title: Scarlat Vârnav

texts:
 serving as inspector. Proposed innovations he "learned at Paris", now included the establishment of a printing press and the demolition of new additions to the historical site.However, he was also suspected of giving away boons, including the monastery's cloth factory and a large press, to his patron Mihail Kogălniceanu and to the government itself. Such activism, and also his harsh temper, led to numerous complaints. The new minister, Dimitrie Rosăt, protected Vârnav. He scolded those monks who wanted him tried by church tribunal, calling them the "hirelings of Russia". Vârnav himself had a long-standing feud with Popovici, whom he accused of using sermons to promote anti-Cuza sentiments and Russophilia. Facing opposition from the mostly conservative monks, Sofronie failed in his bid to be elected as Archimandrite, having to share administrative power with a traditionalist, Timofei Ionescu. In September 1861, Vârnav finally obtained Popovici's demotion, prompting the latter to cross over into the Bessarabia Governorate and set up Noul Neamț Monastery outside Kitskany.Andronic claimed that this establishment was merely a lavra for the old one. Vârnav, who kept the monastery seal on him, did not validate this in writing, but his adversaries either forged or obtained permission from other administrators. Eventually, by 1862, Alexandru A. Cantacuzino took over at the ministry and had Vârnav arrested. Vârnav pleaded for his case and petitioned the Divan with letters also taken up in Tribuna Română gazette. Archimandrite Timofei dismissed his defense as fantasy, depicting Vârnav as a persecutor of his monks, who had loosely interpreted Cuza's policies in order to suppress dissent at the monastery. He was allowed to return after a few weeks in jail, in time to witness the great fire which affected Neamț in December 1862; in their polemical writings, the renegades of Kitskany alleged that Vârnav himself was the arsonist. Finally forced out of the monastery in 1862, he drifted toward Wallachia and spent some time in Buzău.It was probably this more sympathetic community that bestowed upon him the titles of Hieromonk and Protosyncellus. According to church historian Melchisedec Ștefănescu, Vârnav, being "detested by the public and disgraced by prince Cuza", settled in Bucharest, "providing his services to whoever would need them." He sees the former Starets as an extremist and a heretic, "formed in the school of Blanqui, Pyat [and] Rochefort". Vârnav found employment at Sfântul Dumitru–Poștă Church in Lipscani, which answered directly to the Archdiocese of Buzău. This position helped him to resume contacts with his old friend Rosetti, alongside whom Vârnav wished to reconfigure Romanian radicalism. The Hieromonk returned to favor in January 1864, when Dimitrie Bolintineanu, who chaired the unified ministry of education, appointed him to a commission that was tasked with assessing calendar reform. However, his name was immediately flagged and stricken out by the Romanian Metropolitan Bishop, Nifon Rusailă.Vârnav was instead auditor of the state charity funds, in which capacity he uncovered misuse and embezzlement by the political clientele. One such case referred to young girls collecting social welfare while serving as mistresses to some in the ministry staff. Vârnav, who was reportedly a delegate to the Elective Assembly in 1864, supported Cuza's anti-parliamentary coup. Also a Cuza loyalist, Constantin Vârnav continued to serve on the Princely Court of Justice, where he notably enforced censorship laws against Ionescu de la Brad. During the coup events, Sofronie lived in a rented townhouse at Sfântul Dumitru, shared with Cuza's uncle Grigore. During the plebiscite of June 1864, organized by the Domnitor in order to increase his executive power and impose a land reform, he put up a "lit sign" reading: Popa Vârnav zice da or Părintele S. Varnav d̦ice Da (both meaning "Father [S.] Vârnav Says Yes"). As noted at the time by polemicist Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, the sign was both of questionable taste and unintentionally humorous, since it did not clarify what was yes was being said to, concluding: "that great Vărnavŭ, being as zealous as ever, fell from the sublime into the ridiculous!"1867 campaign and death
On the morning of February 11, 1866, Cuza and his authoritarian regime were deposed by a "monstrous coalition" of liberals and conservatives. Just hours after, supporters of the coup ambushed Vârnav in his house. He was picked up, covered in tricolor cockades, and paraded into the Princely Palace on Mogoșoaiei Bridge; he was however welcomed and protected there by the regency council. Vârnav was out of the country, on a mission to Mount Athos—Rosetti, who took over as Education Minister, sent him over to consecrate the Romanian Monastery there. He returned with two Aromanian youths for training at the Bucharest Seminary. During the same interval, Carol of Hohenzollern, a foreign prince, was selected as the new Domnitor. Vârnav was again active in politics by April, which saw a plebiscite on Carol's acceptance, during which he traveled as far south as Ploiești and as far north as Bacău, persuading Wallachians and Moldavians alike to vote for Carol (and thus, for a cemented union).As Bishop Calinic Miclescu and others put up separatist resistance in Iași, he also took an emergency trip there, effectively acting as a negotiator between the two camps. Declaring himself against any attempt at separation, he hoped to ingratiate himself with the authorities and be assigned curator of Trei Ierarhi Monastery. He was still in the city in September, representing government at the funeral of his friend Anastasie Panu. Switching back to his civilian commitments, he angered Miclescu by announcing his bid for an Assembly of Deputies seat in the November 1866 election. This initiative resulted in another investigation by church authorities. Vârnav ultimately settled in Bârlad in 1867, and his last months were spent in Tutova County politics, but also in efforts to furnish the local hospital. According to Melchisedec Ștefănescu, he also continued to "propagate his political and religious heresies".With Ion and Constantin Codrescu, P. Chenciu, A. V. Ionescu, and Ioan Popescu, he established a "National Liberal Party", which functioned as the provincial affiliate of the Moldavian-wide Free and Independent Faction. Like other Factionalists, Vârnav also involved himself in the debates over the issue of Jewish emancipation, and is described by biographer Dimitrie R. Rosetti as a "firebrand antisemite". According to a Jewish man's letter, published in L'Echo Danubien, his "preaching against the Israelites [was] of the most barbaric kind", disturbing the otherwise tolerant mood of Tutova. In the election of December 1867, Vârnav put himself up as a Tutova candidate for both the Senate and the Assembly. He was soundly defeated in the former race by Manolache Costache Epureanu (who took 163 out of 233 total votes), but was able to win a deputy's mandate at Tutova's Fourth College. Without ever taking his seat, he died at Bârlad, on , after illness that lasted "just one day". The mysterious circumstances led to an autopsy, which found nothing of relevance.His stomach and intestines were dispatched to Bucharest, for a more in-depth toxicological inquest. Already before his death, rumor spread that his Jewish enemies had poisoned the Starets, who, despite his antisemitic campaign, had taken residence at a Jewish-owned hotel; a riot (or attempted pogrom) erupted in the city. As noted by D. R. Rosetti, "the excitement of the population required intervention of troops sent in from bordering counties, as a safeguard for the Jews, whose lives were being threatened." The same is noted by Iorga: "His death was found suspicious, and military measures were taken to curb the anti-Jewish movements." The conspiracy theory was shunned as "infamy" by C. A. Rosetti's daily Românul, which noted that "ignorance was exploited" by "the enemies of the country"—both in Tutova and Ialomița County (the scene of a scandal over allegations of blood libel). However, the paper also played down the riot, reporting that only the city synagogue and a few Jewish houses had been damaged. An early report by Gazet'a Transilvaniei claimed that Bârlad's intelligentsia was directly involved in calming the populace, before "rebels" could succeed in destroying the synagogue.A detailed note of protest, signed by 200 notables of Bârlad, claimed that the riot had been started by mourners gathering in front of Vârnav's lodging, located opposite a Jewish establishment; altercations, they argued, had been provoked by the Jews, who "insulted [...] the agonizing patient" and attempted to injure peaceful mourners by hurling boiling water in their direction; the petitioners asked the Interior Minister Ion Brătianu not to punish the populace for what it viewed as "calumnies by the adversaries of the national cause". Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU) sources tell that Vârnav himself had incensed the Romanian crowds earlier in the campaign, with endorsement from the Ștefan Golescu government. The pogrom, they argue, was attempted by some of the petitioners themselves, and higher authorities, who "arrested all the Jews, supposedly to protect them", actually "facilitated things for the rioters"; the investigation of the riot "was opened, but carried no effect." On February 25, Brătianu spoke in the Assembly to announce that "solely Jews" had participated in the riot. As noted by the AIU, Vârnav's death was likely caused by "some rather particular disease." The Starets was buried at Bârlad's Sfinții Voievozi Cemetery later that month, but his belongings, including itemized lists of donations for the Transilvania Cultural Society, were still in police custody by February. Constantin, who served several terms in the Assembly and Senate, survived his brother by nine years, dying shortly after Romanian independence was achieved.His own son, <mask> C. Vârnav, was by then becoming distinguished as a civil and military engineer. After managing the School of Bridges, Roads and Mines, he also pursued a career in politics with the Junimea constitutionalists in the 1890s. The Hieromonks painting collection was only gradually restored by Gheorghe Șiller, who worked under Bardasare's supervision. In the interwar period, Iorga took over and revived Vârnav's student library, which became the nucleus of a Romanian School in Fontenay-aux-Roses. The Vârnav line had been extinguished shortly after Romania entered World War I: in September 1916, Constantin's grandson Petre S. Vârnav was decapitated by shrapnel during the bombing of Zimnicea. By then, Iorga claims, both Scarlats had been unduly forgotten. Notes

