> died in 1944, during the World War II. In the course of the liberation of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Red Army her chateau was damaged and subsequently was deteriorating.It was completely demolished in 1958. Some of her books are available at The Royal Library in Copenhagen, where some of her letters may also be found in "Georg Brandes Arkivet". Life
<mask> was a daughter of <mask>, who bought the Castle Strebowitz in 1861, and his wife Marie Prymus from Soběšovice in Cieszyn Silesia. She used the first two syllables of her birth name, <mask>, as her pseudonym <mask>. In 1881 <mask> married Dr. jur. Albert Scholz, a son of Alois Scholz (1821–1883), the director of the steel works of Witkowitz mining and metallurgical trade union in Moravia-Ostrava. The couple lived from 1881 to 1888 in Chropyně in Moravia, where their daughter Helen Zelezny-Scholz was born on 16 August 1882.The marriage to Albert Scholz lasted until 1899. <mask> most likely had a second marriage to the writer, editor and art critic Charles Erasmus Kleinert (1837–1933). In 1933, <mask> published a tribute to his life: An Old Austrian - Charles Erasmus Kleinert. His life and his works were published by Adolf Drechsler, Opava in Silesia. Literary circles at the Castle Strebowitz
After the death of his father, Joseph took <mask> Scholz to Strebowitz Martinau and in Silesia, where the Strebowitz Castle and the surrounding park was their residence. At Castle Strebowitz <mask> was the center of a literary circle. Landowner and Countess <mask>-Scholzová loved art.She produced poetry, stories, novels, and travel sketches under the pseudonym <mask>. After a short marriage, she was able to live independently thanks to having financial security. She actively participated in the cultural life of the town – she visited exhibits and the theatre, but mainly she supported artists. In this way the château in Třebovice became a cultural centre where artists and the intelligentsia of various nations gathered. Stonawská-Scholzová bountifully hosted and supported local artists regardless of nationality, and eagerly introduced young artists to the public. The list of important personalities who stayed at Třebovice includes writer Baroness Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, noted Austrian prose writer Stefan Zweig, the Nobel Peace Prize winner Bertha von Suttner, writer Subhas Chandra Bose doctor and writer Karl Schönherr, the writer and journalist Paul Keller, the Danish literary critic Georg Brandes, and personalities of political life. She encouraged young artists who belonged to which the Czech pianist and composer Ilja Hurník and others traveled for Eastern Europe, Southern France and Spain.Her extensive literary heritage, included travelogues, poetry, often sentimental, short stories, novellas and novels. <mask> was one of the most important women writers of her time. They drew their psychological empathy from the surrounding world, as Russian troops had occupied Moravia and Silesia in 1945 and Castle Strebowitz was lost as a family residence. <mask> who died in 1944, created her works in German. The volumes of poetry have been translated after her death by the novelist Helen Salichová into the Czech language. Works
 Mein lachendes Buch
 Ein Alt - Österreicher. Karl Erasmus Kleinert.Sein Leben und seine Werke
 Neue Gedichte
 Das Buch der Liebe, 1888, 3rd expanded edition 1897, Anzengruber Verlag Wien, Berlin. Liebe einer jungen Frau, 3rd edition, Anzengruber Verlag Wien und Berlin. Klingende Tiefen, New Poems, Anzengruber Verlag Wien Berlin. Flammen und Fluten, Poems, Anzengruber Verlag Wien Berlin. König Eri, Ein Lied der Liebe, Anzengruber Verlag Wien Berlin. Menschen und Paragraphie. Stories, Anzengruber Verlag Wien Berlin
 Erzählt und gesungen, Stories and Poems, Anzengruber Verlag Wien Berlin.Ludwig Jakobowski im Licht des Lebens, Anzengruber Verlag Wien, Berlin. Der Rabenschrei, novel of divorce, 1907. Die Heidelerche und andere heitere Geschichten, Philipp Reclam Verlag 1910. Mein Dorf, short stories and sketches from Silesia, Kürschners Bücherschatz Nr. 604. Klein Doktor – Ein Kinderleben, Leipzig Turmverlag Albert Platzek 1918
 Das Doppelfest im Ort, in: Rur-Blumen, Jahrgang 1923, Nr. 12, Blätter für Heimatgeschichte.Beilage zum Jülischen Kreisblatt, Jahrgang 1921 bis 1924. Von Prag in die Provence über Strassburg, Verdun und Reims, Anzengruber Verlag Wien Berlin 1922. Das schöne Spanien, a journey in 51 images, AGV Verlag Berlin, ohne Jahr ( 1942 bis 1944)-
 Vor dem Sturz, social novel. Rachel, Roman, 2nd Reprint. Anzengruber Verlag Wien Berlin. O du spaßige Welt der Frauen, Steyrermühl Verlag Wien, Tagblatt Bibliothek Nr. 76.Die wilde Wolhynierin, Roman from Ukraine, a reference to the life story of the cousin <mask>s Wilhelmina Ladislawa Koszyce (Kosietz), daughter of Wenceslaus Koszyce in Zywiec (Saybusch) in Galicia, then a crown land of the Austria-Hungarian Empire, Anzengruber Verlag, Vienna and Leipzig, 1922. Eine Fahrt nach Karpathorußlans, Adolf Drechsler Verlag Troppau 1936. Erzähltes Erbe – selection of East German narrative, to page 27 to 52 Stona Maria: My mother (<mask>ski née Koszyce, died 1890) Odertor-publisher of literature from Eastern Sudetenland, Heidelberg 1961. Dorfgestalten aus dem Vorfeld von Groß-Ostrau, ausgewählt, introduced and edited by Fritz Eichler, Odertor-publisher of literature from the Eastern Sudetenland, Heidelberg in 1962 with a dedication of the 100th birthday of <mask> (born 1861) and a portrait photograph of her. Literature
 Biographical Dictionary published on the history of the Bohemian Lands, Volume III (N - Sch) on behalf of the Collegium Carolinum by :de:Ferdinand Seibt, :de:Hans Lemberg, :de:Helmut Slapnicka, :de:Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 2000, p. 744th
 Austrian Bibiographisches Lexicon, 11 with references to <mask>. :de:Josef Mühlberger: History of German Literature in Bohemia from 1900 to 1939, Volume 1
 John Nagl, :de:Jakob Zeidler, :de:Edward Castle: German-Austrian literary history - A handbook on the history of German literature in Austria-Hungary, Volume 3 and 4
 :de:Franz Brümmer: Encyclopedia of German poets and prose writers from the early 19th century to the present, Reclam, 1913. Martin Pelc: Maria Stona und ihr Salon in Strzebowitz : Kultur am Rande der Monarchie, der Republik und des Kanons.Opava : Schlesische Universität in Opava, 2014. 295 s.

