title: Odette Ferreira

texts:
<mask> (4 June 19257 October 2018) was a Portuguese professor of microbiology who played an important role in research on HIV, through the identification of the HIV-2 virus in association with the Pasteur Institute of Paris. She was also the coordinator of the Portuguese programme to fight AIDS, overseeing the "Say no to a second-hand syringe" project, which resulted in the collection and exchange by pharmacies of 43 million used syringes between 1993 and 2008. Early life
<mask> was born in Lisbon, Portugal, on 4 June 1925. Her grandfather was the owner of the first pharmacy on the island of Bolama in Portuguese Guinea and her father was a civil servant there. Her uncles were also pharmacists. <mask> moved to Bolama when she was only three months old. Back in Portugal at the age of 10, she attended the Colégio Moderno in Lisbon.Education
After obtaining a bachelor's degree, <mask> had to postpone further academic training. The pharmacy faculty at the University of Lisbon had been closed since 1932, and the only institution able to offer a Pharmacy degree was in Porto. Her father, however, would not let her go alone to Porto to study. In 1968, the pharmacy faculty reopened in Lisbon, enabling her to continue her chosen studies, graduating in pharmaceutical studies in 1970. She then became an assistant professor at the University of Lisbon, responsible for practical instruction in microbiology, bacteriology, and virology. She was soon invited to spend a three-month internship with the Pasteur Institute, leaving her husband, also a pharmacist, and two daughters behind in Lisbon to go to Paris. On completing the internship, where she had been made aware of techniques for identifying the AIDS virus, she started a doctorate on the topic of hospital infections, receiving a PhD from Paris-Sud University in 1977.Career
In the 1970s, <mask> began collaborating with the Pasteur Institute to carry out an epidemiological study of hospital infections caused by the Pseudomonas Aeruginosa bacillus observed in Lisbon hospitals. Her studies led to the identification of Portuguese lysotypes that had not previously been categorised. After the Carnation Revolution (25 April 1974), in which the authoritarian Estado Novo government was overthrown, she had several different roles in the reorganization of the University of Lisbon, as a member of the Board of Directors and of the Pedagogical Council. In the 1980s, <mask> worked continuously with the Pasteur Institute, where she developed detection techniques for the HIV-1 lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV), one of the etiological agents of HIV, and made the first diagnoses of cases of AIDS in Portugal, including that of the famous Portuguese singer António Variações. In September 1985, she flew to Paris from Lisbon with test tubes of blood in her coat. She held them close to her body to keep the blood at body temperature, necessary to maintain the stability of the samples, and also to be able to pass through security without inspection. The blood came from a patient from Guinea-Bissau who had been admitted to the Egas Moniz Hospital in Lisbon.It was known that people in Guinea-Bissau had AIDS but researchers could not find antibodies to HIV-1 in their blood. The research <mask> carried out at the Pasteur Institute in the following two weeks, together with Nobel Prize winners Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier, culminated in the identification of a new type of AIDS virus, HIV-2, and paved the way for comparative studies between HIV-1 and HIV-2. From this time all of <mask>'s scientific activity was focused on the study of the HIV/AIDS infection, in particular on the less-virulent HIV-2. Her discovery of HIV-2, its epidemiology and diagnosis, made in collaboration with the Pasteur Institute and with José Luis Champalimaud from the Egas Moniz Hospital, came to revolutionize the world of serological diagnosis and helped the Retrovirus and Associated Infections Unit (CPM-URIA) at the University of Lisbon to expand and concentrate important lines of research in the area of retroviruses. Following this discovery, <mask> and Champalimaud were invited to become consultants to the World Health Organization's AIDS Programme. <mask> became Professor of Microbiology at the University of Lisbon in 1986 and played a major role in the creation of the university's microbiology laboratory. In 1992 she was appointed coordinator of the Portuguese National Programme to fight AIDS, a position she held until 2000.Under her, the "Say no to a second-hand syringe" project was introduced. Resulting from a partnership between the Ministry of Health and the National Association of Pharmacies, this project was developed simultaneously throughout Portugal at approximately 2,500 pharmacies. By collecting 43 million used syringes between 1993 and 2008 the programme successfully reduced the risk of intravenous transmission of HIV and other communicable diseases (Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C) to drug addicts. Other projects with significant impact were the establishment of anonymous and free screening centres, and the creation of a centre in Lisbon to provide counselling, analysis, consultation and protection for sex workers. The work of the National Programme is estimated to have saved several thousand lives. Ferreira visited drug addicts and prostitutes, alerting them to the need to exchange syringes and use condoms. She protested against the "stupidity of fear" and did not hesitate to hug and kiss HIV-positive people, even when she was personally ostracized by people who believed that the AIDS virus was spread like influenza.She promoted several home-support services coordinated by the Solidarity Project of the Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa, and the construction of a residence to support AIDS patients through provision of palliative care (Residência Madre Teresa de Calcutá). Awards
In 1975, the French government made <mask> a Chevalier dans l'Ordre des Palmes Academiques for her role in strengthening scientific cooperation between Portugal and France, and in 1987 she was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur for her work on HIV. In Portugal, in 1988, she was made a Commander of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword (). In 2016, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MCTES) awarded her the Medal of Merit for her "valuable and exceptional contribution to the development of science or scientific culture in Portugal". The Order of Pharmacists (Ordem dos Farmacêuticos) recognized her achievements by awarding her its Medal of Honour and, in 2012, its gold medal. In 2010, the Order of Pharmacists created a scientific research award, which was designated as the "Scientific Research Prize Professor <mask> <mask>". An award that particularly pleased her was the use of her name for a conference room at the Pharmacy Faculty.<mask> died on 7 October 2018. She donated her professional estate to the Lisbon Pharmacy Museum. An exhibition of her work was under preparation with her participation at the time of her death and was held from 21 February 2019 at the museum. References

Portuguese microbiologists
HIV/AIDS researchers
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
University of Lisbon alumni
University of Lisbon faculty
1925 births
2018 deaths
Women microbiologists
20th-century women scientists
Portuguese women scientists
21st-century women scientists
Women medical researchers
20th-century biologists
21st-century biologists
20th-century Portuguese scientists
21st-century Portuguese scientists

masks:
Maria Odette Santos Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Ferreira
Maria Odette
Santos Ferreira
Ferreira


title: Ping Tom

type: original

texts:
<mask> (April 15, 1935 – July 7, 1995) (; pinyin: Tān Jìpíng) was an American businessman and civic leader in Chicago. He was also the uncle of American actress <mask>. Early life and education
Mr. <mask> was the youngest of eight children. His mother, Lillian Goo, married <mask>. Chan after her sister, Mary Goo, <mask>. Chan's first wife, died from influenza. Mary Goo had two children: Florence and Grace. Lillian had six children:  Priscilla, Helene, Eunice, Mary, <mask> (Chung) and <mask>. Mr. <mask> attended Haines School in Chinatown.He then won a high-school scholarship to Francis W. Parker School in Chicago. Mr. <mask> won the Parker scholarship over his best friend, Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr., who went on to become the first African-American astronaut. Mr. <mask> graduated from Parker in 1952. Both of his sons, Darryl (Class of 1988) and Curtis (Class of 1990), as well as Trace Lawrence (Class of 1977), Mr. Lawrence's son, also attended Francis W. Parker School. In an article Mr. <mask> wrote for the Parker Weekly in 1988, he stated that his experience at Parker shaped and influenced his life in two ways. First, Parker's atmosphere of encouragement helped him build self-confidence. Second, Parker's diversity taught him to develop "mutual respect and caring for those of a different race, ethnicity and religion."In fact, he noted that he had not known a Jew until he attended Parker. Mr. <mask> then attended Northwestern University where he entered a special six-year dual degree program to obtain a bachelor's degree concurrently with a Juris Doctor from Northwestern University School of Law, receiving his B.A. in Economics in 1956 and his J.D. in 1958. Businesses

 Chinese Trading Company (est. 1911):  food import company
 Vice president, 1966–72; President, 1972–95
 Chinese Noodle Company (est. 1911): maker of egg noodles and won ton and egg roll skins
 Vice president, 1958–66; President, 1972–95
 Lekel Chop Suey Pail Company: maker of take out food pails
 President, 1980–95
 Mah Chena Corporation: frozen food and appetizers
 President, 1980–95
 Griesbaum Meat Company: tripe processing company
 President, 1980–95

Chinese Trading Company and Chinese Noodle Company were founded by <mask>. Chan.The other companies were acquired by the <mask> family later. After his older brother, Chung, died of a heart attack in 1980, Mr. <mask> became president of all of the above companies. His sisters, Helene, Eunice, and Mary also worked for the family business, as did his nephews, Jan Wong (Eunice's son) and <mask> (Chung's son). Civic activities
 Trustee, WTTW-TV Channel 11
 Trustee, Adler Planetarium
 Trustee, The Lincoln Academy of Illinois
 Trustee, Jane Addams' Hull House
 Director, Madison Bank
 Member, Chicago Board of Roosevelt University
 Member, Board of Advisors, Mercy Hospital and Medical Center
 Member, Illinois Development Finance Authority
 Member, South Side Planning Board
 Member, Economic Club of Chicago
 Member, design committee for Harold Washington Library
 Member, Metropolitan Pier and Exposition Authority
 Member, U.S. Federal Judicial Nominations Committee
 Director, Asian American Institute
 Founding president (1983), Chinatown Chamber of Commerce
 Chairman, Chinatown Parking Corporation
 Past president and director, Chinese American Civic Council
 Member, Advisory Board of the Chinese American Service League