References

19th-century births
1868 deaths
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania)
Free and Independent Faction politicians
People of the Revolutions of 1848
Romanian people of the Crimean War
Romanian Freemasons
Romanian monarchists
Romanian educational theorists
Language reformers
Romanian activist journalists
Romanian propagandists
Romanian librarians
Romanian art collectors
Romanian book and manuscript collectors
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Romanian philanthropists
Romanian Orthodox monks
Romanian Orthodox priests
Starets
Romanian civil servants
People from Botoșani County
Moldavian nobility
Romanian expatriates in France
Naturalized citizens of France
French people of Romanian descent
Eastern Orthodox Christians from France
French Christian monks
French abbots
French Freemasons
French spiritualists
Romanian esotericists
University of Paris alumni
French people of the Crimean


title: Algur H. Meadows

type: original

texts:
<mask> (April 24, 1899 – June 10, 1978) was an American oil tycoon, art collector, and benefactor of Southern Methodist University and other institutions. <mask> was born on April 20, 1899, in Vidalia, Georgia, the third of seven children of John Morgan and Sally Marie Elora (Dailey) <mask>. After receiving his diploma from Vidalia Collegiate Institute in 1915, he studied at Georgia and Alabama Business College and Mercer University, both in Macon, Georgia. <mask> subsequently left Mercer to travel around the South with a friend, during which journey he held a variety of jobs. He first manifested his business acumen in his accounting work for Standard Oil Company in Shreveport, Louisiana, from 1921 to 1929. During this period he earned a law degree from Centenary College and was admitted to the Louisiana state bar, in 1926. On December 11, 1922, he married Virginia Stuart Garrison, with whom he had one son.In the fall of 1928 <mask> and friends <mask>. Peters, his son Eric Woods, and Ralph G. Trippett founded a loan company, the General Finance Company, which later became the General American Finance System in 1930. In the summer of 1936 <mask>, Peters and Trippett united with J. W. Gilliland, a petroleum expert, to form the General American Oil Company. The headquarters were then moved from Shreveport to Dallas in 1937. The new company experienced a phenomenal expansion in operations, due to an ingenious method of acquiring oil-producing properties that <mask> developed. The scheme, which <mask> dubbed the "ABC plan," involved three parties in the purchase transaction to minimize tax liability and the use of interest-bearing oil payments to meet a large percentage of the purchase price. <mask> became the president and major stockholder of the General American Oil Company in 1941 and was elected chairman of the board in 1950. By 1959 his company had acquired 2,990 oil wells in fifteen states and Canada and was drilling for oil in Spain.In 1983, <mask>, Trippett, and Peters' son, Eric Woods, sold General American Oil Company to Phillips Petroleum. On business trips to Madrid in the 1950s, <mask> insisted on staying at the Ritz Carlton. A hotel located right next door to the Museo Nacional del Prado Prado, where <mask> frequented which inspired an interest in Spanish old masters. He began acquiring paintings attributed to artists such as El Greco and Goya. Following the death of his wife in 1961, he donated his collection and a million-dollar endowment to Southern Methodist University in order to establish a museum of Spanish art in her memory. He subsequently donated a collection of contemporary Italian sculpture to SMU in order to found an outdoor sculpture garden in honor of his second wife, Elizabeth Boggs Bartholow, whom he married in 1962. In recognition of <mask>'s multiple gifts, exceeding $34 million, the SMU trustees named the university's school of arts in his honor in 1969, Meadows School of the Arts.In 1964 <mask>, with the encouragement of his second wife, began collecting paintings by French Impressionists and post-Impressionists. Three years later, in a widely publicized discovery, he learned that thirty-eight of the fifty-eight works in his private collection were forgeries and that many of the earlier works in SMU's Meadows Museum collection were falsely attributed. With characteristic generosity, <mask> immediately gave the museum a million dollars to replace the questionable works and began rebuilding his private collection, much of which was donated to the Dallas Museum of Art after his death. In 1965, <mask> purchased 360 pieces of original artwork from the family of the recently deceased French artist, Jean Despujols. Despujols immigrated to the United States during World War II and lived in Shreveport, Louisiana until his death. <mask> paid the Despujols family $250,000 for the paintings and promptly donated them to Centenary College. He also gifted $200,000 to the college to remodel the former administration building into an art gallery and later gave an additional $150,000 to be used for museum maintenance.The Meadows Museum of Art opened on Centenary's campus in 1975. <mask> generously benefitted programs throughout Texas in health, education, visual arts, and social services, under the auspices of the Meadows Foundation, which he and his first wife established in 1948. He was on the board of directors of Republic National Bank of Dallas, a trustee of SMU, and on the board of directors at St. Mark's School, Presbyterian Hospital, Children's Medical Center, Hope Cottage, and the Wadley Research Center. <mask> was a Presbyterian, a Mason, and a member of numerous professional, civic, and social organizations, including the American Petroleum Institute, Independent Petroleum Association, Dallas Petroleum Club, Dallas Art Association, Dallas Citizens Council, and Sigma Nu fraternity. He received an honorary doctor of humane letters degree from SMU in 1965 and an honorary doctor of laws degree from Centenary College in 1969. He died in a Dallas hospital on June 10, 1978, after an automobile accident in Duncanville, Texas the night before, and was entombed at Hillcrest Mausoleum. His legacy of generosity to the public lives on in the Meadows Museum of Art at Centenary College, the Meadows Museum at SMU, now considered to be the finest collection of Spanish art outside of Spain, and through the beneficence of the Meadows Foundation, which by the end of 2013 had donated more than $1 billion to charitable organizations in Texas.See Also
 The Meadows Building earn an award of Midcentury Modern Design, in The Preservation Dallas 2021 Achievement Awards

References

Current Biography Yearbook, 1960. William A. McWhirter, "How Art Swindlers Duped a Virtuous Millionaire," Life, July 7, 1967. Mark Singer, "The ABC's of Oil," Texas Monthly, January 1986. Vertical Files, Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin. General American Oil Company

American businesspeople in the oil industry
Philanthropists from Texas
1899 births
1978 deaths
People from Vidalia, Georgia
20th-century American philanthropists
20th-century American businesspeople
Businesspeople from Texas
Philanthropists from Georgia (U.S. state)
Businesspeople from Georgia (U.S. state)
American art collectors
Road incident deaths in Texas

masks:
Algur Hurtle Meadows
Life Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Henry W
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
Meadows
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title: Rowena Granice Steele

texts:
<mask> (née Graniss; after first marriage, Claughley; after second marriage, <mask>; June 20, 1824 – February 7, 1901) was an American performer (actress, singer, elocutionist), author of poetry and novels, as well as a newspaper journalist, editor, and publisher. The first novel written by a woman in California was <mask>'s, The Victims of Fate, a work of fiction loosely based on David C. Broderick, the preface stating: "Some of the incidents of this little story, (although mingled with fiction,) are real facts. I had the honor of being acquainted with the hero, from my earliest childhood. First as a lad of little promise, although to use a quaint expression, King-Bee among his boy companions. After, as a young, terprising aspirant for political fame. Last, as the finished gentleman and a nation's pride." <mask> was well known for the entertainments which she provided during the early days of the California Gold Rush, where, with her son, George, she acted out scenes from Shakespeare and bits of comedy.<mask> died in 1901. Early life
<mask> Granniss was born in Goshen, New York, June 20, 1824. Her parents were Harry and Julie Granniss. Her siblings were: Rodney Grannis (1813–1813), Mary Emily Grannis (1814–1878), John V Granniss (1815–1898), Mary Grannis (1816–1870), Harriet E Grannis (1819–1901), Joel M Grannis (1820–1856), Horace Rosive Grannis (1821–1889), John Chandler Grannis (1824–1881), Reliance Roxanna Grannis (1827–1829), Frances A. Granniss (1827–1902), Henry Martyn Grannis (1830–1874), Charles Norbert Grannis (1848–1868), and Luella Grannis (1850–1918). At an early age, she showed talent for composition, but, being of an extremely sensitive nature, her efforts were burned as soon as written. Career

