title: Francesco Guicciardini

texts:
<mask> (; 6 March 1483 – 22 May 1540) was an Italian historian and statesman. A friend and critic of Niccolò Machiavelli, he is considered one of the major political writers of the Italian Renaissance. In his masterpiece, The History of Italy, <mask> paved the way for a new style in historiography with his use of government sources to support arguments and the realistic analysis of the people and events of his time. Biography

Early life

<mask> was born 6 March 1483 in Florence, now in Italy; he was the third of eleven children of <mask> and Simona di Bongianni Gianfigliazzi. The Guicciardini were well-established members of the Florentine oligarchy as well as supporters of the Medici. Influential in Florentine politics, <mask>'s ancestors had held the highest posts of honor in the state for many generations, as may be seen in his own genealogical Ricordi autobiografici e di famiglia. <mask> had studied with the philosopher Marsilio Ficino, who stood as his son's godfather.Like his father, <mask> received a fine humanist education and studied the classics, learning both Latin and a little Greek. The boy was sent by his father to study law at the Universities of Ferrara and Padua, where he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle, who had occupied the see of Cortona, induced the young <mask> to seek an ecclesiastical career. His father, however, "thought the affairs of the Church were decadent. He preferred to lose great present profits and the chance of making one of his sons a great man rather than have it on his conscience that he had made one of his sons a priest out of greed for wealth or great position." Thus, the ambitious <mask> once again turned his attention to law. At 23, he was appointed by the Signoria of Florence to teach legal studies at the Florentine Studio.In 1508, he married Maria Salviati, the daughter of Alamanno Salviati, cementing an oligarchical alliance with the powerful Florentine family. In the same year, he wrote the Memorie di famiglia, a family memoir of the Guicciardini family, the Storie Fiorentine (Tales of Florence), and began his Ricordi, a rudimentary personal chronicle of his life. Spanish court
Having distinguished himself in the practice of law, <mask> was entrusted by the Florentine Signoria with an embassy to the court of the King of Aragon, Ferdinand the Catholic, in 1512. He had doubts about accepting the position because it came with so little profit and would disrupt his law practice and take him away from the city. However, <mask>'s father convinced him of the court’s prestige and the honour of having been chosen at so young an age. "No one could remember at Florence that such a young man had ever been chosen for such an embassy", he wrote in his diary. Thus <mask> started his career as a diplomat and statesman.His Spanish correspondence with the Signoria reveals his power of observation and analysis, a chief quality of his mind. At the Spanish court, he learned lessons of political realism. In his letters back home, he expressed appreciation for being able to observe Spanish military methods and estimate their strength during the time of war. However, he also distrusted the calculated gestures of Ferdinand and referred to him as a model of the art of political deceit. During his time in Spain, the Medici regained power in Florence. Under the new regime, his embassy in Spain dragged on, frustrating <mask> as he yearned to return to Florence and participate in its political life. <mask> insisted on being recalled and even sent a letter to the youthful Lorenzo de’ Medici in an attempt to secure a position in the new ruling group.<mask> eventually returned home to Florence, where he took up his law practice again; in 1514, he served as a member of the Otto di Balìa, who controlled internal security, and in 1515, he served on the Signoria, the highest Florentine magistracy. Papacy
In 1513, Giovanni de' Medici, the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, became Pope Leo X and brought Florence under papal control, which provided opportunities for Florentines to enter papal service, as did <mask> in 1515. Leo X made him governor of Reggio in 1516 and Modena in 1517. This was the beginning of a long career for <mask> in papal administration, first under Leo X and then under his successor, Clement VII. "He governed Modena and Reggio with conspicuous success" according to The Catholic Encyclopedia. He was appointed to govern Parma, and according to the Encyclopedia, "in the confusion that followed the pope's death, he distinguished himself by his defence of Parma against the French (1521)." In 1523, he was appointed viceregent of the Romagna by Clement VII (1478–1534).These high offices rendered <mask> the virtual master of the Papal States beyond the Apennine Mountains. As he later described himself during this period: "If you had seen messer <mask> in the Romagna...with his house full of tapestries, silver, servants thronged from the entire province where—since everything was completely referred to him—no one, from the Pope down, recognized anyone as his superior...". The political turmoil in Italy was continuously intensifying. As hostilities between King Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, escalated, the Pope remained undecided over which side to back and so sought <mask>'s advice. <mask> advised an alliance with France and urged Clement to conclude the League of Cognac in 1526, which led to war with Charles V. Later that year, as the forces of Charles V threatened to attack, Clement made Guicciardini lieutenant-general of the papal army. Guicciardini was powerless to influence the commander of papal forces, <mask> I della Rovere, Duke of Urbino, to take action. However, in April 1527, Guicciardini succeeded in averting an attack on Florence from a rebellious imperial army, which turned toward Rome instead.Less than two weeks later came the news of the Sack of Rome and the imprisonment of Clement in the Castel Sant'Angelo. Guicciardini served three popes over a period of twenty years, and perhaps because of his experiences, he was highly critical of the papacy: "I don't know anyone who dislikes the ambition, the avarice, and the sensuality of priests more than I do.... Nevertheless, the position I have enjoyed with several popes has forced me to love their greatness for my own self-interest. If it weren't for this consideration, I would have loved Martin Luther as much as I love myself—not to be released from the laws taught by the Christian religion as it is normally interpreted and understood, but to see this band of ruffians reduced within their correct bounds." Florentine Republic
Like many Florentine aristocrats of his day, Guicciardini believed in a mixed republican government based on the model of the Venetian constitution; despite working so often and closely with the Medici, he viewed their rule as tyrannical. Guicciardini was still able to reconcile his republican ideals and his support of the Medici: "The equality of men under a popular government is by no means contradicted if one citizen enjoys greater reputation than another, provided it proceed from the love and reverence of all, and can be withheld by the people at their pleasure. Indeed, without such supports, republics can hardly last."Shortly after the Sack of Rome, <mask> returned to Florence, but by 1527, the Medici had been expelled from the city, and a republic had been re-established by the extreme anti-Medici Arrabiati faction. Because of his close ties to the Medici, <mask> was held suspect in his native city. In March 1530, as a result of his service to the Medici, <mask> was declared a rebel and had his property confiscated. This final Florentine Republic did not last long, however, and after enduring the Siege of Florence by imperial troops for nine months, in 1530 the city capitulated. Under the command of Clement VII, <mask> was assigned the task of punishing the Florentine citizens for their resistance to the Medici, and he dealt out justice mercilessly to those who had opposed the will of the Pope. Benedetto Varchi claimed that in carrying out his task, "Messer <mask>ini was more cruel and more ferocious than the others". Final years

In 1531, <mask> was assigned the governorship of Bologna, the most important city in the northern Papal States by Clement VII.<mask> resigned after Clement's death in 1534 and returned to Florence, where he was enlisted as advisor to Alessandro de Medici, “whose position as duke had become less secure following the death of the pope”. Guiccardini defended him in Naples in 1535 before Charles V, contesting the exiled rebels' accusations of tyranny. He assisted in successfully negotiating the marriage of Alessandro to the emperor Charles V’s daughter Margaret of Parma in 1536, and for a short time Gucciardini was the most trusted advisor to Alessandro until the Duke's assassination in 1537. Then, <mask> allied himself with Cosimo de' Medici, who was just 17 and new to the Florentine political system. <mask> supported Cosimo as duke of Florence; nevertheless, Cosimo dismissed him shortly after rising to power. <mask> retired to his villa in Arcetri, where he spent his last years working on the Storia d'Italia. He died in 1540 without male heirs.His nephew, Lodovico <mask>, was also a historian known for his 16th-century works on the Low Countries. Works
None of <mask>'s works were published during his lifetime. It was not until 1561 that the first sixteen of the twenty books of his History of Italy were published. The first English "translation" by Sir Geffray Fenton was published in 1579. Until 1857, only the History and a small number of extracts from his aphorisms were known. In that year, his descendants opened the Guicciardini family archives and committed to Giuseppe Canestrini the publication of his memoirs in ten volumes. These are some of his works recovered from the archives:
Ricordi politici e civili, already noted, consisting of about 220 maxims on political, social, and religious topics;
Observations on Machiavelli's Discorsi, which bring into relief the views of Italy's two great theorists on statecraft in the 16th century, and show that <mask> regarded Machiavelli somewhat as an amiable visionary or political enthusiast;
Storia Fiorentina, an early work of the author, distinguished by its animation of style, brilliancy of portraiture and liberality of judgment;
Dialogo del reggimento di Firenze, also in all probability an early work, in which the various forms of government suited to an Italian commonwealth are discussed with subtlety, contrasted and illustrated from the vicissitudes of Florence up to the year 1494.There is also a series of short essays, entitled Discorsi politici, composed during <mask>'s Spanish legation. Taken in combination with Machiavelli's treatises, the Opere inedite offer a comprehensive body of Italian political philosophy before Paolo Sarpi. The History of Italy

<mask> is best known as the author of the Storia d'Italia (History of Italy), which provides a detailed account of politics in the Italian Peninsula between 1490 and 1534. Written during the last years of his life, this work contains the historian's observations collected over his entire lifetime and was a work intended for posterity. As Gilbert writes: "The History of Italy stands apart from all his writings because it was the one work which he wrote not for himself, but for the public." In his research, <mask> drew upon material that he gathered from government records as well as from his own extensive experience in politics. His many personal encounters with powerful Italian rulers serves to explain his perspective as a historian: “<mask> might be called a psychological historian—for him the motive power of the huge clockwork of events may be traced down the mainspring of individual behavior.Not any individual, be it noted, but those in positions of command: emperors, princes and popes who may be counted on to act always in terms of their self-interest—the famous Guicciardinian particolare.” In the following excerpt, the historian records his observations on the character of Pope Clement VII:

“And although he had a most capable intelligence and marvelous knowledge of world affairs, yet he lacked the corresponding resolution and execution. For he was impeded not only by his timidity of spirit, which was by no means small, and by a strong reluctance to spend, but also by a certain innate irresolution and perplexity, so that he remained almost always in suspension and ambiguous when he was faced with those deciding those thing which from afar he had many times foreseen, considered, and almost revealed." Moreover, what sets Guicciardini apart from other historians of his time is his understanding of historical context. His approach was already evident in his early work The History of Florence (1509): “The young historian was already doubtlessly aware of the meaning of historical perspective; the same facts acquiring different weight in different contexts, a sense of proportion was called for.”

