title: Charles de Tubières de Caylus

texts:
<mask> (1698 – 12 May 1750) was a French naval officer who was governor-general of the French Windward Islands from 1745 to 1750. He had dissipated a considerable fortune and was deeply in debt when he took office, and used his power in wartime conditions to establish lucrative illegal arrangements to trade with France's enemies the English and the Dutch. A young nobleman arrived in Martinique in 1748, and for several months used revenues from his family estates on the island to give meals and dances for the elite. After he left it was found that he had been an impostor. Family

<mask> was born in 1698. He was seigneur of Thubières, Lévis, Postels and Grimoard. His parents were <mask> de Pestels de Lévis, compte de Caylus (), and Marthe Marguerite Hippolyte Le Valois de Villette (1671–1729).He was the nephew of <mask>-<mask> <mask>, bishop of Auxerre. In 1686 his uncle, the marquis de Caylus, married Marie-Marguerite <mask>illète, niece of <mask> Maintenon. The famous antiquary <mask>-<mask> <mask>  (1692–1765) was his brother. Naval career

<mask> became a knight of the Order of Malta and infantry colonel. In July 1741 Caylus was capitaine de vaisseau of the Borée (66) and commander of a small French squadron that included the Aquilon (46) and the Flore (26). They were coming from Martinique. On 25 July 1741 off Cap Spartel they met a British force under Captain Curtis Barnett of the Dragon (60) with the Feversham (44) and Folkestone (44).The British asked to be allowed to board to confirm they were not Spanish, and opened fire when they refused. After the ships on both sides had suffered some damage and loss of men, the British sent a boat to the Borée under a flag of truce and discovered the truth. The French did not know whether France and Britain were still at peace, since there had been a risk of war when they left the West Indies, and demanded that Barnet's lieutenant swear that this was the case. On 16 December 1744 the chevalier <mask> led a squadron of six vessels into the harbour of Malta during a festival that the French were holding on that island to celebrate the convalescence of the king. <mask> had all the vices of a fashionable man and had dissipated a considerable fortune. His money had gone on gambling, women and food, and he had borrowed heavily from a Marseille merchant named Roux and other creditors. To recover his fortunes he requested and obtained the governorship general of the Windward Islands.The minister wrongly complained of his predecessor Jacques-<mask> <mask>(fr), who perhaps by 1744 no longer had the same energy he had displayed at Saint Lucia against the English when he was only the governor of Martinique, but who was popular with the inhabitants of the islands. Before leaving to take up his governorship <mask> managed to gain a stay in proceedings against him by his creditors due to the state of war. Martinique

During the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) the marquis de Caylus was made governor and lieutenant-general of the Windward Islands in 1745. He replaced the marquis de Champigny. At the start of 1745 the English attacked Dominica twice, and in the absence of any French naval presence in the Antilles captured all merchant ships. The balance changed when two of the kings frigates, the Amphytrite and the Mégère, came as escort of a convoy of 10-12 merchant ships. Two days later they were followed by the Espérance, Northumberland, Sérieux, Trident, Diamant and Aquilon, which anchored at Fort-Royal, Martinique.Caylus was on the Espérance, and had given passage to a Spanish party including the archbishop of Santo Domingo. <mask> had left Toulon around the start of 1745, touched at Cadiz and anchored at Fort-Royal on 30 April 1745. He was received by <mask>, who took passage on one of the ship of the squadron. <mask> was formally recognized as governor general by the troops and the sovereign council in Martinique on 9 and 10 May 1745. Later he was named chef d'escadre. Caylus made his home in Saint-Pierre, Martinique. He was there in 1747 when, to everyone's surprise, Bertrand-François Mahé <mask> Bourdonnais, governor of the French possessions in India, arrived at Fort-Royal on his way back to France.Once in office, <mask> looked for ways to profit from his ability to define the rules of privateering and foreign trade. He invested in armaments, which he supplied to corsairs who worked for him and scoured the seas around the island for booty. Through secret agents he established relations with the governors of English islands, and arranged for goods imported from these islands to be sold as booty, and for goods bought in Saint-Pierre by his agents to be sold to the English. Through these means, he profited from the scarcity of goods in Martinique. After France declared war on Holland, <mask> established relations with Heliger, governor of Sint Eustatius, and severed ties with the English. The two governors arranged to make huge profits supplying the English, allies of the Dutch, with products supposedly from the Dutch colonies. They also arranged for French ships to sail under Dutch passports.By 1748 the islanders were suffering from an increasingly tight blockade by the English. Supplies could only be obtained from Curacao and Sint Eustatius. <mask> was blamed for the extortionate prices. In 1748 a small ship arrived in Martinique from La Rochelle, the Coureur, carrying a passenger who called himself the "comte <mask>" and put on very distinguished airs. The rumour spread that he was Ercole Rinaldo of Este, hereditary prince of Modena, grandson of the Duke of Orléans and brother of the duchess of Penthièvre. <mask> sent a letter asking him to come to Saint Pierre. The young man refused, proclaimed that he was Hercule-Renaud d'Est, and wrote that if the governor wanted to meet him he should come to Fort Royal.The governor started out then changed his mind and returned to Saint Pierre. Soon after the supposed prince came to Saint Pierre and found accommodation with the Jesuits. Later the young man moved to the Dominicans, where he entertained in style. The news of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle arrived at this time, and the blockade was lifted. The duke of Penthièvre had considerable property on the island, and his agent was persuaded to supply funds to the young man. He was neither extravagant or miserly, but lived very much as a person of his rank would be expected to live, although the islanders began to tire of the expense. Message were sent to Europe to confirm his identity, but the prince left for Portugal before a reply was received.Shortly after, a courier arrived instructing the governor to arrest the stranger. The impostor was at first accepted when he arrived in Portugal, then in Seville, when orders again came for his arrest. He escaped and disappeared forever. In August 1749 <mask> was deputy for the nobility for the province of Languedoc. The governor of Martinique, André Martin <mask>, who had been in France recovering from an illness, returned in 1750. <mask> died on 12 May 1750 in Saint-Pierre, Martinique, aged about 52. He died alone and unexpectedly in the small house named Tricolor he rented on the heights of Saint-Pierre, and was buried with little ceremony.The governor of the island died a few days later. Notes

Sources

1698 births
1750 deaths
French Governors of Martinique
Governors general of the French Antilles
Governors of French Saint Lucia

masks: Charles de Tubières de Pastel de Levoy de Grimoirelus


title: Walter Mazzarri

type: original

texts:
<mask> (; born 1 October 1961) is an Italian former footballer and head coach of Serie A club Cagliari. After a 14-year playing career with Italian clubs including Reggiana and Empoli, Mazzarri coached several smaller Italian sides and in 2007 took up a managerial position with Sampdoria. With the help of the attacking partnership of Antonio Cassano and Giampaolo Pazzini, he led the team to qualify for the UEFA Cup in his first season, and subsequently reached the Coppa Italia final the next year. In 2009, he joined Napoli, where he implemented a 3–4–3 formation with which he later became associated. With the attacking trio of Ezequiel Lavezzi, Edinson Cavani and Marek Hamšík, nicknamed I tre tenori ("The three tenors"), he helped the team qualify for the UEFA Champions League for the first time in the club's history in 2011, and won the Coppa Italia the following season, the club's first trophy in over 20 years. In his final season with the team, he managed a second-place finish in Serie A, the club's best league finish in over 20 years. In 2013, he moved to Internazionale, but was sacked halfway through his second season with the club.He later managed Torino in Serie A, and had one year in charge of Watford in England's Premier League in 2016–17. As a manager in Italy, <mask> became known for the excuses for poor performances that he made during post-match interviews. Playing career
<mask>, a midfielder and a product of Fiorentina's youth system, made his professional debut in 1981 for Pescara of Serie B, and played a short Serie A stint in Cagliari the following season, before being sold to Reggiana. He had his longest period at Empoli, who won promotion to Serie A for the first time during his time with the Tuscan side. After several spells with mostly minor teams, including a two-year stint with Acireale where he was part of the team who won a historic first promotion to Serie B, and then playing in the Italian second tier in 1993–94, <mask> ended his playing career in 1995 with Sassari Torres. Managerial career

Early years
<mask> started his coaching career as Renzo Ulivieri's assistant at Napoli in 1998. His first spell in charge came in 2001–02 for Sicilian Serie C2 team Acireale, where he had been a player from 1992 to 1994.Subsequently, he returned to his native Tuscany to coach Pistoiese of Serie C1 in 2002–03 and Livorno of Serie B in 2003–04, bringing the amaranto led by Cristiano Lucarelli back to Serie A. He was coach of Reggina from 2004 to 2007, leading the Calabrian side to Serie A survival in three consecutive seasons, the last obtained on the final day of the season despite an 11-point deduction. In May 2007, <mask> was made an honorary citizen of Reggio Calabria, after helping the club avoid relegation during the 2006–07 Serie A season. Sampdoria
On 31 May 2007 he was announced as new Sampdoria coach. He served as Sampdoria boss for two seasons, overseeing a considerable improvement in results, thanks to the likes of the attacking duo of Antonio Cassano, who publicly praised <mask>'s coaching abilities, and Giampaolo Pazzini. Sampdoria's 2007–08 campaign ended in an impressive sixth place, which ensured qualification for the UEFA Cup. <mask>'s fortunes declined slightly in 2008–09, as the blucerchiati ended their campaign in 13th place; despite this, he managed to guide his team into the Coppa Italia Final, notably defeating champions Inter 3–1 on aggregate in the semi-finals, before losing on penalties to Lazio in the final.<mask> left Sampdoria by mutual consent at the end of the 2008–09 season. Napoli
On 6 October 2009 he was appointed manager of Napoli, replacing Roberto Donadoni. He finished his debut season in sixth place in Serie A, and was handed a new three-year contract at the end of the campaign. In 2010–11, <mask>'s Napoli finished third in the league and qualified directly for the group phase of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League – their first time in Europe's premier competition in 21 years. His team were known for an attacking 3–4–3 formation with a frontline of Ezequiel Lavezzi, Marek Hamšík and Edinson Cavani. They finished second in their Champions League group, behind Bayern Munich but ahead of Manchester City and Villareal, to meet Chelsea in the last 16. Napoli won 3–1 at home in the first leg; they were subsequently beaten 4–1 at Stamford Bridge after extra time, being eliminated by the eventual champions.Napoli won the 2012 Coppa Italia Final over undefeated league champions Juventus on 20 May; this was Juventus's only loss of the season, and Napoli's first title in over 20 years. On 11 August that year, the club suffered a controversial 4–2 extra-time defeat to Juventus in the 2012 Supercoppa Italiana, which saw two Napoli players sent off as well as Mazzarri. He left the Azzurri on 19 May 2013, after leading them to a 2nd-place finish and a spot in the Champions League at the end of the 2012–13 Serie A season; this was the club's best league finish in over 20 years. Inter
Mazzarri was officially appointed as the Inter manager on 24 May 2013, after Andrea Stramaccioni was dismissed for a poor performance in the 2012–13 season. On 2 July 2014, he signed a one-year extension to tie him to the team until 30 June 2016. He was sacked by Inter after a series of disappointing results on 14 November 2014, leaving the club in ninth place. He parted with the club before the 12th matchday, while they were five points below their season objective of the third position.Watford

