title: Joginder Singh (soldier)

texts:
Subedar <mask>, PVC (26 September 1921 – 23 October 1962), was an Indian Army soldier who posthumously received India's highest military gallantry award, the Param Vir Chakra. <mask> joined the British Indian Army in 1936, and served in the 1st battalion of the Sikh Regiment. During the 1962 Sino-Indian War, he was commanding a platoon at the Bum La Pass in the North-East Frontier Agency. Though heavily outnumbered, he led his troops against a Chinese assault and defended his post until he was wounded and captured. <mask> died from his injuries while in Chinese custody. He single-handedly killed more than 50 Chinese soldiers, and thus became part of the history of the Indian Army. Early life
<mask> was born on 26 September 1921 in Mahla Kalan, Moga district, Punjab, British India.He spent his childhood in the same village. His father Sher <mask>an belonged to an agricultural Saini Sikh family which had relocated to Mahla Kalan in Moga district from the village Munak Kalan (often pronounced as Munaka) in Hoshiarpur district. His mother was Bibi Krishan Kaur Bhela. <mask> <mask> married Bibi Gurdyal Kaur Banga, who was from a Saini family in the village Kothay Rara Singh, near Kotkapura. He went to primary school in Nathu Ala village and went to middle school in Daroli village. He decided to join the army, considering that it would give him an "identity and purpose". Military career
On joining the British Indian Army, <mask> was posted to the 1st battalion of the Sikh Regiment (1 Sikh) on 28 September 1936.After joining the army, he identified his interest in education, and soon passed the Army Education Examination. He was subsequently appointed as the Unit Education Instructor. He served in the Second World War on the Burma front, and in Srinagar during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948. Sino-India War

There had long been disagreement between India and China over disputed borders in the Himalaya region. To counter the increasing Chinese intrusions into the disputed territory, then Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru asked for strategies for dealing with them. However, the proposal put forward by the Indian Army was rejected. Instead, he approved a plan proposed by a bureaucrat called the "Forward Policy".This called for the establishment of a number of small posts facing the Chinese positions. Due to the severe rise in public criticism against Chinese intrusions, Nehru implemented the "Forward Policy" against the advice of the army. The army's concern was that the Chinese had a geographical advantage. Additionally, maintaining numerous small posts would be untenable if the superior Chinese forces attacked. This was ruled out by Nehru who believed the Chinese would not attack. However, the Chinese did attack and this initiated the Sino-India War. Battle at Bum La
On 9 September 1962, then Defence Minister of India Krishna Menon made a decision to evict the Chinese troops south of Thala Ridge.This decision was endorsed by Nehru, who was in London to attend the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. Subsequently, the 7th Infantry Brigade, which included 1 Sikh, was ordered to move to Namka Chu, which was considered as militarily unsound and an advantageous ground for the Chinese. This move was strongly criticized by the Indian media, who publicized it with "sensational headlines", arguing India's military offensive capability. The Chinese, aware of these developments, attacked the unprepared Indian post at Namka Chu. Though the Indian troops resisted the attack, they took heavy casualties due to inadequate ammunition and weak communication lines. Soon after the attack, the Chinese advanced to Tawang. Midway they encountered an Indian post at the Bum La Pass, held by a platoon of 20 men from 1 Sikh.The post was under the command of <mask>, now a subedar. The Chinese attacked the post in three waves, each comprising 200 men. Though the initial two attacks were repelled successfully, by that time, the platoon was depleted to half of its original strength. <mask> was also wounded, but refused evacuation. Soon the ammunition was exhausted, and the survivors were only left with their bayonets. The Sikh soldiers then charged towards the Chinese, shouting the war cry Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh. The Chinese lines were scattered at this sight and many were bayoneted.Due to heavy numbers and superior weapons, the Chinese were able to withstand the last charge by <mask> and his remaining soldiers. Before <mask> was overpowered and captured by the Chinese, he single-handedly killed 56 Chinese soldiers with his bayonet. He later succumbed to his injuries and died in Chinese captivity. Param Vir Chakra
Though being heavily outnumbered, <mask> led his men, and kept their morale up, in the face of enemy. For his action of gallantry on 23 October 1962, he was awarded the Param Vir Chakra. The citation reads:

The Chinese sent his ashes with full military honours to the battalion on 17 May 1963. The urn was later brought to the Sikh Regimental Centre at Meerut, and eventually handed over to his wife.Other honours

In the 1980s, the Shipping Corporation of India (SCI), a Government of India enterprise under the aegis of the Ministry of Shipping, named fifteen of its crude oil tankers in honour of the PVC recipients. The tanker MT Subedar <mask> <mask>, PVC was delivered to SCI in 1984, and served for 25 years before being phased out. In <mask>'s honour, a memorial statue has been built near the Office of District Collector in Moga, and a monument has been built at IB Ridge by the Indian Army. In popular culture
The 2018 biopic Subedar <mask> <mask> is based on <mask>'s life and his action during Sino-Indian War. The lead role was played by Punjabi actor and singer Gippy Grewal. Notes
Footnotes

Citations

References

Further reading

1921 births
1962 deaths
Sikh warriors
Punjabi people
Indian military personnel killed in action
Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra
Military personnel from Punjab, India

masks:
Joginder Singh Sahnan
Singh
Singh
Joginder Singh
Singh Sahn
Joginder
Singh
Singh
Singh
Singh
Singh
Singh
Singh
Joginder
Singh
Singh
Joginder
Singh
Singh


title: Nela Arias-Misson

type: original

texts:
<mask> (September 8, 1915 – July 17, 2015) was a Cuban-born abstract expressionist painter and sculptor. <mask> was a contemporary and friend of the 20th-century painters Mark Rothko, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell, Karel Appel, Walasse Ting, and Antoni Tapies. She exhibited internationally and was connected to many established figures in the art world throughout her life. Her art synthesizes her experiences as an ahead-of-her-time, determined, female artist, linking abstract expressionism in Cuba, the United States, and Europe. Biography

Early life and education
<mask> was born in Havana, Cuba on September 8, 1915. Her father, Amadeo Arias Rodriguez (who died when she was a child) and her mother, Sira Garcia Menendez, were from Asturias, Spain. They owned tobacco plantations in Cuba and traveled back and forth to Spain until World War I broke out and made trans-Atlantic travel impossible.As a result, they settled in Cuba. From early childhood, <mask> Arias was fascinated by the world of art and even then started positioning herself to become a part of it. She studied with Armando Maribona (artist, journalist, professor at La Academia de Bellas Artes de San Alejandro and also <mask>'s relative) in Havana in the 1930s. Maribona was <mask>'s childhood mentor and no doubt helped nurture her artistic vocation. Life in the United States
In 1941, Arias traveled to New York with her mother for medical treatment. They remained there several months and returned to Cuba by ship. On board, she met Willis Hesser Bird, a Sears, Roebuck & Company executive.Bird was a widower and had a six-year-old daughter, Barbara. They married in Havana two weeks later and moved to Haddonfield, New Jersey. Their daughter, Carole Bird, was born in Washington D.C. on August 9, 1942. Right after Carole was born, Willis Hesser Bird was called to serve in the US Army in the Office of Strategic Services (precursor of the Central Intelligence Agency). After a brief time in Washington DC, he went overseas, serving in the China-Burma-India Theater. The Army moved <mask> Arias, her mother, grandmother, Carole and Barbara to Sarasota, Florida, an option given to officers’ families during the war when no men were left at home. When the war ended, they all moved to New York City.Bird asked <mask> to move the family to Thailand, where he chose to remain. She refused, deciding to stay in New York. Their marriage ended in 1949. Career
In the mid-to-late 1940s, <mask> Arias studied fashion design and art at the Traphagen School of Fashion, at the Hans Hofmann School, and Parsons School of Design of New York City. In 1949, she married New York lawyer Sidney Kraft. Their marriage ended in divorce in 1955. During these years, she studied with Italian-American sculptor Leo Lentelli and at the Art Students League of New York, a formative school for the likes of Jackson Pollock, Lee Krasner, Clement Greenberg, Robert Rauschenberg, Roy Lichtenstein, Helen Frankenthaler, Mark Rothko and Cuban artist of Asturian background, Amelia Pelaez del Casal.Provincetown
<mask> Arias was a student of Hans Hofmann (one of the major exponents of Abstract Expressionism and a former teacher at the Art Students League of New York) from 1957 to 1959. She became entrenched in the Provincetown, Massachusetts art community where she formed relationships and connected with internationally known figures such as Mark Rothko, Robert Motherwell, Franz Kline, and Willem de Kooning. She developed a friendship with Karel Appel, founder of the COBRA group. <mask> Arias also became a close friend of Walasse Ting, an abstract-expressionist painter (with whom she collaborated on several works) known for authoring art books that included the participation of artists like Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Tom Wesselmann, James Rosenquist, Asger Jorn, Pierre Alechinsky, Karel Appel, Kiki Kogelnik, Joan Mitchell, and Sam Francis. During these years <mask> Arias showed at the Provincetown Art Association and New Gallery in Provincetown and wins first prize at the National Association of Women Artists of the Argent Gallery in New York in 1959, from which she resigned, wanting to receive the same recognition that male artists did. Europe
From 1961 to 1976 <mask> lived in Europe, settling first in Ibiza and Barcelona and later in Madrid and Brussels. She had exhibitions in: Britain, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, and Spain.While living in Europe she met Joan Miró, who was then living in Palma de Mallorca, and Josep Llorens i Artigas, Miro's collaborator. She also was introduced to the painters of El Paso Group by her friend, artist Antoni Tapies. The artists invited her to join their group, but <mask> rejected their offer. She preferred working independently. In 1963, <mask> married Belgian poet-novelist-artist, Alain Misson. When they married, they decided to combine their names, and from then on, both used the surname Arias-Misson. Alain Arias-Misson, a co-founder of the visual poetry movement, collaborated closely on projects and performances with artists Joan Brossa, Herminio Molero, and Ignacio Gomez de Liaño, with whom <mask> became close friends.In 1970, Galería Céspedes of Cordoba and Cult-Art Gallery in Madrid were hosts to <mask>'s solo exhibitions. These galleries were known for exhibiting artists like Manolo Valdes, the Equipo Crónica, Luis Eduardo Aute, and Juan Antonio Guirado. In 1974, she and her husband had a joint exhibition at the Galeria Senatore in Stuttgart. The two also collaborated with Paul De Vree, Emile Kesteman, Carlfriedrich Clauss, and Seiichi Niikuni. In 1975, she participated in Phantomas, an exhibition of art and poetry at Musee d’Ixelles that included Enrico Baj, Bram Bogart, Marcel Broodthaers, Jean Dubuffet, Lucio Fontana, and Piero Manzoni, among others. Return to the United States
The Arias-Missons lived in Europe until 1976 when they returned to the United States, and moved to a rural part of New Jersey. <mask> Arias-Misson continued to paint, but lived quietly and withdrew from the art world.She occasionally exhibited individual pieces in New York, Dallas, and Paris and Germany. In 1993 she was in an automobile accident that required many major surgeries on her left arm and she was no longer able to paint as before. In 1995 <mask> moved to New York City where she lived until she made her final move in 2002 when she settled in Miami. Legacy
<mask> Arias-Misson died in Miami on July 17, 2015, just a few weeks short of her 100th birthday. Her remains rest in a niche at El Cementerio de la Iglesia de San Esteban de Covera, Aviles, Spain. References

