title: Jair Jurrjens

texts:
 SeaWolves, the Tigers' Double-A affiliate.In 12 games with the SeaWolves, Jurrjens went 4–3 with a 3.36 ERA. Jurrjens began the 2007 season pitching for the SeaWolves. On August 6, he was named Pitcher of the Week. On August 15, the Tigers purchased <mask>' contract from the SeaWolves, adding him to their 40-man roster. Jurrjens made his major league debut on August 15, 2007, as a starting pitcher against the Cleveland Indians, making him the first pitcher from Curaçao to reach the major leagues. In that game, he gave up four earned runs in seven innings, taking the loss. He recorded his first major league win in his next start, also against the Indians, allowing only one run on one hit in  innings pitched.2006 World Baseball Classic
Jurrjens joined fellow Curaçao native Andruw Jones on the Netherlands national baseball team for the 2006 World Baseball Classic. Jurrjens pitched one inning against Puerto Rico in the WBC, giving up three runs and earning him a loss. Atlanta Braves
On October 29, 2007, Jurrjens and outfielder Gorkys Hernandez were traded to the Atlanta Braves for shortstop Édgar Rentería. Jurrjens was listed by Baseball America as the Braves' 3rd-best prospect entering the 2008 season. By the end of April 2008, Jurrjens was 3–2 with a 3.05 ERA and 28 strikeouts. Jurrjens was asked prior to the game on April 20 about how he felt facing his fellow countryman Andruw Jones. Jurrjens said, "It's going to be fun to face him", then said "It's going to be even more fun to strike him


title: Jair Jurrjens

type: original

texts: meniscus in his right knee in October, having missed September and the Division Series with pain in his knee. Jurrjens began the 2011 season on the disabled list, but got off to a strong start after he was activated. He was named Pitcher of the Month in May. He pitched his first career shutout on July 1, 2011 against the Baltimore Orioles, allowing one hit and one walk. It was his eleventh win of the season and improved his ERA to a league-best 1.89 ERA. Jurrjens led the National League in wins and ERA at the All-Star break, and was chosen to play in his first All-Star Game. He pitched 1 scoreless innings in the NL's 5–1 win.Following the All-Star break, <mask> went 0–1 with a 6.26 ERA in four starts. On August 6, the Braves placed him on the 15-day DL due to pain in his surgically repaired right knee. The move was retroactive to August 2. He returned briefly, but did not play for the Braves in September. Jurrjens got off to a poor start in the 2012 season, while suffering from a strained groin, with an 0–2 record and a 9.37 ERA in his first four starts. On April 23, he was optioned to the Braves' Triple-A affiliate in Gwinnett, his first demotion in five seasons with the Braves. Atlanta's general manager, Frank Wren, stated that the move was intended to give Jurrjens the opportunity to work through his difficulties at the Triple-A level and get back on track pitching wise.On June 22, 2012, <mask> was called back to the majors by the Braves after teammate Brandon Beachy injured his right elbow

masks: Jurrjens Jurrjens


title: Jair Jurrjens

texts:
 and underwent Tommy John surgery. He got his first win of the 2012 season against the Boston Red Sox. For the season, he posted a 6.89 ERA. He was not tendered a contract before the deadline on November 30, 2012, and became a free agent. Baltimore Orioles
On January 24, 2013, Jurrjens agreed to a one-year deal with the Baltimore Orioles for $1.5 million. Incentives could have brought the deal to $4 million. However, after the Orioles reviewed Jurrjens' medical information, they instead signed Jurrjens to a minor league contract.Jurrjen's contract was purchased from the Triple-A Norfolk Tides on May 18. He made his first start with the Orioles on that day, pitching 5 innings and picking up a no-decision, while the Orioles lost the game 6-10. He was optioned back to the Norfolk Tides on May 21, and recalled on June 29. He was optioned back to Norfolk on July 1. <mask> was designated for assignment by the Orioles on July 12 in order to clear room for <mask> Asencio. Jurrjens opted for free agency instead of playing in Triple A, and became a free agent on July 18. Return to Detroit organization
On July 24, 2013, <mask> was signed to a minor league deal bringing him back to Detroit.<mask> was quickly optioned to the Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens. Cincinnati Reds organization
On May 20, 2014, <mask> signed a minor league deal with the Cincinnati Reds. In 2014, he was 2-3 with a 4.46 ERA for the AAA Louisville Bats. Colorado Rockies
On July 2, 2014, <mask> was traded to the Colorado Rockies in exchange for

masks: Jurrjens Jairo Jurrjens Jurrjens Jurrjens Jurrjens


title: Jair Jurrjens

texts:
 and was 4–3 with a 4.64 ERA. On June 15, 2017, he was suspended 80 games for testing positive for exogenous testosterone. On November 6, 2017, he elected free agency. Jurrjens signed with the Tigres Del Licey in the Dominican Winter League for the 2017/18 season.Long Island Ducks
On March 7, 2018, Jurrjens signed with the Long Island Ducks of the independent Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. In 9 appearances for the Ducks, Jurrjens logged a 3-3 record and 3.55 ERA with 32 strikeouts in 50.2 innings of work. He became a free agent following the 2018 season. Guerreros de Oaxaca
On December 20, 2019, Jurrjens signed with the Algodoneros de Unión Laguna of the Mexican League for the 2020 season. Jurrjens did not play in a game in 2020 due to the cancellation of the Mexican League season because of the COVID-19 pandemic. He later became a free agent. On June 7, 2021, Jurrjens signed with the Guerreros de Oaxaca of the Mexican League.International career
Jurrjens played for Team Netherlands in the 2017 World Baseball Classic. Pitching repertoire
Jurrjens has a four-seam fastball currently at 91–92 MPH. Jurrjens pairs his fastball with a changeup to lefties in the low 80s and a slurve in the high 70s to righties. References

External links

<mask> Jurrjens CPBL statistics and profile

1986 births
2006 World Baseball Classic players
2015 WBSC Premier12 players
2017 World Baseball Classic players
Albuquerque Isotopes players
Atlanta Braves players
Baltimore Orioles players
Colorado Rockies


title: Carl Wilhelm Scheele

texts:
<mask> (, ; 9 December 1742 – 21 May 1786) was a Swedish German pharmaceutical chemist. Scheele discovered oxygen (although Joseph Priestley published his findings first), and identified molybdenum, tungsten, barium, hydrogen, and chlorine, among others. Scheele discovered organic acids tartaric, oxalic, uric, lactic, and citric, as well as hydrofluoric, hydrocyanic, and arsenic acids. He preferred speaking German to Swedish his whole life, as German was commonly spoken among Swedish pharmacists. Biography
Scheele was born in Stralsund, in western Pomerania, which at the time was a Swedish Dominion inside the Holy Roman Empire. Scheele's father, Joachim (or Johann) <mask>, was a grain dealer and brewer from a respected Pomeranian family. His mother was Margaretha Eleanore Warnekros.Friends of Scheele's parents taught him the art of reading prescriptions and the meaning of chemical and pharmaceutical signs. Then, in 1757, at the age of fourteen, <mask> was sent to Gothenburg as an apprentice pharmacist to another family friend and apothecary, Martin Andreas Bauch. Scheele retained this position for eight years. During this time he ran experiments late into the night and read the works of Nicolas Lemery, Caspar Neumann, Johann von Löwenstern-Kunckel and Georg Ernst Stahl (the champion of the phlogiston theory). Much of Scheele's later theoretical speculations were based upon Stahl. In 1765 Scheele worked under the progressive and well-informed apothecary C. M. Kjellström in Malmö, and became acquainted with Anders Jahan Retzius who was a lecturer at the University of Lund and later a professor of chemistry at Stockholm. Scheele arrived in Stockholm  between 1767 and 1769 and  worked as a pharmacist.During this period he discovered tartaric acid and with his friend, Retzius, studied the