In the words of one of Guicciardini's severest critics, <mask> Sanctis: "If we consider intellectual power [the Storia d'Italia] is the most important work that has issued from an Italian mind." <mask> and Machiavelli on politics and history
<mask> was friends with Niccolò Machiavelli; the two maintained a lively correspondence until the latter's death in 1527. <mask> was on a somewhat higher social standing than his friend, but through their letters, a relaxed, comfortable relationship between the two emerges. "Aware of their difference in class, Machiavelli nevertheless was not intimidated by Guicciardini's offices... or by his aristocratic connections.The two established their rapport because of mutual regard for each other's intellect." They discussed personal matters and political ideas and influenced each other's work. <mask> was critical of some of the ideas expressed by Machiavelli in his Discourses on Livy, "<mask>'s principal objection to the theories which Machiavelli advanced in the Discourses was that Machiavelli put things 'too absolutely.' Guicciardini did not agree with Machiavelli's basic assumption that Rome could serve as a perfect norm." Both were innovative in their approach to history: "Machiavelli and <mask> are important transitional figures in the development of historical writing. The historical consciousness that becomes visible in their work is a significant rupture in our thinking about the past... Human agency was a central element in the historical thought of Machiavelli and Guicciardini, but they did not have a modern notion of individuality.... They started to disentangle historiography from its rhetorical framework, and in Guicciardini’s work we can observe the first traces of a critical historical method."The following list contains alternative names used for his works in Italian and English:

 Storie fiorentine (History of Florence 1509)
 Diario di viaggio in Spagna (1512)
 Discorso di Logrogno ("Discourse of Logrogno"; 1512)
 Relazione di Spagna (1514)
 Consolatoria (1527)
 Oratio accusatoria (1527)
 Oratio defensoria (1527)
 Del reggimento di Firenze or Dialogo e discorsi del reggimento di Firenze ("Dialogue on Florentine Government" or "Dialogue on the Government of Florence"; 1527)
 Considerazioni intorno ai "Discorsi" del Machiavelli sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio ("Observations on Machiavelli's Discourses"; 1528, or possibly 1530)
 Ricordi or Ricordi civili e politici (the name given by Giuseppe Canestrini when he first published the book in 1857) or Ricordi politici e civili (as the Catholic Encyclopedia refers to it); in English, usually "the Ricordi" but called "Maxims and Reflections (Ricordi)" in one translation and "Counsels and Reflections" in another (1512–1530). Le cose fiorentine (second "History of Florence"; 1528–1531)
 Storia d'Italia ("History of Italy"; 1537–1540)

Further reading

 Knutsen, Torbjørn L. 2020. "Renaissance politics." in A history of International Relations theory (third edition). Manchester University Press. Celli, Carlo. 2019.Defeat of a Renaissance Intellectual Selected Writings of <mask>, Penn State University Press. Notes

External links

 Works by <mask>ni at Project Liberliber.it

 Guicciardini: all the texts
 La Historia d'Italia : Nuouamente con somma diligenza ristampata, et da molti errori ricorretta. Con l'aggiunta de' sommarii à libro per libro et con le annotationi in margine delle cose piu notabili fatte dal reuerendo padre Remigio fiorentino. Oue s'è messa ancora una copiosissima Tauola per maggior commodità de' Lettori. Venezia : Appresso Nicolò Beuilacqua, 1563. 990 p. - available online at University Library in Bratislava Digital Library

1483 births
1540 deaths
Writers from Florence
Italian historians
Politicians from Florence
Italian Renaissance writers
15th-century people of the Republic of Florence
16th-century people of the Republic of Florence
16th-century Italian historians

masks:
Francesco Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco Guicciardini
Piero di Iacopo Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Piero Guicciardini
Francesco
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco Maria
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco Guicciard
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco Guicciardini
Francesco de
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Guicciardini
Francesco Guicciardini
Francesco Guiccardi


title: Frank Wilcox

type: original

texts:
<mask> (March 13, 1907 – March 3, 1974) was an American actor. He appeared in numerous films and television series, as well as Broadway plays. <mask> was the son of Mr. and Mrs. Roger V<mask>.He was born in De Soto, Missouri, but the family moved to Atchison, Kansas. <mask> worked in Kansas City as an oil company's sales manager. Acting career
<mask> joined the Pasadena Community Playhouse. By December 1924, he headed the Frank Wilcox Company, which produced plays in venues that included the Lyceum in Baltimore. In 1927, he became a member of The Lambs Club.<mask> became a contract player for Warner Bros., beginning with the 1939 short film The Monroe Doctrine, in which he was chosen to portray the American statesman Henry Clay during the early 1820s. He played Abraham Lincoln as a militia captain in another 1939 film short Old Hickory, based on key events in the public career of President Andrew Jackson. During World War II, <mask> served on a destroyer. Another film role was as the circus doctor in the 1952 production The Greatest Show on Earth, starring Charlton Heston. In 1951, already at work in the new medium of television, <mask> was cast in two episodes of the police drama Racket Squad. Between 1952 and 1955, he guest-starred four times in different roles on the television series The Lone Ranger. In 1956, <mask> portrayed John Gould in "God's Healing" on the religion Crossroads.The same year, he was cast as Duncan Glowrie in the episode "Bonnie Lassie" of The Gale Storm Show. From 1955 to 1958, he appeared three times on the sitcom The People's Choice. In 1957, <mask> guest-starred in the episode "Quicksilver" of Sugarfoot, as a young frontier law student. His best known television role, the one which brought him great recognition from millions of viewers, was that of the oil executive John Brewster in the first season of The Beverly Hillbillies. <mask> appeared in 1957 as Joe Spaulding in "Lucy Wants to Move to the Country," one of the later episodes of the CBS sitcom I Love Lucy. He appeared as well on the sitcom Private Secretary. Between 1953 and 1956, <mask> made 16 appearances in different roles on The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show.He appeared three times in two different roles from 1961 to 1962 on Pete and Gladys. In 1965 he was a guest star in an episode of The Cara Williams Show. In 1959, he was cast as Colonel Dodge in the episode "Man to Man" of the syndicated western series, Frontier Doctor. He guest-starred on the ABC sitcoms Leave It to Beaver, The Donna Reed Show and The Real McCoys. <mask> made several guest appearances as a judge on Perry Mason during the nine-year run of that program. In 1961, he appeared as the judge on the "Jack Benny Show", titled "Jack on Trial for Murder", which had Raymond Burr as a guest star appearing as Perry Mason in a dream sequence where Jack dreams that he is on trial for murder and Perry Mason is his defense attorney. <mask> also appeared as a judge in the 1961 episode "The Dentist" of Angel and as Jennings is the 1961 episode "Troubleshooter" of Straightaway.<mask> also appeared in numerous episodes of The Untouchables as Federal District Attorney Beecher Asbury. He appeared in a 1965 episode of Kentucky Jones, and he played a guest-starring role in The Munsters in which, hosting a masquerade ball, he is made up to resemble Herman Munster. His last television role was as Judge Moon in a 1973 episode of Kung Fu. His hometown of De Soto, Missouri, hosts the Frank Wilcox Film Festival every March during the weekend closest to his birthday. An actor who performed with <mask>, or those with "Wilcoxian" careers as character actors, serve as the guest host of the event. <mask>'s work on Broadway began with Yes or No (1917) and ended with Parlor Story (1947). Personal life and death
<mask> and his wife, Joy, had three daughters.On March 3, 1974, <mask> died at his home in Los Angeles, aged 66. Selected filmography