External links
 http://www.nelaariasmisson.com/

1915 births
2015 deaths
20th-century Cuban women artists
21st-century Cuban women artists
Artists from Havana
Traphagen School of Fashion alumni
The New School alumni
Artists from New York City
Cuban emigrants to the United States
Art Students League of New York alumni
Abstract expressionist artists

masks:
Nela Arias Misson
Nela Arias Misson
Nela Arias
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela
Nela


title: Vince Karalius

texts:
<mask><mask><mask>  (15 October 1932 – 13 December 2008), also known as "the Wild Bull of the Pampas", was an English rugby league footballer, and coach. He played as a loose forward, and was part of the Great Britain squad which won the 1960 World Cup. He forged a fearsome reputation as a strong runner of the ball and a devastating tackler. He was also highly regarded as a brilliant passer of the ball, often doing so with one of his large hands. Club career
<mask> was born in Widnes, Lancashire, England. He was one of eight children born to a Scottish father and an Irish mother; his paternal grandparents were Lithuanian. Three of his brothers, Terry, Denis and Tony, also went on to become rugby league players.He started playing for West Bank ARLFC in Widnes at the age of 15, before signing professionally for St. Helens in 1951. He made his début against Warrington in April 1952, and his first try was against the now defunct Liverpool City in that same time. His intimidating presence became a telling feature of his play. Respected for his ferocious attitude on the pitch, he was dubbed 'the Wild Bull of the Pampas' by the Australian press, in reference to the Argentine boxer Luis Ángel Firpo, who had knocked World Heavyweight Boxing Champion Jack Dempsey out of the ring back in 1923. It took until the 1955–56 season for <mask> to establish himself as a St. Helens regular, although a significant part of the 31 games he played that season were in the second row. Many were quick to focus on <mask>' mean defensive play, but his value to St. Helens was also evident in attack where he combined rugby nous with delicate handling skills to distribute effectively. <mask> played  in St. Helens' 13–2 victory over Halifax in the 1956 Challenge Cup Final during the 1955–56 season at Wembley Stadium, London on Saturday 28 April 1956, in front of a crowd of 79,341.1956–57 was a watershed season for <mask>. He accumulated 18 tries, no mean feat for a forward, and was a member of the St. Helens side which hammered the Australian touring side by 44–2. <mask> was acknowledged for his contributions to St. Helens' success, including the 1959 'Vollenhoven' Championship Final win by 44–22 over Hunslet. When Alan Prescott retired from the game, <mask> was seen by some as the natural successor to the captaincy of St. Helens. During this period, <mask> played , and was the captain in St. Helens' 12–6 victory over Wigan in the 1961 Challenge Cup Final during the 1960–61 season at Wembley Stadium, London, on Saturday, 13 May 1961, in front of a crowd of 94,672. The first occasion that he lifted a trophy for the club was in season 1960–61 at Central Park, Wigan when St Helens won the Lancashire County Cup by 15–9 against Swinton. St. Helens repeated this in the same competition in the following four years (1961–62, 1962–63 and 1964–65 v Swinton and 1963–64 v Leigh).<mask> played  in St. Helens' 16–8 victory over Wigan in the 1953 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1953–54 season at Station Road, Swinton on Saturday 24 October 1953, played  in the 3–10 defeat by Oldham in the 1956 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1956–57 season at Central Park, Wigan, on Saturday 20 October 1956, played  in the 2–12 defeat by Oldham in the 1958 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1958–59 season at Station Road, Swinton Saturday 25 October 1958, played , and was captain in the 15–9 victory over Swinton in the 1960 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1960–61 season at Station Road, Swinton Saturday 29 October 1960, and played , and was captain in the 25–9 victory over Swinton in the 1961 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1960–61 season at Station Road, Swinton Saturday 11 November 1961. Although at St. Helens, <mask> did not appear in the 5–22 defeat by Leigh in the 1952 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1952–53 season at Station Road, Swinton on Saturday 29 November 1952, and the 5–4 defeat by Warrington in the 1959 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1959–60 season at Central Park, Wigan Saturday 31 October 1959, the 7-4 victory over Swinton in the 1962 Lancashire County Cup Final during the 1962–63 season at Central Park, Wigan Saturday 27 October 1962. By 1961–62, St Helens embarked on a rebuilding period as they searched for a new generation of players to press for honours. It would appear that <mask> lay outside those plans when he was sold to his hometown club Widnes in 1962. His last match for St. Helens was against Leeds on January of that year. In all, <mask> appeared in 252 matches for St Helens. He scored 42 tries for 126 points.Despite the move, <mask> would always be remembered by fans and players alike. Alex Murphy acknowledged the support and protection <mask> offered him during their time playing at St Helens. Indeed, according to Murphy:
“He was my loose forward and he was unbelievable to have on your side. If he said it was Christmas, you took his word for it whatever time of year it was – it was Christmas.”

After his move to Naughton Park in 1962, <mask> was appointed club captain. This was a role that <mask> was determined to excel in. Commenting on the move, he revealed the work ethic that was such a foundation for his rugby talent:
"Some players come back to spend their last seasons at their own hometown club like horses being put to grass. I came back to Widnes determined to give 100% effort."In his first season at Widnes, he helped his hometown team finish third in the Championship, which equalled the club's best league placing. The following season, saw him lead his team to Wembley, where Widnes were Challenge Cup winners, this was the Widnes' first trophy success in eighteen years. In 1966 he announced his retirement. <mask> played , and was captain in Widnes' 13-5 victory over Hull Kingston Rovers in the 1964 Challenge Cup Final during the 1963–64 season at Wembley Stadium, London on Saturday 9 May 1964, in front of a crowd of 84,488.

International career and the "Battle of Brisbane"
At 25, <mask> was selected to make the 1958 Tour to Australia – a tour that would go down in rugby league history. It was during the "Battle of Brisbane" in 1958 at the Brisbane Exhibition Ground, when Alan Prescott led the Lions to victory with a broken arm that the Karalius "hardman" status was well and truly enshrined. With Prescott in agony with a broken arm, <mask> was also in trouble with an injury to his back. Tour Manager Tom Mitchell recalls in his book, The Memories and Sporting Life of Tom Mitchell:
"The team went out with <mask> at the far side of the dressing room still on the bench."Vinty we are out. Come on" "Sorry, Thomas, can't – it's me back". I got in behind him and did enough to get him standing up. Slowly across the room to the sunlit opening leading to the pitch – then a step or two and like a boxer getting up after a knockdown, he teetered with a push onto the arena, gaining movement with every stride. Without him on the field the position was the same as the captain – certain defeat. How he stood up to the first ten minutes I will never know as my eyes steered their gaze from him to Prescott. As I write this 39 years on I permit myself a heartfelt "Phew!No Ashes! No basking in the future unending sunshine of happening to be there as Team Manager". During this tour, one Australian was moved to write:
"Long-jawed <mask>, the wild bull of the Pampas, is a dedicated wrecker of Australian forwards." Thereafter, the nickname stuck and <mask> was firmly embedded in the sporting public's conscience as what a rugby league forward should represent. <mask> represented Great Britain 10 times in his time with St. Helens. He also won five Lancashire caps. Coaching
Six years after he retired from playing <mask> returned to Widnes – as coach, appointed in January 1972.<mask> imposed onto the club his own values and visions: fitness, determination and winning. He aimed to turn the club into a force, a vision that was achieved as early as 1974–75. First Salford were beaten in the Lancashire County Cup Final and then rivals Warrington were defeated in the Challenge Cup. This was the first time in their history that Widnes had recorded two trophies in the same season. At his zenith, <mask> stepped down once from his role as coach. He was replaced in May 1975 by Frank Myler. He returned to the club for a short spell in March 1983 as co-coach with Harry Dawson.Dawson quit as coach in March 1984 with <mask> continuing as team manager. <mask> was the coach in Widnes' 19-6 victory over Wigan in the 1984 Challenge Cup Final during the 1983–84 season at Wembley Stadium, London on Saturday 5 May 1984, in front of a crowd of 80,116. <mask> was also one of the original thirteen former Widnes players inducted into the Widnes Hall of Fame in 1992. In 2000, he became the first forward to be inducted into the British Rugby League Hall of Fame. Retirement
After retiring from rugby league, <mask> forged a successful scrap metal business. He was a resident of the Isle of Man, where he died 13 December 2008 aged 76. References