Performer and theater manager
In 1846, she married Thomas Neptune Claughley (1818–1860). While he abandoned the family in 1853 to pursue the California Gold Rush, she performed in Barnum's American Museum in New York City.In 1856, she and the couple's two sons, Henry and George, removed to California in search of Thomas. After finding him and discovering him to be a "bum", she gave up his surname. In April of that year, she
was a performer of Shakesperian readings, songs, dances, and Yankee stories at San Francisco's Metropolitan Theater using the stage name "Miss <mask> <mask>". In September, with Dan Virgil Gates, she was performing a similar program in Petaluma, California. The following month, the Trinity Times gave her performance in Trinity County, California, a poor review: "A certain Rowena <mask> sang hideously. She has no voice, or rather the voice of a diseased crow. Rowena cannot dance, unless bears dance."In 1857, <mask> became the lessee and manager of the Sacramento Theater. In the year and the following, she performed in various Northern California venues including the National Theater of Sacramento in Oroville, the Southern Mines (gold mines below the Mokelumne River), and Folsom, as well as in the Sandwich Islands. Though she and Mr. Claughley were not divorced, she married John P. ("Yankee") Addams (d. 1885) on 5 March 1858, in Sacramento. Though he was a one-time leader of a large Mormon colony, when she met him, Addams was an actor, manager, dramatist, comedian, and ultimately "a hopeless rover". <mask> and Addams formed a traveling theater company, along with Myers and Gale. In May 1859, <mask> opened a saloon, "The Gaieties, Temple of Mirth and Song" on Commercial Street in San Francisco where she performed burlesque. Lotta Crabtree, Granice's protege and Louise Paullin were members of <mask>'s company at The Gaieties.In August, Mr. Claughley closed and nailed up the theater. The next morning, <mask> re-opened it. Claughley closed it a second time, and <mask> opened it a second time. Each complained of the other and they were both arrested. The business closed for a while that year, during which time she performed at a Sacramento, California theater. In November of that year, while she was the proprietor of the Union Theater in San Francisco, she was arraigned in the San Francisco Police Court for assault and battery on a theater goer, but when the complaint was called, Grance was discharged on the consent of the complainant. The Gaieties had reopened by January 1860, when there was news of an altercation which involved Mr. Claughley and others.In 1866, she was traveling in San Joaquin County, giving readings and comic songs; and in July 1868, she was in Tuolumne City with her son, George, performing scenes from Macbeth and Othello as well as skits she had penned, including Judy Murflinnigan's trip from Ould Ireland and The Maniac. In 1871, while residing in Snelling, she was the head of a local amateur dramatic association. Author and publisher
Through the force of circumstances, she was compelled to offer her stories and sketches to the newspapers and magazines, and in less than two years, the name of <mask> <mask> had become a household word in every town in the new State of California. The newspapers praised the simple home stories of the new California writer. The taste for sensational stories among the early miners, in harmony with their own feverish life, was indicated by the favor accorded to the contributions of <mask>, then writing as <mask> <mask>, to The Golden Era, so much so as to prompt the reissue of several stories. The first novel written by a woman in California, so far as known, was <mask>'s, The Victims of Fate. Appearing in 1857, it was published by Sterrett & Co. One thousand copies were sold in San Francisco and five thousand throughout the State.She published The Family Gem in 1858, a collection of her short stories. On June 13, 1861, at Salmon Falls, California, she married Robert Johnson <mask>. In April 1862, while living in Auburn, California, she published a novelette, The Suicide's Curse. In July, <mask> and her new husband started the Pioneer newspaper in Snelling, California. They soon removed to Merced, California, where the paper was enlarged. The San Joaquin Valley Argus was published every Saturday morning in Merced. The San Joaquin Valley Argus described itself as "the only Independent, Reform paper in Merced county, advocating Temperance and general Reform, socially, morally and politically.This paper was the first newspaper ever published in Merced county, being started at Snelling, the county seat, July 3d, 1862, with Mr. R. J<mask> as proprietor and editor, and Mrs. R. G<mask> as assistant editor. It is bold and fearless in advocating right and truth. It is permanently established, has a large circulation in three counties, is well known, and consequently one of the best advertising mediums in the San Joaquin Valley." This also included the Republican Weekly of which Mr. and Mrs. <mask> were its editors, while Mrs. <mask> was the publisher and proprietor. In 1874, she authored Dell Dart, or, Within the meshes. She continued to act as associate editor of the couple's newspaper until 1877, when the failing health of her husband compelled her to take entire charge, and for seven years, she was editor and proprietor. In 1884, assisted by her son, she started a daily, in connection with the weekly.In 1889, her husband died. After conducting successfully the newspaper business in the same county for twenty-eight years, she sold out. In 1892, she was editor and proprietor of the Budget, in Lodi, California. <mask> was an active writer and worker for the temperance cause. She was also an advocate of woman suffrage, both as a speaker and writer. Personal life
<mask> had three sons, Henry Hale <mask> (unknown–1915), George Law <mask> (1853–1877), and Lee Richmond <mask> (1862–1925). Henry and Lee both became journalists.In 1874,
She died February 7, 1901, in Merced, after an illness of several weeks from a general breaking down of the system;. She had been failing for several years and rapidly the last few months. She was buried at the Merced Cemetery. Selected works
 1857, Victims of Fate
 1858, The Family Gem
 1861, Camorie, or the Kanaka Girl's Revenge (novelette)
 1862, Leonnie St. James, or the Suicide's Curse"
 1862, The Suicide's Curse (novelette)
 1874, Dell Dart, or, Within the meshes 1893, Weak or wicked? : a romance''

References

Attribution

Sources

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1841 births
1901 deaths
19th-century American actresses
19th-century American singers
19th-century American women singers
19th-century American poets
19th-century American novelists
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19th-century American women writers
American stage actresses
People from Goshen, New York
Writers from New York (state)
Writers from California
American women non-fiction writers
Women newspaper editors
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from A Woman of the Century

masks:
Rowena Granice Steele
Steele
Steele
Steele
Steele
Rowena
Rowena
Granice
Granice
Granice
Granice
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Granice
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Rowena
Granice
Steele
Rowena
Granice
Steele
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Granice
. Steele
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Granice
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Steele


title: Ivone Kirkpatrick

texts:
Sir <mask>,  (3 February 1897  – 25 May 1964) was a British diplomat who served as the British High Commissioner in Germany after World War II, and as the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, the highest-ranking civil servant in the Foreign Office. Early life and family

<mask> was born on 3 February 1897 in Wellington, India, the elder son of Colonel <mask> (1860–1936) of the South Staffordshire Regiment, and his wife, Mary Hardinge (d. 1931), daughter of General Sir Arthur Edward Hardinge, later Commander-in-Chief, Bombay Army, and Governor of Gibraltar. His father was a descendant of a Scottish family that settled in Ireland during the eighteenth century. His mother was former Maid of Honour to Queen Victoria, and her grandfather Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge, served in the cabinets of Wellington and Peel, and was later governor-general of India in 1844–1848. Her first cousin Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst was Permanent Under-Secretary of the Foreign Office in 1906–1910 and 1916–1920, and Viceroy of India in 1910–1916. Being a Roman Catholic, <mask> was sent to Downside School to be educated between 1907 and 1914. <mask> volunteered for active service on the outbreak of the First World War and was commissioned in November 1914 in the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers.Severely wounded in action against the Turks in August 1915, he was accepted by Balliol College, Oxford, in October, but chose to resume his war service early in 1916 when he was employed in propaganda and intelligence activities for the GHQ intelligence service Wallinger London. During the last year of the war he was stationed in Rotterdam in the Netherlands as replacement for Sigismund Payne Best. From there he worked as a spy master, running a network of Belgian resistance agents operating in German-occupied Belgium. Early career in the Foreign Office
He entered the diplomatic service in July 1919. He was firstly posted to Brazil for one year, returning to London in August 1920 to take up a post in the Western Department of the Foreign Office. He was promoted second secretary in December 1920 and first secretary in October 1928. On 10 January 1929 he married Violet Caulfield, daughter of Colonel Reginald James Cope Cottell, army surgeon, of 7 Phillimore Terrace, London; they had one son, <mask> Peter (1930–2013), and one daughter, Cecilia Sybil (1932–Unknown).<mask> was then posted to the British Embassy at Rome from 1930 to 1932; chargé d'affaires at the Vatican in 1932–33; and first secretary at the British Embassy at Berlin from 1933 to 1938. It was during this time that he got firsthand experience of dealing with the emerging European dictatorships. Second World War
During the Second World War <mask> was once again employed in the propaganda and information work which he had so relished twenty-five years earlier. Appointed Director of the Foreign Division of the Ministry of Information in April 1940, he became Controller of the European services of the BBC in October 1941. During this time, he made a major contribution which included the task of interviewing Hitler's deputy, Rudolf Hess, following Hess's flight to Scotland in May 1941. His report on Hess was shown only to the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, Lord Privy Seal Clement Attlee and Minister of Aircraft Production Lord Beaverbrook. In September 1944 <mask> was appointed to organize the British element of the Allied Control Commission for Germany, and following the end of the war he served at Supreme Allied Headquarters as British political adviser to U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower until that organization's disbandment.After the war, he became Permanent Under-Secretary for the German Section at the Foreign Office in 1949. British High Commissioner for Germany

In June 1950, <mask> was appointed by King George VI as British High Commissioner for Germany. As one of the three joint sovereigns of western Germany, <mask> carried immense responsibility particularly with respect to the negotiation of the Bonn conventions during 1951–52, which terminated the occupation regime and (in parallel) prepared the way for the rearmament of West Germany. In November 1953, <mask> was brought back to London to succeed Sir William Strang as Permanent Under-Secretary. Permanent Under-Secretary
Sir <mask> <mask> succeeded Sir William Strang as Permanent Under-Secretary (PUS) in 1953. In his memoirs, <mask> later recalled his thoughts on taking up his new position:

<mask> was related to a former PUS, his mother being first cousin to Charles Hardinge. He joined the Office in February 1919 after spending the previous three years in wartime intelligence and propaganda work, an activity to which he returned when in 1941 he became foreign adviser to the BBC.Serving as head of Chancery in Berlin during 1933–1938, he made clear his detestation of the Nazis. His views seem not, however, to have made any great impression on the British Ambassador, Sir Neville Henderson. After 1945 he was again very much involved with German affairs, serving for a year in the Office's Germany Section and then, during 1950–1953, as High Commissioner in Bonn. <mask> had a reputation as a combative, even aggressive, Irishman, who had little time for discussion. He was not, according to some of his former colleagues, the easiest of men to work with, and in Lord Gladwyn's opinion he would have made 'an excellent general'. Suez Crisis
<mask>'s difficult period as PUS culminated in the Suez Crisis of 1956, an event that was little referred to in his memoirs, The Inner Circle (London, 1959). Convinced that the nation's survival was dependent upon the exercise of great power responsibilities, he encouraged the Prime Minister, Anthony Eden, in his dangerous fixation with Nasser as a Middle Eastern Hitler.The experience of the 1930s had led both men to oppose any 'appeasement' of Nasser. <mask>'s closeness to Eden was reinforced by the Prime Minister's dissatisfaction with what he perceived as a pro-Arab stance held by his Foreign Office subordinates during the last Churchill administration. As a result, Eden increasingly used <mask> as an intermediary between himself and other senior officials in the Office. This close relationship took an ominous turn when the PUS found himself obliged to exclude the Foreign Office from the decision-making process during the final crisis. For <mask>, the Suez debacle was a test of Britain's great power status, leading him later to reflect that:

No country [in the Western world] can any longer pursue an independent foreign policy. The liberty of action of each is in varying degrees restricted by the need to obtain the concurrence of one or more members of the alliance. As Permanent Under-Secretary during the Suez Crisis <mask> was in favour of a strong line against Colonel Nasser.In a letter to the British Ambassador on 10 September 1956, <mask> said:

If we sit back while Nasser consolidates his position and gradually acquires control of the oil-bearing countries, he can and is, according to our information, resolved to wreck us. If Middle Eastern oil is denied to us for a year or two, our gold reserves will disappear. If our gold reserves disappear, the sterling area disintegrates. If the sterling area disintegrates and we have no reserves, we shall not be able to maintain a force in Germany, or indeed, anywhere else. I doubt whether we shall be able to pay for the bare minimum necessary for our defence. And a country that cannot provide for its defence is finished. Sir Evelyn Shuckburgh said of <mask>: "He was so sharp that he cut".However, Suez sullied <mask>'s reputation as PUS, though he may have been guilty of no more than fulfilling a civil servant's duty of loyalty to his political chiefs..