On 21 May 2016, Watford confirmed they had reached an agreement with <mask> to become Head Coach from 1 July 2016 on a three-year contract. He joined a club owned by his compatriot Giampaolo Pozzo, and worked without being able to speak English. <mask> secured Watford's Premier League status that season, finishing one place above relegation in 17th, a four-place dip on their previous campaign. It was announced on 17 May 2017 that his contract would be terminated at the end of his first season at the club. Torino
On 4 January 2018, <mask> was appointed manager of Torino, replacing Siniša Mihajlović. With a 7th-place finish in 2018–19 he led the Granata to the UEFA Europa League, where they were eliminated in the play-off round by Wolverhampton Wanderers. On 4 February 2020, <mask> was dismissed following back-to-back 7–0 and 4–0 defeats to Atalanta and Lecce, respectively.Cagliari
On 15 September 2021, <mask> signed a three-year contract with Serie A club Cagliari as their new head coach, replacing Leonardo Semplici. Managerial statistics

Honours

Manager
Sampdoria
Coppa Italia Runner-up: 2008–09

Napoli
Coppa Italia: 2011–12
Supercoppa Italiana Runner-up: 2012
Serie A Runner-up: 2012–13

 Individual
Enzo Bearzot Award: 2012

References

External links

1961 births
Living people
People from the Province of Livorno
Association football midfielders
Italian footballers
Serie A players
A.C. Reggiana 1919 players
Modena F.C. players
Delfino Pescara 1936 players
Cagliari Calcio players
ACF Fiorentina players
Empoli F.C. players
Italian football managers
Serie A managers
U.S. Pistoiese 1921 managers
Reggina 1914 managers
U.S. Livorno 1915 managers
U.C. Sampdoria managers
S.S.C. Napoli managers
Torino F.C. managers
Inter Milan managers
Watford F.C.managers
Cagliari Calcio managers
Premier League managers
Italian expatriate football managers
Expatriate football managers in England
S.E.F. Torres 1903 players

masks:
Walter Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri
Mazzarri


title: Ivan Managarov

texts:
<mask> (;  – 27 November 1981) was a Soviet Army colonel general and a Hero of the Soviet Union who held field army command during World War II. A decorated veteran of the Imperial Russian Army, <mask> fought as a cavalryman in the Russian Civil War and rose to division command by the late 1930s. After commanding a rifle and cavalry corps in the Soviet Far East and front reserve in 1941–1942, <mask> briefly commanded the 41st Army before being appointed commander of the 53rd Army in early 1943. He led the army for most of the rest of the war, and commanded the Soviet forces fighting in the city during the Siege of Budapest. After the end of the war in Europe, he commanded the army in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. Postwar, <mask> held army command, but retired in the early 1950s due to his health. Early life, World War I, and Russian Civil War
A Russian, <mask> was born on  in the settlement of Yenakiyevo, Yekaterinoslav Governorate.The son of a Donbass coal miner, he worked at the Donetsk Mine No. 20 and the Yenakiyevo Metallurgical Plant after completing primary school. Joining the Imperial Russian Army during World War I in September 1914, <mask> was assigned to the 5th Reserve Cavalry Regiment at Balakleya as a ryadovoy. He was then sent to the front, serving with the mounted reconnaissance platoon of the 9th Finland Rifle Regiment of the 22nd Army Corps. <mask> was wounded and invalided out in June 1915, awarded the Cross of St. George thrice for his actions. After the February Revolution, <mask> joined the Yenakiyevo Red Guard Detachment, formed from miners, in August 1917, and was chosen as its commander due to his combat experience. Following the transfer of the Red Guards to the Red Army in February 1918, <mask> became commander of the Proletarian Regiment of the 1st Steel Rifle Division in May of that year.The division was merged with the 1st Don Soviet Cavalry Brigade in late November to form the 1st Consolidated Cavalry Division, which was renamed the 4th Cavalry Division in March 1919. With the division, <mask> continued as commander of the Proletarian Regiment before leading the 1st Ukrainian Steel Regiment from March 1919. Further reorganization of the division left him as assistant commander of its 22nd Cavalry Regiment in May. With the 4th Cavalry Division, <mask> fought on the Southern and Southeastern Fronts at Tsaritsyn and in the Don Host Oblast. <mask> was transferred in July 1919 to serve as assistant commander of the 2nd Taman Cavalry Regiment, which joined the 2nd Stavropol Cavalry Division in November. With the regiment, he fought on the Southern, Southeastern, and Caucasian Fronts in the operations of the 9th Army and 2nd Cavalry Corps. Becoming a cadet at the 5th Cavalry School in Taganrog in July 1920, <mask> fought in the suppression of the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine with a cadet detachment.Interwar period
Upon his graduation from the cavalry school in September 1923, <mask> was appointed a platoon commander in the 21st Cavalry Regiment of the 4th Cavalry Division, now stationed in the Petrograd Military District. Transferred to serve in the same position with the 46th Cavalry Regiment of the 8th Cavalry Division of the Turkestan Front in March 1925, he fought in the suppression of the Basmachi movement. <mask> shifted to political work when he became secretary of the party bureau of the 47th Cavalry Regiment of the 11th Cavalry Division at Troitsk in April 1926, and for further political education studied at the Military-Political Academy between 1928 and 1931. Following his graduation from the academy, he was appointed political commissar of the 7th Mechanized Regiment of the 7th Cavalry Division at Minsk. Managarov soon returned to command positions, serving as commander and commissar of the 3d Cavalry Regiment of the 1st Cavalry Division at Proskurov from 1932, and became a colonel in 1935 when the Red Army introduced personal military ranks. After a stint as a military advisor in Xinjiang from January 1936 to June 1938, he returned to the Soviet Union to command the 8th Cavalry Division of the 1st Separate Red Banner Army of the Far Eastern Front. Promoted to kombrig on 20 November 1938, he became a major general on 4 June 1940 when the army introduced general officer ranks.World War II
After Operation Barbarossa began, <mask> remained in the Far East with the division, and was appointed commander of the 26th Rifle Corps of the army in November 1941. Sent west in January 1942 to command the 16th Cavalry Corps of the front, forming in the Moscow Military District, he took command of the 7th Cavalry Corps of the Bryansk Front on 27 March. The corps spent the rear in the front reserve and in December <mask> became commander of the 41st Army, which he led in the Rzhev-Vyazma Offensive. In March he was transferred to command the 53rd Army, which he led for most of the rest of the war in the Belgorod–Kharkov Offensive, the Uman–Botoșani Offensive, the Second Jassy–Kishinev Offensive, the Budapest Offensive, and the Prague Offensive with the 2nd Ukrainian Front. He was promoted to lieutenant general on 29 August 1943. While at the observation post of the 116th Rifle Division during fighting to the northeast of Kirovograd on 5 December, <mask> was severely wounded by a German shell that killed the army artillery commander and the chief of the operations department. After recovering, he returned to command of the army on 28 February 1944.In July, front commander Army General Rodion Malinovsky evaluated <mask> as an "observant and disciplined commander" and a "brave and decisive general with strong willpower and steady character"  who showed initiative in both defensive and offensive operations, but tempered this praise with the statement that <mask> exhibited "insufficient operational thinking". During the Siege of Budapest, <mask> succeeded to command of the Budapest Operational Group, tasked with the assault on Buda, on 22 January 1945 following the wounding of Major General <mask>. The group, which was composed of the 75th Rifle and 37th Guards Rifle Corps, captured the city in brutal street fighting by 13 February. <mask> received the title Hero of the Soviet Union and was awarded the Order of Lenin on 28 April for his "skillful command of the army" and "personal courage and heroism" in the fighting to break through German defenses in the area of Hodonín and the crossing of the Morava, being promoted to colonel general on 29 May. After the end of the war in Europe, <mask> and the 53rd Army were relocated to the Far East to participate in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria with the Transbaikal Front. During the invasion,  the army broke through the Japanese border fortifications to cross the Greater Khingan, capturing Dandong and Chaoyang. Postwar

After the end of the war, <mask> was placed at the disposal of the Main Personnel Directorate when the army was disbanded in December 1945.After completing the Higher Academic Course at the Higher Military Academy between March 1946 and February 1947, he was appointed commander of the 4th Army of the Transcaucasian Military District. Relieved of command for health reasons in April 1949, <mask> was appointed commander of the Kiev Air Defense Region two months later. Retiring for health reasons on 5 September 1953, <mask> lived in Yalta, giving speeches to students and other organizations. His memoirs, focusing on the part of the 53rd Army in the Belgorod–Kharkov Offensive, were first published in 1975. <mask> died in Yalta on 27 November 1981, and was buried at the Old Cemetery of the city. Awards and honors
<mask> was a recipient of the following decorations:

 Gold Star Medal awarded to Heroes of the Soviet Union
 Order of Lenin (3)
 Order of the October Revolution
 Order of the Red Banner (3)
 Order of Suvorov, 1st class
 Order of Kutuzov, 1st class
 Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, 1st class
 Order of the Red Star
 Medals
 Foreign awards
 Cross of St. George, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th classes (not worn after 1917)