External links

!Great Britain Statistics at englandrl.co.uk (statistics currently missing due to not having appeared for both Great Britain, and England)
 Statistics at rugby.widnes.tv
 Profile at saints.org.uk
 "Murphy's law is unequivocal: he's still the greatest rugby league player" by Alastair Campbell, Times Online, 5 June 2004
(archived by web.archive.org) <mask> at rugbyleaguehistory.co.uk
(archived by web.archive.org) <mask> at eraofthebiff.com
(archived by web.archive.org) <mask>' entry on the Virtual Rugby League Hall of Fame
(archived by web.archive.org) Hall of Fame at rugby.widnes.tv
(archived by web.archive.org) Saints slaughter Kangaroos

1932 births
2008 deaths
English people of Lithuanian descent
English rugby league coaches
English rugby league players
Great Britain national rugby league team players
Lancashire rugby league team players
Rugby league centres
Rugby league locks
Rugby league players from Widnes
Rugby league second-rows
St Helens R.F.C.players
Wigan Warriors coaches
Widnes Vikings captains
Widnes Vikings coaches
Widnes Vikings players

masks:
Vincent "
Vince
" Peter Patrick Karalius
Vince Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Vince Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Vince Karalius
Vince Karalius
Vince Karalius
Vince Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Vince Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Vince Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Vince Karalius
Karalius
Karalius
Vince Karalius
Vince Karalius
Karalius


title: Pippin Drysdale

texts:
<mask> (born 18 May 1943) is an Australian ceramic artist and art teacher. She is regarded as the foremost interpreter of the Australian landscape in the field of ceramics. Her works are known for their intensity of colour and linear markings that interpret the artist's relationship with the Australian landscape. She was recognized as one of Western Australia’s State Living Treasures in 2015. She is Australia's highest earning ceramicist. Biography
<mask> was born in Melbourne in 1943 into a wealthy family, and grew up in Perth from the age of three. Her father, John Hastings "Bunny" Carew-Reid, was a successful businessman and real estate developer.As a teenager she had art lessons from William Boissevain. At school, she excelled at art, but struggled with other subjects due to an undiagnosed vision problem that, although eventually discovered and corrected at age 12, set her on a rebellious course during her formative years. She failed her Junior Certificate at Methodist Ladies' College, Perth. After leaving school, she attended a business college, from which she was expelled, and then a technical college, where she failed all subjects. She then worked for a short stint at her father's company as a typist, then as a secretary in Canberra, then worked odd jobs in England for a year, and traveled throughout Europe. Returning to Australia in the early 1960s, she moved to Melbourne, married <mask> in 1967 (divorced in 1972), and had a son, Jason. In Melbourne she began selling art (Mexican paper flowers sold as "Pip’s Flowers").She returned to Fremantle, Perth in the 1970s, and started a successful business selling herbs. Through a relationship with a potter who made ceramic structures for her herbs, <mask> first discovered clay. That led to an Advanced Diploma in Ceramics at Western Australia School of Art and Design in 1982, followed by a 1982 trip to America where she studied with Daniel Rhodes and Toshiko Takaezu at the Anderson Ranch Art Center. Rhodes encouraged her to further her education at university level; Takaezu told her to ignore traditions and create her own sensibilities and techniques to suit her own environment. Returning to Australia, <mask> obtained a Bachelor of Arts (Fine Art) at Curtin University in 1986. After graduating, she worked and studied at Grazia Deruta Majolica Pottery, the Artists’ Union of Russia, Tomsk State University and Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity. <mask> is a painter, a colourist, whose chosen canvases are ceramics.She draws inspiration from the landscapes of Australia’s vast desert country. Places that inspire her include the Pilbara, the Eastern Goldfields-Esperance area, the Kimberley and Tanami Desert, as well as landscapes in Pakistan, India, Russia and Italy. She is stimulated by the colours and textures of landscape, putting her emotional interpretations into her work. <mask> has taught ceramic art in Australia, Canada, UK, Italy and Russia. In 2007 she was awarded a Master of Craft, from Craft Australia, New South Wales and in 2015 the Government of Western Australia conferred on her the Living Treasure Award. Early career
<mask> went from an initial period of throwing bowls to making slab plates that she used as canvases for expressionistic drawing with coloured slips, glazes, and resists. She cites Willem de Kooning as an early influence.Her early work is notable for eschewing the "brown sauce" that often douses craft pottery in favour of "complex colours and nervous decoration". Maturity
Moving from slab plates to thrown vessels, <mask> still retained her spontaneous style of decoration. She likes pure, simple forms where the forms do not intrude on the canvas-like aspects of the vessel. After residencies in Europe, the USA and Russia, during which she learned about majolica decoration and lustres, she produced the Totem and Carnivale series. Supported by one of many Australia Council grants awarded to her, <mask> was able to study lustres in depth, producing the Over The Top series, full of rich gold and platinum lustres. Western Australia inspired the series Landscape Lustre (1994), Pinnacles (1995) and Eastern Goldfields. At this time <mask> started a collaboration with master potter Warrick Palmateer, allowing her to concentrate on surface art while he threw the vessels.This glaze and lustre period reached its apogee in the Pakistan series, where multiple, liberal layers of glaze were followed each time by dousing in paraffin wax, scraping back, and filling. Late period
<mask> moved from the toxicity of waxes and lustres to the much safer Liquitex medium, which also allowed her to further refine her line work. A 1998 airplane flight <mask> took over northern Australia stands out to her as a key turning point. Flying low over Australia's Great Sandy Desert and the Tanami Desert, she was deeply impressed by the endless lines of parallel sand dunes stretching to the horizon, and their repetitive interplay of shadow and light. The linearity of her work also echoes the exposed rock strata everywhere to be seen in Australian deserts, so that truly "her ceramics are grounded in the tonal and linear patterns of the land". She was also influenced by indigenous painting (she owns works by indigenous artists Queenie McKenzie and Kitty Kantilla) and painter Fred Williams. McKenzie's influence can be seen in the serried, stacked segments of landscape that recede to the horizon line, and Kantilla's influence is clearly evident in the motif of parallel, slanting or vertical lines within these landscape segments.Coalescing all these influences and ideas together, <mask> arrived at her signature style of intense colour and fine linework in the first Tanami series called Red Desert (Frankfurt, 2003), which was a great success. Her technique encompasses the selection of a suitable vessel, the adding the layers of glaze, then the careful linear incisions with a knife through a masking resist to inscribe the tracery that defines and shapes each work. Because the masking medium quickly dries into a form too hard to inscribe, Drysdale can work only on one small section at a time. The inscribed lines are then brushed out and filled with thickly applied color, and the excess color is removed. Another feature of <mask>'s later oeuvre are her assemblages of asymmetrical pieces, suites of closed forms that echo geological features of Australia, such as the Devils Marbles series, inspired by the Karlu Karlu / Devils Marbles Conservation Reserve in the Northern Territory. <mask> finds constant renewal of self in the creative process, dating back to her earliest contact with clay:

Studio
Drysdale's studio for the last 30 years has been her home in the port of Fremantle, a worker's cottage, now heavily renovated, bought for her by her father. Her pottery is thrown by Warrick Palmateer, a fellow Curtin graduate.She has a studio team of helpers to do the glaze mixing, colour testing, firing, bisque-ware sanding, internet work and shipping of work. The porcelain clay is pugged multiple times, wrapped to "sweat" for four weeks, then repugged before use. Collections
Drysdale's works are found in many private collections. She is represented in Australia by Sabbia Gallery. The 12th Duke of Devonshire, Peregrine Cavendish, has a large collection (over 100) of <mask>'s works. Her work is represented in the collections of the National Gallery of Australia, Art Gallery of Western Australia, Powerhouse Museum, Auckland Art Gallery, Queensland Art Gallery, Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory, National Museum of Scotland, Museum of Fine Arts, Gifu, Tomsk State Gallery and Museum, Novosibirsk State Art Museum, as well as in the Victoria and Albert Museum ceramic collection, London. Honours
 Western Australia’s State Living Treasures in 2015
 Lifetime Achievement Award — Artsource Australia
 Major Fellowship Grant from Australia Council for the Arts in 2007

Gallery

Early work

See also
Australian art

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
 <mask> <mask> – Ceramic Artist Official site
 <mask> <mask> and Warrick Palmateer together at the John Curtin Gallery
 <mask> <mask> talks on ABC Sunday Arts programme about her work
 Official site of Warrick Palmateer, thrower of Drysdale's vessels

1943 births
Living people
20th-century Australian women artists
20th-century Australian artists
21st-century Australian women artists
21st-century Australian artists
20th-century ceramists
21st-century ceramists
Australian potters
Australian ceramists
Australian women ceramists
Curtin University alumni
Women potters

masks:
Pippin Drysdale
Drysdale
Christopher Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Career Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Drysdale
Pippin
Drysdale
Pippin
Drysdale
Pippin
Drysdale