Mr. <mask> was a leader not only in the Chinese community, but in the broader Asian American community as well. His beaming smile and calm demeanor endeared him to people of all backgrounds. Friends say that he had a natural ability to resolve differences among people. He was one of the thirteen original founders of the Asian American Coalition of Chicago, an organization that annually brings together diverse Asian communities, including Chinese, Indian, Pakistani, Japanese, Korean, Indonesian, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cambodian, among others.Furthermore, some say that because he was a second generation native English speaker, he had an easier time working with mainstream (non-Asian) organizations and even politicians. Mr. <mask> was an advisor to U.S. Senators (Paul Simon, Carol Moseley-Braun), Illinois governors (James R. Thompson, Jim Edgar), and Chicago mayors (the late Harold Washington and Richard M. Daley). Outside of family and the family businesses, Mr. <mask>'s greatest achievement was his work on Chinatown Square, a $100 million plus residential and commercial expansion of Chinatown on  of land purchased from the Santa Fe Railroad. As president of the Chinese American Development Corporation, founded in 1984, he unfortunately did not have the chance to see the bustling development that it has become. It was his desire to expand Chinatown so that there would be more room for his fellow Chinese to live and work. He was recently recognized as one of Chicago magazine's top 40 Chicago pioneers for his efforts.Personal life

<mask> married Valerie Ching (born September 15, 1934) of Honolulu, Hawaii on October 11, 1958. They met in Chicago while Mr. <mask> was attending law school at Northwestern University and Valerie attended the Gregg Court Reporting School, which was then associated with Northwestern. They had two children:
 <mask> (born March 13, 1970)
 <mask> (born August 13, 1972)

Death and honors

Following his sudden death in 1995 due to pancreatic cancer, Mr. <mask>'s wish that a park be built for Chinatown residents came true on October 2, 1999, when the Chicago Park District dedicated the  Ping Tom Memorial Park next to the Chinatown Square in his name. In 2005, a bust of Mr. <mask> was installed in the park to commemorate the 10th anniversary of his death. The Asian American Coalition of Chicago has since named its highest award, the Pan Asian American award,   in his honor. References

External links
Ping Tom Memorial Park Advisory Board Page
Ping Tom Memorial Park
Chinatown Chamber of Commerce
Asian American Coalition of Chicago
The Raymond and Jean Lee Chinese-American Museum of Chicago
Haines School
Francis W. Parker School

1935 births
1995 deaths
American businesspeople in shipping
American chief executives
American food industry business executives
American manufacturing businesspeople
American newspaper publishers (people)
American people of Chinese descent
Philanthropists from Illinois
Businesspeople from Chicago
Northwestern University alumni
Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law alumni

masks:
Ping Tom
Lauren Tom
Tom
Tom Y
Tom Y
Tom
Ping
Tom
Tom
Tom
Tom
Tom
Tom Y
Tom
Tom
Chip Tom
Tom
Tom
Tom
Ping Tom
Tom
Darryl Tom
Curtis Tom
Tom
Tom


title: Charles I of Anjou

texts:
<mask> (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called <mask> of Anjou, was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the second House of Anjou. He was Count of Provence (1246–85) and Forcalquier (1246–48, 1256–85) in the Holy Roman Empire, Count of Anjou and Maine (1246–85) in France; he was also King of Sicily (1266–85) and Prince of Achaea (1278–85). In 1272, he was proclaimed King of Albania; and in 1277 he purchased a claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The youngest son of <mask> of France and Blanche of Castile, <mask> was destined for a Church career until the early 1240s. He acquired Provence and Forcalquier through his marriage to their heiress, Beatrice. His attempts to restore central authority brought him into conflict with his mother-in-law, Beatrice of Savoy, and the nobility. <mask> received Anjou and Maine from his brother, <mask> of France, in appanage.He accompanied Louis during the Seventh Crusade to Egypt. Shortly after he returned to Provence in 1250, <mask>arseilles, Arles and Avignonto acknowledge his suzerainty. <mask> supported Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut, against her eldest son, John, in exchange for Hainaut in 1253. Two years later <mask> persuaded him to renounce the county, but compensated him by instructing Margaret to pay him 160,000 marks. <mask> forced the rebellious Provençal nobles and towns into submission and expanded his suzerainty over a dozen towns and lordships in the Kingdom of Arles. In 1263, after years of negotiations, he accepted the offer of the Holy See to seize the Kingdom of Sicily from the Hohenstaufens. This kingdom included, in addition to the island of Sicily, southern Italy to well north of Naples and was known as the Regno.Pope Urban IV declared a crusade against the incumbent Manfred of Sicily and assisted <mask> in raising funds for the military campaign. <mask> was crowned king in Rome on 5 January 1266. He annihilated Manfred's army and occupied the Regno almost without resistance. His victory over Manfred's young nephew, Conradin, at the Battle of Tagliacozzo in 1268 strengthened his rule. In 1270 he took part in the Eighth Crusade organized by <mask>, and forced the Hafsid Caliph of Tunis to pay a yearly tribute to him. <mask>'s victories secured his undisputed leadership among the Papacy's Italian partisans (known as Guelphs), but his influence on papal elections and his strong military presence in Italy disturbed the popes. They tried to channel his ambitions towards other territories and assisted him in acquiring claims to Achaea, Jerusalem and Arles through treaties.In 1281 Pope Martin IV authorised <mask> to launch a crusade against the Byzantine Empire. <mask>'s ships were gathering at Messina, ready to begin the campaign when the Sicilian Vespers rebellion broke out on 30March 1282 which put an end to <mask>'s rule on the island of Sicily. He was able to defend the mainland territories (or the Kingdom of Naples) with the support of France and the Holy See. <mask> died while making preparations for an invasion of Sicily. Early life

Childhood

<mask> was the youngest child of King <mask> of France and Blanche of Castile. The date of his birth has not survived, but he was probably a posthumous son, born in early 1227. <mask> was his only surviving son to be "born in the purple" (after his father's coronation), a fact he often emphasised in his youth, as the contemporaneous chronicler Matthew Paris noted in his .He was the first Capetian to be named for Charlemagne. <mask> died in November 1226 and his eldest son, <mask>, succeeded him. The late King willed that his youngest sons were to be prepared for a career in the Roman Catholic Church. The details of <mask>'s tuition are unknown, but he received a good education. He understood the principal Catholic doctrines and could identify errors in Latin texts. His passion for poetry, medical sciences and law is well documented. <mask> said that their mother had a strong impact on her children's education.In reality, Blanche was fully engaged in state administration, and could likely spare little time for her youngest children. <mask> lived at the court of a brother, <mask>, Count of Artois, from 1237. About four years later he was put into the care of his youngest brother, Alphonse, Count of Poitiers. His participation in his brothers' military campaign against Hugh X of Lusignan, Count of La Marche, in 1242 showed that he was no longer destined for a Church career. Provence and Anjou

Raymond Berengar V of Provence died in August 1245, bequeathing Provence and Forcalquier to his youngest daughter, Beatrice, allegedly because he had given generous dowries to her three sisters. The dowries were actually not fully discharged, causing two of her sisters, Margaret (<mask>'s wife) and Eleanor (the wife of <mask> of England), to believe that they had been unlawfully disinherited. Their mother, Beatrice of Savoy, claimed that Raymond Berengar had willed the usufruct of Provence to her.The Hohenstaufen Emperor <mask> (whom Pope <mask> IV had recently excommunicated for his alleged "crimes against the Church"), Count <mask> of Toulouse and other neighbouring rulers proposed themselves or their sons as husbands for the young Countess. Her mother put her under the protection of the Holy See. <mask> and Margaret suggested that Beatrice should be given in marriage to <mask>. To secure the support of France against Frederick II, Pope <mask> IV accepted their proposal. <mask> hurried to Aix-en-Provence at the head of an army to prevent other suitors from invading Provence, and married Beatrice on 31January 1246. Provence was a part of the Kingdom of Arles and so of the Holy Roman Empire, but <mask> never swore fealty to the emperor. He ordered a survey of the counts' rights and revenues, outraging both his subjects and his mother-in-law, who regarded this action as an attack against her rights.Being a younger child, destined for a church career, <mask> had not received an appanage (a hereditary county or duchy) from his father. <mask> had willed that his fourth son, John, should receive Anjou and Maine upon reaching the age of majority, but John died in 1232. <mask> knighted <mask> at Melun in May 1246 and three months later bestowed Anjou and Maine on him. <mask> rarely visited his two counties and appointed baillies (or regents) to administer them. While <mask> was absent from Provence, Marseilles, Arles and Avignonthree wealthy cities, directly subject to the emperorformed a league and appointed a Provençal nobleman, Barral of Baux, as the commander of their combined armies. <mask>'s mother-in-law put the disobedient Provençals under her protection. <mask> could not deal with the rebels as he was about to join his brother's crusade.To pacify his mother-in-law he acknowledged her right to rule Forcalquier and granted a third of his revenues from Provence to her. Seventh Crusade

In December 1244 <mask>, Alphonse and <mask>o took the cross. Preparations for the crusade lasted for years, with the crusaders embarking at Aigues-Mortes on 25August 1248. After spending several months in Cyprus they invaded Egypt on 5June 1249. They captured Damietta and decided to attack Cairo in November. During their advance Louis's biographer Jean de Joinville noted <mask>'s personal courage which saved dozens of crusaders' lives.Robert of Artois died fighting against the Egyptians at Al Mansurah. His three brothers survived, but they had to abandon the campaign. While withdrawing from Egypt, they fell into captivity on 6April 1250. The Egyptians released Louis, <mask> and Alphonse in exchange of 800,000 bezants and the surrender of Damietta on 6May. During their voyage to Acre, <mask> outraged Louis by gambling while the king was mourning Robert's death. Louis remained in the Holy Land, but <mask> returned to France in October 1250. Wider ambitions