 Postal Inspector (1936) – Postmaster General
 The Roaring Twenties (1939) – Cabbie at Grand Central (uncredited)
 The Fighting 69th (1940) – Lt. Norman
 Calling Philo Vance (1940) – 2nd Reporter (uncredited)
 Virginia City (1940) – Union Outpost Soldier
 'Til We Meet Again (1940) – Ass't. Morrison
 The Hidden Hand (1942) – Dr. Lawrence Channing
 Truck Busters (1943) – Police Capt. Gear
 Edge of Darkness (1943) – Jensen (uncredited)
 The North Star (1943) – Cmdr. Petrov
 There's Something About a Soldier (1943) – Tom (scenes deleted)
 The Impostor (1944) – Prosecutor
 Chip Off the Old Block (1944) – Edward Storey (uncredited)
 The Fighting Sullivans (1944) – Officer (uncredited)
 Four Jills in a Jeep (1944) – Officer (uncredited)
 Follow the Boys (1944) – Capt. Williams (uncredited)
 The Story of Dr. Wassell' (1944) – Captain's Aide for Evacuation (uncredited)
 The Adventures of Mark Twain (1944) – Judge John Marshall Clemens (uncredited)
 Rainbow Island (1944) – Captain (uncredited)
 In the Meantime, Darling (1944) – Capt. Masters (uncredited)
 Nancy Goes to Rio (1950) – Kenneth Berten (uncredited)
 Annie Get Your Gun (1950) – Mr. Clay (uncredited)
 Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye (1950) – Doctor (uncredited)
 Bunco Squad (1950) – Mike Finlayson (uncredited)
 Three Secrets (1950) – Charlie (uncredited)
 The Fuller Brush Girl (1950) – Roberts (uncredited)
 Chain Gang (1950) – Lloyd Killgallen (uncredited)
 Mister 880 (1950) – Mr. Beddington (uncredited)
 The Flying Missile (1950) – Maj. Kennedy (uncredited)
 Gambling House (1950) – Mr. Warren (uncredited)
 Belle Le Grand (1951) – John (uncredited)
 Payment on Demand (1951) – Mr. Drake (uncredited)
 Inside Straight (1951) – Zoe's Doctor (uncredited)
 Go for Broke!Stark (uncredited)
 Pony Express (1953) – Mr. Walstron (uncredited)
 Affair with a Stranger (1953) – Dr. Strong (uncredited)
 The Kid from Left Field (1953) – Man at Bar (uncredited)
 The Man from the Alamo (1953) – Texas Patriot at Meeting (uncredited)
 China Venture (1953) – Capt. Dryden (uncredited)
 Those Redheads from Seattle (1953) – Vance Edmonds
 Three Young Texans (1954) – Bill McAdoo
 Dangerous Mission (1954) – Jeremiah Kern (uncredited)
 The Black Dakotas (1954) – Zachary Paige (uncredited)
 A Star Is Born (1954) <mask> (uncredited)
 Naked Alibi (1954) – Councilman Edgar Goodwin (uncredited)
 Black Widow (1954) – Zachary Paige (uncredited)
 Masterson of Kansas (1954) – Prosecutor (uncredited)
 Carolina Cannonball (1955) – Professor
 Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Kops (1955) – Rudolph Snavely (uncredited)
 The Eternal Sea (1955) – Cmdr. Calivin Durgin (uncredited)
 Trial (1955) – Lawyer #2 (uncredited)
 The Court-Martial of Billy Mitchell (1955) – Maj. Tom (uncredited)
 Meet Me in Las Vegas (1956) – Sands Co-Owner (uncredited)
 Uranium Boom (1956) – Floyd Gorman
 Never Say Goodbye (1956) – Dr. Barnes
 The Price of Fear (1956) – Courtney (uncredited)
 The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (1956) – Hopkins' Physician (uncredited)
 Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956) – Alfred Cassidy (uncredited)
 The First Traveling Saleslady (1956) – U.S. Marshal Duncan
 A Strange Adventure (1956) – The Public Defender
 The Ten Commandments (1956) – Wazir
 Hollywood or Bust (1956) – Director (uncredited)
 7th Cavalry (1956) – Maj. Reno
 Dance with Me, Henry (1956) – Father Mullahy
 Hell's Crossroads (1957) – Gov. Crittenden of Missouri
 Kelly and Me (1957) – George Halderman
 Beginning of the End (1957) – Gen. John T. Short
 Tip on a Dead Jockey (1957) – Shields (uncredited)
 Pal Joey (1957) – Col. Langley (uncredited)
 Man from God's Country (1958) – Beau Santee
 Johnny Rocco (1958) – Gordon Lane (uncredited)
 Good Day for a Hanging (1959) – Judge Frazer (uncredited)
 Go, Johnny, Go! (1959) – Harold Arnold
 North by Northwest (1959) – Herman Weitner (uncredited)
 The Jayhawkers! (1959) – Lieutenant at Checkpoint (uncredited)
 Please Don't Eat the Daisies (1960) – TV Interviewer (uncredited)
 Swingin' Along (1961) – Psychiatrist
 A Majority of One (1961) – Noah Putnam
 The Horizontal Lieutenant (1962) – General (uncredited)
 A Ticklish Affair (1963) – Bill (uncredited)
 Johnny Cool (1963) – FBI Agent (uncredited)
 I'll Take Sweden (1965) – Mr. Dow (uncredited)
 Million Dollar Duck'' (1971) – Bank Manager

References

External links

1907 births
1974 deaths
20th-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
Benedictine College alumni
Male actors from Missouri
People from Atchison, Kansas
People from De Soto, Missouri
People from Granada Hills, Los Angeles
University of Kansas alumni
United States Navy personnel of World War II

masks:
Frank Reppy Wilcox
Background Wilcox
. Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
Wilcox
– Frank


title: Jonathan Freedland

texts:
<mask> (born 25 February 1967) is a British journalist who writes a weekly column for The Guardian. He presents BBC Radio 4's contemporary history series The Long View. Freedland also writes thrillers, mainly under the pseudonym Sam Bourne. Early life
The youngest of three children and the only son of a Jewish couple, biographer and journalist <mask>, and Israeli-born Sara Hocherman, he was educated at University College School, a boys' independent school in Hampstead, London. As a child, Freedland periodically accompanied his father for broadcasting work. On one occasion, his father was interviewing Eric Morecambe, who comically assumed the 10 year-old Freedland was married. After a gap year working on a kibbutz in Israel with the Labour Zionist Habonim Dror (where Freedland had been a mentor to Sacha Baron Cohen), he studied Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) at Wadham College, Oxford.While at Oxford, he was editor of Cherwell, the student newspaper. Journalism
Freedland began his Fleet Street career at the short-lived Sunday Correspondent. In 1990 he joined the BBC as a news reporter across radio and television, including for The World at One and Today on Radio 4. In 1992, he was awarded the Laurence Stern fellowship on The Washington Post, serving as a staff writer on national news. He was Washington Correspondent for The Guardian from 1993 until 1997, when he returned to London as an editorial writer and columnist. Between 2002 and 2004, Freedland was an occasional columnist for the Daily Mirror and from 2005 to 2007 he wrote a weekly column for the London Evening Standard. He writes a monthly column for The Jewish Chronicle.He has also been published in The New York Times, The New York Review of Books, Newsweek and The New Republic. Freedland was named 'Columnist of the Year' in the 2002 What the Papers Say awards and in 2008 was awarded the David Watt Prize for Journalism, in recognition of his essay "Bush's Amazing Achievement", published in The New York Review of Books. Nominated on seven occasions, Freedland was awarded a special Orwell Prize in May 2014 for his journalism. In 2016, he won the "Commentariat of the Year" prize at the Comment Awards. Freedland was executive editor of the opinion section of The Guardian from May 2014 till early 2016 and continues to write a Saturday column for it. In November 2019, Freedland apologised for making a "very bad error" in falsely reporting that a shortlisted Labour Prospective parliamentary candidate had been fined for making antisemitic remarks on Facebook. He attributed the mistaken identification by confusing two lawyers with the same name to a "previously reliable Labour source" whose information he had "passed on too hastily".Author
<mask> has published ten books: two non-fiction works under his own name and nine novels, eight of them under the pseudonym Sam Bourne. Bring Home the Revolution: The case for a British Republic (1998), Freedland's first book, argued that Britain should reclaim the revolutionary ideals it exported to America in the 18th century, and undergo a constitutional and cultural overhaul. The book won a W. Somerset Maugham Award for non-fiction and was later adapted into a two-part series for BBC Television. Jacob's Gift (2005) is a memoir recounting the lives of three generations of his own Jewish family as well as exploring wider questions of identity and belonging. In 2008, he broadcast a two-part series for BBC Radio 4 – British Jews and the Dream of Zion – as well as two TV documentaries for BBC Four: How to be a Good President and President Hollywood. The Righteous Men (2006), is a religious thriller published under the Bourne nom de plume. It is about a news reporter whose life is disrupted when his wife is kidnapped while he is reporting a story of a militia man found dead.As more murders of 'righteous men' happen across the globe, Will soon finds himself in the middle of a plot to bring about nothing less than Judgement Day. The book was followed by another Sam Bourne title, The Last Testament (2007), set against the backdrop of the Middle East peace process. It draws on the author's experiences in that region as a reporter for over twenty years, and a Guardian newspaper sponsored dialogue which was influential in the 2003 Geneva Accords. The central character finds herself involved in a mix of the modern political situation and ancient revelations. The Final Reckoning (2008), was based on the true story of the Avengers: a group of Holocaust survivors who sought revenge against their Nazi persecutors, and just missed the peak of The Sunday Times best-seller list. Just before The Chosen One (2010), the fourth thriller by Sam Bourne was published in the UK, The Bookseller reported in April 2010 that HarperCollins had signed Freedland for three more Bourne books. HarperCollins published "Pantheon" in July 2012.<mask>'s sixth novel entitled "American Winter" was published in 2014 under the Sam Bourne name, but was withdrawn and reissued as The 3rd Woman, published by HarperCollins in 2015 under his own name. His sixth Bourne novel, To Kill a President, was published by HarperCollins on 4 July 2017. The seventh novel under the Sam Bourne pseudonym, To Kill the Truth, was published in February 2019. Views

Israel, Zionism and antisemitism
A leading liberal Zionist in the UK, he wrote in 2012 that he uses the word Zionism infrequently, as the word has been misunderstood and has become defined as right-wing. On the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, he believes that military action perpetuates conflict and has called for negotiations to end the cycles of violence. He defends Israel's right to exist, but hopes that Israel will recognise the 'high price' paid by Palestinians. Freedland has accused the Labour Party in the UK of being in denial on the issue of antisemitism.He has urged the left to treat Jews "the same way you'd treat any other minority". He has also commented on the perceived antisemitic expressions of Palestinians with whom Corbyn has associated and expressed the view that many of the Labour Party's new members were hostile to Jews. Freedland has attracted some criticism for his views. Jewish heritage

Freedland is a supporter of projects that seek to preserve Jewish identity and heritage. He has frequently written about the importance of both his faith and his cultural heritage. He has also been active in campaigns to save British Jewish heritage. Other issues
Freedland was critical of the role of the local authority and management company in the period leading up to the Grenfell Tower fire.He believes that the British public are tired of the duration and impact of austerity. He is concerned that the impact of Hurricane Harvey in the United States received more publicity than more serious events in Asia. Freedland is also concerned about the war in Yemen and the role of western governments in supplying weapons to Saudi Arabia. He maintains that reduced police funding enables terrorism in the United Kingdom and blames the large Internet companies for not preventing the spread of terrorist material. Personal life
Freedland is married to Sarah Peters, a radio and podcast producer. They have two sons, Jacob and Sam, and conform to Conservative Judaism. Bibliography

Books

Non-fiction
 Bring Home the Revolution: The Case for a British Republic (Fourth Estate, 1998)
 Jacob's Gift: A Journey into the Heart of Belonging (Hamish Hamilton, 2005),

Fiction
 The Righteous Men (HarperCollins, 2006)
 The Last Testament, published elsewhere as The Jerusalem Secret (HarperCollins, 2007)
 The Final Reckoning (HarperCollins, 2008)
 The Chosen One (HarperCollins, 2010)
 Pantheon (HarperCollins, 5 July 2012)
 The 3rd Woman (Harper 4 August 2015)  (first published under real name J<mask>, not Sam Bourne)
 To Kill the President (HarperCollins, 12 June 2017)
 To Kill the Truth (Quercus, 21 February 2019)
 To Kill a Man (Quercus, 19 March 2020)