title: Satveer Chaudhary

texts:
<mask> (born June 12, 1969) is an American criminal and immigration lawyer. He is also a politician and a former member of the Minnesota State Senate and the Minnesota House of Representatives serving from 1996 to 2010. During his fourteen-year tenure, Chaudhary represented portions of Anoka and Ramsey counties in the northern Minneapolis and St Paul metropolitan area. The Senate District at the time of his departure from politics was known as Senate District 50. However, Chaudhary also represented the area in the Minnesota House from 1997-2000 as District 52A; and in the Senate from 2001 to 2002 as Senate District 52. While in office, Chaudhary served as a member of the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party, was the first Asian American legislator in Minnesota history. He was also the first South Asian senator in American history and for a time was the highest ranking political official of South Asian descent, as well as one of the youngest senators in that state's history.On August 10, 2010, <mask> was defeated by former Minnesota House Member Barb Goodwin in the primary election for the Minnesota State Senate seat. He then went on to resume his full time career as a private practice attorney in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis-St. Paul. Early life and career
<mask> was born in Minneapolis in 1969, three years after his parents immigrated from Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, India. His father, Dr. Surendra Pal <mask>, is a retired inspector with the United States Department of Agriculture. Chaudhary's mother, Raj Mohini <mask>, worked as a research assistant at the University of Minnesota, owned an import firm, and established a family wellness foundation for the South Asian community SEWA-AIFW. In 1977 Chaudhary's parents moved to the Minneapolis suburb, Fridley, Minnesota, where Chaudhary spent the remainder of his youth. He attended Columbia Heights High School, and it was during high school Chaudhary stated that  government teacher, Jack Gause, first involved him in state politics.Upon graduation from high school in 1987, Chaudhary pursued his degree at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. As an undergraduate, Chaudhary was in the student senate, the multi-cultural student association, political awareness committee organizer and lobbied for the state student coalition. In the summer and fall of 1989, while still a college student, Chaudhary served as Special Assistant to Hubert H. (Skip) Humphrey III. During his junior year, he attended Manchester College, Oxford University in England where he studied British and American foreign policy, and was a member of the famed Oxford Union debating society, the Oxford Law Society, and Oxford Indian Students Association. Before Chaudhary's 1991 return to the United States from Great Britain, he traveled extensively in India, South Africa, and Namibia. There he witnessed the first celebration of Namibia's independence day, and met both Nelson Mandela and  Bishop Desmond Tutu. Chaudhary stated these experiences were an opportunity to witness truly international struggle.Back in Minnesota, Chaudhary went on to graduate from St. Olaf, receiving his B.A. in Political Science. Chaudhary and then served as a foreign policy staff member for Senator Edward Kennedy, working in the area of foreign policy. In 1992, he took a year off from academics to work on the Tom Harkin presidential campaign and Gerry Sikorski's last 6th Congressional District race. After his time in Washington, D.C., Chaudhary continued his studies in law at the University of Minnesota Law School. As a law student, Chaudhary clerked for Judge John Stanoch and at the Hennepin County, Minnesota Attorney’s Office. Chaudhary also acted as Special Assistant to Skip Humphrey during his time as Attorney General of Minnesota.He received the Governor’s Certificate of Commendation for his work with the Legal Aid Society in Minneapolis and was an author for the Journal of Global Trade. Chaudhary graduated from law school in 1995. Minnesota House of Representatives
Just two weeks out of law school, Chaudhary ran for the Minnesota House of Representatives in the July 1995 special election for the District 52A legislative seat, in a Minneapolis suburban area that includes parts of Fridley and New Brighton and all of Columbia Heights and Hilltop. Chaudhary lost the race, but later defeated the winner, Republican incumbent Skip Carlson in a 1996 rematch. At the time he was elected, Chaudhary became the first Asian-American member of the Minnesota Legislature, and the fourth Indian-American elected to a state legislature in U.S. history. When he joined the legislature, there was only three other minority representatives in the House; Richard "Jeff" Jefferson, Edwina Garcia and Carlos Mariani. With Chaudhary's election, the number of minorities in the entire Minnesota legislature totaled five.While in the House, Chaudhary made contributed to legislation on healthcare access, education and economic development priorities. During this period of <mask>'s legislative career, he was a member of the Minnesota Conservation Federation, the Columbia Heights Lions Club, the Fridley Kiwanis, and became a member of the Fridley Human Resources Commission. Chaudhary also worked closely in his first legislative months with Minnesota's Asian community, and on public safety issues, particularly DWI penalties and youth driving regulations. Records for <mask>'s freshman House term list 103 House Documents Found In Legislative Session 80 (1997–1998) listing him as Author or Chief Author. As a freshman legislator in the Minnesota House of Representatives, Chaudhary served on the Education Committee and assorted sub-committees, the Judiciary Committee and Judiciary sub-committees and the Local Government and Metropolitan Affairs Committee. Chaudhary was re-elected to the House in 1998. During his second term in office, he continued to work on environmental legislation and financial reform of the Minnesota State Lottery.He also became a member of the Police Officers Alliance of Minnesota. There were 97 House Documents Found In Legislative Session 81 (1999–2000) listing bills with Satveer <mask> as Authors or Chief Author. During his second term as a legislator in the Minnesota House of Representatives, Chaudhary served on the Education Policy Committee, Family and Early Childhood Education Finance Committee, and Jobs and Economic Development Policy Committee. Minnesota Senate
In 2000, incumbent Senator Steve Novak resigned to run for Minnesota's 4th congressional district. Chaudhary received the nomination from the local Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party chapter and ran against Republican Daniel Coughlin in the November general election. Chaudhary won the election with 57 percent of the votes. When he joined the Senate at age 31, <mask> <mask> was the Minnesota Senate's youngest member, and became the first Asian-Indian state senator in American history.In 2001, Chaudhary was chosen to be a delegate by the American Council of Young Political Leaders representing the United States State Legislatures and traveling to Argentina and Uruguay. Later that year, he escorted the Dalai Lama during his State visit to Minnesota. Due to the 2000 Census and redistricting, Chaudhary's first Minnesota senate term was two years. In 2002, he ran for a four-year term in the newly-redistricted SD-52 against Republican Steve Minar. Chaudhary won the election with 55.5 percent of the vote. During his next term, Chaudhary served on new Senate committees focusing on the environment, and assumed a leadership position within the Senate as Senate Majority Whip. As Vice Chair of the Fish and Game Subcommittee, Chaudhary was the Chief Author of the 2005 Legislative Commission on Minnesota Resources reform bill, and co-authored legislation on clean air and water.In January 2006 Chaudhary worked with labor unions to ask then-Governor Tim Pawlenty to step in an help to save jobs of 12,3000 Minnesotans employed by Northwest Airlines. The bankrupt carrier proposed outsourcing about a quarter of the jobs left at the airline, and wrap up its drive for $1.4 billion in annual wage and other givebacks from its employees. In 2006, because of his work with the environmental legislations, citizen's groups and outdoors organizations, Chaudhary was appointed by Senate Majority Leader, Dean Johnson, to serve on the newly-created Legislative and Citizen’s Commission on Minnesota Resources. On April 25, 2006, the Saint Paul Police Department investigated a racial death threat made against the senator. Chaudhary, who had just voted against a ballot measure to ban same-sex marriage, had received a letter containing a picture of himself with a bullet hole through his forehead. The picture was attached to a newspaper ad run promoting the constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage and civil unions. In a media statement, Chaudhary denounced the letter as political hate speech.The group that ran the ad, Minnesota Citizens in Defense of Marriage, condemned the letter and said it did not condone threats of violence. In November 2006, <mask> ran again for the SD-50 senate seat against Republican Rae Hart Anderson. He was re-elected to the Minnesota State Senate with 63% of the vote. Upon his victory the Republican opponent, Rae Hart Anderson, sent Chaudhary a concession email that said, "The race of your life is more important than this one--and it is my sincere wish that you'll get to know Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior." <mask>, a Hindu, made no public comment in response. In October 2007 <mask> was chosen as a delegate to accompany Governor Tim Pawlenty on a Minnesota/India trade mission, along with numerous business executives from Minnesota-based firms. There the senator was the moving force behind the sister-state partnership agreement between Haryana and Minnesota signed during the visit.The partnership - which was the first of its kind between a US and Indian state. On November 24, 2007 the Obama administration invited Chaudhary to attend a White House dinner honoring India Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. However, despite the connection with international and national politics, Chaudhary continued to focus the remainder of his senate term on conservation issues, state businesses, sportsman causes, and senate district concerns. In 2010, after political controversies, Chaudhary lost the DFL endorsement for the SD-50 senate seat. He lost in the primary to DFL-endorsed former representative Barb Goodwin with 30.9 percent of the vote. With the departure of Senator <mask> <mask>, and the 2010 retirements of Senator Mee Moua and Representative Cy Thao, there were no individuals of Asian descent represented in the Minnesota legislature at that time. Conservation Efforts
During his tenure at the Minnesota legislature Chaudhary received numerous awards by civic, conservation and outdoors organizations and acknowledgments by the press in the area of conservation.During his first years of the Senate Chaudhary attained multiple years of perfect legislative voting scores from the Conservation Minnesota Voter Center, and in 2005 Chaudhary was named the Minnesota Conservation Federation Legislator of the Year. By 2008 Ducks Unlimited recognized the senator as a Conservation Partner in Minnesota. In 2009 Senator <mask> and his wife were nominated for Outstanding Conservationists Award by Anoka Conservation District at the MASWCD Annual Meetings and Trade show for their efforts to deal with wetland damage near their Fridley, Minnesota home. Political Adversities
Chaudhary experienced forms of bias while in the Minnesota House and Senate. On his first election night victory to the Minnesota legislature, at a celebratory event Chaudhary was told by an inner-city DFL House-member to "get a nickname" easier for people to pronounce. On another occasion Senator Chaudhary wore a Nehru jacket, reflective of his South Asian heritage, on the Senate floor. The act drew ire from members of the Minnesota State Senate, and one member even called for his removal from the chamber for not wearing a tie.The Nehru jacket is considered formal dress in the South Asian culture, and in keeping with the traditions of appropriate legislative attire. Notably, women in the Minnesota Senate did not wear ties. During the 2010 legislative session upon request from Saint Louis County Commissioner, Dennis Fink, Chaudhary inserted a fish and game bill provision placing special conservation fishing regulations on Fish Lake. Chaudhary disclosed to members of the committee crafting the bill’s final language, that his family owns a cabin on leased land on the lake. The Senator approached Representative David Dill, and requested he insert the conservation language into a House bill. After close of the legislative session, Senate Republicans questioned the appropriateness of changes to the bill. Although no complaint had been filed, Senator Chaudhary requested an independent Senate Ethics Panel review and advisory opinion.On June 2, 2010 the bipartisan Minnesota Senate Subcommittee on Ethical Conduct voted unanimously that Chaudhary had no conflict of interest in introducing the legislation, had violated no rule nor law, although "he should have taken more time to hear the proposal" and the "any benefit to (Chaudhary) was pure speculation". The Senate District 50 DFL Party leadership held meeting in June 2010 to discuss revocation of <mask>'s DFL senate endorsement due to Chaudhary's formal endorsement of DFL gubernatorial candidate Mark Dayton over the DFL-endorsed candidate Margaret Anderson . On June 1, 2010 former State Representative Barbara Goodwin filed as a DFL senate candidate in the primary election. On June 28, 2010, the Senate District 50 DFL Central Committee voted to revoke their endorsement of Chaudhary due to the endorsement of Dayton, and endorsed Barbara Goodwin as the new candidate for Minnesota Senate. Chaudhary appealed the Senate District Committee's decision to a special panel of the State DFL Party. On July 8, 2010 the Duluth News Tribune reported that Chaudhary and his wife owed the IRS 2007 and 2008 past-due personal income taxes. In response, Chaudhary stated the debt was incurred due to an exercise of stock options with his wife's employer, the couple had an existing IRS payment plan and was never delinquent in paying, and the amount owed had just been determined in late 2009.On August 1, 2010 the family announced all taxes were paid in full. On July 11, 2010, the special panel of the Minnesota DFL Party unanimously upheld the revocation of Chaudhary's endorsement. Chaudhary still chose to proceed to the Minnesota primary election as an unendorsed DFL candidate. On August 10, 2010, Chaudhary was defeated in the primary, and in November democrat Barbara Goodwin was elected to the seat. That same year Mark Dayton went on to become the Minnesota Governor. After his primary defeat,  Chaudhary announced that he would continue his involvement with outdoors issues and return to private law practice full-time. Law Practice
In 2000, Chaudhary opened a private law office, and in Spring of 2002 he was featured on the cover of the Law Alumni News Magazine along with Senator Mee Moua.In 2004 he was named Alumni of the Year for the University of Minnesota Law School. Chaudhary's practice specializes in immigration and criminal law, where he continues to teach local and national continuing legal education courses, and is called upon for commentary on U.S. immigration issues. The Hennepin County Bar Association recognized eight member attorneys with its 2020 Excellence Awards, and honored members for their service to the local legal profession, the community, and the association. Chaudhary was cited for Mentoring in the Profession as "a dedicated mentor to new attorneys through involvement with community groups, bar association activities, and job shadowing." In March 2021 Chaudhary was invited to testify before a United Nations panel focusing on human rights violations in China. References

