title: William the Conqueror

texts: after his return, he brought with him his family, which included two daughters. The Earl of Mercia's younger brother Morcar was earl in 1065 when the rebels revolted against Tostig. King Edward replaced Tostig with Morcar after Harold supported the rebels and persuaded them to support his bid for the throne. The wife of Tostig was the daughter of Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders. Edward died of an illness on January 5, 1066. It's not clear what happened at Edward's deathbed.According to the biography of Edward, he was attended by his wife Edith, Harold, and the king named Harold as his successor. The Norman sources don't dispute the fact that Harold was named the next king, but they say that Edward's promise of the throne couldn't be changed on his deathbed. The clergy and magnates of England elected Harold as king, according to English sources. On January 6, 1066, Harold was crowned in Edward's new Norman-style Westminster Abbey, although some controversy surrounds who performed the ceremony. English sources claim that Ealdred, the Archbishop of York, performed the ceremony, while Norman sources claim that the ceremony was performed by a non-canonical archbishop. Harold's claim to the throne was not completely secure as there were other claims. King Hardrada of Norway had a claim to the throne as the uncle and heir of King Magnus I, who had made a pact with Harthacnut that if either Magnus or Harthacnut died without heirs, the other would succeed.King Harold Godwinson made most of his preparations, against <mask> of Normandy. Harold's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern coast of England in May 1066 using a fleet supplied by Baldwin of Flanders. Tostig retreated to Scotland because he didn't get much local support, and further raids into Lincolnshire and near the River Humber didn't work out. <mask> of Jumiges claims that he sent an embassy to Harold to remind him of his oath to support him. For most of the summer, Harold deployed troops and ships along the English Channel to repel <mask>'s invasion force. <mask> of Poitiers describes a council called by Duke <mask>, in which the writer gives an account of a great debate that took place between <mask>'s nobles and supporters over whether to risk an invasion of England. Most of the people assembled would have been anxious to get their share of the rewards from the conquest of England, as the duke had already established control over his nobles.Pope Alexander II consented to the invasion, along with a papal banner, according to <mask> of Poitiers. According to the chronicler, the duke secured the support of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and King Sweyn II ofDenmark. Sweyn was more likely to support Harold than Henry was, so these claims should be treated with caution. Alexander gave papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, but no other source claimed papal support prior to the invasion. <mask> performed penance after the invasion and later popes made statements in support of the claim of papal approval. The government of Normandy was put in the hands of <mask>'s wife for the duration of the invasion. <mask> assembled an army in Normandy during the summer.Although <mask> of Jumiges's claim that the ducal fleet numbered 3000 ships is an exaggeration, it was probably large and mostly built from scratch. Both <mask> of Poitiers and <mask> of Jumiges agree that the fleet was built at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme. The invasion force included troops from <mask>'s own territories of Normandy and Maine, as well as large numbers of mercenaries, allies, and volunteers from Brittany, northeastern France, and Flanders, together with smaller numbers from other parts of Europe. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. Intelligence reports from England showed that Harold's forces were deployed along the coast. <mask> wanted to delay the invasion until he could land. With the arrival of the harvest season, Harold dissolved his army and kept his forces on alert throughout the summer.The local forces were defeated at the Battle of Fulford by Tostig and Hardrada. King Harold defeated the invaders and killed Tostig and Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. The Norman fleet finally set sail two days later. <mask> built a castle in Hastings, a few miles to the east, as a base of operations. He ravaged the interior and waited for Harold's return from the north, refusing to venture far from the sea, his line of communication with Normandy. Harold left most of his army in the north to fight the Norman invaders in the Battle of Hastings. He was travelling south when he learned of <mask>'s landing.Harold was in London for about a week before marching to Hastings, so it is likely that he spent about a week on his march south. <mask>'s scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle are obscure, with conflicting accounts in the sources, but all agree that <mask> led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy. Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill, about from <mask>'s castle at Hastings. While a broad outline of the battle is known, the exact events are obscured by conflicting accounts in the sources. <mask> had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers. <mask>'s army was thrown back with heavy casualties after the English soldiers formed a shield wall along the ridge.The English troops pursued the fleeing Bretons until they were attacked and destroyed by the Norman cavalry. <mask> was able to rally his troops despite rumors that the duke had been killed. The English were exposed to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry after two more Norman retreats were feigned. The sources are more confused about what happened in the afternoon than they are about Harold's death. <mask> claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but that may be a later version of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head. Harold's body was identified the day after the battle, either through his armour or marks on his body.The English dead, including some of Harold's brothers and his housecarls, were left on the battlefield. The duke refused to accept the weight of Harold's body in gold, even though his mother offered it. <mask> ordered that the body be thrown into the sea, but it's not clear if that happened. Harold's body was secretly buried at Waltham Abbey. The English did not surrender after <mask>'s victory. The English clergy and magnates did not support Edgar the theling as king. <mask> secured parts of Kent, and also sent a force to capture Winchester, where the royal treasury was.If needed, these captures secured <mask>'s rear areas and his line of retreat to Normandy. <mask> crossed the river from London to Southwark in late November. He led his forces around the south and west of London. He finally crossed the river in December. When <mask> moved on to Berkhamsted, other people also submitted. <mask> was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. <mask> tried to reconcile the native magnates after he was crowned.The lands and titles of the remaining earls were confirmed. <mask>'s niece Judith was married to <mask>of and a marriage was proposed to one of <mask>'s daughters. The theling appears to have been given lands. The uncanonical Stigand was still held by the same bishops as before the invasion. Some people who had fought against <mask> at Hastings lost their lands as did the families of Harold and his brothers. By March, <mask> was secured enough to return to Normandy, but he took with him six other people. He left his half-brother, the Bishop of Bayeux, in charge of England along with another influential supporter, <mask>bern, the son of his former guardian.Both men were named to earldoms. He kept many of the native English sheriffs even though he put two Normans in charge. The new English king went to Rouen and the Abbey of Fecamp to attend the consecration of two Norman monasteries. While <mask> was in Normandy, Eustace, the Count of Boulogne invaded, but was repulsed. English resistance began, with Eadric the Wild attacking Hereford and revolts at Exeter, where Harold's mother was a focus of resistance. A programme of castle building was undertaken by FitzOsbern and Odo to maintain their hold on the kingdom. After returning to England in December 1067, <mask> marched on the city of Exeter.<mask> built a castle after the town held out for 18 days. Harold's sons were raiding the southwest of England from a base in Ireland. Their forces were defeated by Eadnoth. <mask> was joined by his wife, who was crowned in May 1068. Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria supported the English resistance in 1068. According to the chronicler Orderic Vitalis, the reason for revolting was that the proposed marriage between himself and one of <mask>bern in Herefordshire. The king built a castle.<mask> continued on to York, building York andNottingham Castles before returning south. Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Cambridge Castles were built on his journey. <mask> placed supporters in charge of the fortifications. The king came back to Normandy late in 1068. In 1069, the theling rose in revolt and attacked York. When <mask> returned to York, he built another castle, but he was free to join King Sweyn. The king of the Danes brought a large fleet to England and attacked.The combined forces of Sweyn and Edgar captured York. His supporters proclaimed him king. <mask> wore his crown in the ruins of York on Christmas Day 1069 after ignoring a continental revolt in Maine. He bought off the Danes. As he went, he ravaged the countryside. King Malcolm III was married to Margaret's sister, and they fled to Scotland. <mask> and Gospatric were allowed to keep their lands after they joined the revolt.During the winter, <mask> defeated the remaining rebels and built Chester and Stafford Castles. The "Harrying of the North", which included the burning and destruction of part of the countryside that the royal forces marched through, was over by April 1070. John Minutus, Peter, and Ermenfrid of Sion were sent by the pope and <mask> met with them. <mask> was crowned during the Easter court. The historian thinks the papal "seal of approval" for <mask>'s conquest is this one. The legates and the king held a series of council to reform and reorganize the English church. The Bishop of Elmham, thelmr, was