title: Mahalia Jackson

texts:
 bar, listening to her again and again. Decca said they would record her further if she sang blues, and once more <mask> refused. The Johnson Singers folded in 1938, but as the Depression lightened <mask> saved some money, earned a beautician's license from Madam C. J. Walker's school, and bought a beauty salon in the heart of Bronzeville. It was almost immediately successful and the center of gospel activity.Singers, male and female, visited while <mask> cooked for large groups of friends and customers on a two-burner stove in the rear of the salon. It was located across the street from Pilgrim Baptist Church, where Thomas Dorsey had become music director. Dorsey proposed a series of performances to promote his music and her voice and she agreed. They toured off and on until 1951. It was regular and, they felt, necessary work. Dorsey accompanied <mask> on piano, often writing songs specifically for her. His background as a blues player gave him extensive experience improvising and he encouraged <mask> to develop her skills during their performances by handing her lyrics and playing chords while she created melodies, sometimes performing 20 or more songs this way.She was able to emote and relate to audiences profoundly well; her goal was to "wreck" a church, or cause a state of spiritual pandemonium among the audience which she did consistently. At one event, in an ecstatic moment Dorsey jumped up from the piano and proclaimed, "<mask> <mask> is the Empress of gospel singers! She's the Empress! The Empress!!" A constant worker and a shrewd businesswoman, <mask> became the choir director at St. Luke Baptist Church. She bought a building as a landlord, then found the salon so successful she had to hire help to care for it when she traveled on weekends. On tour, she counted heads and tickets to ensure she was being paid fairly.What she was able to earn and save was done in spite of Hockenhull. A compulsive gambler, he took home a large payout asking <mask> to hide it so he would not gamble it. She laid the stash in flat bills under a rug assuming he would never look there, then went to a weekend performance in Detroit. When she returned, she realized he had found it and used it to buy a race horse. In 1943, he brought home a new Buick for her that he promptly stopped paying for. She paid for it entirely, then learned he had used it as collateral for a loan when she saw it being repossessed in the middle of the day on the busiest street in Bronzeville. They divorced amicably.Apollo Records and national recognition (1946–1953)

Each engagement <mask> took was farther from Chicago in a nonstop string of performances. In 1946 she appeared at the Golden Gate Ballroom in Harlem. In attendance was Art Freeman, a music scout for Apollo Records, a company catering to black artists and audiences concentrating mostly on jazz and blues. Apollo's chief executive Bess Berman was looking to broaden their representation to other genres, including gospel. Berman signed <mask> to a four-record session, allowing <mask> to pick the songs. Her first release on Apollo, "Wait 'til My Change Comes" backed with "I'm Going to Tell God All About it One of These Days" did not sell well. Neither did her second, "I Want to Rest" with "He Knows My Heart".Berman asked <mask> to record blues and she refused. Berman told Freeman to release <mask> from any more recordings but Freeman asked for one more session to record the song <mask> sang as a warmup at the Golden Gate Ballroom concert. "Move On Up a Little Higher" was recorded in two parts, one for each side of the 78 rpm record. Meanwhile, Chicago radio host Louis "Studs" Terkel heard <mask>'s records in a music shop and was transfixed. He bought and played them repeatedly on his show. Terkel introduced his mostly white listeners to gospel music and <mask> herself, interviewing her and asking her to sing live. "Move On Up a Little Higher" was released in 1947, selling 50,000 copies in Chicago and 2 million nationwide.It landed at the number two spot on the Billboard charts for two weeks, another first for gospel music. The best any gospel artist could expect to sell was 100,000. Berman set <mask> up for another recording session, where she sang "Even Me" (one million sold), and "Dig a Little Deeper" (just under one million sold). Instantly <mask> was in high demand. A position as the official soloist of the National Baptist Convention was created for her, and her audiences multiplied to the tens of thousands. She campaigned for Harry Truman, earning her first invitation to the White House. Time constraints forced her to give up the choir director position at St. Luke Baptist Church and sell the beauty shop.True to her own rule, she turned down lucrative appearances at New York City institutions the Apollo Theater and the Village Vanguard, where she was promised $5,000 a week (). The next year, promoter Joe Bostic approached her to perform in a gospel music revue at Carnegie Hall, a venue most often reserved for classical and well established artists such as Benny Goodman and Duke Ellington. <mask> was intimidated by this offer and dreaded the approaching date. Gospel had never been performed at Carnegie. <mask> was the final artist to appear that evening. After a shaky start, she gave multiple encores and received voluminous praise: Nora Holt, a music critic with the black newspaper The New York Amsterdam News, wrote that <mask>'s rendition of "City Called Heaven" was filled with "suffering ecstasy" and that <mask> was a "genius unspoiled". John Hammond, critic at the Daily Compass, praised <mask>'s powerful voice which "she used ... with reckless abandon".The revue was so successful it was made an annual event with <mask> headlining for years. The show that took place in 1951 broke attendance records set by Goodman and Arturo Toscanini. By chance, a French jazz fan named Hugues Panassié visited the Apollo Records office in New York and discovered <mask>'s music in the waiting room. He bought her records, took them home and played them on French public radio. The Académie Charles Cros awarded <mask> their Grand Prix du Disque for "I Can Put My Trust in Jesus"; <mask> was the first gospel singer to receive this award. During the same time, <mask> and blues guitarist John Lee Hooker were invited to a ten-day symposium hosted by jazz historian Marshall Stearns who gathered participants to discuss how to define jazz. <mask> was accompanied by her pianist Mildred Falls, together performing 21 songs with question and answer sessions from the audience, mostly filled with writers and intellectuals.As <mask>'s singing was often considered jazz or blues with religious lyrics, she fielded questions about the nature of gospel blues and how she developed her singing style. Toward the end, a participant asked <mask> what parts of gospel music come from jazz, and she replied, "Baby, don't you know the Devil stole the beat from the Lord?" Those in the audience wrote about <mask> in several publications. Her records were sent to the UK, traded there among jazz fans, earning <mask> a cult following on both sides of the Atlantic, and she was invited to tour Europe. <mask> had her first television appearance on Toast of the Town with Ed Sullivan in 1952. As she prepared to embark on her first tour of Europe, she began having difficulty breathing during and after performances and had severe abdominal cramping. She continued with her plans for the tour where she was very warmly received.In jazz magazine DownBeat, Mason Sargent called the tour "one of the most remarkable, in terms of audience reaction, ever undertaken by an American artist". Her appearance at the Royal Albert Hall in London made her the first gospel singer to perform there since the Fisk Jubilee Singers in 1872, and she pre-sold 20,000 copies of "Silent Night" in Copenhagen. She played numerous shows while in pain, sometimes collapsing backstage. She lost a significant amount of weight during the tour, finally having to cancel. When she returned to the U.S., she had a hysterectomy and doctors found numerous granulomas in her abdomen. She was diagnosed with sarcoidosis, a systemic inflammatory disease caused by immune cells forming lumps in organs throughout the body. Sarcoidosis is not curable, though it can be treated, and following the surgery, <mask>'s doctors were cautiously optimistic that with treatment she could carry on as normal.Columbia Records and civil rights activism (1954–1963)