Conflicts and consolidation

<mask>'s officers continued the survey of the counts' rights and revenues in Provence, provoking a new rebellion during his absence.On his return he applied both diplomacy and military force to deal with them. The Archbishop of Arles and the Bishop of Digne ceded their secular rights in the two towns to <mask> in 1250. He received military assistance from his brother, Alphonse. Arles was the first town to surrender to them in April 1251. In May they forced Avignon to acknowledge their joint rule. A month later Barral of Baux also capitulated. Marseilles was the only town to resist for several months, but it also sought peace in July 1252.Its burghers acknowledged <mask> as their lord, but retained their self-governing bodies. <mask>'s officials continued to ascertain his rights, visiting each town and holding public enquiries to obtain information about all claims. The count's salt monopoly (or ) was introduced in the whole county. Income from the salt trade made up about 50% of state revenues by the late 1250s. <mask> abolished local tolls and promoted shipbuilding and grain trade. He ordered the issue of new coins, called , to enable the use of the local currency in smaller transactions. Emperor Frederick II, who was also the ruler of Sicily, died in 1250.The Kingdom of Sicily, also known as the Regno, included the island of Sicily and southern Italy nearly as far as Rome. Pope <mask> IV claimed that the Regno had reverted to the Holy See. The Pope first offered it to Richard of Cornwall, but Richard did not want to fight against Frederick's son, <mask> of Germany. Then the Pope proposed to enfeoff <mask> with the kingdom. <mask> sought instructions from <mask>, who forbade him to accept the offer, because he regarded Conrad as the lawful ruler. After <mask> informed the Holy See on 30October 1253 that he would not accept the Regno, the Pope offered it to Edmund of Lancaster. Queen Blanche, who had administered France during Louis' crusade, died on 1December 1252.Louis made Alphonse and <mask> co-regents, so that he could remain in the Holy Land. Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut had come into conflict with her son by her first marriage, John of Avesnes. After her sons by her second marriage were captured in July 1253, she needed foreign assistance to secure their release. Ignoring <mask>'s 1246 ruling that Hainaut should pass to John, she promised the county to <mask>. He accepted the offer and invaded Hainaut, forcing most local noblemen to swear fealty to him. After his return to France, <mask> insisted that his ruling was to be respected. In November 1255 he ordered <mask> to restore Hainaut to Margaret, but her sons were obliged to swear fealty to <mask>.Louis also ruled that she was to pay 160,000 marks to <mask> over the following 13 years. <mask> returned to Provence, which had again become restive. His mother-in-law continued to support the rebellious Boniface of Castellane and his allies, but <mask> persuaded her to return Forcalquier to <mask> and relinquish her claims for a lump sum payment from <mask> and a pension from Louis in November 1256. A coup by <mask>'s supporters in Marseilles resulted in the surrender of all political powers there to his officials. <mask> continued to expand his power along the borders of Provence in the next four years. He received territories in the Lower Alps from the Dauphin of Vienne. <mask> of Baux, Count of Orange, ceded the title of regent of the Kingdom of Arles to him.The burghers of Cuneoa town strategically located on the routes from Provence to Lombardysought <mask>'s protection against Asti in July 1259. Alba, Cherasco, Savigliano and other nearby towns acknowledged his rule. The rulers of Mondovì, Ceva, Biandrate and Saluzzo did homage to him. Emperor <mask>'s illegitimate son, Manfred, had been crowned king of Sicily in 1258. After the English barons had announced that they opposed a war against Manfred, Pope <mask> annulled the 1253 grant of Sicily to Edmund of Lancaster. Alexander's successor, Pope Urban <mask>, was determined to put an end to the Emperor's rule in Italy. He sent his notary, Albert of Parma, to Paris to  negotiate with <mask> for <mask> to be placed on the Sicilian throne.<mask> met with the Pope's envoy in early 1262. Taking advantage of <mask>'s absence, Boniface of Castellane stirred up a new revolt in Provence. The burghers of Marseilles expelled <mask>'s officials, but Barral of Baux stopped the spread of the rebellion before <mask>'s return. <mask> renounced Ventimiglia in favour of the Republic of Genoa to secure her neutrality. He defeated the rebels and forced Castellane into exile. The mediation of <mask> of Aragon brought about a settlement with Marseilles: its fortifications were dismantled and the townspeople surrendered their arms, but the town retained its autonomy. Conquest of the Regno

Louis IX decided to support <mask>'s military campaign in Italy in May 1263.Pope Urban IV promised to proclaim a crusade against Manfred, while <mask> pledged that he would not accept any offices in the Italian towns. Manfred staged a coup in Rome, but the Guelphs elected <mask> senator (or the head of the civil government of Rome). He accepted the office, at which a group of cardinals requested that the Pope revoke the agreement with him, but the Pope, being otherwise defenceless against Manfred, could not break with <mask>. In the spring of 1264 Cardinals Simon of Brie and Guy Foulquois were sent to France to reach a compromise and start raising support for the crusade. <mask> sent troops to Rome to protect the Pope against Manfred's allies. At Foulquois' request, <mask>'s sister-in-law Margaret (who had not abandoned her claims to her dowry) pledged that she would not take actions against <mask> during his absence. Foulquois also persuaded the French and Provençal prelates to offer financial support for the crusade.Pope Urban died before the final agreement was concluded. <mask> made arrangements for his campaign against Sicily during the interregnum; he concluded agreements to secure his army's route across Lombardy and had the leaders of the Provençal rebels executed. Foulquois was elected pope in February 1265; he soon confirmed <mask>'s senatorship and urged him to come to Rome. <mask> agreed that he would hold the Kingdom of Sicily as the popes' vassal for an annual tribute of 8,000 ounces of gold. He also promised that he would never seek the imperial title. He embarked at Marseilles on 10May and landed at Ostia ten days later. He was installed as senator on 21June and four cardinals invested him with the Regno a week later.To finance further military actions he borrowed money from Italian bankers with the Pope's assistance, who had authorised him to pledge Church property. Five cardinals crowned him king of Sicily on 5January 1266. The crusaders from France and Provencereportedly 6,000 fully equipped mounted warriors, 600 mounted bowmen and 20,000 foot soldiersarrived in Rome ten days later. <mask> decided to invade southern Italy without delay, because he was unable to finance a lengthy campaign. He left Rome on 20January 1266. He marched towards Naples, but changed his strategy after learning of a muster of Manfred's forces near Capua. He led his troops across the Apennines towards Benevento.Manfred also hurried to the town and reached it before <mask>. Worried that further delays might endanger his subjects' loyalty, Manfred attacked <mask>'s army, then in disarray from the crossing of the hills, on 26February 1266. In the ensuing battle, Manfred's army was defeated and he was killed. Resistance throughout the Regno collapsed and towns surrendered even before <mask>'s troops reached them. The Saracens of Luceraa Muslim colony established during Frederick II's reignpaid homage to him. His commander, Philip of Montfort, took control of the island of Sicily. Manfred's widow, Helena of Epirus, and their children were captured.<mask> laid claim to her dowrythe island of Corfu and the region of Durazzo (now Durrës in Albania)by right of conquest. His troops seized Corfu before the end of the year. Conradin

<mask> was lenient with Manfred's supporters, but they did not believe that this conciliatory policy could last. They knew that he had promised to return estates to the Guelph lords expelled from the Regno. Neither could <mask> gain the commoners' loyalty, partly because he continued enforcing the  despite the popes declaring it an illegal charge. He introduced a ban on the use of foreign currency in large transactions and made a profit of the compulsory exchange of foreign coinage for locally minted currency. He also traded in grain, spices and sugar, through a joint venture with Pisan merchants.Pope Clement censured <mask> for his methods of state administration, describing him as an arrogant and obstinate monarch. The consolidation of <mask>'s power in northern Italy also alarmed Clement. To appease the Pope, <mask> resigned his senatorship in May 1267. His successors, Conrad Monaldeschi and Luca Savelli, demanded the re-payment of the money that <mask> and the Pope had

masks:
Charles I
Charles
Louis VIII
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
CharlesM
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis VIII
Charles
Louis VIII
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Robert I
Louis IX
Henry III
Frederick II
Innocent
Raymond VII
Louis IX
Charles
Innocent
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis VIII
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis IXRobert
Charlesals
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Innocent
Conrad IV
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Raymond I
Charles
Frederick II
Alexander IV
IV
Louis IX
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
James I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles


title: Charles I of Anjou

texts:
 borrowed from the Romans. Victories by the Ghibellines, the imperial family's supporters, forced the Pope to ask <mask> to send his troops to Tuscany. <mask>'s troops ousted the Ghibellines from Florence in April 1267. After being elected the Podestà (ruler) of Florence and Lucca for seven years, <mask> hurried to Tuscany.<mask>'s expansionism along the Papal States's borders alarmed Pope Clement and he decided to change the direction of <mask>'s ambitions. The Pope summoned him to Viterbo, forcing him to promise that he would abandon all claims to Tuscany in three years. He persuaded <mask> to conclude agreements with William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea, and the titular Latin Emperor <mask> in late May. According to the first treaty, Villehardouin acknowledged <mask>'s suzerainty and made <mask>'s younger son, Philip, his heir, also stipulating that <mask> would inherit Achaea if Philip died childless. Baldwin confirmed the first agreement and renounced his claims to suzerainty over his vassals in favour of <mask>. <mask> pledged that he would assist Baldwin in recapturing Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor, <mask> Palaiologos, in exchange for one third of the conquered lands. <mask> returned to Tuscany and laid siege to the fortress of Poggibonsi, but it did not fall until the end of November.Manfred's staunchest supporters had meanwhile fled to Bavaria to attempt to persuade <mask>'s 15-year-old son Conradin to assert his hereditary right to the Kingdom of Sicily. After Conradin accepted their proposal, Manfred's former vicar in Sicily, Conrad Capece, returned to the island and stirred up a revolt. At Capece's request <mask> al-Mustansir, the Hafsid caliph of Tunis, allowed Manfred's former ally, Frederick of Castile, to invade Sicily from North Africa. Frederick's brother, Henrywho had been elected senator of Romealso offered support to Conradin. Henry had been <mask>'s friend, but <mask> had failed to repay a loan to him. Conradin left Bavaria in September 1267. His supporters' revolt was spreading from Sicily to Calabria; the Saracens of Lucera also rose up.Pope Clement urged <mask> to return to the Regno, but he continued his campaign in Tuscany until March 1268, when he met with the Pope. In April, the Pope made <mask> imperial vicar of Tuscany "during the vacancy of the empire", a move of dubious legality. <mask> marched to southern Italy and laid siege to Lucera, but he then had to hurry north to prevent Conradin's invasion of Abruzzo in late August. At the Battle of Tagliacozzo, on 23August 1268, it appeared that Conradin had won the day, but a sudden charge by <mask>'s reserve routed Conradin's army. The burghers of Potenza, Aversa and other towns in Basilicata and Apulia massacred their fellows who had agitated on Conradin's behalf, but the Sicilians and the Saracens of Lucera did not surrender. <mask> marched to Rome where he was again elected senator in September. He appointed new officials to administer justice and collect state revenues.New coins bearing his name were struck. During the following decade, Rome was ruled by <mask>'s vicars, each appointed for one year. Conradin was captured at Torre Astura. Most of his retainers were summarily executed, but Conradin and his friend, <mask>, Margrave of Baden, were brought to trial for robbery and treason in Naples. They were sentenced to death and beheaded on 29October. Conrad of Antioch was Conradin's only partisan to be released, but only after his wife threatened to execute the Guelph lords she held captive in her castle. The Ghibelline noblemen of the Regno fled to the court of <mask> of Aragon, who had married Manfred's daughter, Constance.Mediterranean empire

Italy

<mask>'s wife, Beatrice of Provence, had died in July 1267. The widowed <mask> married Margaret of Nevers in November 1268. She was co-heiress to her father, Odo, the eldest son of <mask>, Duke of Burgundy. Pope Clement died on 29November 1268. The papal vacancy lasted for three years, which strengthened <mask>'s authority in Italy, but it also deprived him of the ecclesiastic support that only a pope could provide. <mask> returned to Lucera to personally direct its siege in April 1269. The Saracens and the Ghibellines who had escaped to the town resisted until starvation forced them to surrender in August 1269.<mask> sent Philip and Guy of Montfort to Sicily to force the rebels there into submission, but they could only capture Augusta. <mask> made William l'Estandart the commander of the army in Sicily in August 1269. L'Estandart captured Agrigento, forcing Frederick of Castile and Frederick Lancia to seek refuge in Tunis. After L'Estandart's subsequent victory at Sciacca, only Capece resisted, but he also had to surrender in early 1270. <mask>'s troops forced Siena and Pisathe last towns to resist him in Tuscanyto sue for peace in August 1270. He granted privileges to the Tuscan merchants and bankers which strengthened their position in the Regno. His influence was declining in Lombardy, because the Lombard towns no longer feared an invasion from Germany after Conradin's death.In May 1269 <mask> sent Walter of La Roche to represent him in the province, but this failed to strengthen his authority. In October <mask>'s officials convoked an assembly at Cremona, and invited the Lombard towns to attend. The Lombard towns accepted the invitation, but some townsMilan, Bologna, Alessandria and Tortonaonly confirmed their alliance with <mask>, without acknowledging his rule. Eighth Crusade

<mask> never abandoned the idea of the liberation of Jerusalem, but he decided to begin his new crusade with a military campaign against Tunis. According to his confessor, <mask> of Beaulieu, Louis was convinced that al-Mustansir of Tunis was ready to convert to Christianity. The 13th-century historian Saba Malaspina stated that <mask> persuaded Louis to attack Tunis, because he wanted to secure the payment of the tribute that the rulers of Tunis had paid to the former Sicilian monarchs. The French crusaders embarked at Aigues-Mortes on 2July 1270; <mask> departed from Naples six days later.He spent more than a month in Sicily, waiting for his fleet. By the time he landed at Tunis on 25August, dysentery and typhoid fever had decimated the French army. Louis died the day <mask> arrived. The crusaders twice defeated Al-Mustansir's army, forcing him to sue for peace. According to the peace treaty, signed on 1November, Al-Mustansir agreed to fully compensate Louis' son and successor, <mask> of France, and <mask> for the expenses of the military campaign and to release his Christian prisoners. He also promised to pay a yearly tribute to <mask> and to expel <mask>'s opponents from Tunis. The gold from Tunis, along with silver from the newly opened mine at Longobucco, enabled <mask> to mint new coins, known as , in the Regno.<mask> and Philip departed Tunis on 10November. A storm dispersed their fleet at Trapani and most of <mask>'s galleys were lost or damaged. Genoese ships returning from the crusade were also sunk or forced to land in Sicily. <mask> seized the damaged ships and their cargo, ignoring all protests from the Ghibelline authorities of Genoa. Before leaving Sicily he granted temporary tax concessions to the Sicilians, because he realised that the conquest of the island had caused much destruction. Attempts to expand

<mask> accompanied <mask> as far as Viterbo in March 1271. Here they failed to convince the cardinals to elect a new pope.<mask>'s brother, Alphonse of Poitiers, fell ill. <mask> sent his best doctors to cure him, but Alphonse died. He claimed the major part of Alphonse's inheritance, including the Marquisate of Provence and the County of Poitiers, because he was Alphonse's nearest kin. After <mask> objected, he took the case to the Parlement of Paris. In 1284 the court ruled that appanages escheated to the French crown if their rulers died without descendants. An earthquake destroyed the walls of Durazzo in the late 1260s or early 1270s. <mask>'s troops took possession of the town with the assistance of the leaders of the nearby Albanian communities. <mask> concluded an agreement with the Albanian chiefs, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties in February 1272.He adopted the title of King of Albania and appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his vicar-general. He also sent his fleet to Achaea to defend the principality against Byzantine attacks. <mask> hurried to Rome to attend the enthronement of Pope Gregory X on 27March 1272. The new pope was determined to put an end to the conflicts between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. While in Rome <mask> met with the Guelph leaders who had been exiled from Genoa. After they offered him the office of captain of the people, <mask> promised military assistance to them. In November 1272 <mask> commanded his officials to take prisoner all Genoese within his territories, except for the Guelphs, and to seize their property.His fleet occupied Ajaccio in Corsica. Pope Gregory condemned his aggressive policy, but proposed that the Genoese should elect Guelph officials. Ignoring the Pope's proposal, the Genoese made alliance with Alfonso X of Castile, <mask> of Montferrat and the Ghibelline towns of Lombardy in October 1273. The conflict with Genoa prevented <mask> from invading the Byzantine Empire, but he continued to forge alliances in the Balkan Peninsula. The Bulgarian ruler, Konstantin Tih, was the first to conclude a treaty with him in 1272 or 1273. <mask> Doukas of Thessaly and Stefan Uroš <mask>, King of Serbia, joined the coalition in 1273. However, Pope Gregory forbade <mask> to attack, because he hoped to unify the Orthodox and Catholic churches with the assistance of Emperor <mask>.The renowned theologian Thomas Aquinas died unexpectedly near Naples on 7March 1274, before departing to attend the Second Council of Lyon. According to a popular legend, immortalised by Dante Alighieri, <mask> had him poisoned, because he feared that Aquinas would make complaint against him. The historian Steven Runciman emphasises that "there is no evidence for supposing that the great doctor's death was not natural". Southern Italian churchmen at the council accused <mask> of tyrannical acts. Their report reinforced the Pope's attempt to reach a compromise with Rudolf of Habsburg, who had been elected king of Germany by the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. In June, the Pope acknowledged Rudolf as the lawful ruler of both Germany and Italy. <mask>'s sisters-in-law, Margaret and Eleanor, approached Rudolf, claiming that they had been unlawfully disinherited in favour of <mask>'s late wife.<mask>'s personal envoy announced at the Council of Lyon on 6July that he had accepted the Catholic creed and papal primacy. About three weeks later, Pope Gregory again prohibited <mask> from launching military actions against the Byzantine Empire. The Pope also tried to mediate a truce between <mask> and Michael, but the latter chose to attack several smaller states in the Balkans, including <mask>'s vassals. The Byzantine fleet took control of the maritime routes between Albania and southern Italy in the late 1270s. Gregory only allowed <mask> to send reinforcements to Achaea. The organisation of a new crusade to the Holy Land remained the Pope's principal object. He persuaded <mask> to start negotiations with Maria of Antioch about purchasing her claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.The High Court of Jerusalem had already rejected her in favour of <mask> of Cyprus, but the Pope had a low opinion of Hugh. The war with Genoa and the Lombard towns increasingly occupied <mask>'s attention. He appointed his nephew <mask> of Artois as his deputy in Piedmont in October 1274, but Artois could not prevent Vercelli and Alessandria from joining the Ghibelline League. The following summer, a Genoese fleet plundered Trapani and the island of Gozo. Convinced that only <mask> could achieve a compromise between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Pope urged the Lombard towns to send envoys to him. He also urged <mask> to renounce Tuscany. In the autumn of 1275 the Ghibellines offered to make peace with <mask>, but he did not accept their terms.Early the next year the Ghibellines defeated his troops at Col de Tende, forcing them to withdraw to Provence. Papal elections