External links

 Senator Chaudhary Web Page
 Senator Chaudhary Campaign Web Site

1969 births
American Hindus
American politicians of Indian descent
Living people
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Minnesota state senators
Minnesota Democrats
People from Fridley, Minnesota
Politicians from Minneapolis
St. Olaf College alumni
Alumni of Harris Manchester College, Oxford
University of Minnesota Law School alumni
Lawyers from Minneapolis
21st-century American politicians
Asian-American people in Minnesota politics

masks:
Satveer Singh Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Singh Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Satveer
Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Satveer
Chaudhary
Chaudhary
Chaudhary


title: James Larmer

texts:
<mask> (b. 1808 or 1809 – d. 1886) was a government surveyor in the colony of New South Wales. Between 1830 and 1859, he surveyed land, roads and settlements in New South Wales. He was an Assistant Surveyor to the Surveyor-General, Sir Thomas Mitchell, from 1835 to 1855. In 1835, he was second in command of Mitchell’s second expedition. He is also noteworthy for his recording of Aboriginal words from various parts of New South Wales. Early life

<mask> was born in Reigate, Surrey, England and arrived in Sydney in October 1829 to take up his appointment as a survey draftsman.Title deed information, from his time in Australia, shows his full name as <mask> <mask>. Career
Between 1830 and early 1835, <mask> surveyed land, roads, streets, coastlines, creeks, rivers, and ridges in what is now greater Sydney, in nearby areas including Broke and  Branxton in the Hunter, Brooklyn, Mangrove Creek, Broken Bay and Pittwater around the Hawkesbury River, and in more distant parts including the Abercrombie, Campbells, Belubela, Bell, and Macquarie Rivers. During 1835, <mask> was second-in-command of Thomas Mitchell’s second expedition, which attempted to follow the Darling River downstream to its confluence with the Murray. <mask>, in command of the main party, left Parramatta and met Mitchell at 'Boree', west of modern-day Orange. The expedition first went overland, then followed the Bogan River, then the Darling from the location of modern-day Bourke. While near the Bogan, the expedition's botanist, Richard Cunningham, went off in search of plants and became lost. It was Larmer who led a party that searched for him for a number of days, finding his dead horse and other evidence of his likely demise.Larmer produced a map sketch showing Cunningham's probable route. The expedition stopped to the north of the Menindee Lakes, due to the risk of attack by hostile Aborigines, falling short of their objective—but in no doubt that the Darling continued to the Murray—and then retraced their route to return. The connection of the Murray and the Darling, would be confirmed for settler colonists, in 1844, when Charles Sturt's third expedition, following a river upstream from its confluence with the Murray, reached the site of Mitchell's last camp. In 1837, Larmer had reserved a village site for Ulladulla. In 1837, he laid out the town plan of Bungendore, in 1838 Queanbeyan, and, in  1839, the town plans of Broulee and Braidwood. In 1840, he surveyed the route of The Wool Road. By this time, he had settled in the Braidwood area, where he was to live for the rest of his life and be a prominent citizen.Larmer bought land in Braidwood, in 1843, on which he built the Royal Hotel building but was not the licensee of the hotel. In 1841, he reserved the site for a village at  Currowan, although the plan of the village, in 1844, was the work of his surveyor colleague and explorer, the ill-fated Edmund Kennedy. Larmer also laid out plans for townships along the road from Braidwood to Jervis Bay (The Wool Road). Some of these towns never eventuated at all, and others were not built in the form planned by Larmer. His plan for Larbert would prove disastrously inept, after the site was inundated by the Shoalhaven River flood of July 1853. However, his mistakes at Larbert had no malicious intent, because Larmer himself had bought three lots within the Larbert township site, in 1843. An economic depression in the early 1840s led to government cost cutting, with surveyors’ salaries being reduced by a third.In recognition of this sacrifice, these government surveyors were allowed to do some private work. In 1844, Larmer was appointed as the Licensed Surveyor for the County of Murray and Commissioner for Crown Lands for the same area. In 1847, Larmer's plan of the village of Gundaroo was gazetted and — as a Commissioner for Crown Lands — he identified people who were squatting, without authority, on crown lands along the Yass River downstream of that village. In 1849, he designed the plan of the village of Murringo and, In 1851, he surveyed a road from that new village to the Burrangong Station (near modern-day Young). The town of Gundagai was gazetted, in 1838, but it was soon obvious—after the floods of 1844 and 1852—that much of the original town site was subject to inundation. In 1845, Larmer was surveying new town allotments on the higher ground of the original town. In the eyes of some, he was held responsible for the original plan of the first town on the flood-prone river flats; he definitely drew up plans of town allotments in Gundagai in 1841.In 1850, Larmer laid out plans for extensions to the separate settlement areas of 'South Gundagai' and 'North Gundagai', to allow residents to be relocated and overcome the problem of flooding on the river flats. Also in 1850, he made provision for a village site, on the Lachlan River at what would later become the town of Narrandera. In 1851, he surveyed the site of the Roman Catholic church and presbytery in Jugiong. He also laid out cemeteries at Yass and Goulburn,

In 1852-1853, Larmer was working on surveying the route of a road from Braidwood to Broulee, which was planned to run via Araluen to the Moruya River. Such a road was not completed until the late 1860s. Instead, the major road to the coast was the Clyde Road (modern-day Kings Highway), which opened in 1858. In 1858, a surveyor Larmer laid out the plan of the gold-mining village of Majors Creek but <mask>'s name was already on the list of those receiving government pensions by October 1857.Majors Creek was the work of his nephew, who was also a surveyor. <mask>'s last field notes date from 1859, and it appears that he retired completely from surveying around that time. <mask> became a Justice of the Peace at Braidwood in 1859. With other JPs, he presided over cases in the town's Police Court,  until 1885. His cases included some involving relatives and associates of the notorious Clarke brothers and other bushrangers, who were members of the Clarke-Connell extended family. In May 1867, Thomas and John Clarke, the surviving members of their gang, were remanded, at the Police Court in Braidwood, for trial in Sydney. In 1860, <mask> was proposed as a candidate for the Braidwood electoral district at the 1860 elections, but he did not stand for election.Aboriginal languages vocabulary
The Surveyor-General, Thomas Mitchell, had directed that, where possible, the existing names, in the local Aboriginal language, should be used as the official names of localities and landforms in New South Wales, which then also included what is now Victoria and Queensland. This was for pragmatic reasons, rather than stemming from any wish to preserve native cultures; in his journal, Mitchell wrote that, "‘The great convenience of using native names is obvious … so long as any of the Aborigines can be found in the neighbourhood … future travellers may verify my map. Whereas new names are of no use in this respect". Consequently, the surveyors of the colony were among those few settlers who took an interest in local languages. They were also working in places where the local people were still living on their traditional lands and speaking their own languages and dialects. Larmer recorded Aboriginal words and the areas in which these words were used. His work, collated as “<mask>’s Vocabulary of Native Names” (1853), is one source for fragments of the vocabulary of lost and endangered Aboriginal languages.It is based on his earlier hand-written notes, some dating back to the early 1830s. His lists include words from the Darkinyung, Awabakal, Wiradjuri and Eora languages, and the Dhurga language dialects spoken by the Yuin peoples around Batemans Bay and Ulladulla. There is a list of the Aboriginal language names for the land features and localities of Port Jackson. Legacy
Although Larmer recorded and thus preserved something of Aboriginal culture, his work as a surveyor was essential in furthering the colonisation of Aboriginal lands. Most significantly, by marking boundaries—defining leasehold and freehold landholdings—and officially assigning titles to settlers, Larmer and the other surveyors were legitimising—at least under the colonial laws of his time—the dispossessing of the land's Aboriginal inhabitants; it was the first step in the process of extinguishing what would much later—in 1992—be recognised as Native Title over those pieces of land. From July 1837 to end June 1840, in just three years of his lengthy surveying career, Larmer alone had surveyed 160,443 acres, out of a total of 875,089 acres of land that was surveyed and so  taken from its traditional owners. The best land for cropping, grazing, and other agricultural purposes was also the most bountiful land for Aboriginal food sources.The alienation and clearing of their traditional lands and the loss of natural flora and fauna had an enormous impact on the original inhabitants; it effectively forced them onto Crown Lands, Aboriginal reserves, the lands of other Aboriginal peoples, or to the margins of the new settlements, and so caused the disruption or end of their culture and traditional way of life. The Georgian-influenced grid-type town plans, of Bungendore, Queanbeyan, and Braidwood, are Larmer's work. He is commemorated in the various 'Larmer' street names, in places in New South Wales such as Broulee, Bungendore, Howlong, Jugiong, Majors Creek, Narraweena, Nerrandera, and Sanctuary Point. The road to Jervis Bay that he surveyed in 1840, The Wool Road, was a failure and rapidly fell into disuse, until it was realigned and rerouted to Nowra in 1856; much of the modern Braidwood Road still follows Larmer's survey. His hotel building in Braidwood is now used as the Braidwood Museum. Family
<mask> married, Martha Stoyles, widow of the licensee of the Royal Hotel, Braidwood, in 1861. They had two daughters, as well as the five daughters and three sons of Martha's first marriage.His younger brother, <mask>, migrated to Australia in 1853. William was an early pharmacist in Sydney, president of the Pharmaceutical Society, and member of the Pharmacy Board of New South Wales, who after 1865 also became involved in homeopathy. <mask>'s nephew, W.E<mask>, was also a surveyor in New South Wales from 1854, leading on occasion to confusion about the two surveyors. He is responsible for laying out the town plan of Majors Creek and for surveying the route of a road linking the Braidwood district to Goulburn (modern-day Goulburn Road)