References

Citations

Bibliography

1898 births
1981 deaths
People from Yenakiieve
People from Yekaterinoslav Governorate
Soviet colonel generals
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of Kutuzov, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky (Soviet Union), 1st class
Recipients of the Cross of St. George
Russian military personnel of World War I
Soviet military personnel of the Russian Civil War
Soviet military personnel of World War II
Lenin Military Political Academy alumni

masks:
Ivan Mefodyevich Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Ivan Mefodyevich Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Ivan Afonin
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov
Managarov


title: Felipe de Neve

texts:
<mask> (1724 – 1784) was a Spanish soldier who served as the 4th Governor of the Californias, from 1777 to 1782. <mask> is considered one of the founders of Los Angeles and was instrumental in the foundation of San Jose and Santa Barbara. Early life and career

Early life
Born in Bailen, Spain, <mask> was the son of Mary D. Padilla y Costilla and <mask> and was born into one of the well-respected families of Andalucia. <mask> entered the military in 1744 at about 16 years of age. <mask> served as a soldier in Cantabria, Flanders, Milan, and Portugal before arriving in New Spain. During his time as a major he administered the colleges of Zacatecas, Mexico. <mask> was appointed as acting Governor of Las Californias on October 18, 1774 by Viceroy <mask> y Ursua.For the first two years of his appointment, <mask> was based in Loreto, Baja California and later moved to Monterey California. Las Californias
It was during <mask>'s administration that Lieutenant José Joaquín Moraga is credited with building the Presidio of San Francisco, after the site was selected by Juan Bautista <mask> in 1776. Moraga is also known as the founder of El Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe, the present day city of San Jose, California. On 29 November 1777, Moraga founded San José on orders from Antonio María <mask> y Ursúa, the Spanish Viceroy of New Spain. It was the first Spanish colonial pueblo in the northern region of Las Californias Province, which became its own Alta California Province in 1804. The city served as a farming community to support the Presidio of San Francisco and the Presidio of Monterey. In 1781, later in <mask>'s tenure, he founded the Pueblo de Los Ángeles.Governor <mask> had applied to Viceroy Bucareli for permission to establish a settlement (pueblo) near the Los Angeles River (Río de Porciúncula), where Father Juan Crespí had met local Tongva Indians. With the viceroy's approval, <mask> was granted authority from The Crown, Charles III of Spain, to found and establish the second pueblo in upper Las Californias, El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciúncula (The Pueblo of Our Lady Queen of the Angels of the Porciúncula River), the present day city of Los Angeles, California. <mask> is credited with being one of the first urban planners because he personally drew the plans for the pueblo. <mask> traveled north to inspect the Presidio and mission of San Francisco and the mission of Santa Clara and issued several reports on recent happenings in the Californias and recommendations for establishments, including the recommendation for the site of the city of Los Angeles. “The site had been scheduled for a mission since 1769 when Franciscan Father Juan Crespi first saw it and named it Nuestra Señora de Los Angeles de la Porciuncula for the river on which it was located.”

In 1781, <mask> issued the "Reglamento para el gobierno de la provincia de Californias (Regulations for the Government of the Province of the Californias), the first rules regarding governance of secular pueblos like Los Angeles. Los Angeles
The location of the site was already inhabited by Native Americans who Father Crespi described as “very docile and friendly.” The town was called Yabit and the attitude of the Natives towards the foreigners did not change over time. <mask> arrived to the site in 1779 where he selected three dozen boys and girls for conversion to Christianity and acted as the godfather to twelve of the children.<mask> also selected a young married couple, renamed them as <mask> <mask> and Phelipa <mask> <mask> and remarried them. Governor <mask> had applied to Viceroy Bucareli for permission to establish a settlement (pueblo) near the Los Angeles River (Río de Porciúncula), where Father Juan Crespí had met local Tongva Indians. The area chosen is described below:

“The habitable spots which border the Camino Real from San Diego to Monterey with sufficient pro- portion of waters for developing cultivation are the river Santa Ana at 28 leagues from San Diego, has abundant water and it is not difficult to draw it out as it proves, at seven leagues is the river San Gabriel with much water and lands for large planting, and to raise water not proven very difficult. One league distant from the Mission of this name, which does not use its waters because they obtain abundant and suf- ficient water for lands from the various springs which flow at the foot of the mountains. At 3 leagues from the Mission is the river of Porsincula [sic] with much water easy of access for both banks and beautiful lands in which we can make use of all.”

With the Viceroy's approval, <mask> was granted authority from The Crown, Charles III of Spain, to found and establish the second pueblo in upper Las Californias, El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciúncula (The Pueblo of Our Lady Queen of the Angels of the Porciúncula River), the present day city of Los Angeles, California was founded on September 4, 1781. Of the sixteen families <mask> planned on moving to the newly established pueblo, only eleven families made it. Throughout the journey some stayed back or became too ill to travel.Other Settlements
During <mask>'s tenure as governor, he quarreled constantly with the missionaries' leader, padre Junípero Serra, over the secularization of the Missions and the redistribution of land to the Mission Indian neophytes and soldiers. During his tenure four missions were founded: Mission San Francisco de Asís also called Mission Dolores (29 June 1776), Mission San Juan Capistrano (1 November 1776), Mission Santa Clara de Asís (12 January 1777) and Mission San Buenaventura (31 March 1782). <mask> was given orders to establish a presidio at Santa Barbara and other pueblos with the goal of obtaining land and water for cultivation purposes. The presidio also served as a campaign to convert Yumi Indians or force those who did not want to convert out of the area. Jean-<mask> la Pérouse, on his expedition around the world in 1786, describes the ill treatment of natives by the ecclesiastical authorities, comparing the mission to a "plantation at Santo Domingo or any other West Indian island," noting the use of "irons and stocks," lashes of the whip, and the recourse to military authority to repossess any native converts who had chosen to return to their "relations in the independent villages." La Pérouse visited Monterrey under the governorship of Pedro Fages, but has the following to say about <mask>:

Final years and Honors
<mask> <mask> recited the Cross of the Order of San Carlos and was made a Brigadier General. Governor <mask>'s success as provincial governor won him a promotion in 1783 to succeed Teodoro <mask> as Commandante General of the Provinicas Internas, a position that had authority over al the northern provinces, including Las Californias.He held the position of Comandante General of the Frontier Provinces until his death on November 3, 1784 in hacienda Nuestra Señora del Carmen de Pena Blanca, Chihuahua, Mexico. Legacy

Statue
A 7½ foot cast broke state of <mask> de Neve by Henry Lion was installed in 1932 at La Plaza Park in the El Pueblo District of Los Angeles, California, by the City of Los Angeles. The statue is mounted on a 4-foot boulder and includes a bronze plaque with the following inscription:

"<mask> <mask> (1728-84): Spanish Governor of the Californias 1775-82. In 1781, on orders of King Carlos III of Spain, <mask> <mask> selected a site near the ricer Porciuncula and laid out of the town of El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Angeles, one of two Spanish Pueblos he founded in Alta California." Other
The pueblo was proclaimed a city on May 23, 1835 by the Mexican Congress. <mask> Drive in the Westwood neighborhood of Los Angeles is named after him, as are the student housing buildings of De Neve Plaza at the University of California, Los Angeles. The <mask> <mask> Branch Library of the Los Angeles Public Library is located in Lafayette Park in Westlake, Los Angeles is dedicated to him.See also

 History of Los Angeles

References

Sources
 <mask> (1986). <mask>'s History of San Jose. Smith McKay Printing. . The Town of Our Lady Reina of the Angels on the Porciúncula river. Bibliography

External links

USC Libraries: Felipe de Neve
California History - <mask> <mask>

Spanish explorers of North America
Explorers of California
Governors of the Californias
American city founders
Spanish explorers
People from Bailén
History of Los Angeles
History of San Francisco
History of Baja California
18th-century Spanish people
1724 births
1784 deaths
Californios

masks: Felipe de Neve Noguera Castro y Figueroa


title: Sappho

texts:
Sappho (;  Sapphō ; Aeolic Greek  Psápphō; c. 630 – c. 570 BC) was an Archaic Greek poet from Eresos or Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. Sappho is known for her lyric poetry, written to be sung while accompanied by music. In ancient times, Sappho was widely regarded as one of the greatest lyric poets and was given names such as the "Tenth Muse" and "The Poetess". Most of Sappho's poetry is now lost, and what is extant has mostly survived in fragmentary form; only the "Ode to Aphrodite" is certainly complete. As well as lyric poetry, ancient commentators claimed that Sappho wrote elegiac and iambic poetry. Three epigrams attributed to Sappho are extant, but these are actually Hellenistic imitations of Sappho's style. Little is known of Sappho's life.She was from a wealthy family from Lesbos, though her parents' names are uncertain. Ancient sources say that she had three brothers; Charaxos (Χάραξος), Larichos (Λάριχος) and Eurygios (Εὐρύγιος). Two of them, Charaxos and Larichos, are also mentioned in the Brothers Poem discovered in 2014. She was exiled to Sicily around 600 BC, and may have continued to work until around 570 BC. According to legend, she killed herself by leaping from the Leucadian cliffs due to her love for the ferryman Phaon. Sappho was a prolific poet, probably composing around 10,000 lines. Her poetry was well-known and greatly admired through much of antiquity, and she was among the canon of Nine Lyric Poets most highly esteemed by scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria.Sappho's poetry is still considered extraordinary and her works continue to influence other writers. Beyond her poetry, she is well known as a symbol of love and desire between women, with the English words sapphic and lesbian being derived from her own name and the name of her home island respectively. Whilst her importance as a poet is confirmed from the earliest times, all interpretations of her work have been coloured and influenced by discussions of her sexuality. Ancient sources