Articles
 "Trump's Chaver in Jerusalem" (review of Anshel Pfeffer, Bibi:  The Turbulent Life and Times of Benjamin Netanyahu, Basic Books, 2018), New York Review of Books, vol.LXV, no 13 (16 August 2018), pp. 32–34. "As Pfeffer concludes, 'His [Netanyahu's] ultimate legacy will not be a more secure nation, but a deeply fractured Israeli society, living behind walls.'" References

External links

Dibdin's review of The Righteous Men
Guardian readers' editor Ian Mayes's column
<mask>and extended interview with Al Gore
Journalisted – Articles by <mask>and
Freedland archive from The New York Review of Books

1967 births
Living people
British Jews
British male journalists
British republicans
People educated at University College School
The Guardian journalists
21st-century English novelists
English thriller writers
Writers from London
English male novelists
21st-century English male writers

masks:
Jonathan Saul Freedland
Michael Freedland
Freedland
Freedland
. Freedland
Jonathan Freedl
Jonathan Freedl


title: André Borschberg

texts:
<mask> FRSGS (born December 13, 1952) is a Swiss entrepreneur, explorer, pilot, and speaker. He is the co-founder of the Solar Impulse project, the first ever round-the-world solar flight, successfully completed in July 2016. During the Japan-to-Hawaii leg, <mask> broke the world record for longest solo flight in an airplane of any kind: 117 hours and 52 minutes, breaking Steve Fossett's 2006 record. Before that, on 7 July 2010, <mask> completed the first 24-hour solar-powered flight. The flight set records for the longest manned solar-powered flight and the greatest height reached by a manned solar aircraft. He currently holds 14 FAI world records in: free distance, free distance along a course, straight distance, straight distance predeclared waypoints, distance along a course, duration, absolute altitude, gain of height. His groundbreaking record: the longest solo flight in an airplane of any kind: 117 hours and 52 minutes.<mask> flew as a jet pilot in the Swiss Air Force prior to his work with Solar Impulse. An engineer by education and a graduate of the MIT Sloan School of Management, <mask> has solid experience in creating and managing companies. His passion for aviation and his interest in innovative solutions have led him to team up with Bertrand Piccard as CEO, co-founder, and pilot of Solar Impulse. For his role in delivering and piloting Solar Impulse, <mask> was awarded the Mungo Park Medal by the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in 2018. This was awarded jointly with Bertrand Piccard. Pilot career
Fascinated by aviation from his earliest youth, <mask> trained as a pilot in the Swiss air force, flying first Venoms and then Hunters and Tigers for over 20 years. Today he holds both professional aeroplane and helicopter pilots' licenses and also does aerobatics in his spare time.Engineer and management career
After graduating from the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in mechanics and thermodynamics, he supplemented his training with a Master's in Management Science from the MIT Sloan School of Management, preceded by certificates in financial management and business management at HEC Lausanne. He first joined McKinsey, one of the world's leading business consultancies, as a consultant for five years, before starting his own entrepreneurial activities. He went initially into partnership with a venture capital company, Lowe Finance. With a technical team from EPFL, he co-founded Innovative Silicon, a technology company in the field of microprocessor memories. Solar Impulse

<mask> and Bertrand Piccard released in 2017 Objectif Soleil, a book about how they lived through Solar Impulse project. <mask> is the head of the project Solar Impulse with Bertrand Piccard as the CEO, heading a team of 65 specialists and numerous partners. Engineering
As a mechanical engineer and pilot, he is directing the construction of the aircraft and the preparation of the flight missions."We need to find a way to build an aircraft that is super-robust & super-light at the same time, and above all extremely efficient with energy consumption, so as to need only minuscule amounts of energy in order to fly. But with the same degree of resistance as a normal airplane. Hence the great complexity of the project, which gives the true measure of its philosophy and its objectives." Medical partner
The emergency department of the Hirslanden Clinique Cecil is the official medical partner of Bertrand Piccard and <mask>’s world tour for Solar Impulse. Solar Impulse 1 missions
 Solar Night Flight:

On 7 July 2010, <mask> has, for the first time in history, flown 26 hours with the Solar Impulse aeroplane, demonstrating at the same time the possibilities to fly day and night with only solar energy to propel the aeroplane. European Solar Flights:

Solar Impulse HB-SIA, piloted by <mask>, completed three international flights during the European campaign: Payerne to Brussels on 13 May (630 km), Brussels to Paris-Le Bourget on 14 June (395 km), and Paris-Le Bourget to Payerne on 3 July (426 km). Crossing frontiers:

Solar Impulse, piloted alternately by <mask> and Bertrand Piccard, made its first intercontinental flight in 2012 from Switzerland (Payerne) to Toulouse, and then on to Morocco.Across America:

Solar Impulse has completed the historic crossing of the United States over a 2-month period of the summer of 2013. Bertrand Piccard and <mask>, the two pilots, flew from San Francisco to New York, stopping over in cities along the way. With the goal of the world's first solar-powered round the world flight initiated on March 9, 2015, these flights have provided good learning opportunities in terms of slotting the solar aircraft into international air space and landing at international airports. Solar Impulse 2 missions

Taking turns at the controls of the airplane with his partner Bertrand Piccard for the first ever round-the-world solar flight, successfully achieved in July 2016. FAI world records
<mask> achieved 8 FAI world records flying with Solar Impulse 1. During three historical flights (2010 night flight, 2012 Payerne to Madrid, and 2013 Phoenix to Dallas), he was awarded 8 FAI World records: free distance, free distance along a course, straight distance, straight distance predeclared waypoints, distance along a course, duration, absolute altitude, gain of height. With the Solar Impulse 2, he broke the record of the longest solo flight previously held by Steve Fosset.On 3 July 2015 Borschberg flew the solar-powered airplane between Nagoya (Japan) and Kalaeloa, Hawaii (US) for a duration of 4 days, 21 hours, and 52 minutes. H55
In early 2017 Borschberg co-founded the Swiss tech start-up H 55 based in Sion. H55 is a technological spinoff of Solar Impulse. The company develops and sells electric propulsion technologies to aircraft manufactures. In 2017 the company launched its first aircraft, the Aerol, followed by the Bristell Energic in 2019. See also
 International Committee of Clean Technologies

References

External links

 Official Solar Impulse website

1952 births
Swiss businesspeople
Swiss aviators
MIT Sloan School of Management alumni
Living people
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne alumni
Flight endurance record holders
Swiss aviation record holders
McKinsey & Company people
Fellows of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society

masks:
André Borschberg
André
André
Borschberg
André Borschberg
André
André Borschberg
André Borschberg
Management Borschberg
André Borschberg
André Borschberg
André Borschberg
André Borschberg
André Borschberg
André Borschberg


title: John Kirkpatrick (musician)

texts:
<mask>  (born 8 August 1947) is an English player of free reed instruments. In London
<mask> was born in Chiswick, London, England. As a child he sang in the choir and played piano. In 1959, he joined the Hammersmith Morris Men, in the second week of their existence, beginning a career-long love of folk music. In 1970, he became a regular at a folk club in the Roebuck pub in Tottenham Court Road and led the resident group, Dingle's Chillybom Band. The club hosted a film show of Morris dancing and Ashley Hutchings turned up. It was the beginning of a long musical relationship.In 1972 he teamed up with Ashley and others on the album Morris On. In 1972, <mask> recorded his first solo album Jump at the Sun which included Richard Thompson on acoustic guitar. In Shropshire
In 1973, <mask> moved to Shropshire and married Sue Harris. After seeing a dance team called Gloucestershire Old Spot Morris Dancers, he formed Shropshire Bedlams to perform local dances in the Border Morris style. In the early weeks some girls turned up and rather than have a mixed morris team, Harris took the girls aside to form Martha Rhoden's Tuppenny Dish; both teams are still flourishing and celebrated their fortieth anniversary in 2015. By this time <mask> was an expert player of melodeon, Anglo concertina, and button accordion. Ashley Hutchings' project Battle of the Field floundered when the Albion Country Band broke up.They had recorded not quite enough material for an album. <mask> had appeared on several of the tracks with Martin Carthy and offered to record two extra tracks with his wife in 1973. It was not released until 1976 but is highly regarded. Harris sang and played oboe and hammered dulcimer, an unusual combination. In 1974, <mask> and Hutchings produced a themed album The Compleat Dancing Master, a history of English country dancing. In 1976, he teamed up with Carthy for Plain Capers, a collection of morris dance tunes. Steeleye Span
In 1977, Steeleye Span recruited both <mask> and Carthy, partly to replace fiddler Peter Knight.<mask> appearing on the albums Storm Force Ten and Live at Last; in concert with them, he would perform solo morris dances. In the same period, <mask> released two albums as a duo with Sue Harris. He became part of Richard Thompson's backing band in 1978. This brought him such publicity that he was in heavy demand as a session musician. He recorded with Pere Ubu, Viv Stanshall, Jack the Lad, Gerry Rafferty, Maddy Prior and others. In 1980 he released his only single, "Jogging Along with My Reindeer". Two more albums with Sue Harris appeared in 1981, but the constant touring, as a duo and as part of other groups, was putting a strain on the marriage.They had four sons together, but parted in the mid 1980s. In 1988, he and Sue published Opus Pocus, a collection of many of their own compositions from the previous 20 years, and a selection of some of the (then) more obscure traditional English tunes which had influenced them. Brass Monkey
In 1979, <mask> had appeared in the National Theatre Company's stage show Lark Rise to Candleford together with Carthy and trumpeter Howard Evans. Prior to this the use of brass instruments in English folk music was a rare event, but all three had found it thrilling and a couple of years later formed Brass Monkey with Martin Brinsford from the Old Swan Band. The group is an occasional gathering rather than a fixed company. Roy Bailey, like Leon Rosselson has frequently recorded songs of social commentary, frequently on an anti-war theme. He has made several records with Roy Bailey, as well as in a group called Band of Hope.He recorded with Frankie Armstrong in 1996 and 1997. They share a love of early English ballads. <mask> Band
In 1997, he decided to front his own "rock-folk" band, and put together a line-up consisting of Graeme Taylor (guitar, electric guitar, banjo, mandolin – ex Gryphon, The Albion Band and Home Service), Mike Gregory (drums, percussion – ex Albion Band, Home Service), Dave Berry (electric bass, double bass, tuba) and Paul Burgess (fiddle, recorders – from the Old Swan Band). They made two albums: a live album "Force of Habit" containing many of <mask>'s arrangements of Morris tunes, plus other material from his back catalogue, plus a studio album "Welcome To Hell" featuring new material. As soloist
Since 1993, <mask> has recorded seven solo albums. He often unearths obscure English tunes and songs from folk ceremonies. Recently he has started to explore Balkan and Hungarian dance tunes.He has produced one of the only teaching videos for English (D/G) melodeon, also on DVD. A further teaching resource is his 2003 book of traditional tunes, English Choice, and two accompanying CDs. He has recently started to perform with accordion wizard Chris Parkinson as the Sultans of Squeeze, and the pair have released one album. He is remarried. One of his sons, Benji <mask>, is a member  of Faustus, a former member of Bellowhead and Magpie Lane, and has recorded as a solo guitarist. He has succeeded his father as a member of Steeleye Span. All four of his sons do morris dancing.As a composer, choreographer and musical director, <mask> has contributed to over 60 plays in the theatre and on radio. <mask> was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2021 New Year Honours for services to folk music. Discography
Solo albums
Jump at the Sun 				(1972)
Going Spare 				(1978)
Three in a Row				(1983)
Blue Balloon				(1987)
Sheepskins					(1988)
Earthling					(1994)
One Man and His Box			(1999)
Mazurka Berzerker				(2001)
The Duck Race				(2004)
A Short History of <mask> (anthology) (1994)
Make No Bones (2 CDs) (2007)
Dance of the Demon Daffodils               (2009)
God Speed the Plough                       (2011)
Coat Tails Flying                          (2017)