Death
<mask> died on 5 June 1886, aged 77 years. At the time of his death, <mask> was believed to be the last surviving member of Mitchell's second expedition. His grave lies in the Braidwood cemetery.His wife Martha died in 1899. References

External links

 St George's Basin - <mask> - Colonial Surveyor - Some Aspects of His Life and Career
 State Library of New South Wales - “<mask>’s Vocabulary of Native Names” (1853)
 Braidwood Museum - the former Royal Hotel, Braidwood

1886 deaths
English surveyors
English emigrants to Australia
Explorers of Australia
People from Reigate

1800s births
Australian surveyors

masks:
James Larmer
Larmer
James Gulley
Larmer
James Larmer
Larmer
Larmer
James Larmer
James Larmer
Larmer
Larmer
James Larmer
James Larmer
William Larmer
Larmer
. Larmer
James Larmer
Larmer
James Larmer
James Larmer


title: Josephine Lang

texts:
<mask> (14 March 1815 – 2 December 1880) was a German composer. <mask> was the daughter of <mask>, a violinist, and , opera singer. Her mother taught young <mask> how to play piano, and from age five it became apparent that <mask> was possessed with great potential as a composer. As early as age eleven <mask> started giving piano lessons herself. Through her godfather, Joseph Stieler, <mask> was exposed to some of the greatest artists of her time. Both Felix Mendelssohn and Ferdinand Hiller went to great lengths to ensure that <mask> learned the proper theory for song-writing, and used their connections to publish <mask>'s music. Even Robert Schumann published a song of <mask>'s in Neue Zeitschrift für Musik in 1838.Biography
Born  in Munich, <mask> had from a very young age been described as having a "weak constitution". Thus she was always struggling to keep up her education and performance while simultaneously maintaining her health. Once during a performance for the king and queen of Bavaria, Queen Caroline Augusta of Bavaria took notice of <mask>'s poor state of health and arranged for her to go to Wildbad Kreuth in the German Alps to recover. During her stay there, she met Christian Reinhold Köstlin, a lawyer who also took to writing poetry on the side. According to all sources, the two fell in love and shared a happy marriage. Köstlin was a professor at the University of Tübingen. Köstlin died in 1856 of what is now suspected to be cancer.To sustain her family, <mask> went back to song writing and piano pedagogy. After some financial floundering and unsuccessful attempts at publishing music, she contacted Ferdinand Hiller and Clara Schumann for aid and assistance. Upon hearing the news, Clara organised a benefit concert with herself as the pianist, featuring <mask>'s music. Hiller wrote a biographical essay about <mask> in 1867 to send to publishers. Soon thereafter, primarily due to Hiller's essay, <mask> become a prominent composer successful enough to have her work published. Her last years were filled with trauma and illness. <mask> lived to see her three sons die for various reasons, and after her two daughters married in 1868 and 1870, <mask> was left feeling alone and abandoned.She herself suffered during this time period, though she still composed music and taught piano through this entire time. On 2 December 1880,<ref>High, Walter M., Sander, Angelle M., Krebs, Harald, and Krebs, Sharon: <mask>. Her Life and Songs" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).</ref> <mask> died in Tübingen of a heart attack; she left an important legacy in her music. Dana Mckay, soprano; Thérèse Lindquist, piano. SBPK Deutsche Schallplatten DS 1016-2 (1995). <mask>, Johanna Kinkel; Ausgewählte Lieder. Claudia Taha, soprano; Heidi Kommerell, piano.Bayer Records BR 100 248 (1995). Münchner Komponistinnen der Klassik und Romantik. Christel Krömer, soprano; Jutta Vornehm, piano. Musica Bavarica MB 902. Reissued on CD as MB 75121 (1997). Alphabetic listing of musical settings:

Bibliography
Citron, Marcia J. “<mask>, <mask>.” Oxford University Press, 2007, Grove Music Online (Accessed 15 February 2007), http://www.grovemusic.com
Citron, Marcia."Women and the Lied, 1775–1850." Women Making Music, ed. Jane Bowers and Judith Tick. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986
Krebs, Harald. "<mask>, <mask>." Women Composers: Music Through the Ages, ed. Glickman and Schleifer, vol.7,  New Haven, Connecticut: Thomson/Gale, 2003
Krebs, Harald."<mask> and the Salon in Southern Germany", Musical Salon Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century, ed. Ed. by Anja Bunzel / Natasha Loges, Woodbridge 2019, p. 199–210. Biography and appreciation including a completed workslist by: "Musik und Gender im Internet''" (MUGI):

References

External links

 Free digital scores by <mask> in the OpenScore Lieder Corpus

1815 births
1880 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century German composers
19th-century women composers
German women classical composers
German Romantic composers
Musicians from Munich

masks:
Josephine Caroline Lang
Josephine Lang
Theobald Lang
Josephine
Josephine
Josephine
Josephine
Lang
Lang
Josephine
Lang
Josephine
Lang
Lang
Lang
Lang
Lang
Josephine
Josephine Lang
Lang
Josephine Lang
Lang
Josephine
Lang
Josephine
Josephine Lang
Josephine Lang


title: Hans Fritzsche

texts:
<mask> (21 April 1900 in Bochum – 27 September 1953 in Cologne) was a senior German Nazi official, ending the war as Ministerialdirektor at the Propagandaministerium (Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda). He was the preeminent German broadcaster of his time, as part of efforts to present a more popular and entertaining side of the Nazi regime, and his voice was recognised by the majority of Germans. <mask> was present in the Berlin Führerbunker during the last days of Adolf Hitler. After Hitler's death, he went over to the Soviet lines in Berlin to offer the surrender of the city to the Red Army on 1 May 1945. He was taken prisoner. Career
<mask> was born in Bochum (a city in the Ruhr Area) to a Prussian postal clerk. He volunteered in the German Army in 1917 as a private soldier, and served in Flanders.After the war, he studied at the universities of Greifswald and Berlin, but did not graduate. He became a journalist in 1923 for the Hugenberg Press, which promoted nationalistic opinions not very different from the Nazis. In September 1932, he began his broadcasting career as head of the Drahtloser Dienst (the Wireless News service, a government agency), and started his first broadcast, a daily program called "<mask> speaks" (Es spricht <mask>). In 1929 or May 1933 he joined the Nazi Party, and later the Sturmabteilung (SA). He was also a member of the Academy for German Law. On 1 May 1933 the Wireless News service was incorporated into Joseph Goebbels' Propaganda Ministry. In 1938, <mask> became head of the Press Division.In November 1942, he became head of the Radio Division. <mask> had no involvement in creating policy. During the war, <mask> was Germany's most prominent radio commentator. In April 1945, he was present in the Berlin Führerbunker during the last days of Adolf Hitler and Goebbels. After Hitler's suicide on 30 April 1945, Goebbels assumed Hitler's role as chancellor. On 1 May, Goebbels completed his sole official act as chancellor. He dictated a letter to Soviet Army General Vasily Chuikov, requesting a temporary ceasefire and ordered German General <mask> to deliver it.Chuikov commanded the Soviet forces in central Berlin. After this was rejected, Goebbels decided that further efforts were futile. Goebbels then launched into a tirade berating the generals, reminding them Hitler forbade them to surrender. <mask> left the room to try and take matters into his own hands. He went to his nearby office on Wilhelmplatz and wrote a surrender letter addressed to Soviet Marshall Georgy Zhukov. An angry and drunk General Wilhelm Burgdorf followed <mask> to his office. There he asked <mask> if he intended to surrender Berlin.<mask> replied that he was going to do just that. Burgdorf shouted that Hitler had forbidden surrender and as a civilian he had no authority to do so. Burgdorf then pulled his pistol to shoot <mask>, but a radio technician knocked the gun and the bullet fired hit the ceiling. Several men then hustled Burgdorf out of the office and he returned to the bunker. <mask> then left his office and went over to the Soviet lines and offered to surrender the city. Military tribunal