There are three sources of information about Sappho's life: her testimonia, the history of her times, and what can be gleaned from her own poetry – although scholars are cautious when reading poetry as a biographical source. Testimonia is a term of art in ancient studies that refers to collections of classical biographical and literary references to classical authors. The testimonia regarding Sappho do not contain references contemporary to Sappho. The representations of Sappho's life that occur in the testimonia always need to be assessed for accuracy, because many of them are certainly not correct.The testimonia are also a source of knowledge regarding how Sappho's poetry was received in antiquity. Some details mentioned in the testimonia are derived from Sappho's own poetry, which is of great interest, especially considering the testimonia originate from a time when more of Sappho's poetry was extant than is the case for modern readers. Life
Little is known about Sappho's life for certain. She was from the island of Lesbos and was probably born around 630 BC. Tradition names her mother as Cleïs, though ancient scholars may simply have guessed this name, assuming that Sappho's daughter Cleïs was named after her. Sappho's father's name is less certain. Ten names are known for Sappho's father from the ancient testimonia; this proliferation of possible names suggests that he was not explicitly named in any of Sappho's poetry.The earliest and most commonly attested name for Sappho's father is Scamandronymus. In Ovid's Heroides, Sappho's father died when she was seven. Sappho's father is not mentioned in any of her surviving works, but Campbell suggests that this detail may have been based on a now-lost poem. Sappho's own name is found in numerous variant spellings, even in her own Aeolian dialect; the form that appears in her own extant poetry is Psappho. No reliable portrait of Sappho's physical appearance has survived; all extant representations, ancient and modern, are artists' conceptions. In the Tithonus poem she describes her hair as now white but formerly melaina, i.e. black.A literary papyrus of the second century AD. describes her as pantelos mikra, quite tiny. Alcaeus possibly describes <mask> as "violet-haired", which was a common Greek poetic way of describing dark hair. Some scholars dismiss this tradition as unreliable. <mask> was said to have three brothers: Erigyius, Larichus, and Charaxus. According to Athenaeus, she often praised Larichus for pouring wine in the town hall of Mytilene, an office held by boys of the best families. This indication that <mask> was born into an aristocratic family is consistent with the sometimes rarefied environments that her verses record.One ancient tradition tells of a relation between Charaxus and the Egyptian courtesan Rhodopis. Herodotus, the oldest source of the story, reports that Charaxus ransomed Rhodopis for a large sum and that <mask> wrote a poem rebuking him for this. The names of two of the brothers, Charaxus and Larichus, are mentioned in the Brothers Poem, discovered in 2014; the final brother, Erigyius, is mentioned in three ancient sources but nowhere in the extant works of Sappho. She may have had a daughter named Cleïs, who is referred to in two fragments. Not all scholars accept that Cleïs was Sappho's daughter. Fragment 132 describes Cleïs as "παῖς" (pais), which, as well as meaning "child", can also refer to the "youthful beloved in a male homosexual liaison". It has been suggested that Cleïs was one of <mask>'s younger lovers, rather than her daughter, though Judith Hallett argues that the language used in fragment 132 suggests that <mask> was referring to Cleïs as her daughter.According to the Suda, <mask> was married to Kerkylas of Andros. However, the name appears to have been invented by a comic poet: the name "Kerkylas" comes from the word "κέρκος" (kerkos), a possible meaning of which is "penis", and is not otherwise attested as a name, while "Andros", as well as being the name of a Greek island, is a form of the Greek word "ἀνήρ" (aner), which means man. Thus, the name may be a joke. Sappho and her family were exiled from Lesbos to Syracuse, Sicily, around 600 BC. The Parian Chronicle records <mask> going into exile some time between 604 and 591. This may have been as a result of her family's involvement with the conflicts between political elites on Lesbos in this period, the same reason for the exile of <mask>'s contemporary Alcaeus from Mytilene around the same time. Later the exiles were allowed to return.A tradition going back at least to Menander (Fr. 258 K) suggested that <mask> killed herself by jumping off the Leucadian cliffs for love of Phaon, a ferryman. This is regarded as ahistorical by modern scholars, perhaps invented by the comic poets or originating from a misreading of a first-person reference in a non-biographical poem. The legend may have resulted in part from a desire to assert Sappho as heterosexual. Works

<mask> probably wrote around 10,000 lines of poetry; today, only about 650 survive. She is best known for her lyric poetry, written to be accompanied by music. The Suda also attributes to Sappho epigrams, elegiacs, and iambics; three of these epigrams are extant, but are in fact later Hellenistic poems inspired by Sappho, as are the iambic and elegiac poems attributed to her in the Suda.Ancient authors claim that <mask> primarily wrote love poetry, and the indirect transmission of Sappho's work supports this notion. However, the papyrus tradition suggests that this may not have been the case: a series of papyri published in 2014 contains fragments of ten consecutive poems from Book I of the Alexandrian edition of Sappho, of which only two are certainly love poems, while at least three and possibly four are primarily concerned with family. Ancient editions
Sappho's poetry was probably first written down on Lesbos, either in her lifetime or shortly afterwards, initially probably in the form of a score for performers of her work. In the fifth century BC, Athenian book publishers probably began to produce copies of Lesbian lyric poetry, some including explanatory material and glosses as well as the poems themselves. Some time in the second or third century, Alexandrian scholars produced a critical edition of Sappho's poetry. There may have been more than one Alexandrian edition – John J. Winkler argues for two, one edited by Aristophanes of Byzantium and another by his pupil Aristarchus of Samothrace. This is not certain – ancient sources tell us that Aristarchus' edition of Alcaeus replaced the edition by Aristophanes, but are silent on whether Sappho's work, too, went through multiple editions.The Alexandrian edition of Sappho's poetry was based on the existing Athenian collections, and was divided into at least eight books, though the exact number is uncertain. Many modern scholars have followed Denys Page, who conjectured a ninth book in the standard edition; Yatromanolakis doubts this, noting that though testimonia refer to an eighth book of Sappho's poetry, none mention a ninth. Whatever its make-up, the Alexandrian edition of Sappho probably grouped her poems by their metre: ancient sources tell us that each of the first three books contained poems in a single specific metre. Ancient editions of Sappho, possibly starting with the Alexandrian edition, seem to have ordered the poems in at least the first book of Sappho's poetry – which contained works composed in Sapphic stanzas – alphabetically. Even after the publication of the standard Alexandrian edition, Sappho's poetry continued to circulate in other poetry collections. For instance, the Cologne Papyrus on which the Tithonus poem is preserved was part of a Hellenistic anthology of poetry, which contained poetry arranged by theme, rather than by metre and incipit, as it was in the Alexandrian edition. Surviving poetry

The earliest surviving manuscripts of Sappho, including the potsherd on which fragment 2 is preserved, date to the third century BC, and thus predate the Alexandrian edition.The latest surviving copies of Sappho's poems transmitted directly from ancient times are written on parchment codex pages from the sixth and seventh centuries AD, and were surely reproduced from ancient papyri now lost. Manuscript copies of Sappho's works may have survived a few centuries longer, but around the 9th century her poetry appears to have disappeared, and by the twelfth century, John Tzetzes could write that "the passage of time has destroyed Sappho and her works". According to legend, Sappho's poetry was lost because the church disapproved of her morals. These legends appear to have originated in the Renaissance – around 1550, Jerome Cardan wrote that Gregory Nazianzen had Sappho's work publicly destroyed, and at the end of the sixteenth century Joseph Justus Scaliger claimed that Sappho's works were burned in Rome and Constantinople in 1073 on the orders of Pope Gregory VII. In reality, Sappho's work was probably lost as the demand for it was insufficiently great for it to be copied onto parchment when codices superseded papyrus scrolls as the predominant form of book. A contributing factor to the loss of Sappho's poems may have been her Aeolic dialect, considered provincial in a period where the Attic dialect was seen as the true classical Greek, and had become the standard for literary compositions. Consequently, many readers found <mask>'s dialect difficult to understand: in the second century AD, the Roman author Apuleius specifically remarks on its "strangeness", and several commentaries on the subject demonstrate the difficulties that readers had with it.This was part of a more general decline in interest in the archaic poets; indeed, the surviving papyri suggest that <mask>'s poetry survived longer than that of her contemporaries such as Alcaeus. Only approximately 650 lines of Sappho's poetry still survive, of which just one poem – the "Ode to Aphrodite" – is complete, and more than half of the original lines survive in around ten more fragments. Many of the surviving fragments of Sappho contain only a single word – for example, fragment 169A is simply a word meaning "wedding gifts", and survives as part of a dictionary of rare words. The two major sources of surviving fragments of Sappho are quotations in other ancient works, from a whole poem to as little as a single word, and fragments of papyrus, many of which were discovered at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. Other fragments survive on other materials, including parchment and potsherds. The oldest surviving fragment of Sappho currently known is the Cologne papyrus which contains the Tithonus poem, dating to the third century BC. Until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, only the ancient quotations of Sappho survived.In 1879, the first new discovery of a fragment of Sappho was made at Fayum. By the end of the nineteenth century, Grenfell and Hunt had begun to excavate an ancient rubbish dump at Oxyrhynchus, leading to the discoveries of many previously unknown fragments of Sappho. Fragments of Sappho continue to be rediscovered. Most recently, major discoveries in 2004 (the "Tithonus poem" and a new, previously unknown fragment) and 2014 (fragments of nine poems: five already known but with new readings, four, including the "Brothers Poem", not previously known) have been reported in the media around the world. Style

Sappho clearly worked within a well-developed tradition of Lesbian poetry, which had evolved its own poetic diction, meters, and conventions. Prior to Sappho and her contemporary Alcaeus, Lesbos was associated with poetry and music through the mythical Orpheus and Arion, and the seventh-century BC poet Terpander. Nonetheless, her work is innovative; it is some of the earliest Greek poetry to adopt the "lyric 'I'" – to write poetry adopting the viewpoint of a specific person, in contrast to the earlier epic poets Homer and Hesiod, who present themselves more as "conduits of divine inspiration".Her poetry explores individual identity and personal emotions – desire, jealousy, and love; it also adopts and reinterprets the existing imagery of epic poetry in exploring these themes. Sappho's poetry seems to have been composed for multiple occasions – including wedding songs, other ritual occasions, and more private situations – and probably encompassed both monodic and choral works. Sappho's poetry is known for its clear language and simple thoughts, sharply-drawn images, and use of direct quotation which brings a sense of immediacy. Unexpected word-play is a characteristic feature of her style. An example is from fragment 96: "now she stands out among Lydian women as after sunset the rose-fingered moon exceeds all stars", a variation of the Homeric epithet "rosy-fingered Dawn". Sappho's poetry often uses hyperbole, according to ancient critics "because of its charm". An example is found in fragment 111, where Sappho writes that "The groom approaches like Ares [...] Much bigger than a big man".Leslie Kurke groups Sappho with those archaic Greek poets from what has been called the "élite" ideological tradition, which valued luxury (habrosyne) and high birth. These elite poets tended to identify themselves with the worlds of Greek myths, gods, and heroes, as well as the wealthy East, especially Lydia. Thus in fragment 2 Sappho has Aphrodite "pour into golden cups nectar lavishly mingled with joys", while in the Tithonus poem she explicitly states that "I love the finer things [habrosyne]". According to Page DuBois, the language, as well as the content, of Sappho's poetry evokes an aristocratic sphere. She contrasts Sappho's "flowery,[...] adorned" style with the "austere, decorous, restrained" style embodied in the works of later classical authors

masks: Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho


title: Sappho

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 such as Sophocles, Demosthenes, and Pindar. Traditional modern literary critics of Sappho's poetry have tended to see her poetry as a vivid and skilled but spontaneous and naive expression of emotion: typical of this view are the remarks of H. J. Rose that "Sappho wrote as she spoke, owing practically nothing to any literary influence," and that her verse displays "the charm of absolute naturalness."Against this essentially romantic view, one school of more recent critics argues that, on the contrary, Sappho's poetry displays and depends for its effect on a sophisticated deployment of the strategies of traditional Greek rhetorical genres – so that it seems spontaneous, whilst actually being very crafted. Sexuality