<mask> and Sue Harris
The Rose of Britain's Isle				(1974)
Among The Many Attractions at the Show will be a Really High Class Band		(1976)
Shreds and Patches				(1977)
Facing the Music				(1980)
Ballad of the Black Country		(1981)
Stolen Ground				(1989)

Ashley Hutchings with <mask>
Morris On (1972)
The Compleat Dancing Master		(1974)

<mask> and Martin Carthy
Plain Capers				(1976)

With the Albion Band
Battle of the Field				(1976)
Lark Rise To Candleford			(1980)
The BBC Sessions   			(1998) (tracks 1 – 4, recorded 1973)

With <mask> and Sue Harris
The English Canals				(1975) [reissued in 1999 as The Bold Navigators – The Story of England's Canals in Song]

With Steeleye Span
Storm Force Ten				(1977)
Live at Last! (1978)

With Brass Monkey
Brass Monkey 				(1983)
See How it Runs 				(1986)
Sound and Rumour				(1999)
Going And Staying				(2001)
Flame of Fire				(2004)
The Complete Brass Monkey (anthology)

<mask> Kirkpatrick Band
Force of Habit 				(1997)
Welcome To Hell 				(1997)

With Umps and Dumps
The Moon's in a Fit				(1980)

<mask> Kirkpatrick, Maddy Prior and Sydney Carter
Lovely in the Dances: Songs of Sydney Carter				(1981)

Kepa Junkera, Riccardo Tesi, <mask> Kirkpatrick
Trans-Europe Diatonique                           (1993)

<mask> Kirkpatrick, Rosie Cross, Georgina Le Faux, Michael Gregory, Jane Threlfall, Carl Hogsden
Wassail! (1997)

Maddy Prior, John Kirkpatrick, Frankie Armstrong, Nic Jones, Gordeanna McCulloch
Ballads					(1997)

John Kirkpatrick and Chris Parkinson
Sultans of Squeeze                         (2005)

As session musician
Henry The Human Fly (Richard Thompson) (1972)
I Want To See The Bright Lights Tonight (Richard and Linda Thompson) (1974)
Hokey Pokey (Richard and Linda Thompson) (1975)
Pour Down Like Silver (Richard and Linda Thompson) (1975)
First Light (Richard and Linda Thompson) (1977)
Sunnyvista  (Richard and Linda Thompson) (1978)
My Very Favourite Nursery Rhymes  (Tim Hart and Friends) (1981)
Hand of Kindness (Richard Thompson) (1983)
Daring Adventures  (Richard Thompson) (1986)
The Crab Wars: A Ballad of the Olden Times, As Remembered by Sid and Henry Kipper (The Kipper Family)			(1986)
Amnesia (Richard Thompson) (1988)
Why Does It Have To Be Me? (Roy Bailey) (1989)
Sweet Talker (Richard Thompson) (1991)
Rumor and Sigh (Richard Thompson) (1991)
The Happiness Counter (Leon Rosselson)	(1992)
Mirror Blue (Richard Thompson) (1994)
More Guitar  (Richard Thompson) (2003)
Boomerang (Benji Kirkpatrick) (2007)

Original film soundtrack
Rêve de Siam (with Dan Ar Braz)	(1992)

Compilation albums
The Rough Guide to English Roots Music (1998, World Music Network)
Three Score and Ten (2009, Topic)

The tracks Kirkpatrick performs on in the Three Score and Ten boxed set are "The Rose Of Britain's Isle" / "Glorishears" from the Rose Of Britain's Isle; "The Maid and the Palmer" as part of Brass Monkey; and "George's Son" featuring Brass Monkey from See How it Runs. References

External links
Homepage

1947 births
Living people
English folk musicians
Ashley Hutchings
English folk singers
People from Chiswick
Steeleye Span members
British folk rock musicians
English melodeon players
Concertina players
21st-century accordionists
Brass Monkey (band) members
The Albion Band members
Members of the Order of the British Empire

masks:
John Michael Kirkpatrick
John Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
John Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
John Kirkpatrick
John Kirkpatrick
John Kirkpatrick
John Kirkpatrick
John Raven
John
John
John
John


title: Charles Edward Stuart, Count Roehenstart

texts:
<mask>, Baron Korff, Count Roehenstart ( – 28 October 1854) was the natural son of Prince Ferdinand of Rohan (1738–1813), Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cambrai, by Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany, herself the natural daughter of <mask>, the "Young Pretender". She was legitimated after the birth of her children, and Roehenstart was later a passive Jacobite pretender to the British throne. The name of "Roehenstart" given to him in infancy combined the names of both of his parents, Rohan and Stuart, while failing to proclaim their identity, which at the time would have been a cause for scandal. Although he retired from military service as a lieutenant colonel, he is sometimes called "General" <mask>, and this title appears on his gravestone at Dunkeld. Life

Roehenstart was baptised into the Roman Catholic faith on 13 May 1784 at the parish church of Saint-Merry in the rue de Saint Martin, Paris, when he was described as a son of Maximilian Roehenstart and of Clementine Ruthven. He was named <mask> after his royal grandfather. The letters of Roehenstart's mother to her own mother, Clementina Walkinshaw, provide evidence that this was one of her children, two daughters and one son, all fathered by Ferdinand de Rohan.The daughters were Victoire Adélaïde ("Aglae"), who was baptised at the Château de Couzières on 19 June 1779, and Charlotte Maximilienne Amélie, born during the summer of 1780. The pregnancy with Roehenstart delayed Charlotte's plans to join her father in Florence, he having been kept in ignorance of all three children. On 23 March 1783, the ailing Prince <mask> had legitimised Charlotte, created her Duchess of Albany in the Jacobite Peerage, and made her heiress to some of his private property, but not his claim to the throne. She travelled to join him soon after the birth of Roehenstart, leaving her children behind in the care of her own mother, herself taking on the responsibility for nursing her father until his death on 31 January 1788. Less than two years later, on 17 November 1789, Charlotte herself died of cancer in Bologna. Roehenstart's grandmother Clementina Walkinshaw lived until 1802, in her later years taking up residence in Switzerland, and Roehenstart was raised in the reformed faith. During the years of the French Revolution, his father paid for his education in Germany.A substantial fortune should have come to Roehenstart from his grandmother, much of which on the recommendation of Thomas Coutts had been invested in London with Turnbull, Forbes & Co., but the firm had gone bankrupt in August 1802. Most of the remainder of his fortune, one hundred thousand roubles, was invested with a Russian banker named Sofniev. In later life, Roehenstart stated that in 1800 he had been commissioned as an artillery officer of the Imperial Russian Army and had been promoted by 1803. On 8 August 1804, in Paris, he signed his name as a witness at the marriage of his sister Charlotte de Roehenstart to Jean-Louis de la Morliere. By 1806, he was no longer in the army, having resigned his commission as a lieutenant colonel, and had taken service in the household of Duke Alexander of Wurttemberg, who was Tsar Alexander I's Governor of White Ruthenia. In Saint Petersburg, Roehenstart was presented to the Tsarina, who was impressed by him. In 1811, he was offered the hand of an heiress, Marianna Hurko, but made the mistake of falling in love with her sister, Evelina, who was promised elsewhere.Unhappily, at about the same time Roehenstart's banker Sofniev failed, and Roehenstart was advised that he would recover only about five thousand roubles from the disaster. To the distress and anger of the Wurttembergs, he fled Russia, sailing from Kronstadt and arriving in London by November 1811. From there, he set sail for North America, in pursuit of John Forbes, a partner in Turnbull, Forbes & Co. who after the firm's failure had absconded to the United States with money Roehenstart believed to be rightfully his. He lived in Philadelphia from 1811 to 1813. He remained in America until 1814. In 1822, Forbes was living in Demerara, British Guiana, and successfully defended a claim made against him based on his firm's bankruptcy in 1802. In 1816, after the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, Roehenstart went to Scotland and again to England, unsuccessfully renewing the Stuarts' pursuit of their old claim on the dowry of Queen Mary Beatrice of Modena, his great-great-grandmother.In about 1820, Roehenstart married Maria Antonietta Sofia Barberini, the daughter of an exile said to be an Italian nobleman. She died the next year and on 20 July 1821 was buried under the name of "Countess Roehenstart" at Marylebone, London, her age at death being stated as thirty. On 13 December 1826, at St Pancras, London, he married secondly Louisa Constance Bouchier Smith, an Englishwoman possessing a modest fortune, the daughter of Joseph Bouchier Smith, sometime lord of the manor of Kidlington in Oxfordshire, who had recently died. Louisa Constance lived until 20 October 1853, dying at Paris, but there were no children of either marriage. Following his second marriage, Roehenstart returned to continental Europe and spent much of the next twenty-five years travelling, usually without his wife, but they were settled permanently in his native Paris. In later life, Roehenstart spoke openly of his royal descent, but he became so boastful of his origins and adventures that few believed him. In 1853, Roehenstart lost his wife, and in 1854 he revisited Scotland.While there he was fatally injured in a road accident, while travelling in a carriage which overturned. He was buried in the graveyard of Dunkeld Cathedral. His friends provided a modest headstone, with the inscription "Sacred to the memory of General <mask> <mask> Roehenstart who died at Dunkeld on the 28th October 1854 Sic transit gloria mundi". In the twentieth century Roehenstart's papers came into the hands of the American scholar George Sherburn, who produced a comprehensive account of him from them. Claims to the throne
In order to lay a claim of his own to the British throne, Roehenstart maintained consistently that his grandfather <mask> <mask> had married his grandmother, Clementina Walkinshaw, and also that his mother the Duchess of Albany had married a Swedish nobleman named Maximilian Roehenstart. The first is unlikely, although not an impossibility, but it lacks evidence; nothing has come to light to support the second claim, apart from Maximilian Roehenstart being named as Roehenstart's father when he was baptized in Paris; but there is no Swedish noble family named Roehenstart. On the contrary, Charlotte's relationship with Rohan is well evidenced.Although he laid claim to the Jacobite succession, Roehenstart made no practical attempt to regain the throne of his Stuart ancestors. He did seek to maintain links with leading Scots and at the time of his death was returning from a visit to the Duke of Atholl at Blair Castle in Perthshire. Ancestry