Retirement and death

After retiring from the Foreign Office in February 1957 <mask> served for five years as chairman of the Independent Television Authority. In addition to his memoirs he wrote Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue (published posthumously in 1964). He was appointed Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in 1939, Knight Commander (KCMG) in 1948, Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in 1951, Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in 1953, and Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) in 1956. He died at his home, Donacomper, Celbridge, co. Kildare, Ireland, on 25 May 1964. He was survived by his wife and two children. Notes

Publications
The Inner Circle: The Memoirs of <mask> <mask> (London: Macmillan, 1959). Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue (London: Odhams, 1964).External links

1897 births
1964 deaths
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to the Holy See
British Army personnel of World War I
Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers officers
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Members of HM Diplomatic Service
People from Celbridge
Permanent Under-Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
Spymasters
Foreign Office personnel of World War II

masks:
Ivone Augustine Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Ivone Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Ivone
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Ivone
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Kirkpatrick
Ivone
Kirkpatrick


title: C. H. Gonda

texts:
<mask> (22 June 1889 – 1 April 1969), professionally known as C. H<mask>, was a Hungarian architect famous for his ultra-modern style of building. He was active in Shanghai throughout the 1920s–1940s and began working on his first project, the Messrs, Lane, Crawford & Co's New Frontage building, in 1922 after leaving his previous firm Probst, Hanbury & Co.. Among his largest extant works are the Capitol Theatre (光陆大戏院), Sun Sun Department Store (新新公司), Cathay Theatre (国泰电影院), the Bank of East Asia (东亚银行) and the Bank of Communications (交通银行). Biography

Early life

C. H<mask> was born in Gyöngyös , Austro-Hungary as Károly Goldstein, the younger son in a family of the Jewish merchant <mask> and the housewife Róza Balkányi. In 1902, the Goldsteins changed their surname to <mask> to make it sound more Hungarian. Following the death of <mask>, the family moved to Vienna, where Károly finished his secondary education and his older brother Aurel started working as a doctor. In 1908, <mask> enrolled at the Technical College of Vienna's School of Architecture but dropped out during the summer semester of 1914.He made his way to Paris, where he likely received a diploma from the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and later apprenticed in London for about a year. When the First World War broke out, both Károly and Aurel were drafted. Károly served in the 309th regiment of the national guard infantry, for which in 1917 he was awarded a silver medal for valor, second class. He was captured by the Russians and assigned to a prisoner's war camp near Nikolsk-Ussuriysk. While in captivity, he met Evdokia, the daughter of the well-known architect N.V. Dmitriev, who had moved from Moscow to Vladivostok to escape the tumult of the Russian revolution. As <mask> spoke Hungarian, German, English, French, and Russian, Evdokia hired him as the language teacher for her two sons from the previous marriage, George and Vladimir. Károly and Evdokia married in January 1919, and Gonda adopted Evdokia's sons.Life in Shanghai

As Russia was getting entrenched in the civil war, the couple left the country and went to China, arriving in Shanghai on September 15, 1920; the children followed soon after. <mask> found employment at the Property and Estate Department of the British firm Probst, Hanbury & Co., and the family settled on Dixwell Road (now Liyang Lu 溧阳路). Having soon attained a promotion, <mask> relocated to the more central Ferry Road (now Xikang Lu 西康路), where they lived in an affluent colonial-style villa, with a private tennis court, driving a large green Packard and employing several servants. As he rose to be a renowned architect, <mask> revolved with the foreign elites, including Shanghai's top oligarch Victor Sassoon. The family also socialized with the Hungarians, Austrians, and Russians, many of whom were former prisoners of war. C. H<mask> had an architectural career that spanned 25 years. By some accounts, he designed more than forty buildings in Shanghai alone.He was an avid proponent of modernist style, having published a eulogy for it entitled "Modern and Ancient Forms in Local Architecture," writing under the pseudonym Adnog (his surname reversed), in which he expressed his animosity towards historicism: “As an engineer would refuse to design an airship in Gothic or Renaissance style, an architect should refuse to design a bank building or an apartment house in Renaissance of Gothic. […] The pulse of our time has to be heard, and from the chaos of indescribable horrors of bad taste slowly but surely the new style is awakening.”

<mask> was among the first practitioners of the modernist, or art deco, style in Shanghai: “A new architecture has been born out of our mechanical age, and rightly or wrongly termed ‘modernistic,’ is the logical outcome of the tremendous social changes in our lives, in our methods of construction and in our needs and tastes.”. Consistent with his commitment to technological progress, <mask> considered cinema the most important of contemporary entertainments and embraced its influence on modern architecture. Among the two dozen of his buildings in China that have been identified to this day, more than half are movie theaters. <mask> was also a proficient oil painter; his paintings were frequently exhibited at Shanghai art shows, and he sat on the selection committees. <mask> was an active member of the Shanghai Jewish community and participated in its fund-raising campaigns, as well as in Russian charity events. In 1938, the architect's brother, Dr. Aurel <mask>, and his family escaped the fascist Vienna and joined C. H. <mask> in Shanghai.After the Communist victory in China in 1949, the brothers and their families left for the US and settled in Lakewood, New Jersey. Having retired from architecture, C. H<mask> focused on landscape painting. He died in 1969, one year after his wife. Architectural career

The 1920s
In the early months of 1922, the architectural studio of C. H. <mask> (Chinese name 鸿达) opened at 4 Ezra Road (now Xinkang Lu 新康路). Initially, it only employed one Russian assistant architect, N. N. Emanoff, and one Chinese agent, L. C. Mow, but as the practice grew, it employed other architects, engineers, interior designers, and draftsmen, mostly from among the Eastern European and the Russian communities, as well as local Chinese specialists. A business listing of C. H. <mask>'s firm in July 1926 lists 11 persons on the staff, including a representative in Tianjin. Specializing primarily in commercial buildings, Gonda's studio won numerous design competitions and received major commissions in Shanghai, Hangzhou, Yantai, Tianjin, and Beijing.His first known project was the rebuilding and the modernization of the Lane, Crawford & Co. store on Shanghai's main shopping promenade, Nanking Road, which was built without interrupting the store's operation and finished in December 1922. The show windows, believed to be the largest in the Far East, spanned 48 feet and installation of extra large glass required some ingenuous engineering and the use of sturdy concrete pillars sunk into the soil. In summer 1923, <mask> designed and supervised the construction of the China and the South Sea Bank (中南银行). He commuted to Amoy (now Xiamen) several times and in 1923 was elected honorary architect to the Amoy University. <mask>'s next project was the design of the Sun Sun Department Store (新新百货公司) for the local businessmen S. K. Lau, situated on Nanking Road. The construction began in early 1924, and the building, which cost 4,000,000 taels, was inaugurated in January 1926. The seven-story department store, hotel and amusement centre was topped with a tower, bringing the total height to 55 meters (180 feet).The press called Sun Sun Co. “spacious, commodious and different department store […] constructed on the most modern lines, [with] plenty of windows and good indirect lighting, comfortable lifts and adequate display counters.”

In April 1925, the construction work started on the six-story Bank of East Asia (东亚银行), on the corner of Jiujiang and Middle Sichuan Roads. When the building was inaugurated in February 1926, it was called <mask>'s “triumph in a style of architecture new to Shanghai.” The building boasted innovative structural decisions, such as the banking hall without a single column. This project emphatically put forward the modernist aesthetic, still novel at that time, which would become <mask>'s signature. In 1927, <mask>'s other project rose in the downtown – the Shahmoon Building, at 21 Museum Road (today's Huqiu Lu 虎丘路), the property of S. E. Shahmoon & Co. Its architectural design was praised for its originality, simplicity and restrained ornamentation. The curved facade featured three horizontal divisions topped by a classic stepped-back art deco pinnacle – a recurring element in <mask>'s buildings. The Shahmoon Building housed the Capitol Theatre at the bottom and offices of major film studios on the five floors above. The 1000-seat Capitol Theatre was Shanghai's first air-conditioned movie house, and the first to feature a pillar-less design, for unobstructed sight lines.The foyer was richly decorated with frescoes – the work of the Russian artist Victor Podgoursky – and twenty allegorical sculptures representing various arts, created by the Hungarian George Koppany. Concealed lighting fixtures and ornamental copper grills lent the space its theatrical and elevated atmosphere. In February 1928, C. H<mask> relocated his practice to the Shahmoon Building and announced a partnership with the German architect Emil Busch, under the name Gonda & Busch (Chinese name 鸿宝). The new studio produced the design of the Grand Theatre (大光明电影院), on Bubbling Well Road opposite the Racecourse, which opened in December 1928. The movie house, constructed in the old Carlton Ballroom building, was called “the most luxurious in the Far East.” Besides a 1200-seat auditorium, it had two tearooms decorated in jazz patterns. Gonda & Busch were said to have