In 1954, <mask> learned that Berman had been withholding royalties and had allowed her contract with Apollo to expire. Mitch Miller offered her a $50,000-a-year () four-year contract, and <mask> became the first gospel artist to sign with Columbia Records, a much larger company with the ability to promote her nationally. Miller attempted to make her repertoire more appealing to white listeners, asking her to record ballads and classical songs, but again she refused. "Rusty Old Halo" became her first Columbia single, and DownBeat declared <mask> "the greatest spiritual singer now alive". Columbia worked with a local radio affiliate in Chicago to create a half hour radio program, The Mahalia <mask> Show. Although it got an overwhelmingly positive reception and producers were eager to syndicate it nationally, it was cut to ten minutes long, then canceled. She appeared on a local television program, also titled The <mask> <mask> Show, which again got a positive reception but was canceled for lack of sponsors.Despite white people beginning to attend her shows and sending fan letters, executives at CBS were concerned they would lose advertisers from Southern states who objected to a program with a black person as the primary focus. <mask> attracted the attention of the William Morris Agency, a firm that promoted her by booking her in large concert halls and television appearances with Arthur Godfrey, Dinah Shore, Bing Crosby, and Perry Como in the 1950s. Her reverence and upbeat, positive demeanor made her desirable to progressive producers and hosts eager to feature a black person on television. She appeared at the 1956 Democratic National Convention, silencing a rowdy hall of attendees with "I See God". Miller, who was in attendance, was awed by it, noting "there wasn't a dry eye in the house when she got through". <mask> broke into films playing a missionary in St. Louis Blues (1958), and a funeral singer in Imitation of Life (1959). As demand for her rose, she traveled extensively, performing 200 dates a year for ten years.She and her entourage of singers and accompanists toured deeper into the South, encountering difficulty finding safe, clean places to sleep, eat, and buy gas due to Jim Crow laws. Sometimes they had to sleep in <mask>'s car, a Cadillac she had purchased to make long trips more comfortable. <mask> remembered, "The looks of anger at the sight of us colored folks sitting in a nice car were frightening to see... It got so we were living on bags of fresh fruit during the day and driving half the night, and I was so exhausted by the time I was supposed to sing, I was almost dizzy." <mask> began to gain weight. She also developed peculiar habits regarding money. As a black woman, <mask> found it often impossible to cash checks when away from Chicago.Her contracts therefore demanded she be paid in cash, often forcing her to carry tens of thousands of dollars in suitcases and in her undergarments. Each event in her career and personal life broke another racial barrier. She often asked ushers to allow white and black people to sit together, sometimes asking the audiences to integrate themselves by telling them that they were all Christian brothers and sisters. After years of receiving complaints about being loud when she practiced in her apartment, even in the building she owned, <mask> bought a house in the all-white Chatham Village neighborhood of Chicago. When this news spread, she began receiving death threats. The day she moved in her front window was shot. <mask> asked Richard Daley, the mayor of Chicago, for help and Daley ordered police presence outside her house for a year.A few months later, <mask> appeared live on the television special Wide Wide World singing Christmas carols from Mount Moriah, her childhood church in New Orleans. The broadcast earned excellent reviews, and <mask> received congratulatory telegrams from across the nation. Yet the next day she was unable to get a taxi or shop along Canal Street. While attending the National Baptist Convention in 1956, <mask> met Martin Luther King Jr. and Ralph Abernathy, both ministers emerging as organizers protesting segregation. <mask> often sang to support worthy causes for no charge, such as raising money to buy a church an organ, robes for choirs, or sponsoring missionaries. She extended this to civil rights causes, becoming the most prominent gospel musician associated with King and the civil rights movement. She raised money for the United Negro College Fund and sang at the Prayer Pilgrimage Breakfast in 1957.She later stated she felt God had especially prepared King "with the education and the warmth of spirit to do His work". Motivated  by her sincere appreciation that civil rights protests were being organized within churches and its participants inspired by hymns, she traveled to Montgomery, Alabama to sing in support of the ongoing bus boycott. She and Mildred Falls stayed at Abernathy's house in a room that was bombed four months later. After hearing that black children in Virginia were unable to attend school due to integration conflicts, she threw them an ice cream party from Chicago, singing to them over a telephone line attached to a public address system. She similarly supported a group of black sharecroppers in Tennessee facing eviction for voting. As gospel music became more popular – primarily due to her influence – singers began appearing at non-religious venues as a way to spread a Christian message to nonbelievers. <mask> appeared at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1957 and 1958, and in the latter's concert film, Jazz on a Summer's Day (1959).Her continued television appearances with Steve Allen, Red Skelton, Milton Berle, and Jimmy Durante kept her in high demand. She toured Europe again in 1961 with incredible success, mobbed in several cities and needing police escorts. All dates in Germany were sold out weeks in advance. In Essen, she was called to give so many encores that she eventually changed into her street clothes and the stage hands removed the microphone. Still she sang one more song. The highlight of her trip was visiting the Holy Land, where she knelt and prayed at Calvary. When King was arrested and sentenced to four months hard labor, presidential candidate John F. Kennedy intervened, earning <mask>'s loyal support.She began campaigning for him, saying, "I feel that I'm a part of this man's hopes. He lifts my spirit and makes me feel a part of the land I live in." Her clout and loyalty to Kennedy earned her an invitation to sing "The Star-Spangled Banner" at his inaugural ball in 1961. Months later, she helped raise $50,000 for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. <mask> lent her support to King and other ministers in 1963 after their successful campaign to end segregation in Birmingham by holding a fundraising rally to pay for protestors' bail. By this time she was a personal friend of King and his wife Coretta, often hosting them when they visited Chicago, and spending Thanksgiving with their family in Atlanta. King considered <mask>'s house a place that he could truly relax.She appeared at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom to sing "I've Been 'Buked and I've Been Scorned" on King's request, then "How I Got Over". Three months later, while rehearsing for an appearance on Danny Kaye's television show, <mask> was inconsolable upon learning that Kennedy had been assassinated, believing that he died fighting for the rights of black Americans. Later years (1964—1972)

<mask> toured Europe again in 1964, mobbed in several cities and proclaiming, "I thought I was the Beatles! ", in Utrecht. She appeared in the film The Best Man (1964), and attended a ceremony acknowledging Lyndon Johnson's inauguration at the White House, becoming friends with Lady Bird. When at home, she attempted to remain approachable and maintain her characteristic sincerity. Mostly in secret, <mask> had paid for the education of several young people as she felt poignant regret that her own schooling was cut short.Stories of her gifts and generosity spread. Her phone number continued to be listed in the Chicago public telephone book, and she received calls nonstop from friends, family, business associates, and

masks: Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Mahalia Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Mahalia Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson


title: Mahalia Jackson

type: original

texts:
 strangers asking for money, advice on how to break into the music industry, or general life decisions they should make. Her house had a steady flow of traffic that she welcomed. <mask> had thoroughly enjoyed cooking since childhood, and took great pleasure in feeding all of her visitors, some of them staying days or weeks on her request. Through friends, <mask> met Sigmond Galloway, a former musician in the construction business living in Gary, Indiana. Despite <mask>'s hectic schedule and the constant companions she had in her entourage of musicians, friends, and family, she expressed loneliness and began courting Galloway when she had free time. As a complete surprise to her closest friends and associates, <mask> married him in her living room in 1964.Only a few weeks later, while driving home from a concert in St. Louis, she found herself unable to stop coughing. She checked herself into a hospital in Chicago. Since the cancellation of her tour to Europe in 1952, <mask> experienced occasional bouts of fatigue and shortness of breath. As her schedule became fuller and more demands placed on her, these episodes became more frequent. This time, the publicly disclosed diagnosis was heart strain and exhaustion, but in private <mask>'s doctors told her that she had had a heart attack and sarcoidosis was now in her heart. <mask>'s recovery took a full year during which she was unable to tour or record, ultimately losing . From this point on she was plagued with near-constant fatigue, bouts of tachycardia, and high blood pressure as her condition advanced.<mask> was often depressed and frustrated at her own fragility, but she took the time to send Lyndon Johnson a telegram urging him to protect marchers in Selma, Alabama when she saw news coverage of Bloody Sunday. Galloway proved to be unreliable, leaving for long periods during <mask>'s convalescence, then upon his return insisting she was imagining her symptoms. He tried taking over managerial duties from agents and promoters despite being inept. They argued over money; Galloway attempted to strike <mask> on two different occasions, the second one thwarted when <mask> ducked and he broke his hand hitting a piece of furniture behind her. The marriage dissolved and she announced her intention to divorce. He responded by requesting a jury trial, rare for divorces, in an attempt to embarrass her by publicizing the details of their marital problems. When Galloway's infidelities were proven in testimony, the judge declined to award him any of <mask>'s assets or properties.Her doctors cleared her to work and <mask> began recording and performing again, pushing her limitations by giving two- and three-hour concerts. She performed exceptionally well belying her personal woes and ongoing health problems. When not on tour, she concentrated her efforts on building two philanthropies: the Mahalia Jackson Foundation which eventually paid tuition for 50 college students, and the culmination of a dream she had for ten years: a nondenominational temple for young people in Chicago to learn gospel music. As she organized two large benefit concerts for these causes, she was once more heartbroken upon learning of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. She attended the funeral in Atlanta where she gave one of her most memorable performances of "Take My Hand, Precious Lord". With this, <mask> retired from political work and personal endorsements. Branching out into business, <mask> partnered with comedian Minnie Pearl in a chain of restaurants called Mahalia <mask>'s Chicken Dinners and lent her name to a line of canned foods. She purchased a lavish condominium in Chicago overlooking Lake Michigan and set up room for Galloway, who she was considering remarrying.At 58 years old, she returned to New Orleans, finally allowed to stay as a guest in the upscale Royal Orleans hotel, receiving red carpet treatment. She embarked on a tour of Europe in 1968, which she cut short for health reasons, but she returned in 1969 to adoring audiences. Now experiencing inflammation in her eyes and painful cramps in her legs and hands, she undertook successful tours of the Caribbean, still counting the house to ensure she was being paid fairly, and Liberia in West Africa. In 1971, <mask> made television appearances with Johnny Cash and Flip Wilson. For three weeks she toured Japan, becoming the first Western singer since the end of World War II to give a private concert for the Imperial Family. The U.S. State Department sponsored a visit to India, where she played Kolkata, New Delhi, Madras, and Mumbai, all of them sold out within two hours. In New Delhi, she had an unexpected audience with Prime Minister Indira Gandhi who declared, "I will never hear a greater voice; I will never know a greater person."While touring Europe months later, <mask> became ill in Germany and flew home to Chicago where she was hospitalized. In January 1972, she received surgery to remove a bowel obstruction and died in recovery. Although news outlets had reported on her health problems and concert postponements for years, her death came as a shock to many of her fans. She received a funeral service at Greater Salem Baptist Church in Chicago where she was still a member. Fifty thousand people paid their respects, many of them lining up in the snow the night before, and her peers in gospel singing performed in her memory the next morning. The day after, Mayor Richard Daley and other politicians and celebrities gave their eulogies at the Arie Crown Theater with 6,000 in attendance. Her body was returned to New Orleans where she lay in state at Rivergate Auditorium under a military and police guard, and 60,000 people viewed her casket.On the way to Providence Memorial Park in Metairie, Louisiana, the funeral procession passed Mount Moriah Baptist Church, where her music was played over loudspeakers. Style