<mask> was taken prisoner by Soviet Red Army soldiers. At first he was held prisoner in a basement and then sent to Moscow for interrogation at Lubyanka Prison where, according to his own account, three gold teeth were yanked from his mouth upon arrival.He was confined to a "standing coffin", a 3-foot-square cell where it was impossible to sleep, and placed on a bread and hot water diet. He eventually signed a confession. Later, he wrote his account of Soviet prison while on trial at Nuremberg, which was published in Switzerland. <mask> was sent to Nuremberg, and tried before the International Military Tribunal. He was charged with conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity. In his positions in the propaganda apparatus of the Nazi State, <mask> played a role to further the conspiracy to commit atrocities and to launch the war of aggression. According to journalist and author William L. Shirer, it was unclear to the attendees why he was charged.Shirer remarked that "no-one in the courtroom, including <mask>, seemed to know why he was there – he was too small a fry – unless it were as a ghost for Goebbels". According to the IMT prosecution, he "incited and encouraged the commission of War Crimes by deliberately falsifying news to arouse in the German People those passions which led them to the commission of atrocities". <mask> was acquitted because the court was "not  prepared  to  hold  that  [his  broadcasts]  were  intended  to incite  the  German  people  to  commit  atrocities  on  conquered  peoples". He was one of only three defendants to be acquitted at Nuremberg (along with Hjalmar Schacht and Franz von Papen). Nuremberg prosecutor  Alexander Hardy later said that evidence not available to the prosecution at the time proved <mask> not only knew of the extermination of European Jews but also "played an important part in bringing [Nazi crimes] about," and would have resulted in his conviction. <mask> was later classified as Group I (Major Offenders) by a denazification court which gave him the maximum penalty, eight years' imprisonment. He was pardoned in September 1950.He married his second wife, Hildegard Springer, in 1950. He died of cancer in 1953. His wife died the same year. <mask> along with Speer and Schirach were eventually communed by Lutheran Pastor Henry F. Gerecke and were administered the Eucharist. Publications

 Account of the Nuremberg trials. References

Sources

Further reading

Hardy, Alexander G. (1967). Hitler's Secret Weapon: The "Managed" Press and Propaganda Machine of Nazi Germany.New York: Vantage Press. See also
Downfall, 2004 German film where he was portrayed by actor Michael Brandner
Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda

External links

1900 births
1953 deaths
Articles containing video clips
Deaths from cancer in Germany
German anti-communists
German Protestants
German radio personalities
Members of the Academy for German Law
Nazi Party politicians
Nazi propagandists
People acquitted by the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg
People from Bochum
People from the Province of Westphalia
Sturmabteilung personnel

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August Franz Anton Hans Fritzsche
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Hans Fritzsche
Hans Fritzsche
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Hans Krebs
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title: Wallis Clark

texts:
<mask> (2 March 1882 – 14 February 1961) was an English stage and film actor. Biography
<mask> was born in Bolton, Lancashire, England, the son of <mask> (1854 - 1930), an engineer. Prior to acting, <mask> was an engineer. He began his stage career in Margate, Kent, in 1908. He moved to the United States in September 1910 and acted in numerous plays on the stage, including at the Little Theatre in Philadelphia, for years before moving on to the screen in 1932. Along with actors Franklyn Farnum and Bess Flowers, <mask> holds the record for the second most appearances in films that have won the Academy Award for Best Picture. He appeared in supporting roles in 136 films between 1931 and 1954.Five of these films won Best Picture: It Happened One Night (1934), Mutiny on the Bounty (1935), The Great Ziegfeld (1936), You Can't Take It with You (1938), and Gone with the Wind (1939). In four of these five films, <mask> was uncredited. In Mutiny on the Bounty, he is credited in the role of Morrison. <mask> had one son, <mask><mask>, Jr. He died in North Hollywood, California, USA. Selected filmography

 Elusive Isabel (1916) - Prince D'Abruzzi
 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1916) - Pencroft
 Cy Whittaker's Ward (1917) - Bailey
 Hell's House (1932) - Judge Robinson
 The Final Edition (1932) - Police Commissioner Jim Conroy (uncredited)
 Alias the Doctor (1932) - Dr. Kleinschmidt (uncredited)
 Disorderly Conduct (1932) - Police Lieutenant (uncredited)
 Shopworn (1932) - Mr. Dean (uncredited)
 The Famous Ferguson Case (1932) - Lindsay Jamison (uncredited)
 Attorney for the Defense (1932) - Crowell
 My Pal, the King (1932) - Dr. Lorenz
 The Night Mayor (1932) - Crandall (uncredited)
 Okay, America! (1932) - Bit Role (uncredited)
 Big City Blues (1932) - Chief of Police (uncredited)
 The Night of June 13 (1932) - Defense Attorney (uncredited)
 Washington Merry-Go-Round (1932) - Carl Tilden (uncredited)
 Hidden Gold (1932) - Jones
 I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang (1932) - Chicago Lawyer (uncredited)
 If I Had a Million (1932) - Mr. Monroe - Bank Executive (uncredited)
 Forbidden Trail (1932) - Cash Karger
 Call Her Savage (1932) - Detective (uncredited)
 No Man of Her Own (1932) - Thomas Laidlaw (uncredited)
 They Just Had to Get Married (1932) - Fairchilds
 Madame Butterfly (1932) - Comm.Anderson
 The Match King (1932) - Erickson's Associate (uncredited)
 Luxury Liner (1933) - Dr. Veith
 Mystery of the Wax Museum (1933) - Autopsy Surgeon's Assistant (uncredited)
 42nd Street (1933) - Dr. Chadwick (uncredited)
 Private Jones (1933) - Bit Part (uncredited)
 The World Gone Mad (1933) - Dist. Atty. (1934) - Senator (uncredited)
 Fog Over Frisco (1934) - Accountant (uncredited)
 The Life of Vergie Winters (1934) - Mr. Preston
 I Give My Love (1934) - Attorney (uncredited)
 Name the Woman (1934) - Det. (1936) - Prison Warden
 Easy Money (1936) - Mr. Curtis
 Ticket to Paradise (1936) - Editor (uncredited)
 Postal Inspector (1936) - Inspector Gil Pottle
 Romeo and Juliet (1936) - Town Watch (uncredited)
 Missing Girls (1936) - Senator Benson
 Craig's Wife (1936) - Mr. Burton (uncredited)
 Adventure in Manhattan (1936) - City Editor (uncredited)
 Come Closer, Folks (1936) - Mr. Houston
 Great Guy (1936) - Joel Green
 We Who Are About to Die (1937) - Dr. Hedges (uncredited)
 Woman in Distress (1937) - Mervyn Seymour
 Criminal Lawyer (1937) - Judge - Nora James' Trial (uncredited)
 The Last of Mrs. Cheyney (1937) - George
 I Promise to Pay (1937) - B.G. Wilson
 The Jones Family in Big Business (1937) - Mr. Rodney
 Parnell (1937) - Doctor (uncredited)
 The Wildcatter (1937) - Torrance
 She Had to Eat (1937) - Ralph Wilkinson - G-Man
 The Man Who Cried Wolf (1937) - Resident Doctor (uncredited)
 Escape by Night (1937) - District Attorney Baldwin
 Trapped by G-Men (1937) - Federal Agent #1
 Dangerously Yours (1937) - Insurance Agent (uncredited)
 Big Town Girl (1937) - Garvey (uncredited)
 Rosalie (1937) - Major Prentice (uncredited)
 The Higgins Family (1938) - George W. Bradshaw
 Hunted Men (1938) - Chief of Police (uncredited)
 You Can't Take It with You (1938) - Bill Hughes (uncredited)
 Personal Secretary (1938) - Fleming (uncredited)
 Star Reporter (1939) - District Attorney William Burnette
 Blondie Meets the Boss (1939) - Henry W. Philpot (uncredited)
 I Stole a Million (1939) - Jenkins - Mgr. of Cab Installment Sales (uncredited)
 Smuggled Cargo (1939) - Dr. Hamilton
 Main Street Lawyer (1939) - Reynolds
 Allegheny Uprising (1939) - McGlashan
 Gone with the Wind (1939) - Poker-Playing Captain (uncredited)
 The Big Guy (1939) - District Attorney
 Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1940) - Politician (uncredited)
 Vigil in the Night (1940) - Mr. Peterson - Board Member (uncredited)
 And One Was Beautiful (1940) - Judge (uncredited)
 Young Bill Hickok (1940) - Senator Tucker (uncredited)
 Penny Serenade (1941) - Judge
 Murder by Invitation (1941) - Judge Moore
 Ellery Queen and the Perfect Crime (1941) - Harmon (uncredited)
 Pacific Blackout (1941) - Pompous Doctor (uncredited)
 The Remarkable Andrew (1942) - City Treasurer R.R.

masks:
Wallis Hensman Clark
Clark
William Wallis Clark
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. Clark


title: Samudragupta

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Samudragupta (Gupta script:  Sa-mu-dra-gu-pta, r. c. (350-375 CE) was a ruler of the Gupta Empire of Ancient India. As a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, he greatly expanded his dynasty's political power. The Allahabad Pillar inscription, a prashasti (eulogy) composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive military conquests. It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories to his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far as the Pallava kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. His empire extended from Ravi River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were his tributaries.Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to prove his imperial sovereignty, and according to his coins, remained undefeated. His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an accomplished poet, and also played music. His expansionist policy was continued by his son Chandragupta II. Period