deposed from his position.The native abbots were deposed at the council held near Easter and at a further one nearby. Lanfranc and Thomas of Bayeux were appointed to replace Ealdred, who died in September 1069. <mask> probably didn't want to give a lot of power to a family member. The papacy may have been behind the appointment of Lanfranc. At the end of the process, only two native English bishops remained in office, along with several continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor. <mask> founded Battle Abbey, a monastery at the site of the Battle of Hastings, as a memorial to the dead and as a penance for the deaths in the battle. He was confirmed in his authority over the Norman church at an ecclesiastical council held in Lillebonne.Although Sweyn promised to leave England, he returned in the spring of 1070 and joined Hereward the Wake in the Isle of Ely. Hereward's forces captured and stole from Peterborough Abbey. In 1070, <mask> was able to secure the departure of Sweyn and his fleet in order to deal with the troubles in Maine. The death of Count Baldwin VI of Flanders in July 1070 led to a succession crisis as his widow, Richilde, ruled for their two young sons. Robert, Baldwin's brother, disagreed with her rule. <mask>bern accepted the marriage proposal from Richilde. Robert became count after he was killed.The Battle of Cassel upset the balance of power in northern France, as well as costing <mask> an important supporter, because he was opposed to King <mask>'s power. The last rebellion of the north was defeated by <mask>. <mask> built a causeway to subdue the Isle of Ely, where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding. Morcar was captured, deprived of his earldom, and imprisoned. <mask> invaded Scotland in 1072 after Malcolm invaded the north of England. Malcolm probably gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for peace because he agreed to peace with <mask> and Malcolm. The expulsion of Edgar from Malcolm's court was a part of the treaty.In early 1073, <mask> returned to Normandy to deal with the invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin, the Count of Anjou. <mask> defeated Fulk's forces by the end of March 1073. <mask>'s power was more secure in northern France, but the new count of Flanders accepted the theling into his court. King Philip I of France married Robert's half- sister, who was opposed to Norman power. After leaving his army in England, <mask> returned to Normandy where he spent the rest of his life. He left England in the hands of his supporters, including Richard fitzGilbert and <mask> Warenne. <mask> felt that his control of the kingdom was secure because he was able to leave England for an entire year.While <mask> was in Normandy, the theling returned to Scotland. The castle of Montreuil-sur-Mer on the Channel was proposed by the French king as a strategic advantage against <mask>. He returned to <mask>'s court after he was forced to submit to <mask>. Philip turned his attention to Brittany, leading to a revolt in 1075. The "Revolt of the Earls" took place in 1075 when <mask> was away. Prior to 1066 in Brittany, where he still had lands, Ralph had spent most of his life. <mask>bern's son Roger had less authority than his father.The cause of his involvement in the revolt was likely due to the fact that his authority was less than his predecessors in the earldom. The exact reason for the rebellion is not known, but it was launched at the wedding of a relative of Roger. The earl of Northumbria, one of <mask>'s favorites, was also involved in the rebellion. The requested aid was from the Danes. While his men in England subdued the revolt, <mask> remained in Normandy. The Abbot of Evesham, <mask>lwig, tried to get Roger to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire. The combined efforts of Richard fitzGilbert and <mask> Warenne bottled up Ralph.After leaving his wife in England, he ended up in Brittany. The garrison was allowed to go to Brittany. Cnut arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but he was too late as Norwich already surrendered. The Danes raided along the coast. <mask> went back to England in 1075 to deal with the threat from the Danes. He dealt with the aftermath of the rebellion at Christmas. The executions of Roger and <mask>of took place in a prison.<mask> went back to the continent to continue the rebellion from Brittany. <mask> advanced into Brittany and laid siege to the castle after Earl Ralph secured control of the castle. <mask> was

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title: William the Conqueror

type: paraphrased