The common term lesbian is an allusion to Sappho, originating from the name of the island of Lesbos, where she was born. However, she has not always been considered so. In classical Athenian comedy (from the Old Comedy of the fifth century to Menander in the late fourth and early third centuries BC), Sappho was caricatured as a promiscuous heterosexual woman, and it is not until the Hellenistic period that the first testimonia which explicitly discuss Sappho's homoeroticism are preserved. The earliest of these is a fragmentary biography written on papyrus in the late third or early second century BC, which states that Sappho was "accused by some of being irregular in her ways and a woman-lover". Denys Page comments that the phrase "by some" implies that even the full corpus of Sappho's poetry did not provide conclusive evidence of whether she described herself as having sex with women. These ancient authors do not appear to have believed that Sappho did, in fact, have sexual relationships with other women, and as late as the tenth century the Suda records that Sappho was "slanderously accused" of having sexual relationships with her "female pupils".Among modern scholars, Sappho's sexuality is still debated – André Lardinois has described it as the "Great Sappho Question". Early translators of Sappho sometimes heterosexualised her poetry. Ambrose Philips' 1711 translation of the Ode to Aphrodite portrayed the object of Sappho's desire as male, a reading that was followed by virtually every other translator of the poem until the twentieth century, while in 1781 Alessandro Verri interpreted fragment 31 as being about Sappho's love for Phaon. Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker argued that Sappho's feelings for other women were "entirely idealistic and non-sensual", while Karl Otfried Müller wrote that fragment 31 described "nothing but a friendly affection": Glenn Most comments that "one wonders what language Sappho would have used to describe her feelings if they had been ones of sexual excitement", if this theory were correct. By 1970, it would be argued that the same poem contained "proof positive of [Sappho's] lesbianism". Today, it is generally accepted that Sappho's poetry portrays homoerotic feelings: as Sandra Boehringer puts it, her works "clearly celebrate eros between women". Toward the end of the twentieth century, though, some scholars began to reject the question of whether or not Sappho was a lesbian – Glenn Most wrote that Sappho herself "would have had no idea what people mean when they call her nowadays a homosexual", André Lardinois stated that it is "nonsensical" to ask whether Sappho was a lesbian, and Page duBois calls the question a "particularly obfuscating debate".One of the major focuses of scholars studying Sappho has been to attempt to determine the cultural context in which Sappho's poems were composed and performed. Various cultural contexts and social roles played by Sappho have been suggested, including teacher, cult-leader, and poet performing for a circle of female friends. However, the performance contexts of many of Sappho's fragments are not easy to determine, and for many more than one possible context is conceivable. One longstanding suggestion of a social role for Sappho is that of "Sappho as schoolmistress". At the beginning of the twentieth century, the German classicist Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff posited that Sappho was a sort of schoolteacher, to "explain away Sappho's passion for her 'girls and defend her from accusations of homosexuality. The view continues to be influential, both among scholars and the general public, though more recently the idea has been criticised by historians as anachronistic and has been rejected by several prominent classicists as unjustified by the evidence. In 1959, Denys Page, for example, stated that Sappho's extant fragments portray "the loves and jealousies, the pleasures and pains, of Sappho and her companions"; and he adds, "We have found, and shall find, no trace of any formal or official or professional relationship between them... no trace of Sappho the principal of an academy."David A. Campbell in 1967 judged that Sappho may have "presided over a literary coterie", but that "evidence for a formal appointment as priestess or teacher is hard to find". None of Sappho's own poetry mentions her teaching, and the earliest testimonium to support the idea of Sappho as a teacher comes from Ovid, six centuries after Sappho's lifetime. Despite these problems, many newer interpretations of Sappho's social role are still based on this idea. In these interpretations, Sappho was involved in the ritual education of girls, for instance as a trainer of choruses of girls. Even if Sappho did compose songs for training choruses of young girls, not all of her poems can be interpreted in this light, and despite scholars' best attempts to find one, Yatromanolakis argues that there is no single performance context to which all of Sappho's poems can be attributed. Parker argues that Sappho should be considered as part of a group of female friends for whom she would have performed, just as her contemporary Alcaeus is. Some of her poetry appears to have been composed for identifiable formal occasions, but many of her songs are about – and possibly were to be performed at – banquets.Legacy

Ancient reputation

In antiquity, Sappho's poetry was highly admired, and several ancient sources refer to her as the "tenth Muse". The earliest surviving poem to do so is a third-century BC epigram by Dioscorides, but poems are preserved in the Greek Anthology by Antipater of Sidon and attributed to Plato on the same theme. She was sometimes referred to as "The Poetess", just as Homer was "The Poet". The scholars of Alexandria included her in the canon of nine lyric poets. According to Aelian, the Athenian lawmaker and poet Solon asked to be taught a song by Sappho "so that I may learn it and then die". This story may well be apocryphal, especially as Ammianus Marcellinus tells a similar story about Socrates and a song of Stesichorus, but it is indicative of how highly Sappho's poetry was considered in the ancient world. Sappho's poetry also influenced other ancient authors.In Greek, the Hellenistic poet Nossis was described by Marilyn B. Skinner as an imitator of Sappho, and Kathryn Gutzwiller argues that Nossis explicitly positioned herself as an inheritor of Sappho's position as a woman poet. Beyond poetry, Plato cites Sappho in his Phaedrus, and Socrates' second speech on love in that dialogue appears to echo Sappho's descriptions of the physical effects of desire in fragment 31. In the first century BC, Catullus established the themes and metres of Sappho's poetry as a part of Latin literature, adopting the Sapphic stanza, believed in antiquity to have been invented by Sappho, giving his lover in his poetry the name "Lesbia" in reference to Sappho, and adapting and translating Sappho's 31st fragment in his poem 51. Other ancient poets wrote about Sappho's life. She was a popular character in ancient Athenian comedy, and at least six separate comedies called Sappho are known. The earliest known ancient comedy to take Sappho as its main subject was the early-fifth or late-fourth century BC Sappho by Ameipsias, though nothing is known of it apart from its name. Sappho was also a favourite subject in the visual arts, the most commonly depicted poet on sixth and fifth-century Attic red-figure vase paintings, and the subject of a sculpture by Silanion.From the fourth century BC, ancient works portray <mask> as a tragic heroine, driven to suicide by her unrequited love for Phaon. For instance, a fragment of a play by Menander says that <mask> threw herself off of the cliff at Leucas out of her love for Phaon. Ovid's Heroides 15 is written as a letter from Sappho to her supposed love Phaon, and when it was first rediscovered in the 15th century was thought to be a translation of an authentic letter of Sappho's. Sappho's suicide was also depicted in classical art, for instance on a first-century BC basilica in Rome near the Porta Maggiore. While Sappho's poetry was admired in the ancient world, her character was not always so well considered. In the Roman period, critics found her lustful and perhaps even homosexual. Horace called her "mascula Sappho" in his Epistles, which the later Porphyrio commented was "either because she is famous for her poetry, in which men more often excel, or because she is maligned for having been a tribad".By the third century CE, the difference between Sappho's literary reputation as a poet and her moral reputation as a woman had become so significant that the suggestion that there were in fact two Sapphos began to develop. In his Historical Miscellanies, Aelian wrote that there was "another Sappho, a courtesan, not a poetess". Modern reception