Modern scholars variously assign the start of Samudragupta's reign from c. 319 CE to c. 350 CE. The inscriptions of the Gupta kings are dated in the Gupta calendar era, whose epoch is generally dated to c. 319 CE. However, the identity of the era's founder is a matter of debate, and scholars variously attribute its establishment to Chandragupta I or <mask>. Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Prayag Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age.However, the exact period of his reign is uncertain. For these reasons, the beginning of <mask>'s reign is also uncertain. If Samudragupta is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, his ascension can be dated to c. 319-320 CE. On the other hand, if his father Chandragupta I is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, <mask>'s ascension must be dated to a later date. Samudragupta was a contemporary of king Meghavarna of Anuradhapura Kingdom, but the regnal period of this king is also uncertain. According to the traditional reckoning adopted in Sri Lanka for Buddha's death, he ruled during 304-332 CE; but the modified chronology adopted by modern scholars such as Wilhelm Geiger assigns his reign to 352-379 CE. Accepting the former date would place Samudragupta's ascension to c. 320 CE; accepting the latter date would place it around c. 350 CE.The end of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain. Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavatigupta is known to have married during the reign of his son Chandragupta II, in c. 380 CE (assuming c. 319 CE as the epoch of the Gupta era). Therefore, the end of Samudragupta's reign can be placed before this year. Various estimates of Samudragupta's regnal period include:

 A. S. Altekar: c. 330-370 CE
 A. L. Basham: c. 335-376 CE
 S. R. Goyal: c. 350-375 CE
 Tej Ram Sharma: c. 353-373 CE

Ascension

Samudragupta was a son of the Gupta king Chandragupta I and queen Kumaradevi, who came from a Licchavi family. His fragmentary Eran stone inscription states that his father selected him as the successor because of his "devotion, righteous conduct, and valour". His Allahabad Pillar inscription similarly describes how Chandragupta called him a noble person in front of the courtiers, and appointed him to "protect the earth". These descriptions suggest that Chandragupta renounced the throne in his old age, and appointed his son as the next king.According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, when Chandragupta appointed him as the next ruler, the faces of other people of "equal birth" bore a "melancholy look". One interpretation suggests that these other people were neighbouring kings, and Samudagupta's ascension to the throne was uncontested. Another theory is that these other people were Gupta princes who made a rival claim to the throne. If Chandragputa I indeed had multiple sons, it is likely that Samudragupta's background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess worked in his favour. The coins of a Gupta ruler named Kacha, whose identity is debated by modern scholars, describe him as "the exterminator of all kings". These coins closely resemble the coins issued by Samudragupta. According to one theory, Kacha was an earlier name of Samudragupta: the king adopted the regnal name Samudra ("Ocean"), after extending his territory up to the ocean.An alternatively theory is that Kacha was a distinct king (possibly a rival claimant to the throne) who flourished before or after Samudragupta. Military career

The Gupta inscriptions suggest that Samudragupta had a remarkable military career. The Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta states that he had brought "the whole tribe of kings" under his suzerainty, and that his enemies were terrified when they thought of him in their dreams. The inscription does not name any of the defeated kings (presumably because its primary objective was to record the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple), but it suggests that Samudragupta had subdued several kings by this time. The later Allahabad Pillar inscription, a panegyric written by Samudragupta's minister and military officer Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests. It gives the most detailed account of Samudragupta's military conquests, listing them in mainly geographical and partly chronological order. It states that Samudragupta fought a hundred battles, acquired a hundred wounds that looked like marks of glory, and earned the title Prakrama (valourous).The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as an "exterminator of all kings", as someone who had no equally powerful enemy, and as a person whose "fame was tasted by the waters of the four oceans". Modern scholars offer various opinions regarding Samudragupta's possible motivations behind his extensive military campaigns. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that Samudragupta's aim was the unification of the earth (dharani-bandha), which suggests that he may have aspired to become a Chakravartin (a universal ruler). The Ashvamedha performances by the Nagas, whom he defeated, may have influenced him as well. His southern expedition may have been motivated by economic considerations of controlling the trade between India and South-East Asia. Early victories

The early portion of the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that Samudragupta "uprooted" Achyuta, Nagasena, and a ruler whose name is lost in the damaged portion of the inscription. The third name ends in "-ga", and is generally restored as Ganapati-naga, because Achyuta-nandin (presumably same as Achyuta), Nagasena, and Ganapati-naga are once again mentioned in the later part of the inscription, among the kings of Aryavarta (northern India) defeated by Samudragupta.These kings are identified as the rulers of present-day western Uttar Pradesh (see below). According to the inscription, Samudragupta reinstated these rulers after they sought his forgiveness. It is not clear why the names of these three kings is repeated later in the inscription. According to one theory, these three kings were vassal rulers who rebelled against Samudragupta after the death of his father. Samudragupta crushed the rebellion, and reinstated them after they sought his forgiveness. Later, these rulers rebelled once more, and Samudragupta defeated them again. Another possibility is that the author of the inscription thought it necessary to repeat these names while describing Samudragupta's later conquests in Aryavarta, simply because these kings belonged to that region.Samudragupta dispatched an army to capture the scion of the Kota family, whose identity is uncertain. The Kotas may have been the rulers of present-day Punjab, where coins bearing the legend "Kota", and featuring a symbol of Shiva and his bull, have been discovered. The inscription states that the Gupta army captured the Kota ruler, while Samudragupta himself "played" (or pleased himself) in a city called Pushpa (the name Pushpa-pura referred to Pataliputra at Samudragupta's time, although it came to be used for Kanyakubja in the later period). Modern scholars have interpreted the word "played" in various ways: According to one theory, this portion describes Samudragupta's achievements as a prince. An alternative interpretation is that Samudragupta dispatched his army on these campaigns, while he himself stayed at the capital. It is also possible that the poet intended to convey that these campaigns were minor affairs that did not require the king's direct involvement at the battlefront. Southern conquests

According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta captured (and later released) the following kings of Dakshinapatha, the southern region:

The exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars, but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of Bay of Bengal. The inscription states that Samudragupta later released these kings, and favoured (anugraha) them. Most modern scholars theorize that Samudragupta reinstated these rulers as his tributaries. M. G. S. Narayanan interprets the word anugraha differently based on its occurrence in the Arthashastra; he theorizes that Samudragupta gave "protection and aid" to these kingdoms in order to secure their alliances. Some scholars, such as J. Dubreuil and B. V. Krishnarao, theorized that Samudragupta only advanced up to the Krishna river, and was forced to retreat without fighting a battle, when the southern kings formed a strong confederacy to oppose him. According to these scholars, the claim that Samudragupta released these kings is an attempt by Samudragupta's courtier to cover up the emperor's failure. However, there is no evidence of the southern kings forming a confederacy against Samudragupta.Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that setting free a captured king is inline with the ancient Indian political ideals. For example, Kautilya defines three types of conquerors: the righteous conqueror (dharma-vijayi), who restores the defeated king in exchange for his acknowledgment of the conqueror's suzerainty; the covetous conqueror (lobha-vijayi), who takes away the possessions of the defeated king but spares his life; and the demoniac conqueror (asura-vijayi), who annexes the territory of the defeated king and kills him. Such political ideals existed in the Gupta period too, as evident from Kalidasa's statement in Raghuvamsha that "the righteous victorious monarch (Raghu) only took away the royal glory of the lord of Mahendra who had been captured and released, but not his kingdom." Therefore, it is likely that Samudragupta acted like a righteous conqueror, and restored the defeated kings as his vassals. Mahendra of Kosala
 Kosala here refers to Dakshina Kosala, which includes parts of present-day Chhattisgarh and Odisha. One theory identifies Mahendra of Kosala with a Nala king named Mahendraditya. Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara
 Historian K. P. Jayaswal identifies Mahakantara (literally "great wilderness") as the Bastar-Kanker area in present-day Chhattisgarh.According to another theory, Mahakantara is same as Mahavana, a synonym used as the name for the forest region around present-day Jeypore of Odisha. Earlier historians identified Mahakantara as a region in central India, and identified Vyaghra-raja with the Vakataka feudatory Vyaghra-deva, whose inscriptions have been found at Nachna. However, this identification is now considered incorrect, as Samudragupta is not known to have fought against the Vakatakas. Mantaraja of Kurala
 The Rawan inscription of the Sharabhapuriya king Narendra, who ruled in the Dakshina Kosala region, mentions an area called Mantaraja-bhukti ("the province of Mantaraja"). Therefore, some historians such as K. D. Bajpai theorize that Mantaraja was a king who ruled in the Dakshina Kosala region. Historian A. M. Shastri disputes this theory, arguing that the ruler of Kosala (that is, Dakshina Kosala) has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Lorenz Franz Kielhorn speculated that Kurala was same as Kaurala (or Kunala) mentioned in the Aihole inscription of the 7th century king Pulakeshin II, and identified it as the area around the Kolleru Lake in present-day Andhra Pradesh.H. C. Raychaudhuri disputes this identification, pointing out that this region was a part of Hastivarman's Vengi kingdom, which has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Other proposed identifications of Kurala include Kolada near Bhanjanagar (former Russelkonda) in Odisha; and Kulula, a region mentioned in the Mahendragiri inscription of the 11th century king Rajendra Chola, and identified with Cherla in present-day Telangana. Mahendragiri of Pishtapura
 Pishtapura is modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh. The word giri mentions hill in Sanskrit, and therefore, J. F. Fleet speculated that "Mahendragiri" could not have been a person's name: he suggested that the verse (Mahendragiri-Kautturaka-Svamidatta) referred to a king called "Mahendra", and a place called "Kottura on the hill" which was ruled by Svamidatta. However, Fleet's translation is incorrect: the verse clearly mentions Mahendragiri of Pishtapura and Svamidatta of Kottura as two distinct persons. G. Ramdas interpreted the verse to mean Svamidatta was the ruler of Pishtapura and "Kottura near Mahendragiri", while Bhau Daji translated it as "Svamidatta of Pishtapura, Mahendragiri and Kottura". However, these translations are also incorrect.The concern about the king's name is invalid: several historical records mention names ending in the word giri or its synonym adri. Svamidatta of Kottura
 Svamidatta was probably one of the chiefs who resisted Samudragupta's passage through the Kalinga region. Kottura has been identified with modern Kotturu (or Kothur) in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh

masks: Samudragupta Samudragupta Samudragupta