texts: forced to retreat back to Normandy after King Philip of France defeated him at the Battle of Dol. <mask>'s first defeat in battle did little to change things. Count Fulk le Rechin was wounded in the unsuccessful attack on Maine. The Count of Amiens retired to a monastery. King Philip took over Simon's county before he became a monk.The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the lands of the French king, and Simon was a supporter of <mask>. <mask> was able to make peace with Philip in 1077. Trouble began between <mask> and his son, Robert. It is more likely that Robert was feeling powerless than that the quarrel was started when <mask> and Henry threw water at Robert. Orderic said he had previously demanded control of Maine and had been turned down. The trouble in 1077 or 1078 resulted in Robert leaving Normandy accompanied by a band of young men, many of them the sons of <mask>'s supporters. Robert, <mask>, and Roger are the sons of Richard fitzGilbert.The young men went to the castle at Remalard to raid it. Many of <mask>'s continental enemies supported the raiders. <mask> attacked the rebels and drove them out of Remalard, but King Philip gave them the castle at Gerberoi, where they were joined by new supporters. In January 1079. The besieged forces took the besiegers by surprise after three weeks. <mask> was saved from death by an Englishman named Toki who was killed by Robert. The king returned to Rouen after <mask>'s forces lifted the siege.<mask> affirmed that Robert would receive Normandy when he died after reaching an accommodation with him. There were difficulties in northern England because of the word of <mask>'s defeat. King Malcolm of Scots raided south of the River Tweed in August and September of 1079. The Northumbrians rebelled against the rule of <mask> in the spring of 1086 because of the lack of Norman response. The king dispatched his half-brother to deal with the rebellion after Walcher was killed. Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots in the autumn after his father left Normandy. While returning to England, Robert raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms and build a new castle.The king wore his crown at both Gloucester and Winchester. <mask> rejected a request from the papal embassy to fealty England to the papacy. The English and Welsh sources differ on the exact purpose of <mask>'s visit to Wales. Welsh sources say it was a pilgrimage to St Davids, but the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says it was a military campaign. The former explanation is that the balance of power had recently shifted in Wales and that <mask> would have wanted to take advantage of it to extend Norman power. <mask> was back on the continent at the end of 10 81. A negotiated settlement was arranged by a papal legate after he led an expedition into Maine.Sources for <mask>'s actions last year were sparse. According to the historian, this probably means that little happened of note, and that because <mask> was on the continent, there was nothing for the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to record. <mask> ordered the arrest of his half-brother. No contemporary author recorded what caused the quarrel between the half-brothers. Vitalis recorded that he had ambitions to become pope. Orderic said that <mask>'s vassals were trying to persuade them to join the invasion of southern Italy. <mask> wouldn't tolerate tampering with the king's authority over his vassals.Although he was in confinement for the rest of <mask>'s reign, his lands were not taken. The French king supported Robert when he rebelled again in 1083. The death of Queen Matilda was a blow. It would have added to <mask>'s problems if his wife had died. The state of Maine was difficult, probably because of a rebellion by Hubert de Beaumont-au-Maine. After <mask>'s forces besieged his castle at Sainte-Suzanne for at least two years, he eventually made his peace with the king and was restored to favour. <mask> may have been in England before the year 1084 when he was in Normandy for the defence of England against the Danes.Cnut's death in July 1086 ended the invasion threat because English and Norman forces remained on alert. The central keep of the Tower of London was ordered by <mask> as part of his efforts to secure England. When Normans were threatened with rebellion, these fortifications allowed them to retreat into safety. Stone structures replaced earth and timber in the early castles. Most of the newly settled Normans kept household knights and did not settle their retainers with fiefs of their own, but gradually these household knights came to be granted lands of their own, a process known as subinfeudation. <mask> required his newly created magnates to contribute to a fixed quota of knights for both military campaigns and castle garrisons. The pre-Conquest English practice of basing military service on territorial units was a departure from this method.Norman and other continental magnates replaced most of the native Anglo-Saxon aristocracy after <mask>'s death. Some of the Normans who were with <mask> did not acquire large amounts of land in England. Some seem to have been reluctant to take up lands in a kingdom that was not always pacified. Some of the newly rich Normans in England came from <mask>'s close family or from the upper Norman nobility. <mask> granted some lands to his continental followers from the holdings of one or more specific Englishmen; at other times, he granted a compact grouping of lands previously held by many different Englishmen to one Norman follower, often to allow for the consolidation of lands around a strategically placed castle. According to the medieval chronicler <mask> of Malmesbury, the king seized and depopulated many miles of land, turning it into the royal New Forest region to support his enthusiasm for hunting. The New