References

External links

1861 births
1944 deaths
19th-century German writers
20th-century German writers
German women poets
People from Austrian Silesia
Writers from Ostrava
20th-century German women writers
19th-century German women writers

masks:
Maria Stona
born Stonawski
Maria Stona
Maria Scholz
Joseph Stonawski
Stonawski
Maria Stona
Maria Scholz
Maria Stona
Maria Stona
Maria Stonawski
Maria Stona
Marie Stonawská
Maria Stona
Maria Stona
Maria Stona
Maria Stona
Marie Stonav
Maria Stona
Mary Stona


title: Jack Hylton

texts:
<mask> (born John Greenhalgh Hilton; 2 July 1892 – 29 January 1965) was an English pianist, composer, band leader and impresario. Hylton rose to prominence during the British dance band era, being referred as the "British King of Jazz" and "The Ambassador of British Dance Music" by the musical press, not only because of his popularity which extended throughout the world, but also for his use of unusually large ensembles for the time and his polished arrangements. He mostly retired from the music industry after 1940, becoming a successful theatrical businessman until his death. Early life and career
He was born John Greenhalgh Hilton in Great Lever near Bolton, Lancashire, the son of George Hilton, a cotton yarn twister. His father was an amateur singer at the local Labour Club and Hylton learned piano to accompany him on the stage. Hylton later sang to the customers when his father bought a pub in nearby Little Lever, becoming known as the "Singing Mill-Boy". He also performed as a relief pianist for various bands.His early career involved moving to London as a pianist in the 400 Club and playing with the Stroud Haxton Band. During the First World War he moved to be a musical director of the band of the 20th Hussars, and later in the Army Entertainment Division. After the First World War, Hylton formed a double act with Tommy Handley to little success, also collaborating in a number of short-lived stage shows. He then played with the "Queens" Dance Orchestra, wrote arrangements of popular songs and recorded them for His Master's Voice and Zonophone under the label "Directed by <mask>" (being credited in lieu of a pay rise), his records carrying the new style of jazz-derived American dance music. 1920s and 1930s
After being dismissed by his own bandmates from the Queen's Hall in 1922, Hylton not only set up his own band, but also set up a number of other orchestras under the Jack Hylton Organisation. Even though he was not professionally trained for business, he brought his band to success even at a time when the Great Depression hit hard during the 1930s. His good reputation allowed him to make contacts with famous jazz artists of the time, and he was credited for bringing Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong and others to Britain and Europe in the 1930s.An ensemble consisting at times of more than 20 musicians, the Hylton orchestra quickly stood out from the rest. Unlike many other bandleaders who took up residences at nightclubs and ballrooms, <mask> often embarked on lengthy tours of England, which ultimately moulded the concept most Britons had of jazz. By the mid-1920s he was usually referred as the "British King of Jazz", a notion Hylton initially dismissed. As late as 1926, he thought of jazz as "a bunch of noises" popular at the end of the First World War, "when everything was topsy-turvy". <mask> first appeared on radio through station 2LO in 1924, and cut HMV's first electric record the following year. The second half of the 1920s marked Hylton's highest point of prominence. After recovering from a near-fatal car accident – which took place on 20 January 1927, on the way to the HMV studios at Hayes, Middlesex – he made the first in a string of "continental tours" that lasted until 1930.The orchestra's line-up also included some of the most skilled musicians of the time. "Regular" players included saxophonists Billy Ternent (who was also the band's main arranger and co-leader), Edward Owen (E.O.) "Poggy" Pogson and Noel "Chappie" d'Amato, trumpeter/cornetist <mask>, trombonist Lew Davis, violinists Hugo Rignold and Harry Berly, pianist/arranger Peter Yorke, and (from 1928) singer Sam Browne. The orchestra was often augmented with members of other Hylton-controlled bands, especially for 12-inch "concert arrangements". According to the Daily Herald of 7 June 1930, between four and five million records sold in 1929 (out of 50 million sold overall) were made by Hylton, although three million has been suggested as likely a more accurate figure. By the time the Depression started biting in 1930, Hylton downsized his band and began performing in Europe less frequently; that same year, however, Maurice Chevalier recorded with Hylton, who also made the first record of "Body and Soul" and Pat O'Malley replaced Browne as vocalist. In 1930 they recorded Amy, Wonderful Amy, a song about Amy Johnson.