Singing

Though the gospel blues style <mask> employed was common among soloists in black churches, to many white jazz fans it was novel. As she was the most prominent — and sometimes the only gospel singer many white listeners knew — she often received requests to define the style and explain how and why she sang as she did. <mask> was mostly untrained, never learning to read or write musical notation, so her style was heavily marked by instinct. She answered questions to the best of her ability though often responded with lack of surety, saying, "All I ever learned was just to sing the way I feel... off-beat, on the beat, between beats — however the Lord lets it come out." When pressed for clearer descriptions, she replied, "Child, I don't know how I do it myself." <mask>'s voice is noted for being energetic and powerful, ranging from contralto to soprano, which she switched between rapidly.She resisted labeling her voice range instead calling it "real strong and clear". She used bent or "worried" notes typical of blues, the sound of which jazz aficionado Bucklin Moon described as "an almost solid wall of blue tonality". She moaned, hummed, and improvised extensively with rhythm and melody, often embellishing notes with a prodigious use of melisma, or singing several tones per syllable. Author Anthony Heilbut called it a "weird ethereal sound, part moan, part failed operatics". Gospel historian Horace Boyer attributes <mask>'s "aggressive style and rhythmic ascension" to the Pentecostal congregation she heard as a child, saying <mask> was "never a Baptist singer". He continues: "bending a note here, chopping off a note there, singing through rest spots and ornamenting the melodic line at will, [<mask>] confused pianists but fascinated those who played by ear". Bucklin Moon was enamored with her singing, writing that the embellishments <mask> added "take your breath away.As a member of a Sanctified Church in Mount Vernon once told me: 'Mahalia, she add more flowers and feathers than anybody, and they all is exactly right.' She breaks every rule of concert singing, taking breaths in the middle of a word and sometimes garbling the words altogether, but the full-throated feeling and expression are seraphic." Writer Ralph Ellison noted how she blended precise diction with a thick New Orleans accent, describing the effect as "almost of the academy one instant, and of the broadest cotton field dialect the next". By her own admission and in the opinion of multiple critics and scholars, Bessie Smith's singing style was clearly dominant in <mask>'s voice. In Melody Maker, Max Jones contrasted the two: "Whereas Bessie's singing can sound harsh and unlovely, even to jazz students, on first acquaintance, Mahalia's voice is obviously an instrument of uncommon beauty... Her bursts of power and sudden rhythmic drives build up to a pitch that leave you unprepared to listen afterwards to any but the greatest of musicians." Other singers made their mark.In her early days in Chicago, <mask> saved her money to buy records by classical singers Roland Hayes, Grace Moore, and Lawrence Tibbett, attributing her diction, breathing, and she said, "what little I know of technique" to these singers. Improvisation was a significant part of <mask>'s live performances both in concert halls and churches. She often stretched what would be a five-minute recording to twenty-five minutes to achieve maximum emotional effect. In black churches, this was a regular practice among gospel soloists who sought to evoke an emotional purging in the audience during services. White and non-Christian audiences also felt this resonance. After one concert, critic Nat Hentoff wrote, "The conviction and strength of her rendition had a strange effect on the secularists present, who were won over to Mahalia if not to her message. Most of them were amazed at the length of time after the concert during which the sound of her voice remained active in the mind."<mask> explained that as God worked through her she became more impassioned during a song, and that what she felt was right to do in the moment was what was necessary for the audience. As her career advanced, she found it difficult to adjust to the time constraints in recording and television appearances, saying, "When I sing I don't go by the score. I lose something when I do. I don't want to be told I can sing just so long. I make it 'til that passion is passed. When I become conscious, I can't do it good." Recording

<mask> estimated that she sold 22 million records in her career.Her four singles for Decca and seventy-one for Apollo are widely acclaimed by scholars as defining gospel blues. The earliest are marked by minimal accompaniment with piano and organ. Apollo added acoustic guitar, backup singers, bass, and drums in the 1950s. Her singing is lively, energetic, and emotional, using "a voice in the prime of its power and command", according to author Bob Darden. Although hearing herself on Decca recordings years later prompted <mask> to declare they are "not very good", Viv Broughton calls "Keep Me Every Day" a "gospel masterpiece", and Anthony Heilbut praises its "wonderful artless purity and conviction", saying that in her Decca records, her voice "was at its loveliest, rich and resonant, with little of the vibrato and neo-operatic obbligatos of later years". Likewise, he calls <mask>'s Apollo records "uniformly brilliant", choosing "Even Me", "Just As I Am", "City Called Heaven", and "I Do, Don't You" as perfect examples of her phrasing and contralto range, having an effect that is "angelic but never saccharine". The New Grove Gospel, Blues, and Jazz cites the Apollo songs "In the Upper Room", "Let the Power of the Holy Ghost Fall on Me", and "I'm Glad Salvation is Free" as prime examples of the "majesty" of <mask>'s voice.According to musicologist Wilfrid Mellers, <mask>'s early recordings demonstrate a "sound that is all-embracing, as secure as the womb, from which singer and listener may be reborn. The breathtaking beauty of the voice and superbly controlled transitions from speech to prayer to song heal and anneal." Columbia Records, then the largest recording company in the U.S., presented <mask> as the "World's Greatest Gospel Singer" in the 28 albums they released. She was marketed to appeal to a wide audience of listeners who, despite all her accomplishments up to 1954, had never heard of her. In contrast to the series of singles from Apollo, Columbia released themed albums that included liner notes and photos. Compared to other artists at Columbia, <mask> was allowed considerable input in what she would record, but Mitch Miller and producer George Avakian persuaded her with varying success to broaden her appeal to listeners of different faiths. Though her early records at Columbia had a similar sound to her Apollo records, the music accompanying <mask> at Columbia later included orchestras, electric guitars, backup singers, and drums, the overall effect of which was more closely associated with light pop music.She was marketed similarly to jazz musicians, but her music at Columbia ultimately defied categorization. Her albums interspersed familiar compositions by Thomas Dorsey and other gospel songwriters with songs considered generally inspirational. These included "You'll Never Walk Alone" written by Rodgers and Hammerstein for the 1945 musical Carousel, "Trees" based on the poem by Joyce Kilmer, "Danny Boy", and the patriotic songs "My Country 'Tis of Thee" and "The Battle Hymn of the Republic", among others. The Cambridge Companion to Blues and Gospel Music describes <mask>'s Columbia recordings as "toned down and polished" compared to the rawer, more minimalist sound at Apollo. Scholar Mark Burford praises "When I Wake Up In Glory" as "one of the crowning achievements of her career as a recording artist", but Heilbut calls her Columbia recordings of "When the Saints Go Marching In" and "The Lord's Prayer", "uneventful material". <mask> agreed somewhat, acknowledging that her sound was being commercialized, calling some of these recordings "sweetened-water stuff". When the themes of her songs were outwardly religious, some critics felt the delivery was at times less lively.John Hammond, who helped secure <mask>'s contract with Columbia, told her if she signed with them many of her black fans would not relate well to the music. This turned out to be true and as a result, <mask> created a distinct performing style for Columbia recordings that was markedly different from her live performances, which remained animated and lively, both in churches and concert halls. Live performance

In live performances, <mask> was renowned for her physicality and the extraordinary emotional connections she held with her audiences. The New York Times stated she was a "massive, stately, even majestic woman, [who] possessed an awesome presence that was apparent in whatever milieu she chose to perform." So caught up in the spirit was she while singing, she often wept, fell on her knees, bowed, skipped, danced, clapped spontaneously, patted her sides and stomach, and particularly in churches, roamed the aisles to sing directly to individuals. All of these were typical of the services in black churches though <mask>'s energy was remarkable. An experiment wearing a wig with her robes went awry during a show in the 1950s when she sang so frenetically she flung it off mid-performance.Anthony Heilbut writes that "some of her gestures are dramatically jerky, suggesting instant spirit possession", and called her performances "downright terrifying. At her best, Mahalia builds these songs to a frenzy of intensity almost demanding a release in holler and shout. When singing them she may descend to her knees, her combs scattering like so many cast-out demons." <mask> defended her idiosyncrasies, commenting, "How can you sing of amazing grace, how can you sing prayerfully of heaven and earth and all God's wonders without using your hands? My hands, my feet, I throw my whole body to say all that is within me. The mind and the voice by themselves are not sufficient." In line with improvising music, <mask> did not like to prepare what she would sing before concerts, and would often change song preferences based on what she was feeling at the moment, saying, "There's something the public reaches into me for, and there seems to be something in each audience that I can feel.I can feel whether there's a low spirit. Some places I go, up-tempo songs don't go, and other places, sad songs aren't right." She had an uncanny ability to elicit the same emotions from her audiences that she transmitted in her singing. People Today commented that "When Mahalia sings, audiences do more than just listen—they undergo a profoundly moving emotional experience." <mask> used "house wreckers", or songs that

masks: Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson


title: Mahalia Jackson

texts:
 induced long tumultuous moments with audiences weeping, shouting, and moaning, especially in black churches. Gospel singer Evelyn Gaye recalled touring with her in 1938 when <mask> often sang "If You See My Savior Tell Him That You Saw Me", saying, "and the people, look like they were just awed by it, on a higher plane, gone. She had that type of rocking and that holy dance she'd get into—look like the people just submitted to it."White audiences also wept and responded emotionally. According to jazz writer Raymond Horricks, instead of preaching to listeners <mask> spoke about her personal faith and spiritual experiences "immediately and directly... making it difficult for them to turn away". Promoter Joe Bostic was in the audience of the 1958 Newport Jazz Festival, an outdoor concert that occurred during a downpour, and stated, "It was the most fantastic tribute to the hypnotic power of great artistry I have ever encountered. Nothing like it have I ever seen in my life. Those people sat... they forgot... they were completely entranced." A significant part of <mask>'s appeal was her demonstrated earnestness in her religious conviction. Bostic spoke of her abiding faith: "Mahalia never became so sophisticated that she lost her humility, her relationship with God as a divine being.She never got beyond that point; and many times, many times, you were amazed — at least I was, because she was such a tough business woman." During her tour of the Middle East, <mask> stood back in wonder while visiting Jericho, and road manager David Haber asked her if she truly thought trumpets brought down its walls. <mask> replied honestly, "I believe Joshua did pray to God, and the sun stood still. I believe everything." Gospel singer Cleophus Robinson asserted, "There never was any pretense, no sham about her. Wherever you met her it was like receiving a letter from home. She was a warm, carefree personality who gave you the feeling that you could relax and let your hair down whenever you were around her — backstage with her or in her home where she'd cook up some good gumbo for you whenever she had the time.A lot of people tried to make Mahalia act 'proper', and they'd tell her about her diction and such things but she paid them no mind. She never denied her background and she never lost her 'down home' sincerity." Television host Ed Sullivan said, "She was just so darned kind to everybody. When Mahalia sang, she took command. The band, the stage crew, the other performers, the ushers — they were all rooting for her. When she came out, she could be your mother or your sister. I mean, she wasn't obsequious, you know; she was a star among other stars.Other people may not have wanted to be deferential, but they couldn't help it. This woman was just great." Commenting on her personal intimacy, Neil Goodwin of The Daily Express wrote after attending her 1961 concert at the Royal Albert Hall, "<mask> <mask> sang to ME last night." Others wrote of her ability to give listeners goosebumps or make the hair on their neck tingle. Mildred Falls