By the medieval period, Sappho's works had been lost, though she was still quoted in later authors. Her work became more accessible in the sixteenth century through printed editions of those authors who had quoted her. In 1508 Aldus Manutius printed an edition of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, which contained Sappho 1, the "Ode to Aphrodite", and the first printed edition of Longinus' On the Sublime, complete with his quotation of Sappho 31, appeared in 1554. In 1566, the French printer Robert Estienne produced an edition of the Greek lyric poets which contained around 40 fragments attributed to Sappho. In 1652, the first English translation of a poem by Sappho was published, in John Hall's translation of On the Sublime.In 1681 Anne Le Fèvre's French edition of Sappho made her work even more widely known. Theodor Bergk's 1854 edition became the standard edition of Sappho in the second half of the 19th century; in the first part of the 20th, the papyrus discoveries of new poems by Sappho led to editions and translations by Edwin Marion Cox and John Maxwell Edmonds, and culminated in the 1955 publication of Edgar Lobel's and Denys Page's Poetarum Lesbiorum Fragmenta. Like the ancients, modern critics have tended to consider Sappho's poetry "extraordinary". As early as the 9th century, Sappho was referred to as a talented woman poet, and in works such as Boccaccio's De Claris Mulieribus and Christine de Pisan's Book of the City of Ladies she gained a reputation as a learned lady. Even after Sappho's works had been lost, the Sapphic stanza continued to be used in medieval lyric poetry, and with the rediscovery of her work in the Renaissance, she began to increasingly influence European poetry. In the 16th century, members of La Pléiade, a circle of French poets, were influenced by her to experiment with Sapphic stanzas and with writing love-poetry with a first-person female voice. From the Romantic era, Sappho's work – especially her "Ode to Aphrodite" – has been a key influence of conceptions of what lyric poetry should be.Such influential poets as Alfred Lord Tennyson in the nineteenth century, and A. E. Housman in the twentieth, have been influenced by her poetry. Tennyson based poems including "Eleanore" and "Fatima" on Sappho's fragment 31, while three of Housman's works are adaptations of the Midnight poem, long thought to be by Sappho though the authorship is now disputed. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Imagists – especially Ezra Pound, H. D., and Richard Aldington – were influenced by Sappho's fragments; a number of Pound's poems in his early collection Lustra were adaptations of Sapphic poems, while H. D.'s poetry was frequently Sapphic in "style, theme or content", and in some cases, such as "Fragment 40" more specifically invoke Sappho's writing. It was not long after the rediscovery of Sappho that her sexuality once again became the focus of critical attention. In the early seventeenth century, John Donne wrote "Sapho to Philaenis", returning to the idea of Sappho as a hypersexual lover of women. The modern debate on Sappho's sexuality began in the 19th century, with Welcker publishing, in 1816, an article defending Sappho from charges of prostitution and lesbianism, arguing that she was chaste – a position which would later be taken up by Wilamowitz at the end of the 19th and Henry Thornton Wharton at the beginning of the 20th centuries. In the nineteenth century <mask> was co-opted by the Decadent Movement as a lesbian "daughter of de Sade", by Charles Baudelaire in France and later Algernon Charles Swinburne in England.By the late 19th century, lesbian writers such as Michael Field and Amy Levy became interested in Sappho for her sexuality, and by the turn of the twentieth century she was a sort of "patron saint of lesbians". From the beginning of the 19th century, women poets such as Felicia Hemans (The Last Song of Sappho) and Letitia Elizabeth Landon (Sketch the First. Sappho, and in Ideal Likenesses) took Sappho as one of their progenitors. Sappho also began to be regarded as a role model for campaigners for women's rights, beginning with works such as Caroline Norton's The Picture of Sappho. Later in that century, she would become a model for the so-called New Woman – independent and educated women who desired social and sexual autonomy – and by the 1960s, the feminist Sappho was – along with the hypersexual, often but not exclusively lesbian Sappho – one of the two most important cultural perceptions of Sappho. The seaside village of Skala Eresou on the island of Lesbos became a popular pilgrimage for lesbians in the late 20th century due to its location near Sappho's purported birthplace.<ref>Section "Sappho, Lesbians, and Lesvos", Lonely Planet Europe, 2019, </ref>

The discoveries of new poems by Sappho in 2004 and 2014 excited both scholarly and media attention. The announcement of the Tithonus poem was the subject of international news coverage, and was described by Marilyn Skinner as "the trouvaille of a lifetime".See also
 Ancient Greek literature
 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 7 – papyrus preserving Sappho fr. 5
 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1231 – papyrus preserving Sappho fr. 15–30
 Lesbian Poetry

Notes

References

Works cited

Further reading

External links

 The Digital Sappho
 Commentaries on Sappho's fragments, William Annis. Fragments of Sappho, translated by Gregory Nagy and Julia Dubnoff
 <mask>, BBC Radio 4, In Our Time. Sappho, BBC Radio 4, Great Lives''. Ancient Greek literature recitations, hosted by the Society for the Oral Reading of Greek and Latin Literature. Including a recording of Sappho 1 by Stephen Daitz.7th-century BC births
7th-century BC women poets
7th-century BC Greek people
7th-century BC poets
6th-century BC Greek people
6th-century BC poets
6th-century BC women writers
Aeolic Greek poets
Ancient Eresians
Ancient Greek erotic poets
Nine Lyric Poets
Poets from ancient Lesbos
Greek women composers
Ancient Greek women poets
570s BC deaths
Ancient Mytileneans
7th-century BC Greek women
6th-century BC Greek women
Ancient LGBT

masks: Sappho Sappho Sappho Sappho


title: Hans Helwig

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<mask>  (25 September 1881 – 24 August 1952) was a German Nazi Party politician, World War I veteran, Schutzstaffel general and Nazi concentration camp commandant. An early member of the Nazi movement he fulfilled a number of roles within Nazism down the years. He was born and died in Hemsbach. Military service
The son of a forest ranger and the youngest of 15 children <mask> apprenticed as a bricklayer in his home village of Hemsbach. Discontented with life as a bricklayer the 19-year-old Helwig enlisted in the German Imperial Army. He rose to the rank of master sergeant in an infantry regiment before leaving in early 1914 to work as a court clerk. <mask> was only a few months out of the army when World War I broke out, prompting him to re-enlist.Returning to the same battalion <mask> saw action on both the Western and Eastern Fronts. Joining the Nazi Party
Helwig returned to his post with the court before eventually moving on to a role as a minor official at the German Ministry of Justice. Although his personal position was largely untouched, <mask> nonetheless became deeply resentful of the situation in his native Baden which was under French occupation and was invaded and re-occupied by France and Belgium in 1923. An admirer of Adolf Hitler from early, his beliefs caused him trouble professionally and he was suspended from his job following the Beer Hall putsch, which he had been heard to praise at work. By this time <mask> was already officially a member of the Sturmabteilung, having initially joined the Deutschvölkischer Schutz und Trutzbund after the war. Suspended from work, <mask> was able to devote more of his time to the SA and the Nazi Party. A founder of the local branch of the reorganised Nazi Party in 1925, he was elected a city councilman not long after.At the time in Baden Nazi politics were dominated by a personality clash between local strongmen Heinrich Himmler and Robert Heinrich Wagner, a struggle in which <mask> eventually sided with Himmler, leaving the SA for the SS in 1929. Already 48 and generally considered to be of low intelligence it was unclear what use he could be to the SS but nonetheless he was received enthusiastically both due to his friendship with Himmler and the fact that he had put loyalty to the Nazi Party above his own finances by getting suspended from work due to his Nazism. Political career
<mask> initially followed a career in Nazi politics, following a personal endorsement to Adolf Hitler from Himmler. In the July 1932 election he was returned as a delegate to the Reichstag although there is no record of him accomplishing anything during his brief spell in the institution. In the meantime his old rival Wagner had re-established his control of Baden, Himmler having long since departed to serve as Reichsführer-SS, and ensured that <mask> would not be a candidate in the November 1932 election, instead ensuring his demotion to the Landtag der Republik Baden, a body that was abolished following the Nazi takeover. Camp commandant
On account of his long military service he initially served the SS as voluntary commander of a battalion and then a regiment. Following the Nazi takeover he was then appointed a governor of Bruchsal prison, a role that he did not last long in due to the mentally taxing nature of the work.Following a nervous breakdown he retired from SS duty but was dismayed to find his pension only stretched to 202 Marks a month. <mask> recovered from his health issues rapidly and sought to return to the SS. He was readmitted reluctantly, largely on the basis of his long service (which entitled him to the Golden Nazi Party Badge) and loyalty. By this time it was unclear what role <mask> could possibly fill in the SS and a superior officer had written a personal letter to Himmler to this effect. Within the letter it was suggested that his prison experience might make it possible for him to command a concentration camp and Himmler acted on this suggestion, and made him commandant of the women's camp at Lichtenburg. In July 1937 he succeeded Karl Otto Koch as commandant of Sachsenhausen concentration camp and was soon being put forward as a candidate for promotion by Theodor Eicke, who had initially been reluctant to have Helwig as one of his men. However Helwig did blot his copybook when it was discovered that he boasted of his atrocities at Sachsenhausen to a group of non-Germans after getting drunk in a bar, breaking protocol about keeping concentration camp activities quiet.Indeed, as was the case for all of the commandants at Sachsenhausen, <mask>'s command was noted for its viciousness. <mask> lost his position the following year over a somewhat pedantic clash between the SS hierarchy and Justice Minister Franz Gürtner over a failure to obey protocol. An inmate of Sachsenhausen, Johannes Winiarz, was given a forced vasectomy at the camp but it emerged that the operation had not been approved by a judge and Winiarz had had no chance to appeal, both of which were laid down as essential in such cases. Himmler put the blame on Eicke who in turn argued that it had been Helwig who had mixed up the orders, having become confused by a sudden influx of new prisoners at the time. Eicke told Himmler that the 57-year-old Helwig was "totally decrepit ... both mentally and physically" and recommended he be removed as commandant. He was replaced by Hermann Baranowski soon afterwards. Later years
Helwig appealed to be allowed to continue but neither Eicke nor Himmler would be moved.Given a 5000 Mark severance in order to convince him to leave he returned to Hemsbach. His standing as a party loyalist ensured that the SS continued to help him find employment and after a few failed attempts he found a role in the Organisation Todt that suited his talents. Based on the Eastern Front, he oversaw the building of a fuel camp that also doubled as a place to hold Soviet prisoners of war. The veteran, who by this time was a Brigadeführer in the SS despite having previously been described by Eicke as not officer material, finished the war as the liaison officer between the northern command of the Wehrmacht and Himmler's HQ. <mask>, who remained an active member of his local Protestant church in Hemsbach throughout his SS career despite the faith being officially discouraged, died in his hometown in 1952 before any legal proceedings could be brought against him. Ranks and promotions