Notes

Bibliography
 Helen Agnes Henrietta Tayler, Prince Charlie's Daughter: Being the Life and Letters of Charlotte of Albany (London: Batchworth Press, 1950)
 George Sherburn, Roehenstart: A Late Stuart Pretender: Being an Account of the Life of <mask> August Maximilien Stuart, Baron Korff, Count Roehenstart (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960)
 Peter Pininski, The Stuarts' Last Secret: The Missing Heirs of Bonnie Prince Charlie (East Linton, Scotland: Tuckwell Press, 2002)
 Peter Pininski, Bonnie Prince Charlie: A Life (Amberley Publishing, 2010, )

See also
Alternative successions of the English and British crown

External links

1784 births
1854 deaths
Charles <mask>
Military personnel of the Russian Empire
Jacobite pretenders
Road incident deaths in Scotland
French expatriates in the United States

masks: Charles Edward Augustus Maximilian Stuart


title: Tom Morey

texts:
<mask> (15 August 1935 – 14 October 2021), also known by the moniker "Y", was a musician, engineer, surfboard shaper, and surfer responsible for several technological innovations that have heavily influenced modern developments in surfing equipment design. Biography
<mask> was born in Detroit, Michigan in 1935. By 1944, he was living in Laguna Beach, California, and was avidly developing his talent for drumming. He became a professional musician in the 1950s. He was an avid performer of jazz. While surfing as a hobby he attended the University of Southern California and graduated with a B.A. in mathematics in 1957.He married Jolly Givens in 1958 and worked for Douglas Aircraft, as a process engineer in composites. After Douglas, he worked a series of jobs involving composite materials and processes, which he applied to his surf-related inventions. He left the corporate world for good in 1964, moved to Ventura and started a series of companies that served the surfing market. Morey also sponsored surfing competitions such as The <mask>y Invitational. Morey's marriage produced two daughters, Michelle (deceased) and Melinda (artist and surfer) before ending in divorce in the late 1960s. Morey was an adherent of the Baháʼí Faith from 1970 after he came across a 'unity feast' at a Kauai beach, where "whites, blacks and Hawaiians, mixed cordially". "After a couple of months of attending informal meetings on Baháʼí teachings - I realized this was something very important not to toy with; rather to become immersed in.""I withdrew immediately from alcohol, drugs and sexual promiscuity". Morey attributed inspiration for invention of the Boogie board (on 7 July 1971) to a particular Baha'i prayer he kept coming across which included the passage "confer upon me thoughts which may change this world into a rose garden.'" He founded the company Morey Boogie shortly thereafter. Morey later married Marchia Nichols, now Marchia <mask>, known as the "mother of bodyboarding", who bore them four sons: Sol, Moon, Sky, and Matteson. Morey sold Morey Boogie in 1977 and lived in Hawaii for a decade, working as a consultant by day, jazz musician by night. By 1977, he was producing 80,000 bodyboards per year. In 1985, the Moreys moved to Bainbridge Island, Washington, where Morey worked as an engineer for the Boeing Corporation.In 1992 he returned to southern California where he reentered the surf scene, consulting on the Wham-O Boogie®Board and with the new company Morey Bodyboards. Morey ended consulting in January 1999 founding his own company again - TomMorey.com - and changed his name to Y. From 1999 to 2007, Morey focused on developing new, soft-surfboard technology. He handmade these boards in a small workshop in Carlsbad, California. His most famous of these was the Swizzle, a parabolic-shaped longboard design. Morey marketed and sold the boards under the name Surfboards by Y. In late-2007, Morey joined forces with Catch Surf of San Clemente, California, to bring his new technology to the masses.His revolutionary new surfboard technology fused the safety and durability of soft surfboards with the performance of a hard surfboard. Morey died on 14 October 2021, as per a statement from his son Sol, at the age of 86. Musician
Morey honed his talent as a drummer and ukulele player from his early youth, working professionally by the age of 12. Subsequently he performed professionally with musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie, Stu Williamson, Bud Shank and Conte Candoli. He was an original member of the 'Sons of the Beach' ukulele 1948, then, over the years founded several other bands: 'Four Eyed Five' in 1950, the 'Tom Morey Quartet' in 1954, and URANIUM in 1969. He joined 'Brotherhood' at the Mauna Kea Beach Hotel in 1983, and played at Salt Creek Grill in Dana Point, California with his most recent ensemble, Laguna Jazz Quartet. He also played in with Dene Davidson's Cool Jazz quintet, with Keith Bishop on saxophone, Joey Carano on guitar, Davidson on electric bass, Leonard Thompson on keyboards, and <mask> on drums.Surfing
In 1946, at the age of 11, Morey came in second in the Green Valley Lake Paddle board Championships. He began board surfing in 1952. In April 1955 he wake-surfed (no towrope) behind an ocean-going yacht. From 1955 to 1963, Morey was a sponsored surfer for Dave Godart Surfboards, then Dave Sweet, Con, Velzy Jacobs, and finally Dewey Weber. In 1964 he began setting up businesses providing surf boards and inventing technologies for surf boards:
 1954 - created the first "concave nose pocket"
 1955 - invented something he called the "Wing Tip," a Coaund Lift nose. 1964 - created the first polypropylene fin and first commercial interchangeable fin system. 1965 - used resin-impregnated corrigated cardboard to make a "paper surfboard" for which there was a television commercial and an August 1966, full color, two page advertisement in Reader's Digest.1965 - created the <mask>y Invitational Nose Riding Championships, first professional surfing contest held at Ventura Point. 1971 - invented the bodyboard, called in those days a Boogie Board after Morey's love of music. 1974–1976 - engineered the essence of today's "soft board" manufacturing technology. Morey left commercial surfboarding interests in the late 1970s and returned to them in the 1990s. References

External links

 <mask>'s Surfboards by Y and Catch Surf
 TomMorey.com

 <mask>y bio on surfline.com
 Comments of Mike Doyle 1
 HI Surf Advisory Tom Morey
 Industry News  The Birth Of The Bodyboard Industry: The <mask> Story
 Vagabond.com Response to the "What is killing Bodyboarding?" series by <mask>y
 A Malibu Surf Dog Barks
 LATimes.com Stoking the masses Once upon a time, folks rode waves on surfboards or air mattresses. Then <mask>y put an iron to a hunk of foam.<mask> = The Mad Scientist of Wave Riding
 The Hey Day.com Sultan of surf, baron of boogie

1935 births
2021 deaths
American inventors
American surfers
American Bahá'ís
Bodyboarders
University of Southern California alumni
Converts to the Bahá'í Faith
20th-century Bahá'ís
21st-century Bahá'ís

masks:
Tom Hugh Morey
Morey
Tom More
Morey
Morey
Tom More
Tom Morey
Tom More
Tom Morey
Tom More
Tom More
Tom Morey


title: C. K. Nagaraja Rao

texts:
C. K<mask> (, 12 June 1915 – 10 April 1998) was an Indian writer, dramatist, stage artist, director, journalist and social activist, who wrote in Kannada. He was the first recipient of the Moortidevi Award instituted by Bharatiya Jnanpith for his magnum opus "Pattamahadevi Shantaladevi" in 1983. The same work received "Best Creative Literary Work" award by the Karnataka Sahitya Academy in 1978. Early life

C.K<mask> was born on 12 June 1915 in Challakere, Chitradurga district to C.S<mask> and Smt. Puttamma.His childhood was spent in various cities around India and he developed a keen interest in the rich art and cultural heritage of Karnataka, India. As a school boy, he volunteered to waited upon Mahatma Gandhi during his stay at Nandi Hills near Bangalore, India. The interaction with Gandhi and his close association with his uncle, Justice Nittoor Srinivasa <mask>, instilled in him devotion for India's freedom and welfare of its needy people. <mask>'s literary career began when he won a school competition for his short story "Kaadu Mallige" about a Dalit music lover who was not allowed to sit with patrons from the upper castes during concerts. He worked with Satya Shodhana Pustaka Bhandara, an Kannada book printer and publisher whose motto was the promotion of the rich cultural heritage of Karnataka. Under the guidance of his uncle Justice Nittor Srinivasa <mask>, C.K<mask> <mask> had the opportunity to mingle with leading writers and literati of Karnataka.After a few years of work at Satya Shodhana, he took over responsibilities as secretary of the Kannada Sahitya Parishath and worked with influential writers like Masti Venkatesha Iyengar, B. M. Srikantaiah and others which further strengthened his resolve to delve deeper into the heritage of Karnataka. Research: history and culture of Karnataka