Until 1946, <mask> used an assortment of pianists for recording and touring, choosing anyone who was convenient and free to go with her. As her career progressed, she found it necessary to have a pianist available at a moment's notice, someone talented enough to improvise with her yet steeped in religious music. <mask> found this in Mildred Falls (1921—1974), who accompanied her for 25 years.Falls is often acknowledged as a significant part of <mask>'s sound and therefore her success. She was born Mildred Carter in Magnolia, Mississippi, learning to play on her family's upright piano, working with church choirs, and moving to California with a gospel singing group. A broken marriage resulted in her return to Chicago in 1947 when she was referred to <mask> who set up a brief training with Robert Anderson, a longtime member of <mask>'s entourage. Falls  accompanied her in nearly every performance and recording thereafter. Always on the lookout for new material, <mask> received 25 to 30 compositions a month for her consideration. Falls played these so <mask> could "catch the message of the song". Once selections were made, Falls and <mask> memorized each composition though while touring with <mask>, Falls was required to improvise as <mask> never sang a song the same way twice, even from rehearsal to a performance hours or minutes later.Falls found it necessary to watch <mask>'s mannerisms and mouth instead of looking at the piano keys to keep up with her. At the beginning of a song, Falls might start in one key and receive hand signals from <mask> to change until <mask> felt the right key for the song in that moment. Falls remembered, "Mahalia waited until she heard exactly what was in her ear, and once she heard it, she went on about her business and she'd tear the house down." Studs Terkel compared Falls to Paul Ulanowsky and Gerald Moore who played for classical singing stars Lotte Lehmann and Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, respectively. Ralph Ellison called Falls and <mask> "the dynamic duo", saying that their performance at the 1958 Newport Jazz Festival created "a rhythmical drive such as is expected of the entire Basie band. It is all joy and exultation and swing, but it is nonetheless religious music." Falls' right hand playing, according to Ellison, substituted for the horns in an orchestra which was in constant "conversation" with <mask>'s vocals.Her left hand provided a "walking bass line that gave the music its 'bounce'", common in stride and ragtime playing. Similarly, television host Dinah Shore called Falls' left hand "the strongest thing in the whole world", giving <mask>'s music a prominent beat usually missing from religious music. When Shore's studio musicians attempted to pinpoint the cause of <mask>'s rousing sound, Shore admonished them with humor, saying, "Mildred's got a left hand, that's what your problem is." Anthony Heilbut explained, "By Chicago choir standards her chordings and tempos were old-fashioned, but they always induced a subtle rock exactly suited to Mahalia's swing." Influence

On music

<mask>'s influence was greatest in black gospel music. Beginning in the 1930s, Sallie Martin, Roberta Martin, Willie Mae Ford Smith, Artelia Hutchins, and <mask> spread the gospel blues style by performing in churches around the U.S. For 15 years the genre developed in relative isolation with choirs and soloists performing in a circuit of churches, revivals, and National Baptist Convention (NBC) meetings where music was shared and sold among musicians, songwriters, and ministers. The NBC boasted a membership of four million, a network that provided the source material that <mask> learned in her early years and from which she drew during her recording career.Though <mask> was not the first gospel blues soloist to record, historian Robert Marovich identifies her success with "Move On Up a Little Higher" as the event that launched gospel music from a niche movement in Chicago churches to a genre that became commercially viable nationwide. The "Golden Age of Gospel", occurring between 1945 and 1965, presented dozens of gospel music acts on radio, records, and in concerts in secular venues. <mask>'s success was recognized by the NBC when she was named its official soloist, and uniquely, she was bestowed universal respect in a field of very competitive and sometimes territorial musicians. Marovich explains that she "was the living embodiment of gospel music's ecumenism and was welcomed everywhere". The Cambridge Companion to Blues and Gospel Music identifies <mask> and Sam Cooke, whose music career started when he joined the Soul Stirrers, as the most important figures in black gospel music in the 1950s. To the majority of new fans, however, "Mahalia was the vocal, physical, spiritual symbol of gospel music", according to Heilbut. Raymond Horricks writes, "People who hold different religious beliefs to her own, and even people who have no religious beliefs whatsoever, are impressed by and give their immediate attention to her singing.She has, almost singlehandedly, brought about a wide, and often non-religious interest in the gospel singing of the Negro." Because she was often asked by white jazz and blues fans to define what she sang, she became gospel's most prominent defender, saying, "Blues are the songs of despair. Gospel songs are the songs of hope. When you sing gospel you have a feeling there's a cure for what's wrong. When you're through with the blues you've got nothing to rest on." As gospel music became accessible to mainstream audiences, its stylistic elements became pervasive in popular music as a whole. <mask>, who enjoyed music of all kinds, noticed, attributing the emotional punch of rock and roll to Pentecostal singing.Her Decca records were the first to feature the sound of a Hammond organ, spawning many copycats and resulting in its use in popular music, especially those evoking a soulful sound, for decades after. The first R&B and rock and roll singers employed the same devices that <mask> and her cohorts in gospel singing used, including ecstatic melisma, shouting, moaning, clapping, and stomping. Heilbut writes, "With the exception of Chuck Berry and Fats Domino, there is scarcely a pioneer rock and roll singer who didn't owe his stuff to the great gospel lead singers." Specifically, Little Richard, Mavis Staples of the Staple Singers, Donna Summer, Sam Cooke, Ray Charles, Della Reese, and Aretha Franklin have all named <mask> as an inspiration. <mask> was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the Early influence category in 1997. Mavis Staples justified her inclusion at the ceremony, saying, "When she sang, you would just feel light as a feather. God, I couldn't get enough of her."Franklin, who studied <mask> since she was a child and sang "Take My Hand, Precious Lord" at her funeral, was placed at Rolling Stone's number one spot in their list of 100 Greatest Singers of All Time, compiled in 2010. Despite her influence, <mask> was mostly displeased that gospel music was being used for secular purposes, considering R&B and soul music to be perversions, exploiting the music to make money. On black identity

<mask>'s success had a profound effect on black American identity, particularly for those who did not assimilate comfortably into white society. Though she and gospel blues were denigrated by members of the black upper class into the 1950s, for middle and lower class black Americans her life was a rags to riches story in which she remained relentlessly positive and unapologetically at ease with herself and her mannerisms in the company of white people. In Imitation of Life, her portrayal as a funeral singer embodied sorrow for the character Annie, a maid who dies from heartbreak. Scholar Johari Jabir writes that in this role, "<mask> conjures up the unspeakable fatigue and collective weariness of centuries of black women." Through her music, she promoted hope and celebrated resilience in the black American experience.<mask> was often compared to opera singer Marian Anderson, as they both toured Europe, included spirituals in their repertoires, and sang in similar settings. <mask> considered Anderson an inspiration, and earned an invitation to sing at Constitution Hall in 1960, 21 years after the Daughters of the American Revolution forbade Anderson from performing there in front of an integrated audience. But <mask>'s preference for the musical influence, casual language, and intonation of black Americans was a sharp contrast to Anderson's refined manners and concentration on European music. In interviews, <mask> repeatedly credits aspects of black culture that played a significant part in the development of her style: remnants of slavery music she heard at churches, work songs from vendors on the streets of New Orleans, and blues and jazz bands. Her first national television appearance on Ed Sullivan's Toast of the Town in 1952 showed her singing authentic gospel blues, prompting a large parade in her honor in Dayton, Ohio, with 50,000 black attendees – more than the integrated audience that showed up for a Harry Truman campaign stop around the same time. Known for her excited shouts, <mask> once called out "Glory!" on her CBS television show, following quickly with, "Excuse me, CBS, I didn't know where I was."By retaining her dialect and singing style, she challenged a sense of shame among many middle and lower class black Americans for their disparaged speech patterns and accents. Evelyn Cunningham of the Pittsburgh Courier attended a <mask> concert in 1954, writing that she expected to be embarrassed by <mask>, but "when she sang, she made me choke up and feel wondrously proud of my people and my heritage. She made me drop my bonds and become really emancipated." Malcolm X noted that <mask> was "the first Negro that Negroes made famous". White radio host Studs Terkel was surprised to learn <mask> had a large black following before he found her records, saying, "For a stupid moment, I had thought that I discovered <mask> <mask>." Jazz composer Duke Ellington, counting himself as a fan of <mask>'s since 1952, asked her to appear on his album Black, Brown and Beige (1958), an homage to black American life and culture. Due to her decision to sing gospel exclusively she initially rejected the idea, but relented when Ellington asked her to improvise the 23rd Psalm.She was featured on the album's vocal rendition of Ellington's composition "Come Sunday", which subsequently became a jazz standard. As she became more famous, spending time in concert halls, she continued to attend and perform in black churches, often for free, to connect with congregations and other gospel singers. Believing that black wealth and capital should be reinvested into black people, <mask> designed her line of chicken restaurants to be black-owned and operated. She organized a 1969 concert called A Salute to Black Women, the proceeds of which were given to her foundation providing college scholarships to black youth. Upon her death, singer Harry Belafonte called her "the most powerful black woman in the United States" and there was "not a single field hand, a single black worker, a single black intellectual who did not respond to her". Discography