<mask> also became a director and major shareholder of the new Decca record label, switching from HMV in late 1931. The following year he was decorated by the French government, recorded with Paul Robeson, and made the first transatlantic entertainment broadcast with Paul Whiteman and his orchestra. In late 1933, <mask> left Decca after refusing to take a pay cut, not making records until 1935 when he rejoined HMV. He spent 1934 touring Europe again, and adopted "The Soldiers in the Park" (more commonly known as "Oh Listen to the Band") as his signature tune. In 1935 he appeared in his first feature film, the musical comedy She Shall Have Music, which starred June Clyde and Claude Dampier. That same year, <mask> finally was able to perform in the United States; he had repeatedly attempted this for almost a decade, but had been opposed by the musicians' unions (a 1929 tour was cancelled at the last minute). Standard Oil signed <mask> for a radio show on CBS, not only paying him and his star players, but also paying all expenses for those band members unable to play in the US.Whilst in Chicago, Hylton made a number of records with his radio band for Victor. Union pressure led him to return to the UK in 1936, although Pat O'Malley and Alec Templeton stayed in America, making a name for themselves. Upon returning to Britain, he was criticised for adopting the then-popular swing rhythm, so he kept playing in his well-established style, including a series of new "concert recordings". After a new tour of Europe in 1937, which included a performance at the Scala in Nazi Germany, Hylton began appearing on radio more frequently, starring in Radio Luxembourg's Rinso Radio Revue until 1939, when he appeared in the BBC's Band Waggon as well as its 1940 film adaptation. Hylton and his band also made a number of appearances on BBC television in the 1930s, on one of which Ernie Wise made his television debut. 1940s and 1950s
The <mask> orchestra disbanded in 1940 as many of its members were called up for service, although <mask> continued to conduct orchestras for radio in the years to come, leading the Glenn Miller Orchestra when it visited England in 1943. During the war, he took the London Philharmonic Orchestra around Britain, giving promenade concerts.This helped to keep the orchestra going when its normal programme had ceased and it was on the edge of bankruptcy. At this point in his career he became an impresario, discovering new stars and managing radio, film and theatre productions, from ballets to circuses. His productions dominated the London theatres with such productions as The Merry Widow, Kiss Me, Kate, and Kismet. In 1950 he reunited with a number of his former employees, many of whom had become successful in their own right, for that year's Royal Command Performance, billed as "The Band that <mask> Built". Despite their success, Hylton resisted calls for his return to band-leading. There were rumours in 1954 that he would stand for Parliament from Bolton, where he was a prominent member of the local Labour Party branch. In November 1955, he was contracted as Advisor of Light Entertainment to Associated-Rediffusion (A-R), winner of the London weekday franchise in the recently established ITV network.He founded Jack Hylton Television Productions, Ltd. in that same month to produce a range of light entertainment programming exclusively for A-R. In spite of their popularity, however, the company's productions were of low quality, with performers even apologising in front of millions of viewers at times. This in turn helped establish ITV's reputation for coarseness, a stigma it would only shake off by the 1970s. Hylton refused to renew his ITV contract in 1959; the last shows made by the company were broadcast in 1960. 1960s
In his final years Hylton was still producing stage shows, as well as taking a leading role in organising various Royal Command Performances, until his final stage production, Camelot, in 1965. In 1965 a televised tribute to Hylton, The Stars Shine for Jack, was held in London on Sunday 30 May at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane with many artists including Arthur Askey, the Crazy Gang, Marlene Dietrich, Dickie Henderson and Shirley Bassey. Personal life
Hylton was married twice; firstly in 1913 in St Asaph, Flintshire, Wales, to bandleader Ennis Parkes (born Florence Parkinson).They separated in 1929, but remained relatively close until Parkes's death in 1957, despite the formation of a short-lived "Mrs. <mask> Hylton Band" in the mid-1930s. During the 1930s he had a long affair with model Frederika Kogler ("Fifi"), with whom he had two daughters: <mask> (b. 1932) and Georgina (b. 1938). He also had a son, <mask> (b. 1947) by a later affair with Pat Taylor, a singer and actress. He secondly married in Geneva in 1963, to Australian model and beauty queen Beverley Prowse (1932–2000).Death
On 26 January 1965, complaining of chest and stomach pains, <mask> was admitted to the London Clinic. He died there three days later, from a heart attack, aged 72. <mask>'s spending habits and generosity left his estate with £242,288. Hylton said to his son during his latter years, "I won't leave you much, but we'll have a good laugh spending it while I'm here!" However, this equates to £4.6m in 2018, when adjusted for inflation. He is buried in the churchyard of St Catherine at Gosfield, Essex. His wife Beverley is buried beside him.Legacy