masks:
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Christian Scheele
Carl


title: Carl Wilhelm Scheele

texts:
 relation of quicklime to calcium carbonate. While in the capital, he also became acquainted with figures including Abraham Bäck, Peter Jonas Bergius, Bengt Bergius and <mask> von Schultzenheim. In the fall of 1770 Scheele became director of the laboratory of the great pharmacy of Locke, at Uppsala, which is about 40 miles north of Stockholm. The laboratory supplied chemicals to Professor of Chemistry Torbern Bergman. A friendship developed between <mask> and Bergman after Scheele analyzed a reaction which Bergman and his assistant, Johan Gottlieb Gahn, could not resolve. The reaction was between melted saltpetre and acetic acid that produced a red vapor. Further study of this reaction later led to Scheele's discovery of oxygen (see "The theory of phlogiston" below).Based upon this friendship and respect, <mask> was given free use of Bergman's laboratory. Both men were profiting from their working relationship. In 1774 Scheele was nominated by Peter Jonas Bergius to be a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and was elected 4 February 1775. In 1775 Scheele also managed for a short time a pharmacy in Köping. Between the end of 1776 and the beginning of 1777 Scheele established his own business there. On 29 October 1777, Scheele took his seat for the first and only time at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences and on 11 November passed the examination as apothecary before the Royal Medical College, doing so with the highest honours. After his return to Köping he devoted himself, outside of his business, to scientific researches which resulted in a long series of important papers.Isaac Asimov called him "hard-luck Scheele" because he made a number of chemical discoveries that were later credited to others. Existing theories before Scheele

By the time he was a teenager, Scheele had

masks:
Carl Friedreich
Scheele
Scheele


title: Carl Wilhelm Scheele

texts:
 learned the dominant theory of gases which in the 1770s was the phlogiston theory. Phlogiston, classified as "matter of fire", was supposed to be released from any burning material, and when it was exhausted, combustion would stop. When Scheele discovered oxygen he called it "fire air" as it supported combustion. Scheele explained oxygen using phlogistical terms because he did not believe that his discovery disproved the phlogiston theory. Before Scheele made his discovery of oxygen, he studied air. Air was thought to be an element that made up the environment in which chemical reactions took place but did not interfere with the reactions.Scheele's investigation of air enabled him to conclude that air was a mixture of "fire air" and "foul air;" in other words, a mixture of two gases. Scheele performed numerous experiments in which he heated substances such as saltpetre (potassium nitrate), manganese dioxide, heavy metal nitrates, silver carbonate and mercuric oxide. In all of these experiments, he isolated the same gas: his "fire air," which he believed combined with phlogiston in materials to be released during heat-releasing reactions. However, his first publication, Chemische Abhandlung von der Luft und dem Feuer, was delivered to the printer Swederus in 1775, but not published until 1777, at which time both Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier had already published their experimental data and conclusions concerning oxygen and the phlogiston theory. <mask> was credited for finding oxygen with two other people, Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier. The first English edition, Chemical Observation and Experiments on Air and Fire was published in 1780, with an introduction "Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire". The theory of phlogiston
Scheele achieved astonishingly prolific and


title: Carl Wilhelm Scheele

texts: important results without the expensive laboratory equipment to which his Parisian contemporary Antoine Lavoisier was accustomed.Through the studies of Lavoisier, Priestley, Scheele, and others, chemistry was made a standardized field with consistent procedures. Although Scheele was unable to grasp the significance of his discovery of the substance that Lavoisier later named oxygen, his work was essential for the abandonment of the long-held theory of phlogiston. Scheele's study of the gas not yet named oxygen was prompted by a complaint by Torbern Olof Bergman, a professor at Uppsala University who would eventually become Scheele's friend. Bergman informed Scheele that the saltpeter he had purchased from Scheele's employer, after long heating, produced red vapors (now known to be nitrogen dioxide) when it came into contact with acetic acid. Scheele's quick explanation was that the saltpeter had absorbed phlogiston with the heat (had been reduced to nitrite, in modern terms) and gave off a new phlogisticated gas as an active principle when combined with an acid (even a weak acid). Bergman next suggested that Scheele analyze the properties of manganese (IV) oxide. It was through his studies of manganese (IV) oxide that Scheele developed his concept of "fire air" (his name for oxygen).He ultimately obtained oxygen by heating mercuric oxide, silver carbonate, magnesium nitrate, and other nitrate salts. <mask> wrote about his findings to Lavoisier who was able to see the significance of the results. His discovery of oxygen (ca. 1771) was chronologically earlier than the corresponding work of Priestley and Lavoisier, but he did not publish this discovery until 1777, after both of his rivals had published. Although Scheele would always believe in some form of the phlogiston theory, his work


title: Carl Wilhelm Scheele

texts:
 were few methods of chemical characterisation, Scheele would smell and taste any new substances he discovered. Cumulative exposure to arsenic, mercury, lead, their compounds and perhaps hydrofluoric acid which he had discovered, as well as other substances took their toll on Scheele, who died at the early age of 43, on 21 May 1786, at his home in Köping. Doctors said that he died of mercury poisoning. Published papers

All of the following papers were published by
Scheele within a span of fifteen years. Scheele's papers appeared first in the Transactions of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in various periodicals such as Lorenz Florenz Friedrich von Crell's Chemische Annalen.<mask>'s work was collected and published in four languages beginning with Mémoires de Chymie  by Mme. Claudine Picardet in 1785 and Chemical Essays by Thomas Beddoes in  1786, followed by Latin and German. Another English translation was published by Dr Leonard Dobbin, in 1931. See also
Scheelite
<mask>'s Green
Pharmacist
Pharmacy
Pneumatic chemistry
List of independent discoveries

Notes

References

External links

<mask>, Chemical Observations and Experiments on Air and Fire (1780 translation)
Excerpts from the Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire

<mask> <mask>'s d. Königl. Schwed. Acad. d. Wissenschaft Mitgliedes, Chemische Abhandlung von der Luft und dem Feuer in German (source of an above lab equipment image)