Filmography

Honors

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 Boyer, Horace C., How Sweet the Sound: The Golden Age of Gospel, Elliott and Clark, (1995). Branch, Taylor, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954–63, Simon & Schuster, (1998).Broughton, Viv, Black Gospel: An Illustrated History of the Gospel Sound, Blanford Press, (1985). Burford, Mark, <mask> <mask> and the Black Gospel Field, Oxford University Press, (2019). Burford, Mark, ed. The Mahalia <mask> Reader, Oxford University Press, (2020). Darden, Bob, People Get Ready! A New History of Black Gospel Music, Continuum (2004). Gioia, Ted, The Jazz Standards: A Guide to the Repertoire, Oxford University Press, (2012).Goreau, Laurraine, Just Mahalia, Baby, World Books, (1975). Harris, Michael W., The Rise of Gospel Blues: The Music of Thomas Andrew Dorsey in the Urban Church, Oxford University Press (1992). Heilbut, Anthony, The Gospel Sound: Good News and Bad Times, Proscenium Publishers (1997). <mask>, <mask>, and Wylie, Evan McLeod, Movin' On Up, Hawthorn Books, (1966). Marovich, Robert M., A City Called Heaven: Chicago and the Birth of Gospel Music, University of Illinois Press, (2005). Moore, Allan (ed. ), The Cambridge Companion to Blues and Gospel Music, Cambridge University Press (2002).Whitburn, Joel, Joel Whitburn's Pop Memories: 1890–1954, Record Research, Inc., (1986). Further reading
 <mask>, Jesse, Make a Joyful Noise Unto the Lord! : The Life of <mask> <mask>, Queen of Gospel Singers, T.Y. Crowell, 1974. Juvenile nonfiction
 Cornell, Jean Gay, <mask> <mask>: Queen of Gospel Song, Garrard Publishing, (1974). Jones, Hettie, Big Star Fallin' Mama: Five Women in Black Music, Penguin (1997). External links

 I Sing Because I'm Happy Album Details at Smithsonian Folkways

 William Russell Jazz Collection at  The Historic New Orleans Collection

1911 births
1972 deaths
20th-century American singers
20th-century Baptists
20th-century American women singers
Activists for African-American civil rights
African-American Christians
20th-century African-American women singers
American contraltos
American gospel singers
American women activists
Apollo Records artists
Baptists from Louisiana
Burials in Louisiana
Columbia Records artists
Deaths from diabetes
Decca Records artists
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Musicians from New Orleans
Old Town School of Folk musicians
Singers from Chicago
Women civil rights

masks: Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Mahalia Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Jackson Mahalia Jackson Jackson Jackson Mahalia Jackson Jackson Jackson Mahalia Jackson Mahalia Jackson Mahalia Jackson


title: Karen Barad

texts:
<mask> (; born 29 April 1956) is an American feminist theorist, known particularly for their theory of agential realism. Biography
They are currently Professor of Feminist Studies, Philosophy, and History of Consciousness at the University of California, Santa Cruz. They are the author of Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning. Their research topics include feminist theory, physics, twentieth-century continental philosophy, epistemology, ontology, philosophy of physics, cultural studies of science, and feminist science studies. <mask> earned their doctorate in theoretical physics at Stony Brook University. Their dissertation presented computational methods for quantifying properties of quarks, and other fermions, and in the framework of lattice gauge theory. <mask> serves on the advisory board for the feminist academic journals Catalyst: Feminism, Theory, Technoscience and Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society.Agential realism
According to <mask>'s theory of agential realism, the universe comprises phenomena, which are "the ontological inseparability of intra-acting agencies". Intra-action, a neologism introduced by <mask>, signals an important challenge to individualist metaphysics. For <mask>, phenomena   or objects do not precede their interaction, rather, 'objects' emerge through particular intra-actions. Thus, apparatuses, which produce phenomena, are not assemblages of humans and nonhumans (as in actor-network theory). Rather, they are the condition of possibility of 'humans' and 'non-humans', not merely as ideational concepts, but in their materiality. Apparatuses are 'material-discursive' in that they produce determinate meanings and material beings while simultaneously excluding the production of others. What it means to matter is therefore always material-discursive.Barad takes their inspiration from physicist Niels Bohr, one of the founders of quantum physics. <mask>'s agential realism is at once an epistemology (theory of knowing), an ontology (theory of being), and an ethics. For this, <mask> introduces the neologism ontoepistemology. Because specific practices of mattering have ethical consequences, excluding other kinds of mattering, onto-epistemological practices are always in turn onto-ethico-epistemological. Much of <mask>'s scholarly work has revolved around their concept of "agential realism," and their theories hold importance for many academic fields, including science studies, STS (Science, Technology, and Society), feminist technoscience, philosophy of science, feminist theory, and, of course, physics. In addition to Bohr, their work draws on the works of thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Judith Butler, Jacques Derrida, and Walter Benjamin, among others. <mask>'s original training was in theoretical particle physics and quantum field theory.Their book, Meeting the Universe Halfway, (2007), includes a chapter that contains an original discovery in theoretical physics, which is largely unheard of in books that are usually categorized as 'gender studies' or 'cultural theory' books. In this book, <mask> also argues that 'agential realism,' is useful to the analysis of literature, social inequalities, and many other things. This claim is based on the fact that <mask>'s agential realism is a way of understanding the politics, ethics, and agencies of any act of observation, and indeed any kind of knowledge practice. According to <mask>, the deeply connected way that each "thing" is entangled with everything else in materially specific ways means that all intra-actions reconfigure the entanglements. <mask>'s innovative and far-reaching formulation of intra-action, which challenges the usual notion of interaction which assumes a metaphysics of individualism, offers a new formulation of causality. There are not things that interact but rather through and within intra-actions there is a differentiating-entangling so that an agential cut is enacted that cuts things together-apart (one move) such that differences exist not as absolute separations but in their inseparability (i.e., "agential separability" as <mask> calls it). Nothing is inherently separate from anything else, but separations are enacted within phenomena.This view of knowledge provides a framework for thinking about how culture and habits of thought can make some things visible and other things easier to ignore or to never see. For this reason, according to <mask>, agential realism is useful for feminist analysis and other forms of political and social thought, even if the connection to science is not apparent. <mask>'s framework makes several other arguments, and some of them are part of larger trends in fields such as science studies and feminist technoscience (all can be found in her 2007 book, Meeting the Universe Halfway):

 They defines agency as a relationship and not as something that one "has." The scientist and the social are always part of the apparatus, and one needs to take account of this in its inseparability in analyzing the system. This differs from the view that political critiques of science seek to undermine the credibility of science; instead, <mask> argues that this kind of critique actually makes for better, more credible science. They argue that politics and ethical issues are always part of scientific work, and only are made to seem separate by specific historical circumstances that encourage people to fail to see those connections. One example they discuss is the ethics of developing nuclear weapons to argue this point, by claiming that the ethics and politics are part of how such weapons were developed and understood, and therefore part of science, and not merely of the "philosophy of science" or the "ethics of science."This differs from the usual view that one can strive for a politics-free, bias-less science. Nevertheless, they argue against epistemological relativism, and offers an important alternative to the usual conception of objectivity. They also reject the idea that science is "only" a language game or set of fictions produced only by human constructions and concepts. Although the scientist is part of the "intra-action" of the experiment, humans (and their cultural constructs) do not have complete control over everything that happens. <mask> expresses this point by saying, in "Getting Real," that although scientists shape knowledge about the universe, you can't ignore the way the universe "kicks back." These points on science, agency, ethics, and knowledge reveal that <mask>'s work is similar to the projects of other science studies scholars such as Bruno Latour, Donna Haraway, Andrew Pickering, and Evelyn Fox Keller. Selected bibliography

Books

Chapters in books

Journal articles
  Abstract.Reprinted in various anthologies. See also
Queer Theory
Feminist Studies
Michel Foucault
Niels Bohr
Epistemology
Donna Haraway
Technoscience

References

External links

 <mask>'s UCSC web page
Joseph Rouse's discussion of agential realism, available on MUSE
 Review of Getting Real at the Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research

1956 births
20th-century American philosophers
21st-century American philosophers
21st-century American physicists
American women philosophers
Continental philosophers
Epistemologists
Feminist philosophers
Living people
Ontologists
Philosophy of physics
Postmodern feminists
Theoretical physicists
University of California, Santa Cruz faculty
Philosophers from California
Stony Brook University alumni
Philosophers of science
20th-century American women
21st-century American women

masks:
Karen Michelle Barad
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Barad
Barad
Barad
Barad
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Karen Barad