References

1881 births
1952 deaths
People from Hemsbach
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
Nazi Party politicians
German military personnel of World War I
Sturmabteilung personnel
SS-Brigadeführer
Sachsenhausen concentration camp personnel
Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic
Nazi concentration camp commandants
Lichtenburg concentration camp personnel

masks:
Hans Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig
Helwig


title: Riddick Bowe

texts:
<mask> (born August 10, 1967) is an American former professional boxer who competed between 1989 and 2008. He reigned as the undisputed world heavyweight champion in 1992, and as an amateur he won a silver medal in the super heavyweight division at the 1988 Summer Olympics. After turning professional in 1989, Bowe went on to become a two-time world heavyweight champion. In 1992 he won the undisputed WBA, WBC and IBF titles by defeating then-unbeaten former undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield. That same year, Bowe was named Fighter of the Year by The Ring and the Boxing Writers' Association of America. Bowe vacated the WBC title later that year in protest, instead of defending the title against their number one contender, Lennox Lewis. This left the undisputed championship fragmented until 1999.In a rematch with Holyfield in 1993, <mask> narrowly lost the WBA and IBF titles in what would be his only professional defeat. He later regained a portion of the world heavyweight championship in 1995, defeating Herbie Hide for the WBO title. In doing so, Bowe became the first boxer in history to win the titles of all four major sanctioning bodies: the WBA, WBC, IBF, and WBO. Later that year, <mask> vacated the WBO title in order to fight Holyfield for a third time, and won decisively by being the first boxer to defeat Holyfield by knockout. 1996 saw <mask> engage in two brutal slugfests with Andrew Golota, both of which ended controversially when Golota repeatedly hit him with low blows. <mask> retired from boxing after the Golota fights, making low-key comebacks in 2004 and 2008. In a 2010 article by BoxingScene, Bowe was ranked the 21st greatest heavyweight of all time.In 2015, he was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame. Early years
Bowe was born on August 10, 1967, the twelfth of his mother <mask>'s thirteen children. Bowe was born and raised in the East New York section of Brooklyn, New York City. His brother Henry died of AIDS, and his sister Brenda was stabbed to death by a drug addict during an attempted robbery. Bowe was in the same elementary school sixth-grade class with Mike Tyson. "We went to school together the sixth grade in P.S. 396 (in Brownsville.)I really didn't know him," Bowe recalled. Amateur boxing career
Bowe was training at the Bedford-Stuyvesant Boxing Association Gym or the "Bed-Stuy BA" for short. As an amateur, Bowe won the prestigious New York Golden Gloves Championship and other tournaments. In 1984, age 17, he knocked out opponent James Smith in just 4 seconds. In 1985, at the National Golden Gloves championships, he lost to Fort Worth heavyweight Donald Stephens. Apart of boxing he attended Kingsborough Community College, where he studied drama — in hopes of an acting career after boxing — also he took up a business administration study. His friends called him "Don King" because of his hairstyle.Bowe said he was emulating Mark Breland, "I got a majority of my experience with Mark, I'm inspired by what he's accomplished. It makes it possible for me to do the same," said Bowe in an interview. New York Golden Gloves Championships
Bowe won four New York Golden Gloves Championships. He won two bouts as a 178-pounder in 1984 before failing to show for a third bout. He won the 1985 178 lb Novice Championship, 1986 178 lb Open Championship and the 1987 and 1988 Super Heavyweight Open Championship. Already in 1985 Bowe was ranked #1 light heavyweight in the United States. 1986 Goodwill Games
He was a light heavyweight runner-up for the 1986 World Championships and 1986 Goodwill Games but for some reason didn't qualify.Meanwhile, during the year-and-a-half hiatus he gained well above thirty pounds and jumped from light heavyweight to super heavyweight, coming back for the 1987 United States Olympic Festival. 1987 Pan Am
Prior to 1987 Pan American Games, Bowe said he had suffered a hairline fracture in his right hand during one of his two fights at the Olympic Festival in July 1987. The injury, he said, was revealed in X-rays he had taken at home. Roosevelt Sanders, the head coach, said he was aware that Bowe's hand was being treated, but had not known it was broken. Bowe said he kept those injuries secret from the U.S. team coaching staff for fear of being kept out of the tournament. Olympic qualifiers
At first, Bowe was dismissed from the Olympic-year training camp, because U.S. Olympic boxing Coach Ken Adams didn't like him. U.S. Army superheavyweight Robert Salters, a Brooklyn-born 25-year-old artilleryman of Fort Bragg, NC, who took up boxing in 1986, and had less than twenty amateur fights in his 16-months-long record before they first met at the 1988 AAU National finals, where Salters floored Bowe twice before ref stopped the fight, became a real nemesis for Bowe during his amateur career, as they fought each other to nearly a draw in the 1988 Olympic Box-offs at Caesars Palace, after Bowe lost to Salters in the Olympic Trials (Bowe came in at 231 lbs, Salters at 247.)."He was talkin' trash about me, and that helped me mentally," Salters said. Bowe had been boxing reportedly with ligament damage on the middle knuckle of his right hand, which he got the day before the Box-offs, and with a damaged right ankle, eventually managed to win, for the judges had to pick up a winner despite the even 58–58 score. The fifth unidentified judge, who scored the bout 58–58, gave it to Bowe on unidentified subjective grounds. Despite giving Bowe a hard time on four occasions in a row, Salters never turned pro. 1988 Olympics
Bowe won the silver medal in the 1988 Seoul Olympics, outpointing Soviet Alex Miroshnichenko in the semifinals, and losing a controversial match in the finals to future world heavyweight champion Lennox Lewis. Bowe had a dominant first round, landing 33 of 94 punches thrown (34%) while Lewis landed 14 of 67 (21%). In the first round the referee from East Germany gave Bowe two cautions for headbutts and deducted a point for a third headbutt, although replay clearly showed there was no headbutt.Commentator Ferdie Pacheco disagreed with the deduction, saying they did not hit heads. In the second round, Lewis landed several hard punches. The referee gave Bowe two standing eight counts and waved the fight off after the second one, even though Bowe seemed able to continue. Pacheco disagreed with the stoppage, calling it "very strange," but Marv Albert said Bowe took "a pounding." Highlights

United States Junior Championships (middleweight), 1983:
Lost to Adolpho Washington RSC 2
New York Golden Gloves (light heavyweight), New York City, February 1984:
1/16: Defeated Richard Newton RSC 1
1/8: Defeated Hezekiah Salone
1/4: Lost to ? Professional boxing career
Bowe turned professional after his Olympic loss. Highly regarded trainer Eddie Futch took on the job of developing Bowe, as he saw the talent.Eddie would say that Bowe had more potential than any boxer he had ever trained. Bowe turned professional in March 1989 and knocked out Lionel Butler. His then manager, Rock Newman, kept Bowe active, fighting 13 times in 1989, beating journeymen — the most notable being Garing Lane, whom he beat twice. In September 1990, Bowe made his first step up in class, fighting faded ex-champion Pinklon Thomas, whom he dominated until Thomas gave up after eight rounds. The following month, Bowe knocked out Bert Cooper in two rounds, which added to his reputation and high ranking. In March 1991, Bowe knocked out 1984 Olympic Super Heavyweight Gold medalist Tyrell Biggs. In Bowe's next fight, ex-champion Tony Tubbs appeared to outbox and outsmart Bowe in a close bout, only to have the judges award Bowe a unanimous decision.In August 1991, Bowe knocked out future world heavyweight champion Bruce Seldon in one round. In July 1992, he knocked out South African Pierre Coetzer in the seventh round of a world title eliminator. Fights against Elijah Tillery
Bowe fought two interesting bouts against Elijah Tillery in 1991. Their first fight was in Washington D.C. at the Washington Convention Center was known as the 'crazy fight' for its bizarre conclusion. Bowe dominated the first round and dropped Tillery. After the round ended, Tillery walked toward Bowe and taunted him, and Bowe responded by punching Tillery. Tillery then threw several low kicks at <mask>, who then unleashed a flurry of punches on Tillery as he lay on the ropes.Bowe's trainer Rock Newman grabbed Tillery from behind on the ring apron and pulled him over the ropes as Bowe continued to throw punches. Tillery somersaulted over the ropes, and was quickly detained by security. After order was restored and the fighters returned to the ring, Tillery and Bowe continued a war of words, and minor incidents continued until the ring was cleared. Tillery was controversially disqualified for kicking Bowe, with Bowe getting the win, much to the surprise of the television announcers. The referee, Karl Milligan, had stepped between the two fighters to separate them and stepped forward as he did so, inadvertently missing the action behind him after the bell between the combatants. The fighters fought a rematch two months later at Convention Hall in Atlantic City, with <mask> dominating and stopping Tillery in four rounds. World heavyweight champion

In November 1992 he fought reigning champ Evander Holyfield for the undisputed heavyweight title.<mask> won a unanimous decision in an entertaining fight, flooring Holyfield in the 11th round. However, it was the tenth round most boxing fans will remember. The epic brutal back and forth exchanges helped make it Ring Magazine's "Round of the Year." Commentator Al Bernstein exclaimed, "That was one of the greatest rounds in heavyweight history. Period!" A couple of weeks earlier in London, <mask>'s old Olympic rival, Lennox Lewis, knocked out Canadian Donovan "Razor" Ruddock in two rounds, establishing himself as the World Boxing Council's number one contender. The <mask>-Holyfield and Lewis-Ruddock fights were part of a mini-tournament, whereby all four fighters agreed the two winners would meet each other for the undisputed world heavyweight championship.Bowe's manager Rock Newman made a proposal: the $32 million purse HBO was offering should be split 90–10 in Bowe's favor, an 'absurd' offer which Lennox Lewis rejected. Lewis's manager, Kelley Maloney (known as Frank Maloney at the time), rejected another offer of two million for Lewis to fight on a Bowe undercard, citing his distrust of the Bowe camp after the aforementioned financial negotiations. Bowe responded by holding a press conference in which he dumped the WBC world heavyweight championship belt into a trash can and relinquished it in order to protest the actions of the WBC and WBC President José Sulaimán concerning the fight payoff. Bowe's first defense of his remaining titles came on February 6, 1993, when he fought 34-year-old former champion Michael Dokes at Madison Square Garden and knocked him out in the first round. In February 1993, Bowe met Pope John Paul II during the pope's general audience at the Vatican, a day after Bowe completed a goodwill mission to Somalia. In Bowe's next fight, May 22, 1993 at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C., Bowe knocked out Jesse Ferguson in the second round to retain the title. This set up a rematch with Evander Holyfield.In the rematch with Holyfield, Bowe looked overweight. He had entered training camp at a 266 lbs and weighed in at 246 lbs, eleven pounds heavier than in the first fight with Holyfield. <mask> and Holyfield exchanged hard punches. Bowe ended up losing the belts to Holyfield by a majority decision. This fight was also known for a bizarre stunt in which parachutist James "Fan Man" Miller dropped into the open air

masks:
Riddick Lamont Bowe
Bowe
Bowe
Bowe
Bowe
Dorothy Bowe
Bowe
Bowe
Bowe
Bowe
Bowe
Bowe


title: Riddick Bowe

texts:
 arena, landing in the ropes by Bowe's corner. This surreal scene delayed the fight in the seventh round by nearly a half-hour. Bowe stated afterwards he thought the bout should have declared a 'technical draw' or a 'no contest' owing to the unfair delay.After title loss