Pope Gregory X died on 10January 1276. After the hostility he experienced during Gregory's pontificate, <mask> was determined to secure the election of a pope willing to support his plans. Gregory's successor, Pope <mask>, had always been <mask>'s partisan and he rapidly confirmed <mask> as senator of Rome and imperial vicar of Tuscany. He also mediated a peace treaty between <mask> and Genoa, which was signed in Rome on 22June 1276. <mask> restored the privileges of the Genoese merchants and renounced his conquests, and the Genoese acknowledged his rule in Ventimiglia. Pope <mask> died on 30June 1276.After the cardinals assembled in the Lateran Palace, <mask>'s troops surrounded it, enabling only his allies to communicate with other cardinals and with outsiders. On 11July the cardinals elected <mask>'s old friend, Ottobuono de' Fieschi, pope, but he died on 18August. The cardinals met again, this time at Viterbo. Although <mask> was staying in the nearby Vetralla, he could not directly influence the election, because his vehement opponent, Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, dominated the papal conclave. Pope John XXI, who was elected on 20September, excommunicated <mask>'s opponents in Piedmont and prohibited Rudolf from coming to Lombardy, but did not forbid the Lombardian Guelph leaders swearing fealty to Rudolf. The Pope also confirmed the treaty concluded by <mask> and Maria of Antioch on 18March which transferred her claims to Jerusalem to <mask> for 1,000 bezants and a pension of 4,000 . <mask> appointed Roger of San Severino to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem as his bailiff.San Severino landed at Acre on 7June 1277. <mask>'s bailiff, Balian of Arsuf, surrendered the town without resistance. Although initially only the Knights Hospitaller and the Venetians acknowledged <mask> as the lawful ruler, the barons of the realm also paid homage to San Severino in January 1278, after he had threatened to confiscate their estates. The Mamluks of Egypt had already confined the kingdom to a coastal strip covering  and <mask> had ordered San Severino to avoid conflicts with Egypt. Pope John died on 20May 1277. <mask> was ill and could not prevent the election of Giovanni Gaetano Orsini as Pope Nicholas III on 25November. The Pope soon declared that no foreign prince could rule in Rome and reminded <mask> that he had been elected senator for ten years.<mask> swore fealty to the new pope on 24May 1278 after lengthy negotiations. He had to pledge that he would renounce both the senatorship of Rome and the vicariate of Tuscany in four months. On the other hand, <mask> confirmed the excommunication of <mask>'s enemies in Piedmont and started negotiations with Rudolf to prevent him from making an alliance against <mask> with Margaret of Provence and her nephew, <mask> of England. The negotiations with Rudolf lay behind Nicholas' refusal to renew <mask>'s vicariate in Tuscany, to which Rudolf had appointed his own vicar. <mask> announced his resignation from the senatorship and the vicariate on 30August 1278. He was succeeded by the Pope's brother, Matteo Orsini, in Rome, and by the Pope's nephew, Cardinal Latino Malabranca, in Tuscany. To ensure that <mask> fully abandoned his ambitions in central Italy the Pope started negotiations with Rudolf about the restoration of the Kingdom of Arles for <mask>'s grandson, <mask>el.Margaret of Provence sharply opposed the plan, but <mask> of France did not stand by his mother. After lengthy negotiations, in the summer of 1279 Rudolf recognised <mask> as the lawful ruler of Provence without demanding his oath of fealty. An agreement about <mask>'s rule in Arles and his marriage to Rudolf's daughter, Clemence, was signed in May 1280. The plan disturbed the rulers of the lands along the Upper Rhone, especially Duke Robert II and Count Otto IV of Burgundy. <mask> had meanwhile inherited the Principality of Achaea from <mask> of Villehardouin, who had died on 1May 1278. He appointed the unpopular  of Sicily, Galeran of Ivry, as his baillif in Achaea. Galeran could not pay his troops who started to pillage the peasants' homes.<mask> de la Roche, Duke of Athens, had to lend money to him to finance their salaries. Nicephoros <mask> of Epirus acknowledged <mask>'s suzerainty on 14March 1279 to secure his assistance against the Byzantines. Nicephoros also ceded three townsButrinto, Sopotos and Panormosto Charles. Pope Nicholas died on 22August 1280. <mask> sent agents to Viterbo to promote the election of one of his supporters, taking advantage of the rift between the late Pope's relatives and other Italian cardinals. When a riot broke out in Viterbo, after the cardinals had not reached a decision for months, <mask>'s

masks:
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
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Charles
Baldwin II
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Michael VIII
Charles
Conrad IV
Muhammad I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Frederick I
Peter III
Charles
Charles
Hugh IV
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Louis IX
Geoffrey
Charles
Charles
Charles
Philip III
Charles
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Charles
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Charles
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Philip III
Charles
Charles
Philip III
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
William VII
Charles
John I
I
Charles
Michael VIII
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Michael VIII
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Hugh III
Charles
Robert II
Rudolf I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Innocent V
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Innocent
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Hugh III
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Nicholas III
Charles
Charles
Edward I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles Mart
Philip III
Charles
Charles Martel
Charles
William II
John I
I
Charles
Charles
Charles


title: Charles I of Anjou

texts:
 troops took control of the town. On 22February 1281 his staunchest supporter, Simon of Brie, was elected pope.Pope Martin IV dismissed his predecessor's relatives and made <mask> the senator of Rome again. <mask> da Montefeltro rose up against the Pope, but <mask>'s troops under Jean d'Eppe stopped the spread of the rebellion at Forlì. <mask> also sent an army to Piedmont, but <mask>, Marquess of Saluzzo, annihilated it at Borgo San Dalmazzo in May. End of the Church union

Pope Martin excommunicated Emperor Michael VIII on 10April 1281 because the Emperor had not imposed the Church union in his empire. The Pope soon authorised <mask> to invade the empire. <mask>'s vicar in Albania, Hugh of Sully, had already laid siege to the Byzantine fortress of Berat. A Byzantine army of relief under Michael Tarchaneiotes and John Synadenos arrived in March 1281.Sully was ambushed and captured, his army put to flight and the interior of Albania was lost to the Byzantines. On 3July 1281 <mask> and his son-in-law, Philip of Courtenay, the titular Latin emperor, made an alliance with Venice "for the restoration of the Roman Empire". They decided to start a full-scale campaign early the next year. Margaret of Provence called Robert and Otto of Burgundy and other lords who held fiefs in the Kingdom of Arles to a meeting at Troyes in the autumn of 1281. They were willing to unite their troops to prevent <mask>'s army from taking possession of the kingdom, but <mask> of France strongly opposed his mother's plan and <mask> of England would not promise any assistance to them. <mask> acknowledged that his wife held the County of Tonnerre and her other inherited estates as a Burgundian fief, which appeased Robert of Burgundy. <mask>'s ships started to assemble at Marseilles to sail up the Rhone in the spring of 1282.Another fleet was gathering at Messina to start the crusade against the Byzantine Empire. The empire's collapse

Sicilian Vespers

Always in need of funds, <mask> could not cancel the , although it was the most unpopular tax in the Regno. Instead he granted exemptions to individuals and communities, especially to the French and Provençal colonists, which increased the burden on those who did not enjoy such privileges. The yearly, or occasionally more frequent, obligatory exchange of the the coins almost exclusively used in local transactionswas also an important, and unpopular, source of revenue for the royal treasury. <mask> took out forced loans whenever he needed "immediately a large sum of money for certain arduous and pressing business", as he explained in one of his decrees. Purveyances, the requisitioning of goods, increased the unpopularity of <mask>'s government in southern Italy and Sicily. His subjects were also liable to be forced to guard prisoners or lodge soldiers in their homes.The restoration of old fortresses, bridges and aqueducts and the building of new castles required the employment of craftsmen, although most of them were unwilling to participate in such lengthy projects. Thousands of people were forced to serve in the army in foreign lands, especially after 1279. Trading in salt was declared a royal monopoly. In December 1281, <mask> again ordered the collection of the , requiring the payment of 150% of the customary amount. <mask> did not pay attention to the island of Sicily, although it had been the centre of resistance against him in 1268. He transferred the capital from Palermo to Naples. He did not visit the island after 1271, preventing Sicilians from directly informing him of their grievances.Sicilian noblemen were seldom employed as royal officials, although he often appointed their southern Italian peers to represent him in his other realms. Furthermore, having seized large estates on the island in the late 1260s <mask> almost exclusively employed French and Provençal clerics to administer them. Popular stories credited John of ProcidaManfred of Sicily's former chancellorwith staging an international plot against <mask>. Legend says that he visited Constantinople, Sicily and Viterbo in disguise in 1279 and 1280 to convince <mask>, the Sicilian barons and Pope Nicholas III to support a revolt. On the other hand, <mask> would later claim that he "was God's instrument in bringing freedom to the Sicilians" in his memoirs. The Emperor's wealth enabled him to send money to the discontented Sicilian barons. <mask> of Aragon decided to lay claim to the Kingdom of Sicily in late 1280: he did not hide his disdain when he met with <mask>'s son, <mask>, Duke of Salerno, in Toulouse in December 1280.He began to assemble a fleet, ostensibly for another crusade to Tunis. Rioting broke out in Sicily after a burgher of Palermo killed a drunken French soldier who had insulted his wife before the Church of the Holy Spirit on Easter Monday (30March), 1282. When the soldier's comrades attacked the murderer, the mob turned against them and started to massacre all the French in the town. The riot, known since the 16th century as the Sicilian Vespers, developed into an uprising and most of <mask>'s officials were killed or forced to flee the island. <mask> ordered the transfer of soldiers and ships from Achaea to Sicily, but could not stop the spread of the revolt to Calabria. San Severino also had to return to Italy, accompanied by the major part of the garrison at Acre. Odo Poilechien, who succeeded him in Acre, had limited authority.The burghers of the major Sicilian towns established communes which sent delegates to Pope Martin, asking him to take them under the protection of the Holy See. Instead of accepting their offer, the Pope excommunicated the rebels on 7May. <mask> issued an edict on 10June, accusing his officials of having ignored his instructions on good administration, but he failed to promise fundamental changes. In July he sailed to Sicily and laid siege to Messina. War with Aragon