title: Bai Chongxi

texts:
<mask> (18 March 1893 – 1 December 1966; , , Xiao'erjing: ) was a Chinese general in the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China (ROC) and a prominent Chinese Nationalist leader. He was of Hui ethnicity and of the Muslim faith. From the mid-1920s to 1949, <mask> and his close ally Li Zongren ruled Guangxi province as regional warlords with their own troops and considerable political autonomy. His relationship with Chiang Kai-shek was at various times antagonistic and cooperative. He and Li Zongren supported the anti-Chiang warlord alliance in the Central Plains War in 1930, then supported Chiang in the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War. <mask> was the first defense minister of the Republic of China from 1946 to 1948. After losing to the Communists in 1949, he fled to Taiwan, where he died in 1966.Warlord era
<mask> was born in Guilin, Guangxi and given the courtesy name Jiansheng (). He was a descendant of a Persian merchant of the name <mask>luden, whose descendants adopted the Chinese surname <mask>. His Muslim name was <mask> <mask>. He was the second of three sons. His family was said to have come from Sichuan. At the age of 14 he attended the Guangxi Military Cadre Training School in Guilin, a modern-style school run by Cai E to modernize Guangxi's military. <mask> and classmates Huang Shaohong and Li Zongren would become the three leading figures of Guangxi's military.For a time <mask> withdrew from the military school at the request of his family and studied at the civilian Guangxi Schools of Law and Political Science. With the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, under the leadership of Huang Shaoxiong, <mask> joined a Students Dare to Die corps. After entering the Nanjing Enlistment Corps he transferred from the Corps to the Second Military Preparatory School at Wuchang. He graduated from the school in 1914, then underwent pre-cadet training for six months before attending the third class of Baoding Military Academy in June 1915. He became a 1st Guangxi Division probationary officer upon returning to Guangxi. <mask> rose to fame during the warlord era by allying with Huang Shaohong (a fellow deputy commander of the Model Battalion of the Guangxi First Division) and Li Tsung-jen as supporters of Kuomintang leader Sun Yat-sen. This alliance, called the New Guangxi Clique, proceeded to move against Guangxi warlord Lu Rongting in 1924.The coalition's efforts brought Guangxi Province under ROC jurisdiction, and Pai and Li represented a new generation of Guangxi leaders. The Nationalist chief of staff (acting) was <mask>. The 13th Army had him as the commander. The Nationalist Northern Punitive Expedition was participated in by <mask>. During the Northern Expedition (1926–28) <mask> was the Chief of Staff of the National Revolutionary Army and credited with many victories over the northern warlords, often using speed, maneuver and surprise to defeat larger enemy forces. He led the Eastern Route Army that conquered Hangzhou and Shanghai in 1927. As garrison commander of Shanghai, he also took part in the purge of Communist elements of the National Revolutionary Army on April 4, 1927, and of the labor unions in Shanghai.<mask> also commanded the forward units that first entered Beijing and was credited with being the senior commander on site to complete the Northern Expedition. For many of his battlefield exploits during the Northern expedition, he was given the laudatory nickname Xiao Zhuge, literally "little Zhuge Liang," of the Three Kingdoms fame. <mask> was the commander of Kuomintang forces in the Shanghai massacre of 1927, where he directed the KMT purge of Communists in the party. In 1928, during the Northern Expedition, <mask> led Kuomintang forces in the defeat and destruction of Fengtian Clique Gen. Zhang Zongchang, capturing 20,000 of his 50,000 troops and almost capturing Zhang himself, who escaped to Manchuria. <mask> personally had around 2,000 Muslims under his control during his stay in Beijing in 1928 after the Northern Expedition was completed; it was reported by Time magazine that they "swaggered riotously" in the aftermath In June 1928 in Beijing, <mask> announced that the forces of the Kuomintang would seize control of Manchuria and the enemies of the Kuomintang would "scatter like dead leaves before the rising wind". <mask> was out of money and bankrupt in December 1928. He planned to lead 60,000 troops from east China to Xinjiang province and construct a railroad as a barrier against Russian encroachment in Xinjiang.His plan was perceived by some to be against Feng Yuxiang. The Military Council refused to authorize him leaving Peiping to go to Hankow. At the end of the Northern Expedition, Chiang Kai-shek began to agitate to get rid of the Guangxi forces. At one time in 1929 <mask> had to escape to Vietnam to avoid harm. Hubei and Guangxi were subjected to the Hankou subcouncil of Li Zongren and <mask>. Li and <mask>'s Hankou and Canton self-ruling governments were terminated by Chiang. Hankou was captured by Chiang during the dispute between the Guangxi faction and Nanjing.From 1930 to 1936, <mask> was instrumental in the Reconstruction of Guangxi, which became a "model" province with a progressive administration. Guangxi supplied over 900,000 soldiers to the war effort against Japan. During the Chinese Civil War <mask> fought against the Communists. In the Long March he allowed the Communists to slip through Guangxi. Governing his province aptly and capably were two of the things <mask> was renowned for in China. Prominent Muslims like Generals Ma Liang, Ma Fuxiang and <mask> met in 1931 in Nanjing to discuss intercommunal tolerance between Hui and Han. Second Sino-Japanese War

The 4th Army Groups chief of staff was <mask>.An anti-Japanese war was called for by <mask>, Li Zongren and Chen Jitang in 1936. The menace posed by Japan was seen by <mask> and Li Zongren. Formal hostilities broke out on 7 July 1937 between China and Japan with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident outside Beijing. On 4 August 1937 <mask> rejoined the Central Government at the invitation of Chiang Kai-shek. During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45), he was the Deputy Chief of the General Staff responsible for operations and training. He was the key strategist who convinced Chiang to adopt a "Total War" strategy in which China would trade space for time, adopt guerrilla tactics behind enemy lines and disrupt enemy supply lines at every opportunity. When the better armed and trained Japanese troops advanced, the Chinese would adopt a scorched earth campaign in the enemy's path to deny them local supply.<mask> was also involved in many key campaigns including the first major victory at the Battle of Tai'erzhuang in Shandong Province in the spring of 1938 when he teamed up with Gen. Li Zongren to defeat a superior enemy. China managed to check and delay the Japanese advance for several months. Subsequently, <mask> was appointed Commander of the Field Executive Office of the Military Council in Guilin, with responsibility for the 3rd, 4th, 7th and 9th War Zones. In that capacity he oversaw the successful defense of Changsha, capital of Hunan Province. Between 1939 and 1942, the Japanese attacked Changsha three times and were repelled each time. <mask> also directed the Battle of South Guangxi and Battle of Kunlun Pass to retake South Guangxi. The 64th Army and 46th Army were requested to be outfitted by <mask> via Gen. Lindsey.<mask>'s Guangxi soldiers were praised as a "crack" (as in elite) army during the war against Japan, and he was known to be an able general who could lead the Chinese resistance should Chiang Kai-shek be assassinated. The majority of Chinese presumed that Chiang Kai-shek, as leader of China, tapped <mask> to inherit his position. <mask> led the competent Guangxi Army against the Japanese. In refusing to obey commands from Chiang if he assumed them to be wrong and flawed, <mask> was alone among fellow military men. Jihad was declared obligatory and a religious duty for all Chinese Muslims against Japan after 1937 during the Second Sino-Japanese War. <mask> also sheltered the Muslim Yuehua publication in Guilin, which printed quotes from the Quran and Hadith justifying the need for Chiang Kai-shek as leader of China. Also, promoted Chinese nationalism and uniting Hui to the Han during the war against Japan.During the war, <mask> traveled throughout the Muslim northwestern provinces of China controlled by the Ma Clique and met with Ma Clique generals to defeat Japanese propaganda. The Hui Muslim Xidaotang sect pledged allegiance to the Kuomintang after their rise to power and <mask> acquainted Chiang Kai-shek with the Xidaotang jiaozhu Ma Mingren in 1941 in Chongqing. <mask> headed the Chinese Islamic National Salvation Federation. In January 1945, he was awarded the Legion of Merit of the United States. Chinese Civil War

Following the surrender of Japan in 1945, the Chinese Civil War resumed in full-fledged fighting. In the spring of 1946 the Chinese Communists were active in Manchuria. A crack People's Liberation Army unit of 100,000 strong under the Communist Gen. Lin Biao occupied a key railroad junction at Siping.Kuomintang forces could not dislodge them after several attempts; Chiang Kai-shek then sent <mask> to oversee the operation. After some redeployment, Nationalist forces were able to decisively defeat Lin's forces after a two-day pitched battle. This was to be the first major victory for the Kuomintang in the 1946-49 stage of the civil war before the fall of mainland China to the Chinese Communists. In June 1946 <mask> was appointed Minister of National Defense. It turned to be a post without power, as Chiang began to bypass <mask> on major decisions regarding the Chinese Civil War. Chiang would hold daily briefings in his residence without inviting <mask> and began to

masks:
Bai Chongxi
Bai
Bai
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Baider
Bai
Omar Bai
Chongxi
Bai
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Bai
Bai
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Bai Chongxi
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Bai Chongxi
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Bai Chongxi
Bai Chongxi
Bai chongxi
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title: Bai Chongxi

texts:
 direct front-line troops personally down to the division level, bypassing the chain of command. The Civil War went poorly for the Kuomintang as Chiang's strategy of holding onto provincial capitals and leaving the countryside to the Communists very quickly caused the downfall of his forces, which had a 4:1 numerical superiority at the beginning of the conflict.During the Ili Rebellion <mask> was considered by the government for the post of Governor of Xinjiang. The position later was given to Masud Sabri, a pro-Kuomintang Uyghur leader. In April 1948 the first National Assembly in China convened in Nanjing, with thousands of delegates from all over China representing different provinces and ethnic groups. <mask>, acting as Minister of National Defense, debriefed the Assembly on the military situation, completely ignoring Northern China and Manchuria in his report. Delegates from Manchuria in the assembly responded by yelling out and calling for the death of those responsible for the loss of Manchuria. In November 1948 <mask>, in command of forces in Hankow, met with Generals Fu Zuoyi, Chang Chih-chung and Chiang Kai-shek in Nanjing about defending Suzhou, the gateway to the Yangzi River valley. <mask> told the Central Political Council of the Kuomintang that negotiating with the Communists would only make them more powerful.Governor of Hunan Cheng Qian, and <mask> reached a consensus that they should impede the advance of the Communists by negotiating with them. In January 1949, with the Communists close to victory, almost everyone in the Nationalist media, political and military command began to demand peace as a slogan and turn against Chiang. <mask> decided to follow suit with the mainstream current and defied Chiang Kai-shek's orders, refusing to battle Communists near the Huai River and demanding that his soldiers, which were "lent", be sent back to him so he could secure his hold n the province of Guangxi and ignore the central government in Nanjing. <mask> was the commander of four armies in Central China in the Hankow region. He demanded that the government negotiate with the Communists like the others. <mask> was in charge of the defense of the capital, Nanjing. He sent a telegram requesting that Chiang Kai-shek step down as president, amid a storm of requests by other Kuomintang military and political figures for Chiang to step down and allow a peace deal with the Communists.When Communist Gen. Lin Biao mounted an attack on <mask>'s forces in Hankow, they retreated quickly, leaving the "rice bowl" of China open for the Communists. <mask> retreated to headquarters at Hengyang via a railroad from Hankow to Canton. The railroad then provided access to Guilin where his home was. In August at Hengyang, <mask> reorganized his troops. In October, as the Canton fell to the Communists, who were almost in complete control of China, <mask> still commanded 200,000 of his elite troops, making a return to Guangxi for a final stand after covering for Canton. Taiwan