masks:
Charles Henry Gonda
. Gonda
. Gonda
Henrik Goldstein
Gonda
Henrik
Károly Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
. Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
. Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
. Gonda


title: C. H. Gonda

texts:
 “achieved a noteworthy effect in combining the beautiful old circular staircases, spacious lounges, and rotunda with the most advanced ideas in theatrical design.” The walls and staircases were treated with filigree flat-oil stain in old gold – the first use of this technique in China – executed by the studio of the Russian artist Jacob Lehonos. Melchers Godown was among other projects of Gonda & Busch, which was the construction of the 50,000 square-foot 5-story warehouse, owned by the German A. Widmann, which opened in May 1929 on East Broadway (now Dongdaming Lu 东大名路).At the end of the year, the Gonda & Busch partnership dissolved. In December 1929, C. H<mask> publicized his design of the 16-story Grand Hotel, to stand next to the Grand Theatre facing the Racecourse. The 560-room hotel was appointed to the top floors, while the lower floors provided ten lounges, ballrooms, and concert rooms. Later announcements anticipated the start of the construction for autumn 1930 and increased the projected height of the building to 21 floors. The construction, intended for the Grand Realty Co., was estimated at 900,000 taels, later reevaluated to 2,500,000 taels. Another project for the Grand Realty was publicized simultaneously, estimated to cost 200,000 taels. This was a four-story office building at the corner of Burkill and Park Roads, designated to host legal and medical professionals.Neither of these projects was realized. Another unrealized 1929 project was a 7-story apartment house on the corner of Rue Lafayette and Route Pichon, in the French Concession. The building was to contain 28 apartments, garages, and a roof garden; the cost of the construction was estimated at 200,000 taels. The 1930s
The next decade saw the realization of multiple designs by C. H<mask>. In August 1930, he took charge of the reconstruction of the Whiteaway, Laidlaw & Co. department store on Nanking Road. The work intended to increase the amount of natural light and ventilation by adding steel casement windows and to visually update the façade by removing excess ornamentation. When the building was still in scaffolding, in November 1930, a fire gutted the two top floors and erased much of the recently finished interiors.In September 1930, the Shanghai Jewish School opened on Seymour Road (now Shaanxi Bei Lu 陕西北路), next to the Ohel Rachel Synagogue. The utilitarian two-story building with a capacity for 250 students was constructed at a low cost of 200,000 taels, financed largely by the donation of the deceased entrepreneur S. Perry. The building contained an auditorium and a school canteen and was modeled after the recently built schools in Holland and the USA. Its construction, devoid of “superfluous and meaningless ornaments,” prioritized the access of maximum daylight and air into the classrooms. Luna Park, the open-air amusement centre in the port district of Yangtszepoo, constructed after C. H<mask>'s designs, opened in July 1931, in time for the first citywide beauty pageant Miss Shanghai. The architect called Luna Park an “outstanding piece of outdoor construction and architectural work in Shanghai today.” That year <mask> also designed the interior of the Russian-owned restaurant Valencia, in the Hall & Holtz building on Sichuan Road. Commissioned by the China Theatres Ltd., the Cathay Theatre (国泰电影院), on Avenue Joffre, opened on the first day of 1932, to become yet another triumph for its architect.A reinforced concrete corner structure clad in red brick was called “extra-super-modernistic,” while the “sumptuous interior” struck a viewer “dumb with excitement,” although some journalists called it “bizarrely decorated.” The interior walls were painted bronze, orange, and gold, with opaque glass lampshades providing illumination. For the 1,080-seat auditorium, <mask> designed a special chair, with added attention to “slope, height, comfort and appearance.” Cathay Theatre introduced a number of innovations, such as the rooftop projector, to screen films al fresco. In November 1932, after two years of construction, the 2000-seat Ritz Theatre (融光大戏院) opened in Hongkou district, becoming the largest movie house in Shanghai. The façade with “severe constructional lines” was “naturally devoid of any superfluous ornamentation,” reserving ample space for billboards. The reinforced concrete single-story building had a large elliptical foyer with a domed ceiling on the ground floor, while the 2,000-seat auditorium was situated underground. In 1934, <mask> publicized the plans for the Cosmopolitan Theatre on the border of the French Concession and the Chinese City. The six-story building was free not only from all the ornament but also “from the faults of false modernism such as is often seen.” The movie house on the ground floor accommodated 1,100 seats, and there were two floors of offices and three floors of apartments above it.The entrance was sheltered by a canopy, used for lighting and for advertising; three illuminated columns above it supported allegorical figures carrying globes of floodlight. The wide proscenium arch extended over the entire front of the auditorium; the stage could be used for theatrical performances as well as for movie screenings. <mask>'s expertise in the construction of movie theatres and hotels ensured him commissions in other cities in China. Late in 1934, <mask> designed the 800-seat Capitol Theatre in Beijing (then called Peiping) and the 900-seat Victoria Theatre in Tianjin's British Concession. The latter building was sited on a corner lot and combined a vertical stepped structure in the centre with horizontally banded wings. The canopy over the entrance functioned as a lighting feature, and the interior was lit with concealed lamps. The Capitol Theatre in Chefoo was also credited to C. H<mask>.Early in 1936, the Grand Hotel (大华饭店) opened in Hangzhou, built for the local magnate W. S. Tung on a site of a private villa on Wuping Road. The four-story building, overlooking the famous West Lake, contained 30 bedrooms, each with a bathroom and a deep-set concrete balcony. Back in Shanghai, <mask> helped his cousin, the entertainer Joe Farren, design a nightclub at the western end of the International Settlement, which opened in December 1937. The conversion of the garden residence into a ballroom and amusement centre involved “structural alterations of a very complicated nature.” <mask> incorporated his usual indirect lighting scheme, minimalist lines, spring dance floor, and built-in air conditioning. In 1938, <mask> supervised the conversion of an indoor shopping arcade in the Bubbling Well Apartments into the 500-seat Uptown Theatre (平安电影院), owned by the Asia Theatres Inc. In June 1939, the 800-seat Doumer Theatre (杜美大戏院) opened on Route Doumer, converted from the old St. George's cabaret; the owners were Karl Gumpert and <mask>. The minimalist interior design was done in contrasting colors and had concealed lightning fixtures.In December that year, the Roxy Theatre (大华大戏院) opened on Bubbling Well Road, owned by the Far Eastern Theatres, Inc., reconstructed from the Embassy Theatre, which used to be at this address. Retaining the original foundations and bearing walls, <mask> completely redesigned the building, adhering to “simplicity and grandeur instead of indulging in detailed finesse.”

The 1940s
In 1941, <mask> designed the residential compound Hardoon Villas (哈同别墅) for the China Star Land Investment Co, composed of 88 three-story buildings, at 910 Weihaiwei Road (now Weihai Lu 威海路). The same year saw the construction of the Queen's Theater (皇后大戏院) on Yu Ya Ching Road (now Xizang Zhong Lu 西藏中路), for the Queen's Theatres Inc, which opened in February 1942. The theatre cost 3,000,000 taels to build and had 1,450 seats, which were unusually wide and arranged on a double incline. The architect departed from the usual ceiling design in theaters by bringing down the ceiling to the proscenium in gradual steps, to enhance the acoustics. In 1942, the 950-seat Royal Theater (上海大戏院) was built in the French Concession, on Rue Lafayette (now Fuxing Zhong Lu 复兴中路), for the Société Française des Cinemas. The decor of the lobby was in rough-texture, multi-colored plaster, illuminated by decorative light fixtures, while the auditorium had concealed fluorescent light tubes.<mask>'s final large project in Shanghai was the Bank of Communications (交通银行) on the Bund, designed a decade earlier, but delayed because of the Japanese occupation. The building was finished in 1948, with the assistance of the Chinese firm Allied Architects. The bank's architecture demonstrates the characteristic central axial symmetry, stepped silhouette, and minimal ornamentation of the late art deco style. Famous works

References

Cited texts
 Gonda : Shanghai's Ultramodern Hungarian Architect / Szentmartoni Livia, Krizsan Andras. — Budapest : Felelos kiad, 2019. — 90 p. — . 1889 births
1969 deaths
Hungarian architects
People from Lakewood Township, New Jersey
Hungarian

masks:
. Gonda
. Gonda
. Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
. Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda
Heinz Cohn
Gonda
Gonda
Gonda