Specialist dance band radio stations, such as Radio Dismuke and Swing Street Radio, continue to play his records. <mask> also features regularly on the Manx Radio programme Sweet & Swing, presented by Howard Caine. His 1930 recording of Happy Days Are Here Again was used during the closing credits of episode four of Ken Burns's documentary series "The Roosevelts". <mask> is portrayed by Ted Robbins in the 2011 television film Eric and Ernie. References

External links
<mask> official website

 <mask>'s Kit-Cat Band Red Hot Jazz Archive

Lancaster University Library – <mask>ton Archive

<mask>ton Music Downloads

1892 births
1965 deaths
English bandleaders
Dance band bandleaders
Labour Party (UK) people
Musicians from the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton
People from Great Lever
20th-century British conductors (music)
20th-century English musicians
20th Hussars soldiers
British Army personnel of World War I

masks:
Jack Hylton
Jack Hylton
Hylton
Hylton
Jack Jackson
Hylton
Hylton
Hylton
Hylton
Jack Hylton
Jack
Jack
Jack
Jackie
Jack
Hylton
Hylton
Hylton
Hylton
Jack Hylton
Jack Hylton
Jack Hyl
Jack Hyl


title: Joe Vedepo

texts:
Jody David VeDepo is an American professional mixed martial artist currently competing in the Middleweight division. A professional competitor since 2005, he has formerly competed for the UFC and Bellator. Background
Born and raised in the small town of Columbus Junction, just outside of Iowa City, Iowa, <mask> was a standout wrestler at Iowa City High School, winning 105 overall matches during four seasons. After high school, <mask> began training in mixed martial arts (MMA). Mixed martial arts career