The riots following the February 28 Incident of 28 February 1947 that broke out in Taiwan due to poor governance by the central government appointed officials and the garrison forces caused many casualties of both native Taiwanese and mainland residents. <mask> was sent as Chiang Kai-shek's personal representative on a fact finding mission and to help pacify the populace.After a two-week tour, including interviews  with various  segments of the Taiwan population, <mask> made sweeping recommendations, including replacement of the governor, and prosecution of his chief of secret police. He also granted amnesty to student violators of peace on the condition that their parents take custody and guarantee subsequent proper behavior. For his forthright actions, native Taiwanese held him in high regard. <mask> had another falling out with Chiang when he supported General Li Zongren, his fellow Guangxi comrade-in-arms, for the vice presidency in the 1948 general election when Li won against Chiang's hand picked candidate, Sun Fo. Chiang then removed <mask> from the Defense Minister post and assigned him the responsibility for Central and South China. <mask>'s forces were the last ones to leave the mainland for Hainan Island and eventually to Taiwan. He served Chief of the General Staff since 1927 until his retirement in 1949.After he came to Taiwan, he was the appointed vice director of the strategic advisory commission in the presidential office. He also continued to serve in the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang. He reorganized the party from 1950 to 1952. After the Communist victory, some of <mask>'s Guangxi troops fled to French Indochina where they were detained. Others went to Hainan in retreat. In 1951, <mask> made a speech to the entire Muslim world calling for a war against the Soviet Union, claiming that the "imperialist ogre" leader Joseph Stalin was engineering World War III, and <mask> also called upon Muslims to avoid the Indian leader Jawaharlal Nehru, accusing him of being blind to Soviet imperialism. He and Chiang never reconciled and he lived in semi-retirement until he died of coronary thrombosis on 1 December 1966 at the age of 73.<mask> was then given a military funeral by the government, with a Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White Sun flag over his coffin. <mask> was buried in the Muslim section of the Liuzhangli (六張犁) Cemetery in Taipei, Taiwan. Personal life

As a Muslim, he was Chairman of the Chinese Islamic National Salvation Federation, and then the Chinese Muslim Association. <mask> was a board member of the All-China Inter-religious Association, representing Islam, the other members of the board were a Catholic Bishop, Methodist Bishop, and the Buddhist Abbot Taixu. <mask> sent his son Pai Hsien-yung to Catholic schools in Hong Kong. During the Northern Expedition, in 1926 in Guangxi, <mask> led his troops in destroying Buddhist temples and smashing idols, turning the temples into schools and Kuomintang party headquarters. It was reported that almost all of Buddhist monasteries in Guangxi were destroyed by <mask> in this manner.The monks were removed. <mask> led a wave of anti-foreignism in Guangxi, attacking American, European, and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners. Westerners fled from the province, and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents. The three goals of his movement were anti-foreignism, anti-imperialism, and anti-religion. <mask> led the anti-religious movement, against superstition. Huang Shaoxiong, also a Kuomintang member of the New Guangxi Clique, supported <mask>'s campaign, and Huang was a non-Muslim, the anti religious campaign was agreed upon by all Guangxi Kuomintang members, so it may have not had anything to do with <mask>'s beliefs. As a Kuomintang member, <mask> and the other Guangxi clique members allowed the Communists to continue attacking foreigners and idols, since they shared the goal of expelling the foreign powers from China, but they stopped Communists from initiating social change.British diplomats reported that he also drank wine and ate pork. <mask> was interested in Xinjiang, a predominately Muslim province. He wanted to resettle disbanded Chinese soldiers there to prevent it from being seized by the Soviet Union. <mask>  personally wanted to lead an expedition to seize back Xinjiang to bring it under Chinese control, in the style that Zuo Zongtang led during the Dungan revolt. <mask>'s partner in the Guangxi clique Huang Shaohong planned an invasion of Xinjiang. During the Kumul Rebellion Chiang Kai-shek was ready to send Huang Shaohong and his expeditionary force which he assembled to assist Muslim General Ma Zhongying against Sheng Shicai, but when Chiang heard about the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang, he decided to withdraw to avoid an international incident if his troops directly engaged the Soviets, leaving Ma alone with not reinforcements to fight the Red Army. Huang was suspicious of this, suspecting that Chiang feared that the Guangxi clique was take control of Xinjiang rather than Chiang's Nanjing regime.Impact
<mask>'s reputation as a military strategist was well known. Evans Carlson, a United States Marine Corps colonel, noted that <mask> "was considered by many to be the keenest of Chinese military men." Edgar Snow went even further, calling him "one of the most intelligent and efficient commanders boasted by any army in the world." <mask> is the father of Kenneth Hsien-yung Pai, Chinese author and playwright now living in the United States. <mask> and his wife had ten children, three girls and seven boys. Their names are Patsy, Diana, Daniel, Richard, Alfred, Amy, David, Kenneth, Robert and Charlie. He married his wife Ma P'ei-chang in 1925.Of his ten children, three are still living, scattered across America and Taiwan. Taipei Mayor Hau Lung-pin announced in March 2013 that <mask>'s tomb will form the basis for a Muslim cultural area and Taiwan historical park. See also
 Islam in China
 Islam in Taiwan

References

External links

<mask>xi
Picture of <mask>'s Family
<mask>'s pictures
Picture of <mask>'s Funeral

1893 births
1966 deaths
Taiwanese Muslims
Taiwanese people of Hui descent
Chinese anti-communists
Chinese military personnel of World War II
Hui people
Baoding Military Academy cadets
National Revolutionary Army generals from Guangxi
Republic of China warlords from Guangxi
Chinese Muslim generals
Qing dynasty military personnel
Recipients of the Order of Blue Sky and White Sun
Chinese Nationalist military figures
Kuomintang politicians in Taiwan
People from Guilin
Defense Ministers of the Republic of China
Deaths from coronary thrombosis
Chinese Civil War refugees
Chinese mass murderers
Taiwanese people from Guangxi
Commanders of the Legion of Merit
People of the Northern Expedition
People of the Central Plains

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title: Liesbeth List

texts:
<mask>, generally known as <mask> (December 12, 1941 – March 25, 2020) was a Dutch singer, stage actress and television personality. She became popular during the 1960s and frequently collaborated with Ramses Shaffy. She also sang Jacques Brel's chansons in Dutch translation. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born in Bandoeng, Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia), as Elisabeth "Elly" Dorathea Driessen. Her parents were separated in 1942 when during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, her father was forced to work in coal mines. Elly and her mother were sent to one of the many camps set up exclusively to imprison Dutch occupants of Indonesia; such camps were known under the Dutch nickname "jappenkamp" (Jap-Camp). The circumstances in which Elly and her mother lived in the camp were very hard on her mother, who developed depression.When the Japanese capitulated at the end of WWII Elly and her mother were set free. They were reunited with their father and husband, but a few weeks later, Elly's mother committed suicide. Elly and her father returned to the Netherlands, where her father remarried. His new wife, however, frequently clashed with Elly. At the age of seven, children's services took Elly away. It was thought her father was deceased, and she was placed in an orphanage. After it was revealed her father was still alive, she was placed back with her father and stepmother.In 1948, during a trip to the Dutch island of Vlieland, Elly's stepmother was told that the owner of a hotel on Vlieland and his wife were seeking to adopt a child. Elly was subsequently given up by her father and adopted by this couple, whose surname was <mask>. 1958–68: television, theatre and music
As a teenager, <mask> was very interested in culture and music. At age 18, in 1959 she moved to Amsterdam, where she studied fashion and had a job as a secretary. She appeared in the AVRO talent show "Nieuwe Oogst", after which she was signed to collaborate with legendary Dutch singer Ramses Shaffy (1933–2009) in the theatre show Shaffy Chantant. They first started this show, in which they performed well-known chansons, in 1964. In 1965, the duo was awarded the Europe Cup for Best Singing Performance in Knokke, Belgium.This caused <mask> to focus on a musical career and she released her debut album in 1966. In 1967, Mikis Theodorakis asked her to collaborate on an LP of his Mauthausen Ballad, describing the persecution of Jews during the Second World War in dramatic chansons. The LP was a critical and commercial success. <mask> was also successful with an LP containing cover versions of songs by Jacques Brel: the LP was certified gold. 1969–90: expanded career