1742 births
1786 deaths
18th-century German chemists
18th-century German writers
18th-century German male writers
18th-century Swedish writers
Discoverers of chemical elements
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
People from Stralsund
People from Swedish Pomerania
German emigrants to Sweden
Deaths by poisoning
Swedish chemists
Swedish pharmacists
Rare earth scientists
German people of

masks:
Scheele
Scheele
Scheele
Carl Wilhelm
Scheele


title: Enric Sagnier

texts:
<mask> (; 1858 in Barcelona – 1931) was a Spanish architect. Although now not as well known as his contemporaries Antoni Gaudí, Lluís Domènech i Montaner and Josep Puig i Cadafalch, he was responsible for a number of landmark buildings, was very prolific, and could turn his hand to many styles, including neo-Gothic, neo-Baroque and Modernista. He qualified as an architect in 1882, and one of his earliest works, together with Josep Domènech i Estapà, was the Palau de Justícia in Barcelona. Other well-known buildings by him in Barcelona are the  Caixa de Pensions building in the Via Laietana, the New Customs House (Duana) and the church on the Tibidabo. Life and character
<mask> was born in Barcelona on 21 March 1858, the son of <mask>, president of the Caixa d’Estalvis i Mont de Pietat de Barcelona (a bank), and Clementina Villavecchia Busquets. His father was an outstanding Classics scholar, who translated Xenophon and Anacreon, and the young <mask> was a talented painter and violinist. He studied at the Barcelona Higher School of Architecture, from which he graduated in 1882.He began his professional career as an assistant to Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano: under his instructions he carried out his first work, the refurbishment of the chapel of Sant Josep in the church of Santa Maria de Montserrat abbey (1884). His first important work was the church of Santa Engràcia de Montcada (1886), in neo-Gothic style; it was destroyed during the Spanish Civil War. His first apartment building, the Casa Cuyàs, was built the same year. He enjoyed considerable professional success from the beginning, receiving many commissions from the Church

masks:
Enric Sagnier i Villavecchia
Enric Sagnier
Lluís Sagnier i Nadal
Enric


title: Enric Sagnier

texts:
 and the Catalan aristocracy. In 1886, while still in his twenties, he was commissioned, together with Josep Domènech i Estapà, to design Barcelona's new Law Courts. Construction of this enormous project began the following year, and that same year <mask> married Dolors Vidal-Ribas i Torrents. The couple had six children,  of whom two died young and one, Josep Maria, also became an architect.<mask> <mask> was a calm man of devout Catholic faith, who devoted his whole life to his career, and received many honours, such as the Barcelona City Council's Gold Medal for having won a prize in the Council's architecture competition three years running (1917). He was a member of the Acadèmia de Belles Arts de Sant Jordi and the Cercle Artístic de Sant Lluc, a society of Catholic artists, for which he designed the emblem. He also became a member of the Museums Board and a member of the board of the Caixa d’Estalvis de Barcelona. He was occasionally involved in politics, serving as Provincial Deputy on two occasions, representing a Catholic group allied to the Lliga Regionalista, the  Centre de Defensa Social. He maintained close links with the Church, particularly the Salesians; he was appointed Diocesan architect of Barcelona, and in 1923 the Pope created him a Marquis. In his later years he worked with his son Josep <mask> i Vidal. He died in Barcelona in 1931.Works
Three things are characteristic of Sagnier's work: he was very prolific; he was always ready to adopt new technologies; and he eschewed a rigidly personal style, preferring to adapt to changing tastes. His career can be divided into three periods: before 1900 his work was eclectic,

masks:
Sagnier
Enric
Sagnier
Maria Sagnier


title: Enric Sagnier

texts: volumes flanking an obelisk.In 1903 <mask> became architect to the Benedictine abbey of Montserrat, taking over from his former mentor Villar y Lozano. He was responsible for a number of works there, all of which have now disappeared: the chapel of the Most Holy Sacrament; a sumptuous marble altar with gilded metalwork; the Second Mystery of the Rosary, with a sculptural group by Agapit Vallmitjana i Abarca; and the sculptural group of the Stations of the Cross (1904–16), on the hillside of Montserrat, with sculptures by Eusebi Arnau, made up of fourteen Stations in a vaguely Gaudiesque style: roughly hewn surfaces, naturalistic pinnacles, etc. It was perhaps because of this link with the Benedictine order that he received a commission to design a school in Perth (Australia), where there was a mission, New Norcia, under the aegis of a Catalan abbot, Fulgenci Torres Mayans; there he was responsible for the church and Saint Gertrude school (1904–1906), in neo-Gothic style. Also from this period, although not at all Modernista in style, is what is undoubtedly <mask>'s most important religious work, the Templo Expiatorio del Sagrado Corazón, on the Tibidabo in Barcelona, work on which began in 1902 and went on until 1961, continued after <mask> <mask>'s death by his son Josep Maria. This work was fruit of the patronage of Dorotea de Chopitea, who along with other promoters donated land to Saint John Bosco during his visit to Barcelona in 1886, for the construction of a church dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, after the one built in Rome by Bosco himself (Sacro Cuore di Gesù), as well as the famous Sacré-Cœur in  Paris. The foundation

masks: Sagnier Sagnier Enric Sagnier


title: Enric Sagnier

texts:
 the church, made up of beams supported on diaphragm arches, similar to those of the Santa Àgata chapel in the mediaeval royal palace in the Gothic Quarter, and the style of the tower in the west end, reminiscent of those of Santa Maria del Mar. Mature period

In the following years, Sagnier entered a period of less intense professional activity, and received ample official recognition. He gradually abandoned Modernisme, adopting a personal, eclectic Classical style. In 1911 he won the competition to design the Real Club Marítimo in Barcelona (built between 1911 and 1913), an octagonal building roofed by a dome and topped by a sort of lighthouse; it was demolished in 1957. In 1912 he began to build the French Chapel in Carrer Bruc, with a crypt divided into three aisles and an upper church in neo-Romanesque style, finished in 1927 probably by his son Josep Maria. Also in 1912 he built the palatial residence of the marquis of Alella, on the corner of the streets of Muntaner and Marià Cubí, a group of buildings in a style influenced by Plateresque, with paintings by Josep Maria Sert.Between 1916 and 1936 Sagnier designed a complex of buildings for the Provincial Board for the Protection of Children and Suppression of Begging, which were completed by Josep <mask>. These occupied a whole city block in the Bogatell district, an ambitious facility divided into pavilions with a frontage on several streets, with courtyards in the centre. Most of the complex was demolished in 1970, leaving only the pavilion currently used to house the Wad-Ras prison. Perhaps <mask>'s most important work from this period is the headquarters building for the Caixa

masks:
Maria Sagnier
Sagnier


title: Enric Sagnier

texts:
 Llimona. Also, at the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929 in Seville he built the pavilion for the Catalan provinces, a building in the shape of the traditional Catalan farmhouse, the masia.List of principal works

Barcelona

Castelldefels

Monistrol de Montserrat

Montcada i Reixac

Perth (Australia)