title: Tony Pua

texts:
<mask>e (; born 1 August 1972) is a Malaysian politician from the Democratic Action Party (DAP) currently serving as three-term Member of Parliament (MP) of Malaysia representing Damansara and Political Secretary to the Minister of Finance of Malaysia, Lim Guan Eng. <mask> is the former Malaysian CEO of Cyber Village Sdn Bhd, a SESDAQ (SGX second board)-listed company. In early 2007, he disposed of all his interests in the company and tendered his resignation to join the DAP in 2008. <mask> graduated from Keble College, Oxford with a degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics under a scholarship from the MTC Foundation in 1994. Before that, he received Asean and Shaw Foundation scholarships to pursue his O- and A-Levels in Raffles Institution and Raffles Junior College, in Singapore. In the 2008 Malaysian general election, <mask> won the parliamentary constituency of Petaling Jaya Utara on a DAP ticket. He ran against the incumbent, Chew Mei Fun, then Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development, and Deputy Women Chief of the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA).In 2009, <mask> was appointed the DAP member of the Pakatan Rakyat (PR) committee. <mask> retained his parliamentary seat in 2018 general election with a majority of 106,903, the largest majority in Malaysian history. Education
<mask> attended a secondary school in Singapore on an ASEAN scholarship from the Singaporean government. He attended Raffles Institution and Raffles Junior College. He then went to Oxford University, England, where he studied philosophy, politics and economics at Keble College on an MTC Foundation scholarship. Early career
After graduating from Oxford University, <mask> worked for Andersen Consulting (now Accenture) as a consultant. In March 1997, he started Cyber Village, an e-business consultancy.<mask> and three friends opened an office in Kuala Lumpur with four staff. Member of Parliament
On 9 November 2008, <mask> was arrested during a candlelight vigil in Petaling Jaya to commemorate the first anniversary of the Bersih street demonstration. <mask> was released on police bail on the morning of 10 November 2008 and was later charged for illegal assembly. On 10 August 2010, <mask> received a live 5.56mm bullet along with a threatening note that were mailed to his constituency service centre. <mask> stated that the threat may have been related to his proposal to the Selangor government to cut Bumiputera discounts for homes and commercial property priced above RM 500,000 in the state. Defamation lawsuit
On 28 January 2011, Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor (SYABAS) filed a lawsuit against <mask> claiming he had permitted Nanyang Siang Pau's Metro edition to publish words defamatory of it. The article quoted him saying the Selangor state government should take over the rights of management of water supply in the state if water concessionaires could not settle their debts.Syabas claimed the report had brought  the company into public scandal and its image had been tarnished. The lawsuit sought an injunction to prevent Pua or his agents from publishing defamatory words against the company, and general damages and cost. Pua argued that Syabas, as a public authority performing a public service, had no locus standi in making a defamation claim. He also said he had a legal, moral and social duty as an MP and a member of the Selangor government Water Review Panel to publish those words and that the public had a right to know. Pua also filed a counter-suit claiming Syabas' suit was frivolous, vexatious and amounted to an abuse of the court process, which resulted in him suffering losses and unnecessary harassment and expenses. On 6 June 2012, the Malaysian High Court found that SYABAS had proven its case against Pua and ordered him to pay RM200,000 in damages to SYABAS and awarded SYABAS interest at the rate of 4% per annum from the date of judgment till full payment and also costs. Justice Amelia Tee Hong Geok Abdullah also struck out Pua's counter-claim application and granted SYABAS an injunction to restrain Pua and his agents from further publishing or giving permission to be published "similar defamatory words" against SYABAS.<mask> later stated on his blog that he maintains "that the above statement is not defamatory, and will instruct my lawyers to file an appeal in the Court of Appeal". On 7 July 2012, <mask> posted on his blog that although an appeal was underway, he was required to pay the amount of RM200,000 to SYABAS by 16 July 2012. DAP Malaysia subsequently initiated a mass fundraising campaign titled "RM1 for Water Rights: 100,000 Malaysians Support <mask> vs Syabas" calling for 100,000 Malaysians to donate RM1 each to help <mask> pay for the damages to SYABAS. He subsequently won the Court of Appeal case. SYABAS appealed the decision to the Federal Court of Malaysia. In the 2015 Federal Court case ([2015] 6 MLJ 187), <mask> won the appeal based on the Lucas-Box principle by providing his own reasonable meaning to the impugned words. Publications
The Tiger that Lost its Roar, a tale of Malaysia's political economy.Election results

Policies

In 2012, <mask> suggested that the Bumiputera discount for housing and real estate must be abolished for houses above RM500,000. He disagreed with giving discounts on expensive houses such as those priced at or above RM 1 million. In one of his statements,  <mask> said the government should reduce the number of civil servants. His idea was rejected by PKR leader Anwar Ibrahim as impractical. <mask> said he wants to make the government sector become more efficient and less costly. <mask> was invited by the organizers of the recent startup acceleration program held at Dewan Sivik. See also
 Damansara (federal constituency)

References

External links

 EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA, an education-oriented blog written by <mask> and Kian Ming Ong.1972 births
Raffles Institution alumni
Raffles Junior College alumni
Democratic Action Party (Malaysia) politicians
Living people
Malaysian businesspeople
Malaysian people
People from Batu Pahat
People from Johor
21st-century Malaysian politicians
Malaysian politicians of Chinese descent
Members of the Dewan Rakyat
Alumni of Keble College, Oxford
Malaysian people of Teochew descent

masks:
Tony Pua Kiam We
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Tony Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Pua
Tony Pua


title: Theodosius I

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<mask> ( ; 11 January 347 –  17 January 395), also called <mask> the Great, was Roman emperor from 379 to 395. During his reign, he succeeded in a crucial war against the Goths, as well as in two civil wars, and was instrumental in establishing the creed of Nicaea as the orthodoxy for Christianity. <mask> was the last emperor to rule the entire Roman Empire before its administration was permanently split between two separate courts (one western, the other eastern). Born in Hispania, Theodosius was the son of a high-ranking general under whose guidance he rose through the ranks of the Roman Army. Theodosius held independent command in Moesia in 374, where he had some success against the invading Sarmatians. Not long afterwards, he was forced into retirement, and his father was executed under obscure circumstances. Theodosius soon regained his position following a series of intrigues and executions at the emperor Gratian's court.In 379, after the eastern Roman emperor Valens perished at the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths, Gratian appointed <mask> as a successor with orders to take charge of the current military emergency. The new emperor's resources, and depleted armies, were not sufficient to drive the invaders out; in 382 the Goths were allowed to settle south of the Danube as autonomous allies of the Empire. In 386, <mask> signed a treaty with the Sasanian Empire which partitioned the long-disputed Kingdom of Armenia and secured a durable peace between the two powers. <mask> was a strong adherent of the Christian doctrine of consubstantiality and an opponent of Arianism. He convened a council of bishops at Constantinople in 381 which confirmed the former as orthodoxy and the latter as a heresy. Although Theodosius interfered little in the functioning of traditional pagan cults and appointed non-Christians to high offices, he failed to prevent or punish the damaging of several Hellenistic temples of classical antiquity, such as the Serapeum of Alexandria, by Christian zealots. During his earlier reign, Theodosius ruled the eastern provinces, while the west was overseen by the emperors Gratian and Valentinian II, whose sister he married.Theodosius sponsored several measures to improve his capital and main residence, Constantinople, most notably his expansion of the Forum Tauri, which became the biggest public square known in antiquity. <mask> marched west twice, in 388 and 394, after both Gratian and Valentinian had been killed, to defeat the two pretenders, Magnus Maximus and Eugenius, that rose to replace them. <mask>'s final victory in September 394 made him master of the Empire; he died a few months later and was succeeded by his two sons, Arcadius in the eastern half of the empire and Honorius in the west. <mask> was said to have been a diligent administrator, austere in his habits, merciful, and a devout Christian. For centuries after his death, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. Modern scholars tend to see this as an interpretation of history by Christian writers more than an accurate representation of actual history. He is fairly credited with presiding over a revival in classical art that some historians have termed a "Theodosian renaissance".Although his pacification of the Goths secured peace for the Empire during his lifetime, their status as an autonomous entity within Roman borders caused problems for succeeding emperors. Theodosius has also received criticism for defending his own dynastic interests at the cost of two civil wars. His two sons proved weak and incapable rulers, and they presided over a period of foreign invasions and court intrigues which heavily weakened the Empire. The descendants of Theodosius ruled the Roman world for the next six decades, and the east–west division endured until the fall of the Western Empire in the late 5th century. Background
Flavius <mask> was born in Hispania on 11 January, probably in the year 347. His father, also called <mask>, was a successful and high-ranking general (magister equitum) under the western Roman emperor Valentinian I, and his mother was called Thermantia. The family appear to have been minor landed aristocrats in Hispania, although it is not clear if this social status went back several generations or if <mask> the Elder was simply awarded land there for his military service.Their roots to Hispania were nevertheless probably long-standing, since various relatives of the future emperor <mask> are likewise attested as Spanish, and <mask> himself was ubiquitously associated in the ancient literary sources and panegyrics with the image of fellow Spanish-born emperor Trajan – though he never again visited the peninsula after becoming emperor. Very little is recorded of the upbringing of Theodosius. The 5th-century author Theodoret claimed the future emperor grew up and was educated in his Spanish homeland, but his testimony is unreliable. One modern historian instead thinks Theodosius must have grown up among the army, participating in his father's campaigns throughout the provinces, as was customary at the time for families with a tradition of military service. One source says he received a decent education and developed a particular interest in history, which Theodosius then valued as a guide to his own conduct throughout life. Career

Theodosius is first attested accompanying his father to Britain on his expedition in 368–369 to suppress the "Great Conspiracy", a concerted Celtic and Germanic invasion of the island provinces. After probably serving in his father's staff on further campaigns, Theodosius received his first independent command by 374 when he was appointed the dux (commanding officer) of the province of Moesia Prima in the Danube.In the autumn of 374, he successfully repulsed an incursion of Sarmatians on his sector of the frontier and forced them into submission. Not long afterwards, however, under mysterious circumstances, <mask>'s father suddenly fell from imperial favor and was executed, and the future emperor felt compelled to retire to his estates in Hispania. Although these events are poorly documented, historians usually attribute this fall from grace to the machinations of a court faction led by Maximinus, a senior civilian official. According to another theory, the future emperor <mask> lost his father, his military post, or both, in the purges of high officials that resulted from the accession of the 4-year-old emperor Valentinian II in November 375. <mask>'s period away from service in Hispania, during which he was said to have received threats from those responsible for his father's death, did not last long, however, as Maximinus, the probable culprit, was himself removed from power around April 376 and then executed. The emperor Gratian immediately began replacing Maximinus and his associates with relatives of Theodosius in key government positions, indicating the family's full rehabilitation, and by 377 <mask> himself had regained his command against the Sarmatians. Theodosius's renewed term of office seems to have gone uneventfully, until news arrived that the eastern Roman emperor, Valens, had been killed at the Battle of Adrianople in August 378 against invading Goths.The disastrous defeat left much of Rome's military leadership dead, discredited, or barbarian in origin, to the result that <mask>, notwithstanding his own modest record, became the establishment's choice to replace Valens and assume control of the crisis. With the begrudging consent of the western emperor Gratian, Theodosius was formally invested with the purple by a council of officials at Sirmium on 19 January 379. Reign