<mask> of Aragon's envoy, William of Castelnou, started negotiations with the rebels' leaders in Palermo. Realizing that they could not resist without foreign support, they acknowledged Peter and Constance as their king and queen. They appointed envoys to accompany Castelnou to Collo where the Aragonese fleet was assembling.After a short hesitation, Peter decided to intervene on the rebels' behalf and sailed to Sicily. He was declared king of Sicily at Palermo on 4September. Thereafter two realms, each ruled by a monarch styled king (or queen) of Sicily, coexisted for more than a century, with <mask> and his successors ruling in southern Italy (known as the Kingdom of Naples) while Peter and his descendants ruled the island of Sicily. In the face of the Aragonese landing, <mask> was compelled to withdraw from the island, but the Aragonese moved swiftly and destroyed part of his army and most of his baggage. Peter took control of the whole island and sent troops to Calabria, but they could not prevent <mask> of Salerno from leading an army of 600 French knights to join his father at Reggio Calabria. Further French troops arrived under the command of <mask>'s nephews, <mask> of Artois and Peter of Alençon, in November. In the same month, the Pope excommunicated Peter.Neither Peter nor <mask> could afford to wage a lengthy war. <mask> made an astonishing proposal in late December 1282, challenging Peter to a judicial duel. Peter insisted that the war should be continued, but agreed that a battle between the two kings, each accompanied by 100 knights, should decide the possession of Sicily. The duel was set to take place at Bordeaux on 1June 1283, but they did not fix the hour. <mask> appointed <mask> of Salerno to administer the Regno during his absence. To secure the loyalty of the local lords in Achaea, he made one of their peers, Guy of Dramelay, baillif. Pope Martin declared the war against the Sicilians a crusade on 13January 1283.<mask> met with the Pope in Viterbo on 9 March, but he ignored the Pope's ban on his duel with Peter of Aragon. After visiting Provence and Paris in April, he left for Bordeaux to meet with Peter. The duel turned into a farce; the two kings each arriving at different times on the same day, declaring a victory over their absent opponent, and departing. Skirmishes and raids continued to occur in southern Italy. Aragonese guerillas attacked Catona and killed Peter of Alençon in January 1283; the Aragonese seized Reggio Calabria in February; and the Sicilian admiral, Roger of Lauria, annihilated a newly raised Provençal fleet at Malta in April. However, tensions arose between the Aragonese and the Sicilians and in May 1283 one of the leaders of the anti-Angevin rebellion, Walter of Caltagirone, was executed for his secret correspondence with <mask>'s agents. Pope Martin declared the war against Aragon a crusade and conferred the kingdom upon <mask> of France's son, <mask> of Valois, on 2February 1284.<mask> started to raise new troops and a fleet in Provence, and instructed his son, <mask> of Salerno, to maintain a defensive posture until his return. Roger of Lauria based a small squadron on the island of Nisida to blockade Naples in May 1284. <mask> of Salerno attempted to destroy the squadron, but most of his fleet was captured, and he himself was taken prisoner after a short, sharp fight on 5June. News of the reverse caused a riot in Naples, but the papal legate, Gerard of Parma, crushed it with the assistance of local noblemen. <mask> learnt of the disaster when he landed at Gaeta on 6June. He was furious at <mask> of Salerno and his disobedience. He allegedly stated that "Who loses a fool loses nothing", referring to his son's capture.<mask> left Naples for Calabria on 24June 1284. A large armyreportedly 10,000 mounted warriors and 40,000 foot-soldiersaccompanied him as far as Reggio Calabria. He laid siege to the town by sea and land in late July. His fleet approached the coast of Sicily, but his troops could not land in the island. After Lauria landed troops near Reggio Calabria, <mask> had to lift the siege and retreat from Calabria on 3August. Death

<mask> went to Brindisi and made preparations for a campaign against Sicily in the new year. He dispatched orders to his officials for the collection of the .However, he fell seriously ill before travelling to Foggia on 30December. He made his last will on 6January 1285, appointing <mask> of Artois regent for his grandson, <mask>, who was to rule his realms until <mask> of Salerno was released. He died in the morning of 7January. He was buried in a marble sepulchre in Naples, but his heart was placed at the Couvent Saint-Jacques in Paris. His corpse was moved to a chapel of the newly built Naples Cathedral in 1296. Family

All records show that <mask> was a faithful husband and a caring father. His first wife, Beatrice of Provence, gave birth to at least six children.According to contemporaneous gossips, she persuaded <mask> to claim the Kingdom of Sicily, because she wanted to wear a crown like her sisters. Before she died in July 1267, she had willed the usufruct of Provence to <mask>. Blanche, the eldest daughter of <mask> and Beatrice, became the wife of Robert of Béthune in 1265, but she died four years later. Beatrice, her younger sister, married Philip, the titular Latin emperor, in 1273. <mask>, <mask>'s eldest son and namesake was granted the Principality of Salerno in 1272. <mask> the Lame (as he was called) and his wife, Maria of Hungary, had fourteen children, which secured the survival of the Capetian House of Anjou. Philip, <mask> and Beatrice's next son, was elected king of Sardinia by the local Guelphs in 1269, but without the pope's consent.He died childless in 1278. Robert, <mask>'s third son, died in 1265. Elisabeth, <mask>'s youngest daughter, was given in marriage to the future Ladislaus IV of Hungary in 1269, but Ladislaus preferred his mistresses to her. The widowed <mask> first proposed himself to Margaret of Hungary. However, Margaret, who had been brought up in a Dominican nunnery, did not want to marry. According to legend, she disfigured herself to prevent the marriage. <mask> and his second wife, Margaret of Nevers, had several children, but none survived to adulthood.Legacy

The works of two 13th-century historians, Bartholomaeus of Neocastro and Saba Malaspina, strongly influenced modern views about <mask>, although they were biased. The former described <mask> as a tyrant to justify the Sicilian Vespers, the latter argued for the cancellation of the crusade against Aragon in 1285. <mask> had continued his imperial predecessors' policies in several fields, including coinage, taxation, and the employment of unpopular officials from Amalfi. Nevertheless, the monarchy underwent a "Frenchification" or "Provençalistion" during his reign. He donated estates in the Regno to about 700 noblemen from France or Provence. He did not adopt the rich ceremonial robes, inspired by Byzantine and Islamic art, of earlier Sicilian kings, but dressed like other western European monarchs, or as "a simple knight", as it was observed by the chronicler Thomas Tuscus who visited Naples in 1267. Around 1310, the Florentine historian, Giovanni Villani, stated that <mask> had been the most powerful Christian monarch in the late 1270s.Luchetto Gattilusio, a Genoese poet, compared <mask> directly with Charlemagne. Both reports demonstrate that <mask> was regarded almost as an emperor. Among modern historians, Runciman says that <mask> tried to build an empire in the eastern Mediterraneum; Gérard Sivéry writes that he wanted to dominate the west; and Jean Dunbabin argues that his "agglomeration of lands was in the process of forming an empire". The historian Hiroshi Takayama concludes that <mask>'s dominion "was too large to control". Nevertheless, economic links among his realms strengthened during his reign. Provençal salt was transported to his other lands, grain from the Regno was sold in Achaea, Albania, Acre and Tuscany, and Tuscan merchants settled in Anjou, Maine, Sicily and Naples. His highest-ranking officials were transferred from their homelands to represent him in other territories: his senechals in Provence were from Anjou; French and Provençal noblemen held the highest offices in the Regno; and he chose his vicars in Rome from among southern Italian and Provençal nobles.Although his empire collapsed before his death, his son retained southern Italy and Provence. <mask> always emphasised his royal rank, but did not adopt "imperial rhetoric". His renowned justiciar, Marino de Caramanico, developed a new political theory. Traditional interpretators of Roman law were convinced that the Holy Roman Emperors had a monopoly on law-making. In contrast with them, Caramanico stated that an emperor could not claim sovereignty over a king and emphasized <mask> full competence to issue decrees. To promote legal education <mask> paid high salaries20–50 ounces of gold in a yearto masters of law at the University of Naples. Masters of medicine received similar remunerations, and the university became a principal centre of medical science.<mask>'s personal interest in medicine grew during his life and he borrowed Arabic medical texts from the rulers of Tunis to have them translated. He employed at least one Jewish scholar, Moses of Palermo, who could translate texts from Arabic to Latin. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi's medical encyclopaedia, known as , was one of the books translated at <mask>'s order. <mask> was also a poet, which distinguished him from his Capetian relatives. He composed lovesongs and a  (the latter with Pierre d'Angicourt). He was requested to judge two poetic competitions in his youth, but modern scholars do not esteem his poetry. The Provençal troubadours were mostly critical when writing of <mask>, but French poets were willing to praise him.Bertran d'Alamanon wrote a poem against the salt tax and Raimon de Tors de Marseilha rebuked <mask> for invading the Regno. The trouvère Adam de la Halle dedicated an unfinished epic poem, entitled The King of Sicily, to <mask> and Jean de Meun glorified his victories in the Romance of the Rose. Dante described <mask>"who bears a manly nose"singing peacefully together with his one-time rival, <mask> of Aragon, in Purgatory. <mask> also showed interest in architecture. He designed a tower in Brindisi, but it soon collapsed. He ordered the erection of the Castel Nuovo in Naples, of which only the palatine chapel survives. He is also credited with the introduction of French-style glassed windows in southern Italy.Notes