Sabadell

Sant Pere de Ribes

San Sebastián

Seville

Sitges

Valencia

Vic

References and bibliography
Adapted from Spanish Wikipedia
Various authors: Modernisme i Modernistes, Lunwerg, Barcelona, 2001. Barjau, Santi: <mask> <mask>, Labor, Barcelona, 1992. Barral i Altet, Xavier: Art de Catalunya. Arquitectura religiosa moderna i contemporània, L’isard, Barcelona, 1999. Fontbona, Francesc y Miralles, Francesc: Història de l’Art Català. Del modernisme al noucentisme (1888–1917), Ed. 62, Barcelona, 1985.Lacuesta, Raquel: Modernisme a l’entorn de Barcelona, Diputació de Barcelona, Barcelona, 2006. Navascués Palacio, Pedro: Summa Artis. Arquitectura española (1808–1914), Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 2000. Permanyer, Lluís: Barcelona modernista, Ed. Polígrafa, Barcelona, 1993. Various authors: <mask>. Arquitecte, Barcelona 1858-1931, <mask> Bassas, Barcelona, 2007.Barjau, Santi: Ruta Sagnier: Arquitecto. Barcelona 1858-1931, Institut Municipal del Paisatge Urbá i La Qualitat de Vida, Ayuntamiento de Barcelona, 2009. Höfer, Candida: Sagnier Architect by Candida Höfer, <mask> Bassas, Barcelona, 2012. External links
 <mask> Sagnier Biography of <mask> Sagnier
 Antonio Sagnier

Architects of Roman Catholic churches
Architects from Catalonia
1858 births
1931 deaths
Modernisme architects
People from Barcelona
Spanish ecclesiastical architects
Spanish Roman

masks:
Enric
Sagnier
Sagnier
Antonio Sagnier
Antonio Sagnier
Enric
Enric


title: Jan Smuts

texts: Field Marshal <mask>,  (24 May 1870  11 September 1950) was a South African statesman, military leader and philosopher. In addition to holding various military and cabinet posts, he served as prime minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 to 1924 and 1939 to 1948. Smuts was born to Afrikaner parents in the British Cape Colony. He was educated at Victoria College, Stellenbosch before reading law at Christ's College, Cambridge on a scholarship. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1894 but returned home the following year. In the leadup to the Second Boer War, Smuts practiced law in Pretoria, the capital of the South African Republic. He led the republic's delegation to the Bloemfontein Conference and served as an officer in a commando unit following the outbreak of war in 1899.In 1902 he played a key role in negotiating the Treaty of Vereeniging, which ended the war and resulted in the annexation of the South African Republic and Orange Free State into the British Empire. He subsequently helped negotiate self-government for the Transvaal Colony, becoming a cabinet minister under Louis Botha. <mask> played a leading role in the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, helping shape its constitution. He and Botha established the South African Party, with Botha becoming the union's first prime minister and <mask> holding multiple cabinet portfolios. As defence minister he was responsible for the Union Defence Force during World War I. <mask> personally led troops in the East African campaign in 1916 and the following year joined the Imperial War Cabinet in London. He played a leading role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, advocating for the creation of the League of Nations and securing South

masks:
Jan Christian Smuts
Smuts
Smuts
Smuts


title: Jan Smuts

texts:
 African control over the former German South-West Africa. In 1919, <mask> replaced Botha as prime minister, holding the office until the South African Party's defeat at the 1924 general election by J.B. M. Hertzog's National Party. He spent several years in academia, during which he coined the term "holism", before eventually re-entering politics as deputy prime minister in a coalition with Hertzog; in 1934 their parties subsequently merged to form the United Party. Smuts returned as prime minister in 1939, leading South Africa into World War II at the head of a pro-interventionist faction. He was appointed field marshal in 1941 and in 1945 signed the UN Charter, the only signer of the Treaty of Versailles to do so. His second term in office ended with the victory of the reconstituted National Party at the 1948 general election, with the new government beginning the implementation of apartheid. Smuts was an internationalist who played a key role in establishing and defining the League of Nations, United Nations and Commonwealth of Nations. Early life and education

Smuts was born on 24 May 1870, at the family farm, Bovenplaats, near Malmesbury, in the Cape Colony.His parents, Jacobus Smuts and his wife Catharina, were prosperous, traditional Afrikaner farmers, long established and highly respected. As the second son of the family, rural custom dictated that <mask> would remain working on the farm. In this system, typically only the first son was supported for a full, formal education. In 1882, when <mask> was twelve, his elder brother died, and <mask> was sent to school in his place. <mask> attended the school in nearby Riebeek West. He made excellent progress despite his late start, and caught up with his contemporaries

masks: Smuts Jan Jan Jan Jan


title: Jan Smuts

texts: within four years. He was admitted to Victoria College, Stellenbosch, in 1886, at the age of sixteen.At Stellenbosch, he learned High Dutch, German, and Ancient Greek, and immersed himself in literature, the classics, and Bible studies. His deeply traditional upbringing and serious outlook led to social isolation from his peers. He made outstanding academic progress, graduating in 1891 with double first-class honours in Literature and Science. During his last years at Stellenbosch, <mask> began to cast off some of his shyness and reserve. At this time he met Isie Krige, whom he later married. On graduation from Victoria College, Smuts won the Ebden scholarship for overseas study. He decided to attend the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom to read law at Christ's College.<mask> found it difficult to settle at Cambridge. He felt homesick and isolated by his age and different upbringing from the English undergraduates. Worries over money also contributed to his unhappiness, as his scholarship was insufficient to cover his university expenses. He confided these worries to Professor J. I. Marais, a friend from Victoria College. In reply, Professor Marais enclosed a cheque for a substantial sum, by way of loan, encouraging <mask> to let him know if he ever found himself in need again. Thanks to Marais, <mask>'s financial standing was secure. He gradually began to enter more into the social aspects of the university, although he retained a single-minded dedication to his studies.During this time in Cambridge, <mask> studied a diverse number of subjects in addition to law. He wrote a book, Walt Whitman: A Study in the Evolution of Personality. It was not published until 1973, after his death, but it can be seen that

masks: Smuts Smuts Smuts Smuts Smuts


title: Jan Smuts

texts:
 Smuts in this book had already conceptualized his thinking for his later wide-ranging philosophy of holism. Smuts graduated in 1894 with a double first. Over the previous two years, he had received numerous academic prizes and accolades, including the coveted George Long prize in Roman Law and Jurisprudence. One of his tutors, Professor Maitland, a leading figure among English legal historians, described Smuts as the most brilliant student he had ever met. Lord Todd, the Master of Christ's College, said in 1970 that "in 500 years of the College's history, of all its members, past and present, three had been truly outstanding: John Milton, Charles Darwin and <mask>ts."In December 1894, Smuts passed the examinations for the Inns of Court, entering the Middle Temple. His old Cambridge college, Christ's College, offered him a fellowship in Law. Smuts turned his back on a potentially distinguished legal future. By June 1895, he had returned to the Cape Colony, determined to make his future there. Career