War against the Goths (379–382)
The immediate problem facing <mask> upon his accession was how to check the bands of Goths that were laying waste to the Balkans, with an army that had been severely depleted of manpower following the debacle at Adrianople. The western emperor Gratian, who seems to have provided only little immediate assistance, surrendered to Theodosius control of the prefecture of Illyricum for the duration of the conflict, giving his new colleague full charge the war effort. Theodosius implemented stern and desperate recruiting measures, resorting to the conscription of farmers and miners. Punishments were instituted for harboring deserters and furnishing unfit recruits, and even self-mutilation did not exempt men from service. Theodosius also admitted large numbers of non-Roman auxiliaries into the army, even Gothic deserters from beyond the Danube.Some of these foreign recruits were exchanged with more reliable Roman garrison troops stationed in Egypt. Throughout the second half of 379, Theodosius and his generals, based at Thessalonica, won some minor victories over individual bands of raiders, but suffered at least one serious defeat in 380, which was blamed on the treachery of the new barbarian recruits. During the autumn of 380, a life-threatening illness, from which Theodosius recovered, prompted him to request baptism. Some obscure victories were recorded in official sources around this time, however, and, in November 380, the military situation was found to be sufficiently stable for Theodosius to move his court to Constantinople. There, the emperor enjoyed a propaganda victory when, in January 381, he received the visit and submission of a minor Gothic leader, Athanaric. By this point, however, Theodosius seems to have no longer believed that the Goths could be completely ejected from Roman territory. After Athanaric died that very same month, the emperor gave him a funeral with full honors, impressing his entourage and signaling to the enemy that the Empire was disposed to negotiate terms.During the campaigning season of 381, reinforcements from Gratian drove the Goths out of Macedonia and Thessaly into Thrace, while, in the latter sector, <mask> or one of his generals repulsed an incursion by a group of Sciri and Huns across the Danube. Following negotiations which likely lasted at least several months, the Romans and Goths finally concluded a settlement on 3 October 382. In return for military service to Rome, the Goths were allowed to settle some tracts of Roman land south of the Danube. The terms were unusually favorable to the Goths, reflecting the fact that they were entrenched in Roman territory and had not been driven out. Namely, instead of fully submitting to Roman authority, they were allowed to remain autonomous under their own leaders, and thus remaining a strong, unified body. The Goths now settled within the Empire would largely fight for the Romans as a national contingent, as opposed to being fully integrated into the Roman forces. 383–384
According to the Chronicon Paschale, Theodosius celebrated his quinquennalia on 19 January 383 at Constantinople; on this occasion he raised his eldest son Arcadius to co-emperor (augustus).Sometime in 383, Gratian's wife Constantia died. Gratian remarried, wedding Laeta, whose father was a consularis of Roman Syria. Early 383 saw the acclamation of Magnus Maximus as emperor in Britain and the appointment of Themistius as praefectus urbi in Constantinople. On the 25 August 383, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Gratian was killed at Lugdunum (Lyon) by Andragathius, the magister equitum of the rebel emperor during the rebellion of Magnus Maximus . Constantia's body arrived in Constantinople on 12 September that year and was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles on 1 December. Gratian was deified as . <mask>, unable to do much about Maximus due to ongoing military inadequacy, opened negotiations with the Persian emperor Shapur <mask> () of the Sasanian Empire.According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Theodosius received in Constantinople an embassy from them in 384. In an attempt to curb Maximus's ambitions, Theodosius appointed Flavius Neoterius as praetorian prefect of Italy. In the summer of 384, Theodosius met his co-emperor Valentinian II in northern Italy. Theodosius brokered a peace agreement between Valentinian and Magnus Maximus which endured for several years. <mask> I was based in Constantinople, and according to Peter Heather, wanted, "for his own dynastic reasons (for his two sons each eventually to inherit half of the empire), refused to appoint a recognized counterpart in the west. As a result he was faced with rumbling discontent there, as well as dangerous usurpers, who found plentiful support among the bureaucrats and military officers who felt they were not getting a fair share of the imperial cake." Middle reign: 384–387
Theodosius's second son Honorius was born on 9 December 384 and titled nobilissimus puer (or nobilissimus iuvenis).The death of Aelia Flaccilla, <mask>'s first wife and the mother of Arcadius, Honorius, and Pulcheria, occurred by 386. She died at Scotumis in Thrace and was buried at Constantinople, her funeral oration delivered by Gregory of Nyssa. A statue of her was dedicated in the Byzantine Senate. In 384 or 385, <mask>'s niece Serena was married to the magister militum, Stilicho. In the beginning of 386, <mask>'s daughter Pulcheria also died. That summer, more Goths were defeated, and many were settled in Phrygia. According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, a Roman triumph over the Gothic Greuthungi was then celebrated at Constantinople.The same year, work began on the great triumphal column in the Forum of Theodosius in Constantinople, the Column of Theodosius. The Consularia Constantinopolitana records that on 19 January 387, Arcadius celebrated his quinquennalia in Constantinople. By the end of the month, there was an uprising or riot in Antioch (modern Antakya). The Roman–Persian Wars concluded with the signing of the Peace of Acilisene with Persia. By the terms of the agreement, the ancient Kingdom of Armenia was divided between the powers. By the end of the 380s, Theodosius and the court were in Milan and northern Italy had settled down to a period of prosperity. Peter Brown says gold was being made in Milan by those who owned land as well as by those who came with the court for government service.Great landowners took advantage of the court's need for food, "turning agrarian produce into gold", while repressing and misusing the poor who grew it and brought it in. According to Brown, modern scholars link the decline of the Roman empire to the avarice of the rich of this era. He quotes Paulinus of Milan as describing these men as creating a court where "everything was up for sale". In the late 380s, Ambrose, the bishop of Milan took the lead in opposing this, presenting the need for the rich to care for the poor as "a necessary consequence of the unity of all Christians". This led to a major development in the political culture of the day called the “advocacy revolution of the later Roman empire". This revolution had been fostered by the imperial government, and it encouraged appeals and denunciations of bad government from below. However, Brown adds that, "in the crucial area of taxation and the treatment of fiscal debtors, the late Roman state [of the 380s and 390s] remained impervious to Christianity".Civil war: 387–388
The peace with Magnus Maximus was broken in 387, and Valentinian escaped to the east with Justina, reaching Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) in summer or autumn 387 and appealing to <mask> for aid; Valentinian II's sister Galla was then married to the eastern emperor at Thessalonica in late autumn. <mask> may still have been in Thessalonica when he celebrated his

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title: Theodosius I

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 decennalia on 19 January 388. <mask> was consul for the second time in 388. Galla and <mask>'s first child, a son named Gratian, was born in 388 or 389. In summer 388, <mask> recovered Italy from Magnus Maximus for Valentinian, and in June, the meeting of Christians deemed heretics was banned by Valentinian. The armies of <mask> and Maximus fought at the Battle of Poetovio in 388, which saw Maximus defeated. On 28 August 388 Maximus was executed.Now the de facto ruler of the Western empire as well, <mask> celebrated his victory in Rome on June 13, 389 and stayed in Milan until 391, installing his own loyalists in senior positions including the new magister militum of the West, the Frankish general Arbogast. According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Arbogast killed Flavius Victor (), Magnus Maximus's young son and co-emperor, in Gaul in August/September that year. Damnatio memoriae was pronounced against them, and inscriptions naming them were erased. Massacre and its aftermath: 388–391

The Massacre of Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) in Greece was a massacre of local civilians by Roman troops. The best estimate of the date is April of 390. The massacre was most likely a response to an urban riot that led to the murder of a Roman official. What most scholars, such as philosopher Stanislav Doleźal, see as the most reliable of the sources is the Historia ecclesiastica written by Sozomen about 442; in it Sozomen supplies the identity of the murdered Roman official as Butheric, the commanding general of the field army in Illyricum (magister militum per Illyricum).According to Sozomen, a popular charioteer tried to rape a cup-bearer, (or possibly Butheric himself), and in response, Butheric arrested and jailed the charioteer. The populace demanded the chariot racer's release, and when Butheric refused, a general revolt rose up costing Butheric his life. Doležal says the name "Butheric" indicates he might have been a Goth, and that the general's ethnicity "could have been" a factor in the riot, but none of the early sources actually say so. Sources
There are no contemporaneous accounts. Church historians Sozomen, Theodoret the bishop of Cyrrhus, Socrates of Constantinople and Rufinus wrote the earliest accounts during the fifth century. These are moral accounts emphasizing imperial piety and ecclesial action rather than historical and political details. Further difficulty is created by these events moving into legend in art and literature almost immediately.Doležal explains that yet another problem is created by aspects of these accounts contradicting one another to the point of being mutually exclusive. Nonetheless, most classicists accept at least the basic account of the massacre, although they continue to dispute when it happened, who was responsible for it, what motivated it, and what impact it had on subsequent events. <mask>' role