Forest depopulation was overstated according to modern historians.Archaeological and geographic studies show that most of the New Forest was a poor agricultural area when it was turned into a royal forest. <mask> introduced the forest law into areas of the country to regulate who could hunt and what could be hunted. <mask> did not attempt to integrate his separate domains into one unified realm with one set of laws. His seal from after 1066 was made for him after he conquered England and stressed his role as king, while separately mentioning his role as duke. In Normandy, <mask> acknowledged his fealty to the French king, but in England he did not. The administrative machinery of Normandy, England, and Maine remained separate from the other lands. The use of writs by England was not known on the continent.The documents produced for the government in Normandy differed from those produced in England. The English government was more complex than the Norman system. England was divided into shires or counties, which were further divided into hundreds or wapentakes. The sheriff had the same status as a Norman viscount. The sheriff collected royal revenue. <mask> had to travel more than he had as duke to oversee his expanded domain. Between 1067 and his death, he traveled between the continent and England at least 19 times.Between the Battle of Hastings and 1072, <mask> spent most of his time in England and the majority of his time in Normandy. Government was still centered on <mask>'s household and decisions would be made for other parts of his domain through a communication system that used letters and other documents. If the absence was expected to be lengthy, <mask> appointed his deputies who could make decisions. Usually, this was a member of <mask>'s close family, such as his half-brother or wife. Sometimes it was necessary to have a deputy deal with specific issues. Danegeld is a land tax. The only universal tax collected by western European rulers during this period was an advantage for <mask>.The tax was based on the value of landholdings and could be collected at different rates. In crises, the rate could be increased to as much as six shillings per hide. There were different styles and cycles of coinage between the different parts of his domain. English coins had high artistic standards and were required to be re-minted every three years. Norman coins were often of poor artistic quality and had a lower silver content. In England, no other coinage was allowed, while on the other side of the world, other coinage was considered legal tender. There is no evidence that the monetary systems of England and Normandy were integrated.<mask>'s large landholdings throughout England strengthened his rule. King Edward's heir was in charge of all of the former royal lands. The king's control of the lands of Harold and his family made him the largest secular landlord in England. <mask> ordered a survey of the landholdings held by himself and his vassals throughout his kingdom. It resulted in a book called the Domesday Book. The holdings of each landholder are shown in the listing. The listings describe the holding, who owned the land before the Conquest, its value, what the tax assessment was, and usually the number of peasants, ploughs, and any other resources the holding had.The towns were listed separately. The whole work seems to have been completed by 1 August 1086, when the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that <mask> received the results and that all the chief magnates swore the Salisbury Oath. <mask>'s exact motivation in ordering the survey is unclear, but it probably had several purposes, such as making a record of feudal obligations and justifying increased taxation. <mask> left England at the end of 1086. His policy of seeking allies against the French kings led him to marry his daughter to Duke Alan of Brittany. <mask> led an expedition against the French Vexin in July 1097 because his son Robert was stirring up trouble. <mask> fell ill or was injured when he seized Mantes.He died at the priory of Saint Gervase in Rouen. There are two different accounts of the events preceding his death. Orderic Vitalis has a lengthy account with speeches made by many of the principals, but it is more of an account of how a king should die than of what actually happened. The De obitu Willelmi is a copy of two 9th-century accounts with different names. The custody of England was given to <mask>'s second surviving son, also called <mask>, on the assumption that he would become king after <mask> left Normandy. Henry received money. After entrusting England to his second son, the elder <mask> sent the younger <mask> back to England on 7 or 8 September, with a letter to Lanfranc ordering the archbishop to aid the new king.Money to be distributed to the poor was one of the bequests. <mask> ordered that all of his prisoners be released. Everyone who was at <mask>'s deathbed left the body at Rouen and went to their own affairs. <mask> wanted to be buried in his foundation of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, so the clergy of Rouen arranged for the body to be sent to Caen. The funeral, attended by the bishop and abbots of Normandy as well as his son Henry, was disturbed by the