Law and politics

Smuts began to practise law in Cape Town, but his abrasive nature made him few friends. Finding little financial success in the law, he began to devote more and more of his time to politics and journalism, writing for the Cape Times. Smuts was intrigued by the prospect of a united South Africa, and joined the Afrikaner Bond.By good fortune, <mask>' father knew the leader of the group, <mask>. Hofmeyr in turn recommended <mask> to Cecil Rhodes, who owned the De Beers mining company. In 1895, Smuts became an advocate and supporter of Rhodes. When Rhodes launched the Jameson Raid, in the summer of 1895–96, <mask> was outraged. Feeling betrayed by his employer, friend and political ally, he resigned from De Beers,

masks:
Jan Smu
Smuts
Jan Hofmeyr
Jan
Smuts


title: Jan Smuts

texts:
 and left political life. Instead he became state attorney in the capital of the South African Republic, Pretoria. After the Jameson Raid, relations between the British and the Afrikaners had deteriorated steadily.By 1898, war seemed imminent. Orange Free State President Martinus Steyn called for a peace conference at Bloemfontein to settle each side's grievances. With an intimate knowledge of the British, Smuts took control of the Transvaal delegation. Sir Alfred Milner, head of the British delegation, took exception to his dominance, and conflict between the two led to the collapse of the conference, consigning South Africa to war. The Boer War

On 11 October 1899 the Boer republics declared war and launched an offensive into the British-held Natal and Cape Colony areas, beginning the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. In the early stages of the conflict, Smuts served as Paul Kruger's eyes and ears in Pretoria, handling propaganda, logistics, communication with generals and diplomats, and anything else that was required. In the second phase of the war, from mid-1900, Smuts served under Koos de la Rey, who commanded 500 commandos in the Western Transvaal.Smuts excelled at hit-and-run warfare, and the unit evaded and harassed a British army forty times its size. President Paul Kruger and the deputation in Europe thought that there was good hope for their cause in the Cape Colony. They decided to send General de la Rey there to assume supreme command, but then decided to act more cautiously when they realised that General de la Rey could hardly be spared in the Western Transvaal. Consequently, <mask> was left with a small force of 300 men, while another 100 men followed him. By January 1902 the British scorched-earth policy left


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texts: little grazing land. One hundred of the cavalry that had joined Smuts were therefore too weak to continue and so Smuts had to leave these men with General Kritzinger. Intelligence indicated that at this time Smuts had about 3,000 men.To end the conflict, Smuts sought to take a major target, the copper-mining town of Okiep in the present-day Northern Cape Province (April–May 1902). With a full assault impossible, Smuts packed a train full of explosives, and tried to push it downhill, into the town, in order to bring the enemy garrison to its knees. Although this failed, <mask> had proved his point: that he would stop at nothing to defeat his enemies. Norman Kemp Smith wrote that General Smuts read from Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason on the evening before the raid. Smith contended that this showed how Kant's critique can be a solace and a refuge, as well as a means to sharpen the wit. Combined with the British failure to pacify the Transvaal, Smuts' success left the United Kingdom with no choice but to offer a ceasefire and a peace conference, to be held at Vereeniging. Before the conference, Smuts met Lord Kitchener at Kroonstad station, where they discussed the proposed terms of surrender.Smuts then took a leading role in the negotiations between the representatives from all of the commandos from the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (15–31 May 1902). Although he admitted that, from a purely military perspective, the war could continue, he stressed the importance of not sacrificing the Afrikaner people for that independence. He was very conscious that "more than 20,000 women and children have already died in the concentration camps of the enemy". He felt it would have been a crime to continue the


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 war without the assurance of help from elsewhere and declared, "Comrades, we decided to stand to the bitter end. Let us now, like men, admit that that end has come for us, come in a more bitter shape than we ever thought." His opinions were representative of the conference, which then voted by 54 to 6 in favour of peace. Representatives of the Governments met Lord Kitchener and at five minutes past eleven on 31 May 1902, the Acting State President of the South African Republic, Schalk Willem Burger signed the Treaty of Vereeniging, followed by the members of his government, Acting State President of the Orange Free State, Christiaan De Wet, and the members of his government.A British Transvaal

For all Smuts' exploits as a general and a negotiator, nothing could mask the fact that the Boers had been defeated. Lord Milner had full control of all South African affairs, and established an Anglophone elite, known as Milner's Kindergarten. As an Afrikaner, <mask> was excluded. Defeated but not deterred, in January 1905, he decided to join with the other former Transvaal generals to form a political party, Het Volk ('The People'), to fight for the Afrikaner cause. Louis Botha was elected leader, and Smuts his deputy. When his term of office expired, Milner was replaced as High Commissioner by the more conciliatory Lord Selborne. Smuts saw an opportunity and pounced, urging Botha to persuade the Liberals to support Het Volk's cause.When the Conservative government under Arthur Balfour collapsed, in December 1905, the decision paid off. <mask> joined Botha in London, and sought to negotiate full self-government for the Transvaal within British South Africa. Using the thorny political issue of South Asian labourers ('coolies'), the

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texts: South Africans convinced Prime Minister Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and, with him, the cabinet and Parliament. Through 1906, Smuts worked on the new constitution for the Transvaal, and, in December 1906, elections were held for the Transvaal parliament. Despite being shy and reserved, unlike the showman Botha, <mask> won a comfortable victory in the Wonderboom constituency, near Pretoria. His victory was one of many, with Het Volk winning in a landslide and Botha forming the government. To reward his loyalty and efforts, Smuts was given two key cabinet positions: Colonial Secretary and Education Secretary.<mask> proved to be an effective leader, if unpopular. As Education Secretary, he had fights with the Dutch Reformed Church, of which he had once been a dedicated member, which demanded Calvinist teachings in schools. As Colonial Secretary, he opposed a movement for equal rights for South Asian workers, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. During the years of Transvaal self-government, nobody could avoid the predominant political debate of the day: South African unification. Ever since the British victory in the war, it was an inevitability, but it remained up to the South Africans to decide what sort of country would be formed, and how it would be formed. Smuts favoured a unitary state, with power centralised in Pretoria, with English as the only official language, and with a more inclusive electorate. To impress upon his compatriots his vision, he called a constitutional convention in Durban, in October 1908.There, <mask> was up against a hard-talking Orange River Colony delegation, who refused every one of Smuts' demands. Smuts had successfully predicted this opposition, and their objections, and tailored his own

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 ambitions appropriately. He allowed compromise on the location of the capital, on the official language, and on suffrage, but he refused to budge on the fundamental structure of government. As the convention drew into autumn, the Orange leaders began to see a final compromise as necessary to secure the concessions that Smuts had already made. They agreed to <mask>' draft South African constitution, which was duly ratified by the South African colonies. <mask> and Botha took the constitution to London, where it was passed by Parliament and given Royal Assent by King Edward VII in December 1909. The Old Boers