In 1969, <mask> was awarded a press prize at a television festival in Montreux. The prize was awarded to her for her contribution in a television series. Because of this foreign acclaim, <mask> focused more on international success.She started recording more cover versions of well-known artists, such as Gilbert Bécaud. <mask>'s success continued with the release of more LPs and a continued acting career in television, film, and stage. In 1972 she recorded and album with the American singer, songwriter Rod McKuen: 'Two against the morning'. In 1973 she recorded the album 'Meet lovely <mask> <mask>' in England. Her album: '<mask> <mask> sings Jacques Brel' was released in 1972 in the USA. In 1976 she recorded an album with songs of Charles Aznavour 'Charles Aznavour presents: <mask> <mask>'. She sang with him the duet: 'Don't say a word.'<mask> took a short break when she became pregnant with her first child; she and husband Robert Braaksma had a daughter, Elisah, in 1983, when <mask> was 41. <mask> ceased her activities for six years to care for her child. In 1988, <mask> made her return to the public eye, starring in a theatre programme titled "List NU". In 1990, she started on a similar show, but it gained neither critical nor commercial success, therefore <mask> accepted that her career had ended. 1991–2020
In the 90s singer, songwriter and producer Frank Boeijen revived <mask>'s career. She recorded two albums with him: in 1994 <mask> and in 1996 Noach. In 1995 she received an Edison for the first, which is one of the highest musical honors awarded in The Netherlands.In 1999 she released Vergezicht which contains the song Heb Het Leven Lief (Love life) which she sang in 2007 at the memorial celebration for Jos Brink, with whom she had performed in a musical Het Hemelbed to great acclaim. She was also approached by Albert Verlinde to star in his musical about Edith Piaf's life. She started this in 1999 and did 170 shows of Piaf, de Musical. Because of its success, and the many requests to bring the musical back, she reprised the role during 2008 and 2009. In 2000 and in 2008, she won the coveted John Kraaijkamp Musical Award for this role. In 2009 she released a new CD called Verloren & Gewonnen. In 2015, she released what would be her last album, a tribute album to Ramses Shaffy titled Echo, which contained covers of songs by Shaffy.In 2017, <mask> decided to retire from music because she was developing dementia due to brain damage she had sustained in a car accident earlier in life. She died in her sleep on March 25, 2020, after spending the last years of her life in an assisted-living facility. Discography
<mask> <mask> 1966
<mask> <mask> Sings Theodorakis 1967
Pastorale 1968
Zingt Jacques Brel, Phillips Netherlands 849 010 PY, 1969
Victoria 1970
Neuremberger Droom 1971
 Two against the morning Philips Records 1972
 Meet lovely <mask> List Philips Records 1973
 Foto 1974
 Samen (met Ramses Shaffy) 1976
 Charles Aznavour presents: <mask> <mask> Philips Records 1976
 Madame Melancholie 1977
 Meisjes van Dertig 1979
 Voor vanavond en daarna 1982
 List 1994
 Noach 1996
 Vergezicht 1999
 Van Shaffy tot Piaf 2001
 Heb het leven lief 2001
 Portret 2002
 Carre Vedetten Gala 2006
 Verloren en Gewonnen 2009
 Echo 2015

Bibliography
 Verburg, Alex Het voorlopige leven van Liesbeth <mask>, published by Archipel 2001,  (Dutch language)
 Verburg, Alex Intiem. De herinneringen van Liesbeth List, published by Witsand/ Archipel, 2010,  (Dutch language)
Dave Boomkens, <mask> <mask>, de dochter van de vuurtorenwachter, published by Luitingh-Sijthoff, 2017. (Dutch language)

References

External links

1941 births
2020 deaths
Dutch women singers
People from Bandung
Musicians from West Java

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Elisabeth Dorathea List
Liesbeth List
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title: J. J. C. Smart

texts:
<mask>  (16 September 1920 – 6 October 2012), was a British-Australian philosopher and was appointed as an Emeritus Professor by the Australian National University. He worked in the fields of metaphysics, philosophy of science, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, and political philosophy. He wrote multiple entries for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Career
Born in Cambridge, England, of Scottish parents, <mask> began his education locally, attending The Leys School, a leading independent boarding school. His younger brothers also became professors: Alastair (1922–1992) was Professor of Art History at Nottingham University; Ninian was a professor of religious studies and a pioneer in that field. Their father, <mask>, was <mask> Astronomer at Cambridge University and later Regius Professor of Astronomy at Glasgow. In 1950, W. M<mask> was President of the Royal Astronomical Society.In 1946, <mask> graduated from the University of Glasgow with an MA, followed by a BPhil from Oxford University in 1948. He then worked as a Junior Research Fellow at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, for two years. <mask> served in the Second World War with the British Army where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Corps of Signals on 9 October 1941 and given the service number 212091. His war service was mainly in India and Burma. He was demobilised in April 1946 and in 1950 was granted the honorary rank of lieutenant. He arrived in Australia in August 1950 to take up the Chair of Philosophy at the University of Adelaide, which he occupied from 1950 until 1972. After twenty-two years in Adelaide, he moved to La Trobe University where he was Reader in Philosophy from 1972 to 1976.He then moved to the Australian National University where he was Professor of Philosophy in the Research School of Social Sciences from 1976 until his retirement in 1985, and where the annual <mask> Lecture is held in his honour. Following his retirement he was Emeritus Professor at Monash University. <mask> was a Foundation Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities at its establishment in 1969. In 1990 he was awarded the Companion in the General Division of the Order of Australia. In 1991 he was elected to become an honorary Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and in 2010, elected to become an honorary Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. At first <mask> was a behaviourist before becoming an early proponent of type identity theory. Metaphysics
<mask>'s main contribution to metaphysics is in the area of philosophy of time.He has been an influential defender of the B-theory of time, and of perdurantism. His most important original arguments in this area concern the passage of time, which he claimed is an illusion. He argued that if time really passed, then it would make sense to ask at what rate it passes, but this requires some second time-dimension with respect to which passage of normal time can be measured. This in turn faces the same problems, and so there must be a third time-dimension, and so on. This is called the rate of passage argument and it was originally put forward by C. D. Broad. <mask> has changed his mind about the nature and causes of the illusion of the passage of time. In the 1950s, he held that it was due to people's use of anthropocentric temporal language.He later came to abandon this linguistic explanation of the illusion in favour of a psychological explanation in terms of the passage of memories from short-term to long-term memory. Philosophy of mind
Regarding the philosophy of mind, <mask> was a physicalist. In the 1950s, he was also one of the originators, with Ullin Place, of the mind–brain identity theory, which claims that particular states of mind are identical with particular states of the brain. Initially, this view was dubbed "Australian materialism" by its detractors, in reference to the stereotype of Australians as down-to-earth and unsophisticated. <mask>'s identity theory dealt with some extremely long-standing objections to physicalism by comparing the mind–brain identity thesis to other identity theses well-known from science, such as the thesis that lightning is an electrical discharge, or that the morning star is the evening star. Although these identity theses give rise to puzzles such as Gottlob Frege's puzzle of the Morning Star and Evening Star, in the scientific cases, some claim that it would be absurd to reject the identity theses on this ground. Since the puzzles facing physicalism are strictly analogous to the scientific identity theses, it would then also be absurd to reject physicalism on the grounds that it gives rise to these puzzles.Ethics
In ethics, <mask> was a defender of utilitarianism. Specifically, he defended "extreme", or act utilitarianism, as opposed to "restricted", or rule utilitarianism. The distinction between these two types of ethical theory is explained in his essay Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism. <mask> gave two arguments against rule utilitarianism. According to the first, rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism because there is no adequate criterion on what can count as a "rule". According to the second, even if there were such a criterion, the rule utilitarian would be committed to the untenable position of preferring to follow a rule, even if it would be better if the rule were broken, which <mask> called "superstitious rule worship". Another aspect of <mask>'s ethical theory is his acceptance of a preference theory of well-being, which contrasts with the hedonism associated with "classical" utilitarians such as <mask>.<mask>'s combination of the preference theory with consequentialism is sometimes called "preference utilitarianism". <mask>'s arguments against rule utilitarianism have been very influential, contributing to a steady decline in its popularity among ethicists during the late 20th century. Worldwide, his defence of act utilitarianism and preference theory has been less prominent but has influenced philosophers who have worked or been educated in Australia, such as <mask>, Philip Pettit, and Peter Singer. One of <mask>'s two entries in the Philosophical Lexicon refers to his approach to the consequences of act utilitarianism: to "outsmart" an opponent is "to embrace the conclusion of one's opponent's reductio ad absurdum argument." This move is more commonly called "biting the bullet". Works

"Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism", The Philosophical Quarterly, Oct. 1956, pages 344–354. An Outline of a System of Utilitarian Ethics, 1961.Philosophy and Scientific Realism, 1963. Problems of Space and Time, 1964 (edited, with introduction). Between Science and Philosophy: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science, 1968. Utilitarianism : For and Against (co-authored with Bernard Williams; 1973)
Ethics, Persuasion and Truth, 1984. Essays Metaphysical and Moral, 1987. Atheism and Theism (Great Debates in Philosophy) (including contributions by <mask>e; 1996)

References

Sources
Who's Who in Australia 1990
Pettit, Philip; Sylvan, Richard; Norman, <mask> (editors); Metaphysics and Morality: Essays in Honour of <mask>.C. <mask>, 1987.Franklin, <mask>, Corrupting the Youth: A History of Philosophy in Australia, 2003

External links

 The annual <mask> lecture at Philosophy RSSS, the Australian National University
 JJC Smart obituary, The Guardian, London, 30 October 2012
 J.J.C. <mask> (1920-2012) by Graham Nerlich in Philosophy Now
 Vale J. J. C. Smart obituary notice from Monash University with tributes from <mask>w and Graham Oppy
 <mask>; gifted Scottish philosopher who became a leading light in Australia Scotsman obituary
 J. J. <mask> (1920-2012): Remembering <mask>, M., Bilimoria, P. & Bigelow, J., SOPHIA (2013) 52: 1. J. J. C. <mask>, 1920 - 2012 by <mask>w, with <mask> and <mask>
British Army Officers 1939–1945

1920 births
Consequentialists
2012 deaths
Companions of the Order of Australia
Utilitarians
20th-century Australian  philosophers
21st-century Australian philosophers
Australian atheists
Atheist philosophers
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of religion
Metaphysicians
People educated at The Leys School
Monash University faculty
University of Adelaide faculty
Australian National University faculty
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of The Queen's College, Oxford
Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
British political philosophers
Fellows of the Australian Academy of the Humanities
British Army personnel of World War II
Royal Corps of Signals officers
People from Cambridge
British emigrants to Australia
Military personnel from Cambridgeshire

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John Jamieson Carswell Smart
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Elizabeth Smart
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