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1227 births
1285 deaths
13th-century monarchs of Naples
Albanian monarchs
Capetian House of Anjou
Characters in The Decameron
Counts of Anjou
Counts of Maine
Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis
Counts of Provence
Princes of Achaea
13th century in the Kingdom of Albania
Christians of the Seventh Crusade
Christians of the Eighth Crusade
Children of Louis VIII of France
Prisoners and detainees of the Abbasid Caliphate
Counts

masks:
Charles
Guido I
Charles
Charles
Thomas I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Philip III
Edward I
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
Charles
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Michael VIII
Michael VIII
Peter III
Charles
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Peter III
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Robert II
Charles
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Philip III
Charles
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Robert II
Charles Martel
Charles
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Charles
Charles
Charles II
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Charles


title: Alex Shoumatoff

texts:
<mask> (born November 4, 1946) is an American writer known for his literary journalism, nature and environmental writing, and books and magazine pieces about political and environmental situations and world affairs. He was a staff writer at The New Yorker magazine from 1978 to 1987, a founding contributing editor of Outside magazine and Condé Nast Traveler, and was the senior-most contributing editor to Vanity Fair since its re-inception in 1986 through 2015 before he pseudo retired. He is known for reporting from the most remote corners of the world. <mask> was called "the greatest writer in America" by Donald Trump and "one of our greatest story tellers" by Graydon Carter. Career highlights include Vanity Fair's article about Cornelius Gurlitt who was discovered with hundreds of paintings from art theft and looting during World War II from Nazi plundering; a 1986 article for Vanity Fair magazine about the mountain gorilla advocate Dian Fossey in 1986 in Rwanda which became the film Gorillas in the Mist; one of the first international articles about the Brazilian musician Caetano Veloso in 1984 for The New Yorker; tracing the origin of AIDS for Vanity Fair which became his book African Madness; a profile of the organization Product Red led by U2 front man Bono; and his arrest in 2008 for trespassing at the Bohemian Grove in Monte Rio, California in 2008 that was featured in Page 6 of The New York Post and Vanity Fair about how members of the Grove were attempting to log old-growth redwood trees, but became much more than that after news of his arrest was picked up by news outlets. He has 10 published books and since 2001 has been the editor of a web site, "Dispatches From The Vanishing World", devoted to "documenting and raising awareness about the planet's rapidly disappearing natural and cultural diversity". Hundreds of pages of his writing are posted on the site.His eleventh book, The Wasting of Borneo: Dispatches From A Vanishing World," will be published by Beacon Press in April, 2017. Ethnicity and ancestry
<mask> descends from a family of the Russian nobility he traced back dozens of generations in his 1982 book, Russian Blood. The Schoumatoff family were originally Baltic German Schumacher and had migrated to St. Petersburg and been enobled under Peter the Great. His paternal grandmother, <mask>, was a portrait artist who was painting President Franklin Roosevelt when he collapsed before her with a cerebral hemorrhage and she escorted his mistress Lucy Rutherford away from the scene before the media arrived. Her brother (Shoumatoff's great uncle) Andrey Avinoff, was a "gentleman-in-waiting" to the Tsar at the time of the Soviet Revolution, was an artist, was the world top lepidopterist who was fictionalized by Nabokov in Dar (The Gift), and became the director of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh from 1925 to 1945, and was profiled before his death in 1948 by The New Yorker. His paternal grandfather, <mask>, was the business manager of Igor Sikorsky's aircraft company, which developed the helicopter and the first passenger airplane. His other grandfather was a Colonel in the Empress's cavalry guard.His father <mask> was an engineer who designed many of the paper mills around the world, was an entomologist, and well-known alpine ecologist who wrote the books Europe's Mountain Center and Around the Roof of the World, whose obituary was featured in The New York Times. Childhood and education
<mask> was born in Mount Kisco, New York. He grew up in the 1950s in Bedford, New York, an exurban enclave of old-line WASPs that is now mostly inhabited by famous people and  business leaders. He went to the local country-day school, Rippowam School, where he later taught middle-school science in his mid-twenties. Upon his graduation from the eighth grade, the family moved to London and began to spend summers in Switzerland's Bernese Oberland. His father, a passionate mountain climber, took <mask> and his older brother Nick up major peaks in the Alps. When he was four, his parents put him in a summer camp in Gstaad, Switzerland, where he learned to speak French.<mask> did his secondary schooling at St. Paul's School, a then all-boys boarding school in Concord, New Hampshire, where he was at the top of his class and the captain of the squash team and was friends with, and eventually profiled in 1996, John Kerry. When he was 16, impressed with recordings by the South Carolina blues man Pink Anderson, he bought a guitar and wandered to the Folklore Center in Greenwich Village, New York, where Izzy Young sent him to Harlem to take lessons from the Reverend Gary Davis. Davis would have a huge impact on <mask> and would become the subject of Shoumatoff's first published magazine piece. He was admitted to Harvard University. He studied poetry writing with Robert Lowell in a class that included fellow literary journalist Tracy Kidder and was on the Harvard Lampoon. His senior year roommates included Douglas Kenney, founder of National Lampoon and co-scriptor of Animal House and Caddyshack. Early writing and music career
Graduating into the turbulence of the late Vietnam War and with influence from Bob Dylan, Shoumatoff aspired to be a songwriter.After a stint on The Washington Post as a night police reporter, and with a draft classification of I-A, he enlisted into a Marine Corps reserve intelligence unit that trained him to be parachuted behind the Iron Curtain to melt into the local population. He was given Russian Language schooling in Monterey, California. There, however, he fell in with the psychedelic counterculture of the late 1960s. He turned to his New York City guitar teacher, the Reverend Gary Davis with his predicament, and Davis made him a minister in a heated moment in a store-front church in Harlem. This enabled him to get an honorable, IV-D discharge from the Marines (the D standing for Divinity) and bypass having to go to Vietnam. In 1969, rather than returning to the Washington Post and becoming its Moscow correspondent which the newspaper's editor Benjamin Bradlee had offered, <mask> chose to "drop out" with his girlfriend and they moved to an old farm in New Hampshire. He taught French at a local college and drove a school bus and became engrossed in nature.Breaking up with the girl that fall, he drifted to northern California hanging out on a succession of communes and playing music around bonfires and writing more songs. There, he sold his profile of Gary Davis to Rolling Stone and got a song-writing contract with Manny Greenhill, the manager of Joan Baez, Joni Mitchell, Muddy Waters, and Doc Watson. He went to New York City to perform his songs but ended up instead writing for magazines, starting with the Village Voice. He developed a piece on Florida into his first book, Florida Ramble, and married his editor's assistant. The newlyweds lived in the Marsh Sanctuary in Mount Kisco, where he became the resident naturalist. The marriage lasted only two years, and the heartbroken <mask>, after turning in his second book, a natural and cultural history of Westchester County, New York, left for the Amazon Rainforest. There, he spent nine months, getting to a remote Yanomamo village that no one from the outside world had set foot in, and nearly dying of falciparum malaria.His second book on the experience,The Rivers Amazon, was published by Sierra Club Press and was compared by reviewers with the classic exploration books on the Amazon by Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Walter Bates. Returning to Mount Kisco with a Brazilian wife, he learned that his Westchester book had been taken by The New Yorker and joined its staff in 1978. <mask> established himself as "consistently one of the farthest-flung of the New Yorker's far-flung correspondents", as The New York Times described him, and he wrote pieces on pygmies in the Ituri Forest, lemurs of Madagascar, and traced the legend of Amazon women to a tributary of the Amazon called the Nhamunda, which no white person had visited since a Frenchman in 1890. Writing and journalistic techniques
<mask> is known for his style of "long fact writing" which was developed at The New Yorker under the editorship of William Shawn. Shawn encouraged his writers to pursue their interests in exhaustive detail, a practice used to provide comprehensive reporting about often little-known but fascinating and important subjects, and to fill the weekly magazine's pages. Shoumatoff began recording everything that he was told or observed or thought in little red Chinese and later Staples notebooks, and has filled 500 of them with 200,000 pages to date. <mask> attempts to give the best of his ability, "the full picture, in all its complexity and ambiguity," and submits long pieces, much to the consternation of editors.Most of his books, beginning with Florida Ramble, and continuing to his last published book, Legends of the American Desert, are portraits of a place (a state, a county, a rainforest, a desert) and often originated with a magazine article. They identify and present, in a mixture of travelogue and exposition, elements that <mask> believes make the place the way it is: flora and fauna; natural, cultural, and political history; local dialects and belief systems. His writing is often characterized by a fascination with "the Other", disenchantment with the modern consumer culture, and an insatiable quantity of detail that he developed at the New Yorker. The essayist Edward Hoagland described him as "admirably protean, encyclopedic, and indefatigable, Shoumatoff has the curiosity of an army of researchers and writes like a house afire." <mask> also appeals to, frequently works with, and his work often crosses with, work in cultural anthropology. He works often with specialists in species, cultures, and music. Mid to later life and career