The Union of South Africa was born, and the Afrikaners held the key to political power, as the majority of the increasingly whites-only electorate.Although Botha was appointed prime minister of the new country, <mask> was given three key ministries: Interior, Mines, and Defence. Undeniably, <mask> was the second most powerful man in South Africa. To solidify their dominance of South African politics, the Afrikaners united to form the South African Party, a new pan-South African Afrikaner party. The harmony and co-operation soon ended. <mask> was criticised for his overarching powers, and the cabinet was reshuffled. <mask> lost Interior and Mines, but gained control of Finance. That was still too much for <mask>' opponents, who decried his possession of both Defence and Finance, two departments that were usually at loggerheads.At the 1913 South African Party conference, the Old Boers (Hertzog, Steyn, De Wet), called for Botha and <mask> to step down. The two narrowly survived a confidence vote, and the troublesome triumvirate stormed out, leaving the party for good. With the schism in internal party politics came a new

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 threat to the mines that brought South Africa its wealth. A small-scale miners' dispute flared into a full-blown strike, and rioting broke out in Johannesburg after <mask> intervened heavy-handedly. After police shot dead twenty-one strikers, <mask> and Botha headed unaccompanied to Johannesburg to resolve the situation personally. Facing down threats to their own lives, they negotiated a cease-fire. But the cease-fire did not hold, and in 1914, a railway strike turned into a general strike.Threats of a revolution caused <mask> to declare martial law. He acted ruthlessly, deporting union leaders without trial and using Parliament to absolve him and the government of any blame retroactively. That was too much for the Old Boers, who set up their own National Party to fight the all-powerful Botha-Smuts partnership. First World War

During World War I, <mask> formed the Union Defence Force. His first task was to suppress the Maritz Rebellion, which was accomplished by November 1914. Next he and Louis Botha led the South African army into German South-West Africa and conquered it (see the South-West Africa Campaign for details). In 1916 General Smuts was put in charge of the conquest of German East Africa.Col (later BGen) J.H.V. Crowe commanded the artillery in East Africa under General Smuts and published an account of the campaign, General Smuts' Campaign in East Africa in 1918. <mask> was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on 18 February 1916, and to honorary lieutenant general for distinguished service in the field on 1 January 1917. Smuts' chief Intelligence officer, Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, wrote very critically of his conduct of the campaign. He believed Horace Smith-Dorrien (who had saved the British Army


title: Jan Smuts

texts: during the retreat from Mons and was the original choice as commander in 1916) would have quickly defeated the Germans. In particular, Meinertzhagen thought that frontal attacks would have been decisive, and less costly than the flanking movements preferred by Smuts, which took longer, so that thousands of Imperial troops died of disease in the field. He wrote: "Smuts has cost Britain many hundreds of lives and many millions of pounds by his caution... Smuts was not an astute soldier; a brilliant statesman and politician but no soldier."Meinertzhagen wrote these comments in October/November 1916, in the weeks after being relieved by <mask> due to symptoms of depression, and he was invalided back to England shortly thereafter. Early in 1917, <mask> left Africa and went to London, as he had been invited to join the Imperial War Cabinet and the War Policy Committee by David Lloyd George. Smuts initially recommended renewed Western Front attacks and a policy of attrition, lest with Russian commitment to the war wavering, France or Italy would be tempted to make a separate peace. Lloyd George wanted a commander "of the dashing type" for the Middle East in succession to Murray, but Smuts refused the command (late May) unless promised resources for a decisive victory, and he agreed with Robertson that Western Front commitments did not justify a serious attempt to capture Jerusalem. Allenby was appointed instead. Like other members of the War Cabinet, Smuts' commitment to Western Front efforts was shaken by Third Ypres. In 1917, following the German Gotha Raids, and lobbying by Viscount French, Smuts wrote a review of the British Air Services, which came to be called the Smuts Report.He was helped in large part in this by General


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 Sir David Henderson who was seconded to him. This report led to the treatment of air as a separate force, which eventually became the Royal Air Force. By mid-January 1918, Lloyd George was toying with the idea of appointing Smuts Commander-in-Chief of all land and sea forces facing the Ottoman Empire, reporting directly to the War Cabinet rather than to Robertson. Early in 1918, <mask> was sent to Egypt to confer with Allenby and Marshall, and prepare for major efforts in that theatre. Before his departure, alienated by Robertson's exaggerated estimates of the required reinforcements, he urged Robertson's removal. Allenby told Smuts of Robertson's private instructions (sent by hand of Walter Kirke, appointed by Robertson as Smuts' adviser) that there was no merit in any further advance. He worked with Smuts to draw up plans, using three reinforcement divisions from Mesopotamia, to reach Haifa by June and Damascus by the autumn, the speed of the advance limited by the need to lay fresh rail track.This was the foundation of Allenby's successful offensive later in the year. Like most British Empire political and military leaders in World War I, <mask> thought the American Expeditionary Forces lacked the proper leadership and experience to be effective quickly. He supported the Anglo-French amalgamation policy towards the Americans. In particular, he had a low opinion of General John J. Pershing's leadership skills, so much so that proposed to Lloyd George that Pershing be relieved of command and US forces be placed "under someone more confident, like [himself]". This did not endear him to the Americans once it was leaked. Statesman

<mask> and Botha were key negotiators at the Paris Peace Conference. Both were in favour of


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texts: reconciliation with Germany and limited reparations.<mask> advocated a powerful League of Nations, which failed to materialise. He was sent to Budapest to negotiate with Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic to withdraw from unrecognized territory, and the Hungarian Communist Party's refusal to meet him led to the conference's approval of a Czechoslovak-Romanian invasion and harsher terms in the Treaty of Trianon. The Treaty of Versailles gave South Africa a Class C mandate over German South-West Africa (which later became Namibia), which was occupied from 1919 until withdrawal in 1990. At the same time, Australia was given a similar mandate over German New Guinea, which it held until 1975. Both Smuts and the Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes feared the rising power of Japan in the post First World War world. When former German East Africa was divided into three mandated territories (Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanganyika) Smutsland was one of the proposed names for what became Tanganyika. Smuts, who had called for South African territorial expansion all the way to the River Zambesi since the late 19th century, was ultimately disappointed with the League awarding South-West Africa only a mandate status, as he had looked forward to formally incorporating the territory to South Africa.<mask> returned to South African politics after the conference. When Botha died in 1919, <mask> was elected prime minister, serving until a shocking defeat in 1924 at the hands of the National Party. After the death of the former American President Woodrow Wilson, <mask> was quoted as saying that: "Not Wilson, but humanity failed at Paris." While in Britain for an Imperial Conference in June 1921, <mask> went to Ireland and met Éamon de Valera to


title: Jan Smuts

texts: force.However, no commission of enquiry was appointed. The third was the Bondelswarts Rebellion, in which Smuts supported the actions of the South African Administration in attacking the Bondelswarts in South West Africa. The mandatory administration moved to crush what they called a rebellion of 500 to 600 people, of which 200 were said to be armed (although only about 40 weapons were captured after the Bondelswarts were crushed). Gysbert Hofmeyr, the Mandatory Administrator, organised 400 armed men, and sent in aircraft to bomb the Bondelswarts. Casualties included 100 Bondelswart deaths, including a few women and children. A further 468 men were either wounded or taken prisoner. South Africa's international reputation was tarnished.Ruth First, a South African anti-apartheid activist and scholar, describes the Bondelswarts shooting as "the Sharpeville of the 1920s". As a botanist, Smuts collected plants extensively over southern Africa. He went on several botanical expeditions in the 1920s and 1930s with John Hutchinson, former botanist-in-charge of the African section of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens and taxonomist of note. Smuts was a keen mountaineer and supporter of mountaineering. One of his favourite rambles was up Table Mountain along a route now known as Smuts' Track. In February 1923 he unveiled a memorial to members of the Mountain Club who had been killed in World War I. In 1925, assessing Smuts's role in international affairs, African-American historian and Pan-Africanist W. E. B.Du Bois wrote in an article which would be incorporated into the pivotal Harlem Renaissance text The New Negro,<mask> is today, in his world aspects, the greatest protagonist of the white race. He is fighting to take