In August 1994, Bowe fought two comeback fights. He faced the much smaller Buster Mathis Jr and, after struggling to connect with his bobbing and weaving target, hit Mathis while he was down with what was ruled an accidental blow, and the bout was ruled a 'No Contest' by referee Arthur Mercante, Sr. In December 1994, Bowe punched Larry Donald at a prefight press conference, later beating him by 12 round unanimous decision for the WBC Continental Americas Heavyweight title, giving the 16-0 heavyweight contender Donald his first loss. WBO heavyweight champion and Holyfield rubber match

In March 1995, Bowe won the WBO version of the world heavyweight championship by knocking down England's Herbie Hide six times en route to scoring a sixth-round knockout. In June 1995, after a heated build up, Bowe defended the WBO heavyweight title against his archrival in the amateurs, Jorge Luis González, At the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. The prefight hype contained bizarre trash talk, which included Gonzalez declaring a desire to eat Bowe's heart and likening himself to a lion while making Bowe out to be a hyena. Bowe won by sixth-round knockout over Gonzalez.He vacated the WBO championship soon after. After the Gonzales fight, Bowe fought a rubber match with Evander Holyfield, their third and final meeting. Holyfield knocked Bowe down during the fight, but Bowe maintained his composure, and persevered to score an eighth round stoppage victory. Bowe vs. Golota I and II

After defeating Holyfield in the third bout of their trilogy, Bowe was matched against undefeated heavyweight contender Andrew Golota at the Madison Square Garden in an HBO Boxing event. Bowe's weight problem again resurfaced, as the favorite entered the ring at a career high of 252 lbs. Though ahead on points, Golota was penalized several times for low blows, and was finally disqualified in the seventh round after a volley of punches to Bowe's testicles. Seconds after Golota was disqualified, Bowe's entourage rushed the ring, attacked Golota with a two way radio (Golota traded punches with one of them, requiring 11 stitches to close the wound caused by the radio) and assaulted Golota's 74-year-old trainer Lou Duva, who collapsed in the ring and was taken out of The Garden on a stretcher.The entourage began rioting, fighting with spectators, staff and policemen alike, resulting in a number of injuries before they were forced out of the arena in what evolved into a lengthy televised ring spectacle. The fight made many sports shows, including SportsCenter, and there was a good amount of public interest in a rematch. The rematch was on Pay Per View. Golota, after dropping Bowe in the second round, and being dropped himself later, was leading on the scorecards, only to be disqualified in the ninth round, once again for repeated shots to the testicles. Despite not having another riot, this fight also proved to be controversial, with an unsuccessful protest filed by Golota's camp to try to overturn the fight's result. This fight was featured on HBO's documentary Legendary Nights: The Tale of Bowe-Golota. Return to boxing

On September 25, 2004, after seven and a half years away from boxing, Bowe returned with a second-round knockout over Marcus Rhode.In a second comeback fight, in April 2005, an overweight Bowe narrowly defeated journeyman Billy Zumbrun by ten round split decision. Bowe declared bankruptcy in 2005. On December 13, 2008, with the help of new manager Bob Bain, Bowe, 41, returned to the ring for the first time in over three and a half years on the undercard of the Wladimir Klitschko versus Hasim Rahman world heavyweight title bout in Mannheim, Germany and won an eight-round unanimous decision over Gene Pukall. Legacy and reputation

<mask> <mask>'s boxing record stands at 43 wins and 1 loss, with 33 knockouts. In the autobiography of veteran former referee Mills Lane, Let's Get It On, who had officiated at some of Bowe's fights, he professed that Bowe could have been one of boxing's greatest boxers but foolishly squandered the opportunity through immaturity and lack of discipline. Bowe's fighting weight during his career ranged from . His prime fighting weight was .It was within this weight span that <mask> achieved all of his most notable victories. BoxRec ranks <mask> as the 32nd best heavyweight of all time. Noted for his in-fighting skills, jab and combination punching, <mask>'s first fight with Evander Holyfield is considered one of the greatest world heavyweight title fights of all time. Following this victory, he met Nelson Mandela during a visit to South Africa. <mask>'s trainer at the time, Eddie Futch, lamented that upon his return, Bowe failed to ever achieve the same physical condition for his subsequent fights. Yet, as late as 1995 and past his peak, Bowe was good enough to become the first man to stop Evander Holyfield, outclass former amateur standout and undefeated pro, Jorge Luis González, and bludgeon over-matched Herbie Hide to win the then lightly-regarded WBO version of the world heavyweight championship. In 2017, The Ring magazine ranked <mask> as the 19th best heavyweight of all time in a poll of a panel of 30 trainers, matchmakers and members of the boxing media.The consensus was that <mask>, described as both a "super talent" and a "super waste", only had one great fight, when winning the title from Holyfield, and ultimately disappointed in squandering his obvious natural ability due to laziness. <mask>'s reputation suffered because of the weak challengers he faced as champion (Michael Dokes and Jesse Ferguson) before losing the title to Holyfield in their rematch. He is also widely criticized for relinquishing the WBC title rather than defending it against mandatory challenger Lennox Lewis, thus fracturing the undisputed championship until Lewis unified the titles in 1999. {cn}

<mask> is the first boxer in any division to hold all four major versions of the world championship (WBA, WBC, IBF, and WBO) during his career, an accomplishment emulated in the heavyweight division only by Tyson Fury. This achievement has also been followed in other weight classes: Bernard Hopkins (middleweight), Jermain Taylor (middleweight), Winky Wright (light middleweight), Joe Calzaghe (super middleweight), Floyd Mayweather Jr. (welterweight), Terence Crawford (light welterweight), Cecilia Brækhus (welterweight), Katie Taylor (lightweight), Oleksandr Usyk (cruiserweight), Claressa Shields (middleweight, light middleweight) and Josh Taylor (light welterweight). Only Hopkins, Taylor, Crawford, Brækhus, Shields, Usyk, and Taylor held all four titles simultaneously. <mask>'s sole loss, to Evander Holyfield in 1993, was avenged in 1995, meaning that he finished their trilogy 2-1 ahead.With the exception of a 1994 no-contest with Buster Mathis Jr., Bowe defeated every opponent he faced as a professional. Alongside Gene Tunney, Rocky Marciano, Sultan Ibragimov and Nikolai Valuev, Bowe is one of five former heavyweight champions to have never suffered a stoppage defeat during his career. Professional kickboxing career
In March 2013, Bowe announced his Muay Thai debut, having trained under Kru Airr Phanthip and Kru Chan in Las Vegas. He faced Levgen Golovin for the WPMF Super Heavyweight World Title in Pattaya, Thailand. On June 14, 2013, Bowe was knocked down five times from kicks to his leg. The championship match was called to a stop halfway through the second round. Life outside of boxing

Joining the Marine Corps
After the Golota fights, Bowe retired from boxing and decided to join the United States Marine Corps Reserve.He said he made the decision both to make his mother proud and to rededicate himself to training, with the intention of returning to boxing shortly after. Bowe arrived at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island on February 10, 1997. On his first day of recruit training, Bowe discussed leaving the Corps with Marine commanders, and quit after three days of heavy physical training with his platoon in Parris Island, South Carolina on February 21, 1997. Humanitarian Activities
Shortly after winning his first title against Evander Holyfield, Bowe saw a news story on television that revealed a million dollars worth of medicines donated to the Somali refugees and orphans were not able to be transported to the war-torn region due to a lack of funds to pay for the charter aircraft needed. Bowe immediately had his representatives contact AmeriCares, the NGO leading the effort, and pledged the 100,000 dollars needed to fund the trip - on the condition he could go to the country with the goods, and make sure they got to their intended recipients. While in Somalia, he visited U.S. Marines and an orphanage on the Kenyan border. He was accompanied by several members of his management team, including manager Rock Newman and Head of International Sales Alexis Denny (CEO of an independent media distributor).Bowe also took action when he heard news of other tragedies. In 1995, when Alexis Denny was in Indonesia on other business, she read Asian news coverage of Rodolfo Yap, a young man in the Philippines who was electrocuted while positioning his antenna so his family could watch a <mask> <mask> fight. She relayed this news to Bowe, and explained to the media at the time 'The heavyweight champion was very moved by the story and having lost a brother and a sister earlier in life, decided to make a financial contribution to the family of Mr. Yap." Bowe authorized her to fly to the Philippines and try to locate the man's family, make a contribution to their expenses, and also provide funds to support the Philippine boxing Team training for the Olympics (in the name of the deceased). Prison
Bowe was convicted of the February 1998 kidnapping of his estranged wife Judy, and their five children. Thinking it would reconcile his marriage, Bowe went to his wife's Cornelius, North Carolina home and threatened her with a knife, handcuffs, duct tape, and pepper spray.He forced her and their children into a vehicle and set out for his Fort Washington, Maryland home. During the kidnapping, Bowe stabbed his wife in the chest. Police captured Bowe in South Hill, Virginia, freeing his family. Bowe agreed to a plea bargain of guilty to "interstate domestic violence", and was sentenced to 18 to 24 months in prison. Despite the agreed sentence, on February 29, 2000, the judge sentenced Bowe to only 30 days, due to a claim of brain damage by Bowe's defense. This sentence, counter to the plea agreement, was later overturned. Bowe served 17 months in Federal prison.On February 8, 2001, Bowe was arrested in Long Island after a domestic dispute with his new wife. Bowe allegedly dragged his wife and left her with cuts on her knees and elbows. Attempted professional wrestling debut
In 2013, <mask> <mask> announced his intentions to start training to be a professional wrestler. He was to make his debut for the UK-based Preston City Wrestling organisation on March 1, 2014. On December 14, 2013, Preston City Wrestling announced on their Facebook Page that Bowe would no longer be appearing due to a disagreement with Bowe's new agent. In popular culture
In 1993, a video game entitled Riddick Bowe Boxing was released for various platforms. Also that year, Bowe appeared in an episode of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, entitled "You Bet Your Life", as a bully named "Bo".In 1997, Bowe appeared in the music video “Mo Money Mo Problems”  by The Notorious

masks: Riddick Bowe Bowe Bowe Bowe Bowe Bowe Bowe Bowe Bowe Bowe Riddick Bowe Riddick Bowe