Early career
<mask> made his professional MMA debut in November 2005. He went undefeated at 6–0 in the first two and a half years of his career. Ultimate Fighting Championship
<mask> was invited to compete on The Ultimate Fighter 7 but declined for unknown reasons.<mask> made his debut for the UFC on September 17, 2008 against Alessio Sakara at UFC Fight Night 15. He lost the fight via KO in the first round. For his second fight, <mask> faced Rob Kimmons at UFC Fight Night 18 on April 1, 2009. He lost the fight via submission in the first round. <mask> was expected to face Gerald Harris on August 28, 2010 at UFC 118, replacing an injured Alessio Sakara. On August 18, it was announced that the <mask>/Harris bout had been scrapped from the card. Independent promotions
Following his release from the UFC, <mask> fought at ZT Fight Night: Heavyweights Collide, where he fought two weight classes higher at Heavyweight and on only a few days notice.He faced Oli Thompson, winning via TKO (punches) in the second round. He was expected to fight Rob Broughton to crown the tournament winner but <mask> broke his hand in his semifinals bout against Thompson, which forced him out of the finals. Bellator MMA
<mask> is notable for inventing the modified shin choke, also known as the Vedepo Choke, he used this submission to win his debut bout in Bellator, at the event Bellator 80. In his next appearance, <mask> squared off against fellow veteran Louis Taylor at Bellator 84. <mask> was knocked out with a short right hook while he had Taylor in half guard. <mask> then fought longtime veteran Eddie Larea on August 10, 2013, headlining for a regional promotion in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. In an upset, <mask> was defeated via first-round TKO.Vedeop then faced fellow UFC veteran Kendall Grove on October 18, 2013 at Bellator 104. In a hard-fought bout, <mask> lost via unanimous decision. <mask> faced Ben Crowder at Bellator 117 on April 18, 2014. He defeated Crowder via a verbal submission, as Crowder sustained a leg injury. <mask> then faced Cortez Coleman at Bellator 121 on June 6, 2014 and won via decision in a closely contested battle. <mask> faced Davin Clark at Bellator 129 on October 17, 2014. He won via TKO in the third round.<mask> will make a quick return to the Bellator cage as he steps in as a replacement for an injured Tom DeBlass against Muhammed Lawal on November 15, 2014 at Bellator 131. He lost the fight via TKO in the third round. On December 4, 2014 Bellator MMA announced they released <mask> from the promotion after he allegedly assaulted a police officer in Iowa. The incident came less than two weeks after his loss at Bellator 131, involving a reportedly-intoxicated <mask> head butting a police officer in the chest and being tasered ineffectively, as it reportedly took several officers to subdue him. The officer <mask> head butted was hospitalized with a back injury. Independent promotions
<mask> made his return on June 11, 2016, in a rematch with Eddie Larrea. <mask> avenged his prior loss, winning via rear-naked choke submission in the first round.<mask> most recently fought on December 29, 2017, losing via technical submission in the first round. Personal life
<mask> has a daughter. Prior to his arrest in 2014, <mask> had previous counts of public intoxication, as well as charges relating theft and drugs. Mixed martial arts record

|-
| Win
|align=center| 20-10
|Virgil Knight
|Submission (rear-naked choke)
|Elite Fight League 7
|
|align=center|2
|align=center|0:48
|Cedar Rapids, Iowa, United States
|Middleweight bout. |-
| Win
|align=center| 19–10
|Darrius Flowers
|Submission (keylock)
|Elite Fight League 6
|
|align=center|1
|align=center|3:55
|Cedar Rapids, Iowa, United States
|Catchweight (195 lbs) bout. |-
| Loss
|align=center| 18–10
|Daniel Vizcaya
|Technical Submission (rear-naked choke)
|RCC 14: Revolution Combat Championships 14
|
|align=center|1
|align=center|3:49
|Cedar Rapids, Iowa, United States
|For the RCC Light Heavyweight Championship. |-
| Win
|align=center| 10–3
| Miguel Bernard
| Submission (armbar)
| ZT Fight Night: Heavyweights Collide
|
|align=center| 1
|align=center| 0:33
|Hove, East Sussex, England
|ZT Fight Night Heavyweight Tournament Quarterfinal.1: The Doctor is Out
|
|align=center| 1
|align=center| 1:35
|West Liberty, Iowa, United States
|
|-
| Win
|align=center| 2–0
| <mask>t
|align=center| N/A
| Title Fighting Championships 1
|
|align=center| 1
|align=center| N/A
|Des Moines, Iowa, United States
|
|-
| Win
|align=center| 1–0
| Jesse Lennox
| Decision (unanimous)
| Mainstream MMA 1: Inception
|
|align=center| 3
|align=center| 5:00
|Cedar Rapids, Iowa, United States
|

See also
List of male mixed martial artists
List of Bellator MMA alumni

References

External links

Living people
American male mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists from Iowa
Middleweight mixed martial artists
Light heavyweight mixed martial artists
Heavyweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing wrestling
Sportspeople from Iowa City, Iowa
1983 births
Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters
American male sport wrestlers
Amateur wrestlers

masks:
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Vedepo
Joe Winterfeld