In 1986 <mask> wrote his first piece for Vanity Fair, about the murder of Dian Fossey, which was made into the movie Gorillas in the Mist, and was considered to be one of the newly resurrected magazine's stars by then-editor Tina Brown.He wrote an account of the fall of Paraguay's dictator Alfredo Stroessner, which was the sole subject of Brown's introduction to the issue, and in 1987 attempted to pinpoint the source of the AIDS virus in central Africa which he developed into the book African Madness. In 1990, his book The World Is Burning about the murder of Chico Mendes was optioned by director/actor Robert Redford. In the early 1990s, he became interested in golf, and had a column in Esquire Magazine called "Investigative Golf." Two of his more-famous pieces about golf were one in 1994 which former President Bill Clinton's golf buddies discussed rumors of Clinton's extra-marital affairs prior to the Monica Lewinsky scandal; and another piece about playing with O. J. Simpson's golf buddies who believed Simpson may have hidden the murder weapon in his golf bag. He also profiled Uma Thurman and her father, Buddhist Robert Thurman, for a cover feature in Vanity Fair. During this era, <mask> appeared on the tabloid T.V. shows Inside Edition and E!True Hollywood Story. <mask> married Rosette Rwigamba, a Tutsi, in 1990. In 1997, his book Legends of the American Desert: Sojourns in the Greater Southwest, (Knopf, 1997) was named a New York Times notable book and was on Time magazine and New York Posts top ten books of 1997. He wrote about global warming and the defeat of the USA's endorsement of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, In 2000, he was selected as the correspondent from Vanity Fair to profile Al Gore, whom he had gone to college with, before the election in a piece that was not published. In 2001, <mask> strengthened his focus on the environment and an interest in creating a written record of these places and/or cultures and species, believing that many of the places that he had been writing about since the 1970s had been drastically changed by the West's appetite for goods, and started his web site, Dispatches From The Vanishing World, with his son Andre. In the late 2000s <mask> recorded his first musical album with his longtime friend Kate McGarrigle, the mother of Rufus Wainwright and Martha Wainwright, that was featured on NPR's weekend edition of All Things Considered during the Pennsylvania primary for the 2008 primary election. <mask> has lived in Montreal since 1998 and is still active primarily with magazines such as Smithsonian and is active on speaker circuits about writing.Books

References

External links
 A Writer Looks At His Career by <mask>, about his early life and changes in American and world society he has lived through, posted on his web site. DispatchesFromTheVanishingWorld.Com, <mask>'s Web Site
 <mask> biography at VanityFair.Com
 <mask> at the New Yorker

1946 births
American male journalists
American nature writers
American male non-fiction writers
American political writers
The Harvard Lampoon alumni
Living people
American people of Russian descent
People from Mount Kisco, New York

masks:
Alexander Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Elizabeth Shoumatoff
Leo Shoumatoff
Nicholas Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Shoumatoff
Alex Shoumatoff
Alex Shoumatoff
Alex Shoumatoff
Alex Shoumatoff


title: Friedrich Carl von Savigny

texts:
<mask> (21 February 1779 – 25 October 1861) was a German jurist and historian. Early life and education
Savigny was born at Frankfurt am Main, of a family recorded in the history of Lorraine, deriving its name from the castle of Savigny near Charmes in the valley of the Moselle. Left as orphan at the age of 13, Savigny was brought up by a guardian until, in 1795, he entered the University of Marburg, where, though in poor health, he studied under Professors Anton Bauer and <mask>, the former a pioneer in the reform of the German criminal law, the latter distinguished for his knowledge of medieval jurisprudence. After the fashion of German students, Savigny visited several universities, notably Jena, Leipzig and Halle; and returning to Marburg, took his doctorate in 1800. At Marburg he lectured as Privatdozent on criminal law and the Pandects. Work
In 1803 Savigny published Das Recht des Besitzes (The Law of Possession). Anton Thibaut hailed it as a masterpiece which brought the old uncritical study of Roman law to an end.It quickly obtained a European reputation, and remains a prominent landmark in the history of jurisprudence. In 1804 he married Kunigunde Brentano, sister of Bettina <mask> and Clemens Brentano the poet. The same year he embarked on an extensive tour through France and south Germany in search of fresh sources of Roman law. In 1808 <mask> was appointed full professor of Roman law at Landshut. He remained in this position for a year and a half. In 1810 he was appointed to the chair of Roman law at the new University of Berlin, chiefly at the insistence of <mask> Humboldt. Here, in connection with the faculty of law, he created a Spruch-Collegium, an extraordinary tribunal competent to deliver opinions on cases remitted to it by the ordinary courts; and he took an active part in its labours.This was the busiest time of his life. He was engaged in lecturing, in government of the university (of which he was the third rector), and as tutor to the crown prince in Roman, criminal and Prussian law. During his time in Berlin, Savigny befriended Barthold Georg Niebuhr and <mask> Eichhorn. In 1814 Savigny wrote the pamphlet  (Of the Vocation of our Age for Legislation and Legal Science). In an earlier pamphlet Thibaut had argued for the creation of a unified legal code for Germany, independent of the influence of foreign legal systems. Savigny argued that such a codification of the law would have an adverse effect. In his view, the damage that had been caused by the neglect of former generations of jurists could not be quickly repaired, and more time was required to set the house in order.Moreover, a unified legal code would almost certainly be influenced by natural law, with its "infinite arrogance" and its "shallow philosophy". It was Savigny's opinion that legal science should be saved from the "hollow abstractions" of such a work as Christian Wolff's . Savigny opposed this conception of legal science to the "historical study of positive law", which according to him is "a condition precedent to right understanding of the science of all law". Savigny did not oppose the introduction of new laws or of a new system of laws, but considered that the laws of any nation should reflect the "national spirit (Volksgeist)". In 1815 <mask>, together with Eichhorn and <mask> Ludwig Göschen, founded the  (Journal for Historical Legal Science), the organ of the new historical school. In this periodical (vol. iii.p. 129 seq.) Savigny made known to the world the discovery by Niebuhr in Verona of the lost Institutes of Gaius. Savigny pronounced it to be the work of Gaius himself and not, as Niebuhr had suggested, of Ulpian. The same year, 1815, Savigny published the first volume of his  (History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages), the sixth and final volume of which did not appear until 1831. He had been prompted to write this work by his early instructor Weiss. Savigny intended it to be a literary history of Roman law from Irnerius to the present time. His design was in some respects narrowed; in others it was widened.He did not continue the narrative beyond the 16th century, when the separation of nationalities disturbed the foundations of the science of law. In the first volume, Savigny treated the history of Roman law from the breaking up of the empire until the beginning of the 12th century. According to Savigny, Roman law, although considered dead, lived on in local customs, in towns, in ecclesiastical doctrines and school teachings, until it once again reappeared in Bologna and other Italian cities. In 1817 Savigny was appointed a member of the commission for organizing the Prussian provincial estates, and also a member of the department of justice in the  (State Council). In 1819 he became a member of the supreme court of appeal for the Rhine Provinces. In 1820 he was made a member of the commission for revising the Prussian code. In 1822 he was afflicted with nervous illness, which compelled him to seek relief in travel.In 1835 Savigny began his elaborate work on contemporary Roman law,  (8 vols., 1840–1849). His activity as professor ceased in March 1842, when he was appointed "" (High Chancellor), the head of the Prussian legal system. In this position he carried out several important law reforms in regard to bills of exchange and divorce. He held the office until 1848, when he resigned. In 1850, on the occasion of the jubilee of obtaining his doctor's degree, appeared in five volumes his Vermischte Schriften (Miscellaneous Writings), consisting of a collection of minor works published between 1800 and 1844. Savigny was hailed throughout Germany as "the great master" and founder of modern jurisprudence. In 1851 and 1853 he published the two volumes of his treatise on the law of obligations, , mostly on what English-speaking lawyers consider as contract law.It was a supplement to his work on modern Roman law, in which he again argued for the necessity of the historical treatment of law. Savigny died in Berlin. His son, <mask> <mask> (1814–1875), was Prussian minister of foreign affairs in 1849. He represented Prussia in important diplomatic transactions, especially in 1866. Ideas and influence

Savigny belongs to the German historical school of jurists, founded by Gustav Hugo, and served a role in its consolidation. The works for which Savigny is best known are the Recht des Besitzes and the Beruf unserer Zeit für Gesetzgebung. According to Jhering "with the Recht des Besitzes the juridical method of the Romans was regained, and modern jurisprudence born."It was seen as a great advance both in results and method, and rendered obsolete a large body of literature. Savigny argued that in Roman law possession had always reference to "usucapion" or to "interdicts". It did not include a right to continuance in possession but only to immunity from interference as possession is based on the consciousness of unlimited power. These and other propositions were derived by the interpretation and harmonization of the Roman jurists. However, many of Savigny's conclusions did not meet with universal acclaim. They were opposed by, among others, Jhering, Gans, and Bruns. Savigny argued in the Beruf unserer Zeit that law is part and parcel of national life.He opposed the idea, common to French 18th century jurists and Bentham, that law can be arbitrarily imposed on a country irrespective of its state of civilization and history. Another important idea of Savigny is that the practice and theory of jurisprudence cannot be divorced without injury to both. Publications
Major publications by Savigny include:

 English translation by Perry, Thomas Erskine  (1848): "Von Savigny's Treatise on Possession: Or, the Jus Possessionis of the Civil Law", (6 ed.). London: S. Sweet. Abridged English translation by Kelleher, J. (1888): "Possession in the civil law. Abridged from the Treatise of <mask>vigny to which added the Text of the Title on Possession from the Digest".Calcutta: Thacker. English translation by Hayward, Abraham (1831): "Of the Vocation of our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence". London: Littlewood. English translation of Volume 1 by Holloway, William (1867): "System of the Modern Roman Law, Volume I". Madras: Higginbotham. English translation of Volume 2 by Rattigan, Henry (1884): "Jural Relations: Or, The Roman Law of Persons as Subjects of Jural Relations". London: Wildly.English translation of Volume 8 by Guthrie, William (1869): "Private International Law. A Treatise on the Conflict of Laws". London: T & T Clark. Bibliography

. References

External links
Complete works and editions from Savigny at ParalipomenaIuris

1779 births
1861 deaths
Writers from Frankfurt
Lorraine nobility
Jurists from Hesse
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
University of Jena alumni
Leipzig University alumni
University of Halle alumni
German monarchists
Scholars of comparative law
University of Marburg alumni
University of Marburg faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Members of the Prussian House of Lords
German legal scholars
Justice ministers of Prussia

masks:
Friedrich Carl von Sagny
Philipp Friedrich Weiss
von Arnim
Savigny
Wilhelm von
Karl Friedrich
Savigny
Johann Friedrich
Karl Friedrich
von Sagny
von Sa