Theodosius was not in Thessalonica when the massacre occurred. The court was in Milan. Several scholars, such as historian G. W. Bowersock and authors Stephen Williams and Gerard Friell, think that Theodosius ordered the massacre in an excess of "volcanic anger". McLynn also puts all the blame on the Emperor as does the less dependable fifth century historian, Theodoret. Other scholars, such as historians Mark Hebblewhite and N. Q.King, do not agree. Peter Brown, points to the empire's established process of decision making, which required the emperor "to listen to his ministers" before acting. There is some indication in the sources Theodosius did listen to his counselors but received bad or misleading advice. J. F. Matthews argues that the Emperor first tried to punish the city by selective executions. Peter Brown concurs: "As it was, what was probably planned as a selective killing ... got out of hand". Doleźal says Sozomen is very specific in saying that in response to the riot, the soldiers made random arrests in the hippodrome to perform a few public executions as a demonstration of imperial disfavor, but the citizenry objected. Doleźal suggests, "The soldiers, realizing that they were surrounded by angry citizens, perhaps panicked ... and ...forcibly cleared the hippodrome at the cost of several thousands of lives of local inhabitants".McLynn says Theodosius was “unable to impose discipline upon the faraway troops" and covered that failure by taking responsibility for the massacre on himself, declaring he had given the order then countermanded it too late to stop it. Ambrose, the bishop of Milan and one of Theodosius' many counselors, was away from court. After being informed of events concerning Thessalonica, he wrote <mask> a letter offering what McLynn calls a different way for the emperor to "save face" and restore his public image. Ambrose urges a semi-public demonstration of penitence, telling the emperor he  will not give Theodosius communion until this is done. Wolf Liebeschuetz says "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly admitted him to communion". Washburn says the image of the mitered prelate braced in the door of the cathedral in Milan blocking Theodosius from entering is a product of the imagination of Theodoret who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record". Peter Brown also says there was no dramatic encounter at the church door.McLynn states that "the encounter at the church door has long been known as a pious fiction". Wolfe Liebeschuetz says Ambrose advocated a course of action which avoided the kind of public humiliation Theodoret describes, and that is the course Theodosius chose. Aftermath
According to the early twentieth century historian Henry Smith Williams, history's assessment of <mask>' character has been stained by the massacre of Thessalonica for centuries. Williams describes <mask> as a virtuous-minded, courageous man, who was vigorous in pursuit of any important goal, but through contrasting the "inhuman massacre of the people of Thessalonica" with "the generous pardon of the citizens of Antioch" after civil war, Williams also concludes Theodosius was "hasty and choleric". It is only modern scholarship that has begun disputing Theodosius' responsibility for those events. From the time Edward Gibbon wrote his Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire, Ambrose' action after the fact has been cited as an example of the church's dominance over the state in Antiquity. Alan Cameron says "the assumption is so widespread it would be superfluous to cite authorities.But there is not a shred of evidence for Ambrose exerting any such influence over <mask>". Brown says Ambrose was just one among many advisors, and Cameron says there is no evidence Theodosius favored him above anyone else. By the time of the Thessalonican affair, Ambrose, an aristocrat and former governor, had been a bishop for 16 years, and during his episcopate, had seen the death of three emperors before Theodosius. These produced significant political storms, yet Ambrose held his place using what McLynn calls his "considerable qualities [and] considerable luck" to survive. <mask> was in his 40s, had been emperor for 11 years, had temporarily settled the Gothic wars, and won a civil war. As a Latin speaking Nicene western leader of the Greek largely Arian East, Boniface Ramsey says he had already left an indelible mark on history. McLynn asserts that the relationship between <mask> and Ambrose transformed into myth within a generation of their deaths.He also observes that the documents revealing the relationship between these two formidable men do not show the personal friendship the legends portray. Instead, those documents read more as negotiations between the institutions the men represent: the Roman state and the Italian Church. Second civil war: 392–394
In 391, <mask> left his trusted general Arbogast, who had served in the Balkans after Adrianople, to be magister militum for the Western emperor Valentinian II, while <mask> attempted to rule the entire empire from Constantinople. On 15 May 392, Valentinian II died at Vienna in Gaul (Vienne), either by suicide or as part of a plot by Arbogast. Valentinian had quarrelled publicly with Arbogast, and was found hanged in his room. Arbogast announced that this had been a suicide. Stephen Williams asserts that Valentinian's death left Arbogast in "an untenable position".He had to carry on governing without the ability to issue edicts and rescripts from a legitimate acclaimed emperor. Arbogast was unable to assume the role of emperor himself because of his non-Roman background. Instead, on 22 August 392, Arbogast had Valentinian's master of correspondence, Eugenius, proclaimed emperor in the West at Lugdunum. At least two embassies went to Theodosius to explain events, one of them Christian in make-up, but they received ambivalent replies, and were sent home without achieving their goals. Theodosius raised his second son Honorius to emperor on 23 January 393, implying the illegality of Eugenius' rule. Williams and Friell say that by the spring of 393, the split was complete, and "in April Arbogast and Eugenius at last moved into Italy without resistance". Flavianus, the praetorian prefect of Italy whom Theodosius had appointed, defected to their side.Through early 394, both sides prepared for war. Theodosius gathered a large army, including the Goths whom he had settled in the eastern empire as foederati, and Caucasian and Saracen auxiliaries, and marched against Eugenius. The battle began on 5 September 394, with Theodosius' full frontal assault on Eugenius's forces. Thousands of Goths died, and in Theodosius's camp, the loss of the day decreased morale. It is said by Theodoret that Theodosius was visited by two "heavenly riders all in white" who gave him courage. The next day, the extremely bloody battle began again and Theodosius's forces were aided by a natural phenomenon known as the Bora, which can produce hurricane-strength winds. The Bora blew directly against the forces of Eugenius and disrupted the line.Eugenius's camp was stormed; Eugenius was captured and soon after executed. According to Socrates Scholasticus, Theodosius defeated Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus (the Vipava) on 6 September 394. On 8 September, Arbogast killed himself. According to Socrates, on 1 January 395, Honorius arrived in Mediolanum and a victory celebration was held there. Zosimus records that, at the end of April 394, <mask>'s wife Galla had died while he was away at war. A number of Christian sources report that Eugenius cultivated the support of the pagan senators by promising to restore the altar of Victory and provide public funds for the maintenance of cults if they would support him and if he won the coming war against Theodosius. Cameron notes that the ultimate source for this is Ambrose's biographer Paulinus the Deacon, whom he argues fabricated the entire narrative and deserves no credence.Historian Michele Renee Salzman explains that "two newly relevant texts – John Chrysostom's Homily 6, adversus Catharos (PG 63: 491–492) and the Consultationes Zacchei et Apollonii, re-dated to the 390s, reinforces the view that religion was not the key ideological element in the events at the time". According to Maijastina Kahlos, Finnish historian and Docent of Latin language and Roman literature at the University of Helsinki, the notion of pagan aristocrats united in a "heroic and cultured resistance" who rose up against the ruthless advance of Christianity in a final battle near Frigidus in 394 is a romantic myth. Death
Theodosius suffered from a disease involving severe edema. He died in Mediolanum (Milan) on 17 January 395, and his body lay in state in the palace there for forty days. His funeral was held in the cathedral on 25 February. Bishop Ambrose delivered a panegyric titled De obitu Theodosii in the presence of Stilicho and Honorius in which Ambrose praised the suppression of paganism by Theodosius. On 8 November 395, his body was transferred to Constantinople, where according to the Chronicon Paschale he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles.He was deified . He was interred in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by <mask> Porphyrogenitus in his work De Ceremoniis. Art patronage

According to art historian David Wright, art of the era around the year 400 reflects optimism amongst the traditional polytheists. This is likely connected to what <mask> Jacobs calls a renaissance of classical styles of art in the Theodosian period (AD 379- 45) often referred to in modern scholarship as the Theodosian renaissance. The Forum Tauri in Constantinople was renamed and redecorated as the Forum of Theodosius, including a column and a triumphal arch in his honour. The missorium of Theodosius, the city of Aprodisias' statue of the emperor, the base of the obelisk of Theodosius, the columns of Theodosius and Arcadius, and the dyptich of Probus were all commissioned by the court and reflect a similar renaissance of classicism. According to Armin Wirsching, two obelisks were shipped by the Romans from Karnak to Alexandria in 13/12 BC.In 357, Constantius II had one (that became known as the Lateran  obelisk) shipped to Rome. Wirsching says the Romans had previously watched and learned from the Egyptians how to transport such large heavy objects, so they constructed "a special sea‐going version of the Nile vessels ... – a double‐ship with three hulls". In 390, Theodosius oversaw the removal of the other to Constantinople.Linda Safran says that relocating the obelisk was motivated by <mask>' victory over "the tyrants" (most likely Maximus Magnus and his son Victor). It is now known as the obelisk of Theodosius and still stands in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, the long Roman circus that was, at one time, the centre of Constantinople's public life. Re-erecting the monolith was a challenge for the technology that had been honed in the construction of siege engines. The obelisk's white marble base is entirely covered with bas-reliefs documenting Theodosius' imperial household and the engineering feat of removing the obelisk to Constantinople. <mask> and the imperial family are separated from the nobles among the spectators in the imperial box, with a cover over them as a mark of their status.From the perspective of style, it has served as "the key monument in identifying a so-called Theodosian court style, which is usually described as a "renaissance" of earlier Roman classicism". Religious policy

Arianism and orthodoxy
John Kaye says the Arian controversy, a dispute concerning the nature of the divine trinity, and its accompanying struggles for political influence, started in Alexandria before the reign of Constantine the Great between a presbyter, Arius of Alexandria, and his bishop, Alexander of Alexandria. When Alexander died, his successor, Athanasius, became the representative of orthodoxy. Arius asserted that God the Father created the Son. This meant the Son, though still seen as divine, was not equal to the Father, because he had a beginning, and was not eternal. Father and Son were, therefore, similar but not of the same essence. This Christology quickly spread through Egypt and Libya and the other Roman provinces.Bishops engaged in "wordy warfare," and the people divided into parties, sometimes demonstrating in the streets in support of one side or the other. Constantine had tried to settle the issues at the Council of Nicaea, but as Arnold Hugh Martin Jones states: "The rules laid down

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