The extensive research by C.K<mask> <mask> led to his publishing many research papers. Amongst his earliest research works was a book titled “Kavi Lakshmeeshana Kaala Mattu Sthala”, on the celebrated Kannada poet Lakshmeesha. The book won an award from the Karnataka Sahitya Academy for the research content. He also authored many research papers on the Chalukya, Ganga and Hoysala dynasties which were published in the journals of the Mythic Society and other journals and newspapers like Vani, Samyukta Karnataka, Praja Vaani etc. Historical novels

His research into the Hoysala period, regarded as one of the golden periods in the history of Karnataka, led to the unearthing of stone inscriptions that shed light into the motherhood of Hoysala Queen Shantaladevi, thus debunking the myth that she committed suicide for being childless.Through his research he was able to establish that Queen Shantaladevi was the mother of three sons and a daughter. In the year 1977, he self -published his magnum opus "Pattamahadevi Shantaladevi", a historical novel spanning 2162 pages. This work was hailed as "Gadya Mahakavya" by historians, critics and readers alike. Sri M.V<mask>, the editor of Illustrated weekly of India lauded the novel as the biggest literary work ever published. The Hindi translation of this novel translated by Sri P. Venkatachala Sharma and published by Bharatiya Jnanapith has been well received. C.K.<mask> <mask> wrote two additional novels "Veeraganga Vishnuvardhana" and "Dayada Daavanala?" that further chronicle the history and times of the Hoysala dynasty. These novels record the history through hundreds of characters, many historical, and some imaginary to strengthen the narration. He penned "Sri Pruthvi Vallabha", covering the Chalukya dynasty and the period of their famous King Tailapa. Theatre and radio plays

He formed his own troupe called United Artists in Bangalore. He directed plays of well-known Kannada playwrights like T.P<mask>, <mask> Venkatappagowda Puttappa and others.He developed his own style of makeup for theatre artists and was recognised as one of the best make-up artists of his times. He was closely associated with All India Radio Bangalore as an actor and producer of radio plays. Other activities

 C.K<mask> <mask> was closely associated with the Mythic Society and worked as its chief executive and editor of its journal. He also founded Karnataka Lekhakara Sangha and worked as its president for over three decades. He initiated many youngsters into creative writing by conducting monthly poet meet-ups called "Kaavyarama". He was closely involved in social activities as an active member of the Rotary Club of Bangalore.He was also editor of the journal of the Rotary Club for many years. He helped organise festivals such as Hoysalotsava and Gangasamrajyotsava and actively participated in the Chalukyotsava at Badami. He worked as the President of Jayanagar Housing Co-operation Society for many years. He served as the First Vice-Principal of Adarsha Film Institute. He was a member of P.E.N, a worldwide association of writers. Published works

Collection of stories
 1937  Kadumallige
 1944  Sangama
 1956  Drushti Mathana
 1982  Saavilladavaru

Plays
 1943  Shoodramuni
 1979  Sampanna Samaja
 1979  Sankole Basava
 1988  Ekalavya (Hindi)

Novels
 1957  Nambida Jeeva
 1978  Pattamahadevi Shantaladevi
 1992  Veeraganga Vishnuvardhana
 1994  Daayaada Daavaanala? 1983  Kuranganayani
 1995  ShriPruthvivallabha

Translations
 1938 Premayogini
 1940 Darpachoorna
 1941 ArakshaNeeya
 1946 Kaashinaatha
 1957 Vishweshwari
 1958 Mantradeekshe
 1959 Nanna Nechhina Naade
 1979 Thathamaavana Kanasu
 1970 Cambodia-Laos

Other works
 1942 Naayikode
 1950 Ekalavya Darshana
 1969 Mahakavi Lakshmeeshana Sthala Mattu Kaala

References

External links
  Mythic Society

Kannada-language writers
Kannada people
Dramatists and playwrights from Karnataka
Kannada dramatists and playwrights
1915 births
1998 deaths
People from Chitradurga district
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
Indian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Indian male writers
Recipients of the Moortidevi Award

masks:
. Nagaraja Rao
. Nagaraja Rao
. Krishnamurthy Rao
Rao
Rao
Rao
. Nagaraja
Rao
. Nagaraja
Rao
. Kamat
Nagaraja
Rao
. Kailasam
Kuppali
. Nagaraja
Rao


title: C. Achutha Menon

texts:
<mask> (13 January 1913 – 16 August 1991)  was the Chief Minister of Kerala state for two terms. The first term was from 1 November 1969 to 1 August 1970 and the second 4 October 1970 to 25 March 1977. He was instrumental in starting number of institutions and development projects in Kerala. <mask> was the first  politician who adorned the chief ministership of Kerala for two consecutive terms. He led the then United Front to a thumping electoral victory in Kerala when Congress party was routed in elections in other parts of India. Personal life
He was born in a Hindu Nair family to <mask> (after whom he was named) and Lekshmykutty Amma at Puthukkad, Thrissur District on 13 January 1913. His brother-in-law V. V. Raghavan was also a Communist Party of India politician from Thrissur city.V. V. Raghavan was the Member of Parliament from Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency, in 1996 and 1998. He was married to Ammini Amma, and had three children including 2 daughters and V. Ramankutty. Education
Being a brilliant student, he studied on merit scholarship throughout his student life, and stood first in the SSLC examination in the then State of Kochi. He is a former student of Church Mission Society High School, Thrissur (CMSHSS, Thrissur) And after finishing the intermediate level in St. Thomas College, Thrissur, he continued his college education in the St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli Madras. There he won a gold medal for academic excellence and was a role model for other fellow students. Menon, then went on to study Law in Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram and scored the highest marks in Hindu Law. After the B.L.degree, he started legal practice in various courts of Thrissur, during which time he began to get involved in many social issues. Political life
<mask> <mask> started his political career by associating himself with the State Congress, and actively took part in the Congress meeting held at Thrissur. He subsequently became a member of the Kochi rajya prajamandalam. He joined the Communist Party of India in 1941 through his involvement in the "Labour Brotherhood" movement. <mask> became a Member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of India and a member of its Executive Committee and Central Secretariat. He continued his political activities, even when the Communist Party was banned. He was imprisoned for many years.The first imprisonment <mask> <mask> underwent was in 1940, for one year for making an anti-war speech; and the next in the wake of the "Quit India" movement of 9 August 1942 as a detainee for more than a year. He was forced to evade arrest and live "underground" for more than three years during the period 1948–51. Legislative career
<mask> <mask> was elected to the Travancore-Cochin State Legislature while "underground" in 1952. When Kerala became a separate state in 1956, <mask> <mask> prepared a pamphlet in which he beautifully expressed his dreams of future Kerala. The pamphlet titled "Towards a more prosperous and plentiful Kerala", became the manifesto of the Communist Party in the general elections held in 1957. The election witnessed the political victory of the Communist Party, and Kerala
became the second state in the world in which the communist party came to
power through the ballot paper. <mask> <mask> also became elected to the Kerala Legislative Assembly,  thus becoming the first Finance & Agricultural Minister of Kerala in the Ministry headed by E.M.S.Namboodirippad in 1957. He presented the first Budget of Kerala state on 7 June 1957. As the so-called Vimochanasamaram (Liberation Struggle) gained momentum the Home Minister was found unfit to handle the situation and was divested of the crucial portfolio which then was handed over to <mask>. He was again elected to the Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1960. <mask> also became a member of the Rajyasabha during 1968–69. Split of Communist Party
During the Communist Party split, he continued to remain with the CPI. The political instability during the late sixties had paved the way for a realignment in coalition politics, which had far reaching implication on the political history of the state.He was elected as the State Secretary of C.P.I. too, many times, and was also a member of the National Council of the C.P.I. Chief Minister of Kerala
In the 1967 Kerala Legislative Assembly election, his party contested as part of a seven-party alliance named Saptakakshi Munnani. E. M. S. Namboodiripad was sworn in as the Chief Minister but had to resign in 1969 due to internal dissensions within the alliance. Following this, the CPI exited from the coalition and constituted a mini-front which formed government with the external support from Indian National Congress. <mask> <mask> was sworn in as Chief Minister on 1 November 1969. Noted as one of the best chief ministers Kerala has had, he continued till the dissolution of the third Kerala Legislative Assembly.The split in the Indian Socialist Party, a coalition partner and group politics within the Congress party led to the fall of his government on 1 August 1970. It was under his stewardship that Kerala signed on for continuing with the Mullaperiar Dam agreement with Tamil Nadu, as a part of reviewing the pre-independence agreement between the Kingdom of Travancore and the Madras Presidency. This agreement, experts on the subject believe, frittered away the interests of Kerala and became the prime reason for unenviable situation that Kerala finds itself today in the Mullaperiar issue. He was not a member of the Kerala Assembly then, but subsequently got elected from Kottarakkara (State Assembly constituency) in the by-election held in April 1970. In the mid-term poll conducted in 1970, he was again elected this time from Kodakara in Thrissur District and was sworn in as Chief Minister on 4 October 1970 and held office till 1977. Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum was set up during his period. His ministry continued in power for about seven years and implemented reform measures of basic importance such as the Land Reform Act, take-over of private forests without compensation, law on agricultural labour, gratuity of industrial workers, one-lakh housing scheme, etc., not to mention significant steps towards industrialization of Kerala.It was this ministry which enunciated a Science Policy and established a number of "Centres of Excellence" in Scientific research in the state. Many institutions like Keltron, NATPAC were started during his tenure. <mask> <mask> retired from active politics in 1977. He suffered multiple health problems during the final years of his life. He died on 16 August 1991, aged 78, at Sree Chithira Thirunal Hospital in Thiruvananthapuram after suffering from a massive heart attack. Incidentally, the place where he died was set up during his period. He was cremated with full state honours at Thrissur, his hometown.Developmental works
He started a lot of institutions for industrialization and inclusive development of Kerala. More than 50 institutions in the fields of science, technology, public health, planning, housing, education, social sciences,  geology, forest protection, water management, environment conservation and so on were started. In the fields of social sciences, research, environment and technology institutions such as Centre for Development Studies, Electronic Research and Development Center (C-DAC Trivandrum), Regional Research Laboratory, National Centre for Earth Science Studies, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM) were set up during his tenure as chief minister of Kerala. He pioneered industrial development in Kerala by helping K. P. P. Nambiar set up Kerala State Electronics Development Corporation (KELTRON) in 1973. He was instrumental in bringing Apollo Tyres company to Kerala. The two specialized universities of the state namely the Kerala Agricultural University and Cochin University of Science and Technology were started during his tenure. In field of health care Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum was started during his ministry.The Kerala State Planning Board, constituted by Second Namboodiripad Ministry was strengthened during his period as the chairperson. In 1985, a non profit organisation named Centre of Science and Technology for Rural Development (COSTFORD) was formed by him along with K. N. Raj and Laurie Baker. Literary works
A talented writer, Shri. <mask> Menon had authored many books He wrote many books and articles, mostly related to Marxism, Communism and Indian History. He also translated H.G. Wells' "Brief History of the World" into Malayalam. "Soviet Land", "Kissan Padha Pusthakam", "Keralam – Prasnangalum Sadhyadhakalum", "Smaranayude Edukal", and "Manushyan Swayam Nirmikkunnu"(Translation) are his other famous works.Along with, he has contributed many noteworthy articles in newspapers and periodicals. See also