assertion of a citizen of Caen who alleged that his family had been illegally despoiled of the land on which the church was built. The man was compensated after the allegation was proven to be true. The corpse was lowered into the tomb.The corpse was too large for the space, and when attendants forced it into the tomb it burst, causing a disgusting smell throughout the church. <mask>'s grave is marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription from the early 19th century. The first time the tomb was disturbed was in 1522 when the papacy ordered the grave to be opened. During the French Wars of Religion, the grave was reopened and the bones were scattered and lost, with the exception of one thigh bone. The lone relic was reburied in 1642 with a new marker and a monument 100 years later. The tomb was destroyed again during the French Revolution, but this time it was replaced with a ledger stone. The immediate consequence of <mask>'s death was a war between his sons Robert and <mask>.After the younger <mask>'s death in 1100 and the succession of his youngest brother Henry as king, England and Normandy remained at odds. The loss of authority in Normandy was caused by the difficulties over the succession, with the aristocracy regaining much of the power they had lost to the elder <mask>. Maine was mostly free of Norman influence after revolting in 1089, but his sons lost much of their control over it. Changes in the Church, aristocracy, culture, and language of the country have continued into modern times despite the impact of <mask>'s conquest. France and England had ties that lasted throughout the Middle Ages after the Conquest. The sundering of the formerly close ties between England and Sweden was one of the consequences of <mask>'s invasion. The foundation of the later medieval English kingdom was laid when <mask>'s government blended elements of the English and Norman systems.<mask> claims that the Conquest was the most radical change in European history between the Fall of Rome and the 20th century. The changes brought about by the Conquest are less radical than <mask> suggests. <mask>'s invasion is described as a plan that no ruler would have considered. <mask>'s reign has caused controversy. <mask> of Poitiers wrote glowingly of <mask>'s reign and its benefits, but the obituary notice for <mask> in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle condemns him in harsh terms. Politicians and other leaders have used <mask> and the events of his reign to show political events throughout English history. The English Church was corrupted by the Conquest during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.During the 17th and 18th centuries, some historians and lawyers saw <mask>'s reign as imposing a "Norman yoke" on the native Anglo-Saxons, an argument that continued during the 19th century. Some historians think that <mask> is one of the creators of England's greatness or that he inflicted one of the greatest defeats in English history. He has been viewed as either an enemy of the English constitution or its creator. <mask> and his wife had at least nine children. The birth order of the sons is clear, but no source gives the relative order of the daughters' birth. Robert died on February 10, 1134. The Duke of Normandy married the daughter of the Count of Conversano.Richard died around 1075. <mask> died on August 2nd, 1100. The King of England died in the New Forest. Henry died on December 1st. Edith was the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland. His second wife was a woman. The betrothed to Harold Godwinson was a nun of Saint Léger at Préaux.Cecilia was born in 1066 and died in 1127. Matilda was born around 1061 and died around 1086. A daughter of <mask> was mentioned in the book. Alan IV was the Duke of Brittany. Adela was married to Count of Blois. Alfonso VI of Len and Castile was betrothed to Agatha. There are no illegitimate children born to <mask>.11th-century French people, 11th-century monarchs of England, and 11th-century Dukes of Normandy were all killed by horse-riding

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title: Waldo Frank

texts: <mask> was an American novelist, historian, political activist, and literary critic who wrote for The New Yorker and The New Republic during the 1920s and 1930s. <mask>'s studies of Spanish and Latin American literature and culture are considered to be an intellectual bridge between the two continents. <mask> was the first chair of the League of American Writers and was a radical political activist during the Great Depression. <mask> broke with the Communist Party, USA in 1937 over its treatment of exiled Soviet leader Leon Trotsky, who <mask> met in Mexico in January of that year. During his family's summer vacation, <mask> was born in Long Branch, New Jersey on August 25, 1889. He was the youngest of four children and the daughter of a Confederate blockade runner during the American Civil War. The young <mask> was raised on the Upper West Side of New York City.He spent a year at a college prep school in Lausanne, Switzerland, after he was expelled from school for refusing to take a Shakespeare course. <mask> earned a bachelor's degree before completing his master's degree at Yale University. <mask> went to Paris in 1913 to read and write after working as a reporter for the New York Times. <mask> returned to New York City after World War I ended. <mask>'s first published novel was a look into a man contemplating suicide. The novel was based on the ideas of two New England writers. <mask> became associate editor of The Seven Arts in 1916, a journal that ran for just twelve issues but became an important artistic and political influence.The decline in subscriptions and supporting funds was caused by the position of its contributors. James Oppenheim, the founder and general editor of the magazine, was one of the contributors. <mask> married Margaret in January 1917. Art therapy is when she developed techniques. <mask> and Jean Toomer became friends in 1921. He was an editor for Toomer's first novel, Cane, which was inspired by his work as a school principal in the rural South. He resisted being classified as a black writer and said he was "an American".Their friendship ended after 1923 due to an affair between Toomer and Naumburg. <mask> was a regular contributor to the New Yorker. <mask> registered for the draft in 1917 because he was an anti-militarist. He was a contributing editor of The New Republic in 1925. <mask> and others worked to raise money for striking workers in Southern textile mills. He went to the Soviet Union in the summer and early fall of 1931 and wrote a book about it. In support of striking coal miners, <mask> was attacked and forcibly removed from the strike area in Kentucky in 1932.<mask> was tapped to speak at the opening session of the League of American Writers' convention in 1935, after moving close to the Communist Party, USA (CPUSA). <mask> was elected as the organization's chairman. <mask> was active in the ranks of Professional Groups for Browder and Ford during the 1936 United States Presidential election. <mask> was arrested with Earl Browder when they were campaigning for the Communist Party in Terre Haute, Indiana on September 30, 1936. <mask> went to Mexico in January of 1937 to attend the League of Revolutionary Artists and Writers congress. Leon Trotsky was held by the Joseph Stalin-led world Communist movement to be the leader of an international conspiracy to sabotage and overthrow the government of the USSR and the Russian Revolution itself. <mask> suggested in a letter to The New Republic that an international tribunal be established to investigate the merit or lack of the charges against Trotsky.The break between <mask> and the Communist Party and his denunciation at the Second Convention of the League of American Writers was caused by a harsh reply from Earl Browder. After visiting revolutionary Cuba in 1959 and being impressed, <mask> accepted the position of chairman of the Fair Play for Cuba Committee. Cuba: Prophetic Island, a sympathetic account of the Cuban revolution, was published in 1961. A living cultural bridge between North America and Latin America was created by Hispanic cultural studies. <mask> traveled to Spain in 1921 with a belief in Hispanic spiritual values. He published a cultural study. There needed to be an organic synthesis of the two Americas.He thought that Spain had achieved a "spiritual synthesis of its warring religions" and could be an example for the New World. Ernest Hemingway mocked <mask>'s ideas in his novel, Death in the Afternoon. <mask>'s novel, Rediscovery of America, expressed some of his utopian ideas. <mask> turned his attention to politics after this and other novels weren't as successful as he thought they were. His thesis about Latin America's spiritual strengths won him a lot of attention when he toured there in 1929. His lecture tour was organized by the University of Mexico. The journal Amauta had parts of Rediscovery of America that were not <mask>'s.<mask>'s literary influence was greatest in South America. He had a close relationship with Ciro Alegria. The United States State Department asked him to tour in 1942 in order to discourage alliances with the Nazi government in Germany during World War II. <mask> was declared a persona non grata by the Argentine government after he denounced the pro-Nazi drift. <mask> was attacked in his apartment by six armed men in response to some opinions he expressed in regards to Argentine neutrality in the war. He was kicked and pistol-whipped. He had a concussion that was marked severity.The attack was believed to be the work of pro-Nazi sympathizers who posed as detectives to see if <mask>'s papers were in order. <mask> published South American Journey in 1943 and Birth of a World: Simon Bolivar in terms of His Peoples in 1951 based on his travels in the region. On January 9, 1967, <mask> <mask> died in White Plains, New York. Virgin Spain: Scenes from the Spiritual Drama of a Great People is a book by Chalk Face. An introduction to a philosophy of American life was published in Primer mensaje a la América Hispana. There is a man named Charlie Chaplin. The novel "<mask> <mask> in the Hispanic World: The First Phase" was written by Arnold Chapman.44, No. The 4th of December, 1961, pp. The American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese External links the papers of <mask> <mask>.

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