 K. P. P. Nambiar

References

Further reading

External links
Profile at keralacm.gov.in

1913 births
1991 deaths
Chief Ministers of Kerala
Malayali politicians
Politicians from Thrissur
St. Thomas College, Thrissur alumni
Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram alumni
Communist Party of India politicians from Kerala
Chief ministers from Communist Party of India
Kerala MLAs 1960–1964
Kerala MLAs 1967–1970
Kerala MLAs 1970–1977
Rajya Sabha members from Kerala
Recipients of the Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award
Indian independence activists from Kerala
Indian independence activists

masks:
Chelat Achutha Menon
Achutha Menon
Madathiveettil Achutha Menon
Achutha
Menon
Menon
Achutha
Menon
Achutha
Menon
Achutha
Menon
Achutha
Menon
Menon
Menon
Achutha
Menon
Achutha
Menon
Achutha


title: George F. Carter

texts:
<mask> (6 April 1912 – 16 March 2004) was an American professor of geography who taught at Johns Hopkins University and later Texas A&M University. <mask> had a background in anthropology and conducted archaeological excavations in Southern California. He is best known for supporting the theories of trans-cultural diffusion and early human settlement of the Americas. Early life and education
<mask> was born in San Diego, California on 6 April 1912. As a teenager, he expressed interest in anthropology and began to spend much of his free time at the San Diego Museum of Man. At the age of fifteen, <mask> befriended the archaeologist Malcolm Jennings Rogers, who was the museum's curator. Rogers allowed the young <mask> to volunteer at the museum, and in the summer of 1930, <mask> accompanied Rogers on a five-week expedition to San Nicolas Island, where they excavated numerous sites.The following autumn, <mask> began classes at San Diego State College. He would eventually transfer to the University of California at Berkeley and earn a B.A. in anthropology in 1934. While at Berkeley, <mask> was able to take classes with the noted cultural anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber, who had been a student of <mask>. San Diego Museum of Man
Immediately after graduating, <mask> was hired by the San Diego Museum of Man and began working with his old mentor Malcolm Jennings Rogers. The two conducted field work on the coasts of Southern California and in the Mojave Desert. While surveying in 1937-1938 near Silver Lake in the Mojave, <mask> found a fluted projectile point which he recognized to be <mask>om tradition had been found in California, and <mask> wanted to document and publish the find at once. Rogers was not comfortable rushing the publication and preferred to gather as much data about the projectile point as possible. Aside from the publication issues, <mask> and Rogers soon found themselves at odds regarding the approximate dates of human occupation for the Silver Lake area. Rogers thought occupation dated back to only 4,000 years ago. <mask> pushed the date back to 40,000 years ago, using the geology of the area to support his estimation. This disagreement led to a rift between Rogers and <mask> which resulted in <mask>'s eventual dismissal from the Museum of Man. Later career and death
Bouncing back from his dismissal, <mask> was quickly hired by San Diego State College in 1939 as a part-time teacher before he returned to Berkeley to pursue a PhD in geography.He studied under Carl Sauer and completed his degree in 1941. During World War II, <mask> moved to Washington, D.C. to work as an analyst for the Office of Strategic Services. In 1943, he left the OSS to teach geography at Johns Hopkins University. Summers between the semesters, <mask> would return to San Diego to conduct archaeological excavations, seeking to prove that man had inhabited the Americas at a much earlier date than accepted by mainstream scholars. In 1957, <mask>'s findings were published in his book Pleistocene Man at San Diego, in which he describes the climate of Southern California during the Pleistocene and the accompanying archaeological sites, some of which <mask> dated to the upper Wisconsin glaciation. Critics dismissed much of <mask>'s claims for early inhabitance, questioning his dating techniques and the possibility that most of the lithic artifacts were actually geofacts. Throughout the 1960s to the 1980s, <mask> continued to publish papers and articles dealing with hyperdiffusionism and the early peopling of the Americas.In 1967, <mask> left Johns Hopkins for Texas A&M University, where he was a distinguished professor of geography until 1978, retiring to become a professor emeritus. <mask> died on 16 March 2004. Earlier Than You Think

In 1980, <mask> published Earlier than You Think: A Personal View of Man in America. The book describes <mask>'s evidence for humans arriving in North America approximately 100,000 years ago. Much of the information presented had already been published by <mask> in the past, but technological advances allowed for a new dating technique called amino acid racemization to be used on ancient human remains. Amino acid racemization was pioneered by Jeffry Bada, who at the time was a geochemist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The new technique allowed bones to be dated by extracting their protein.Learning of this new means of dating, <mask> selected some skulls from the San Diego Museum of Man to be tested. The skulls were excavated on the California coast by M.J. Rogers in 1929, and the museum had them dated at 5,000 to 7,000 years old. Bada tested the specimens in 1974, and the dates came back ranging from 20,000 to 70,000 years ago. <mask> saw this as definitive proof of the early populating of the Americas. <mask> also attacks the mainstream archaeological establishment throughout the book, claiming that some scholars are closed-minded and too caught up in the generally accepted archaeological theories to accept his evidence. Criticism of dating
Critics quickly refuted Bada's results. When using amino acid racemization to date bones, one must know the approximate temperature the bones were exposed to while buried.Additionally, the stratigraphy of the bones suggested dates around 10,000 years ago rather than 70,000. In December 1984, Bada came forward and retracted all the dates of bones gleaned from amino acid racemization. Newer methods of dating, such as accelerator mass spectrometry gave the same bones dates of less than 10,000 years. Hyperdiffusionism

<mask> was a proponent of hyperdiffusionism, or the theory that all major inventions and cultures can be traced back to one original culture. For example, in Pleistocene Man at San Diego, <mask> proposes that the lithic technology found in Southern California was brought there from Asia. <mask> thought that ancient people had reached the New World by boat and spread their technologies and cultures to the Native Americans already living there. He cites Hannes Lindemann's solo crossing of the Atlantic in a dugout canoe as evidence that humans could in fact have made the same journey in past.<mask> also mentions the Polynesians' and Vikings' maritime abilities as support. <mask> believed that independent invention of the same item was a rarity. He claimed that the probability of something being independently invented was fifty percent. Therefore, the probably of the same thing being independently invented elsewhere was twenty-five percent. This meant that the probability of humans independently inventing the same tools all over the world was very low. Controversies

Artifacts vs. geofacts

Mainstream archaeology scholars dismissed many of <mask>'s lithic artifacts to be geofacts, rocks that have a similar appearance to human-worked stone tools due to natural weathering processes. <mask>'s theories about the early peopling of the New World could have been influencing his observations.Because of <mask>'s tendency to exhibit questionable artifacts as data, some scholars began to call any dubious artifacts "cartifacts". Hyperdiffusionism

Most anthropology scholars dismiss hyperdiffusionism for a variety of reasons. The theory assumes that humanity is singularly uninventive and can rarely create tools to meet the challenges of the environment. Hyperdiffusionism also assumes that if artifacts are similar in appearance, they must be related in some manner. Similarities between tool shape, size, and manufacturing processes could simply be coincidental, making it impossible to assume relatedness. <mask>'s theory that ancient people visited the New World by boat is possible, but there is no reasonable evidence to support it. For example, the Kensington Runestone, discovered in 1898 in Minnesota, was purportedly left by an exploratory party of Vikings.After many years of research and debates about the stone's authenticity, it was generally dismissed as a hoax. Gay and Marxist Geographers in the Association of American Geographers
Upon retirement, <mask> penned a short opinion piece in The Professional Geographer, arguing the AAG should not accept not Marxist and gay geography groups into the discipline. He claimed that allowing these groups to participate in the annual meeting opened the door to other groups such as "Whores in Geography, and Russian Communist Geography". See also
Trans-cultural diffusion
Pseudoarchaeology
<mask>
Calico Early Man Site

References

Further reading
[http://www.scahome.org/publications/proceedings/Proceedings.09Carter.pdf Overview of Pleistocene Man at San Diego]
Review of Pleistocene Man at San Diego in American Anthropologist
"<mask> on Diffusion"

1912 births
2004 deaths
American anthropologists
Archaeologists of California
American geographers
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Texas A&M University faculty
People from San Diego
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni
San Diego State University alumni
Hyperdiffusionism in archaeology
20th-century anthropologists
20th-century geographers

masks:
George Francis Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Franz Boas
Carter
Carter
Folsols
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Carter
Barry Fell
George Carter