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 states that:The new Tyranny, disguised in attractive patriotic colours, is enticing youth everywhere into its service. Freedom must make a great counterstroke to save itself and our fair western civilisation. Once more the heroic call is coming to our youth. The fight for human freedom is indeed the supreme issue of the future, as it has always been. Second World War

After nine years in opposition and academia, Smuts returned as deputy prime minister in a 'grand coalition' government under J.B. M. Hertzog. When Hertzog advocated neutrality towards Nazi Germany in 1939, the coalition split and Hertzog's motion to remain out of the war was defeated in Parliament by a vote of 80 to 67. Governor-General Sir Patrick Duncan refused Hertzog's request to dissolve parliament for a general election on the issue. Hertzog resigned and Duncan invited <mask>, Hertzog's coalition partner, to form a government and become prime minister for the second time in order to lead the country into World War II on the side of the Allies. On 24 May 1941 <mask> was appointed a field marshal of the British Army. <mask>' importance to the Imperial war effort was emphasised by a quite audacious plan, proposed as early as 1940, to appoint <mask> as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, should Churchill die or otherwise become incapacitated during the war. This idea was put forward by Sir John Colville, Churchill's private secretary, to Queen Mary and then to George VI, both of whom warmed to the idea.In May 1945, he represented South Africa in San Francisco at the drafting of the United Nations Charter. Also in 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Prize in Peace. However, he did not explicitly

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 nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull. Later life

In domestic policy, a number of social security reforms were carried out during <mask>' second period in office as Prime Minister. Old-age pensions and disability grants were extended to 'Indians' and 'Africans' in 1944 and 1947 respectively, although there were differences in the level of grants paid out based on race. The Workmen's Compensation Act of 1941 "insured all employees irrespective of payment of the levy by employers and increased the number of diseases covered by the law," and the Unemployment Insurance Act of 1946 introduced unemployment insurance on a national scale, albeit with exclusions.<mask> continued to represent his country abroad. He was a leading guest at the 1947 wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. At home, his preoccupation with the war had severe political repercussions in South Africa. <mask>' support of the war and his support for the Fagan Commission made him unpopular amongst the Afrikaner community and Daniel François Malan's pro-apartheid stance won the Reunited National Party the 1948 general election. In 1948, he was elected Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, becoming the first person from outside the United Kingdom to hold that position. He held the position until his death two years later. He accepted the appointment as Colonel-in-Chief of Regiment Westelike Provinsie as from 17 September 1948.In 1949, <mask> was bitterly opposed to the London Declaration which transformed British Commonwealth into the Commonwealth of Nations and made it possible for Republics (such as the newly independent India) to remain its members. In the South African context, republicanism was mainly


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 identified with Afrikaner Conservatism and with tighter racial segregation. Death

On 29 May 1950, a week after the public celebration of his eightieth birthday in Johannesburg and Pretoria, <mask> suffered a coronary thrombosis. He died of a subsequent heart attack on his family farm of Doornkloof, Irene, near Pretoria, on 11 September 1950. Relations with Churchill
In 1899, Smuts interrogated the young Winston Churchill, who had been captured by Afrikaners during the Boer War, which was the first time they met. The next time was in 1906, while Smuts was leading a mission about South Africa's future to London before Churchill, then Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies. The British Cabinet shared Churchill's sympathetic view, which led to self-government within the year, followed by dominion status for the Union of South Africa in 1910.Their association continued in World War I, when Lloyd George appointed <mask>, in 1917, to the war cabinet in which Churchill served as Munitions Minister. By then, both had formed a fast friendship that continued through Churchill's "wilderness years" and World War II, to <mask>'s death. Lord Moran, Churchill's personal physician, wrote in his diary: Smuts is the only man who has any influence with the PM; indeed, he is the only ally I have in pressing counsels of common sense on the PM. Smuts sees so clearly that Winston is irreplaceable, that he may make an effort to persuade him to be sensible. Churchill:Smuts and I are like two old love-birds moulting together on a perch, but still able to peck. When Eden said at a meeting of the Chiefs of Staff (29 October 1942) that Montgomery's Middle East offensive was "petering out", after having some late night drinks with Churchill the

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 previous night, Alanbrooke had told Churchill "fairly plainly" what he thought of Eden's ability to judge the tactical situation from a distance (Churchill was always impatient for his generals to attack at once). He was supported at the Chiefs of Staff meeting by Smuts.Alanbrooke said he was fortunate to be supported by: <blockquote>
a flow of words from the mouth of that wonderful statesman. It was as if oil had been poured on the troubled waters. The temperamental film-stars returned to their tasks - peace reigned in the dove cot! </blockquote>

Views
Non-white suffrage
At the Imperial Conference of 1925 Smuts stated:

Holism and related academic work

While in academia, Smuts pioneered the concept of holism, which he defined as "[the] fundamental factor operative towards the creation of wholes in the universe" in his 1926 book, Holism and Evolution. Smuts' formulation of holism has been linked with his political-military activity, especially his aspiration to create a league of nations. As one biographer said:
It had very much in common with his philosophy of life as subsequently developed and embodied in his Holism and Evolution. Small units must develop into bigger wholes, and they in their turn again must grow into larger and ever-larger structures without cessation.Advancement lay along that path. Thus the unification of the four provinces in the Union of South Africa, the idea of the British Commonwealth of Nations, and, finally, the great whole resulting from the combination of the peoples of the earth in a great league of nations were but a logical progression consistent with his philosophical tenets. Segregation
<mask> was, for most of his political life, a vocal supporter of segregation of the races, and in


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 1929 he justified the erection of separate institutions for blacks and whites in tones prescient of the later practice of apartheid:

In general, Smuts' view of black Africans was patronising: he saw them as immature human beings who needed the guidance of whites, an attitude that reflected the common perceptions of most non-blacks in his lifetime. Of black Africans he stated that:

Although Gandhi and Smuts were adversaries in many ways, they had a mutual respect and even admiration for each other. Before Gandhi returned to India in 1914, he presented General Smuts with a pair of sandals (now held by Ditsong National Museum of Cultural History) made by Gandhi himself. In 1939, <mask>, then prime minister, wrote an essay for a commemorative work compiled for Gandhi's 70th birthday and returned the sandals with the following message: "I have worn these sandals for many a summer, even though I may feel that I am not worthy to stand in the shoes of so great a man." <mask> is often accused of being a politician who extolled the virtues of humanitarianism and liberalism abroad while failing to practise what he preached at home in South Africa.This was most clearly illustrated when India, in 1946, made a formal complaint in the UN concerning the legalised racial discrimination against Indians in South Africa. Appearing personally before the United Nations General Assembly, <mask> defended the policies of his government by fervently pleading that India's complaint was a matter of domestic jurisdiction. However, the General Assembly censured South Africa for its racial policies and called upon the Smuts government to bring its treatment of the South African Indians in conformity with the basic principles of the United Nations


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 Zionist organisations. His government granted de facto recognition to Israel on 24 May 1948 and de jure'' recognition on 14 May 1949 (following the defeat of Smuts' United Party by the Reunited National Party in the 26 May 1948 General Election, 12 days after David Ben Gurion declared Jewish Statehood, the newly formed nation being given the name Israel).However, <mask> was deputy prime minister when the Hertzog government in 1937 passed the Aliens Act that was aimed at preventing Jewish immigration to South Africa. The act was seen as a response to growing anti-Semitic sentiments among Afrikaners. Smuts lobbied against the White Paper of 1939, and several streets and a kibbutz, Ramat Yohanan, in Israel are named after him. He also wrote an epitaph for Weizmann, describing him as "the greatest Jew since Moses." <mask> once said:

Legacy

One of his greatest international accomplishments was the establishment of the League of Nations, the exact design and implementation of which relied upon Smuts. He later urged the formation of a new international organisation for peace: the UN. Smuts wrote the first draft of the preamble to the United Nations Charter, and was the only person to sign the charters of both the League of Nations and the UN.He sought to redefine the relationship between the United Kingdom and her colonies, helping to establish the British Commonwealth, as it was known at the time. This proved to be a two-way street; in 1946 the General Assembly requested the Smuts government to take measures to bring the treatment of Indians in South Africa into line with the provisions of the United Nations Charter. In 1932, the kibbutz Ramat Yohanan in Israel was named after him. Smuts was a vocal proponent of the creation


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 of a Jewish state, and spoke out against the rising antisemitism of the 1930s. A street in the Jerusalem suburb of German Colony and a boulevard in Tel Aviv are named in his honour. The international airport serving Johannesburg was known as <mask>ts Airport from its construction in 1952 until 1994. In 1994, it was renamed to Johannesburg International Airport to remove any political connotations.In 2006, it was renamed again to its current name, OR Tambo International Airport, for the ANC politician Oliver Tambo. In 2004, <mask> was named by voters in a poll held by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) as one of the top ten Greatest South Africans of all time. The final positions of the top ten were to be decided by a second round of voting but the programme was taken off the air owing to political controversy and Nelson Mandela was given the number one spot based on the first round of voting. In the first round, Field Marshal <mask> came ninth. <mask>, a peak in the Canadian Rockies, is named after him. In August 2019, the South African Army Regiment Westelike Provinsie was renamed after Smuts as the General <mask>ts Regiment. The Smuts House Museum at <mask>' home in Irene is dedicated to promoting his legacy.Orders, decorations and medals
Field Marshal <mask> was honoured with orders, decorations and medals from several

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<mask>,  (26 July 1918 – 1 October 1987) was an Australian judge, prominent legal academic and military officer. He became a judge of three courts in Australia, and eventually became chief justice of the Australian Capital Territory. In the 1970s he decided one of Australia's earliest Aboriginal Land rights cases. His service to the Australian legal community is commemorated by the annual Sir <mask> Memorial lectures in Canberra. Early years
<mask> was born on 26 July 1918 in Mount Lofty, South Australia. He was the son of Brigadier <mask>  and <mask> (née Kelly). His father was at that time a prominent legal practitioner in South Australia, and was later to serve as a Commissioner of the now defunct Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration.<mask> was educated at St Peter's College, Adelaide and was an undergraduate at St Mark's College at the University of Adelaide. He graduated with First Class Honours in English Literature from the University of Adelaide. He won the John Howard Clark Prize as the candidate who was placed highest in the final examination. He was chosen as the Rhodes Scholar for South Australia in 1940, but did not take it up immediately because of the outbreak of the Second World War. On 14 May 1940, during the Second World War, <mask> enlisted in the Australian Army at Adelaide. He served with the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) on active service in North Africa and Papua New Guinea until his discharge on 7 November 1945 as a captain in the 2/9th Division Cavalry Regiment. Legal and academic life
At the end of the war, he took up his Rhodes Scholarship at Magdalen College, University of Oxford.He and another South Australian, the Honourable Justice Andrew Wells, became the first Dominion students to be awarded the Eldon Law Scholarship. As a result, he attended the University of Oxford in 1949 and graduated with a Bachelor of Civil Law. <mask> was called to the Bar in the United Kingdom in

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 Inner Temple in 1949. <mask> returned to Australia after his Oxford studies. He was admitted as a legal practitioner in South Australia in 1951. Between 1950 and 1957 he was the Bonython Professor of Law at the Adelaide University. He married his wife Bryony Helen Dutton Curkeet, the daughter of the late Henry Hampden Dutton and Emily Martin Dutton of Anlaby, Kapunda, South Australia, on 1 December 1951 at her brother's home at Anlaby.He became the Dean of the Faculty of Law in 1951 and served as Dean there until 1957. In 1957 he left full-time academic life to become a partner in the Adelaide law firm Finlaysons; however, he continued as a member of the Faculty until 1965. His daughter and son were born while he was teaching at the Adelaide University. In 1957 he was commissioned as a lieutenant colonel and given command of the Adelaide University Regiment. In 1962 he was commissioned as a colonel and given command of the 1st Battalion, Royal South Australia Regiment. He served there until 1965. <mask> was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) on 1 January 1965 in honour of his military service.Judicial career
<mask> left academic life and was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory in 1966. During this time, he became President of the Arts Council of the Northern Territory. It was during his judicial life in the Northern Territory that he decided the first significant case concerning Aboriginal Land Rights in Australia. This was the case of Milirrpum v. Nabalco  in which important issues of aboriginal land rights were canvassed. In that case he held that the communal system in which Australian Aborigines had lived could be called a “government of law, and not of men”, accepting that was a system of law predating British settlement. However, he ruled that the British common law did not recognise communal interests and in any event, those interests were extinguished by the assertion

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 of British sovereignty over the land in question. The case led to the eventual introduction of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976.In May 1971 he was appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory. In that same year, he was also appointed a judge of the Federal Court of Australia in 1977 on that court's establishment and served as a judge in that latter court until 1984. He was appointed chief judge of Supreme Court on 7 November 1977. He was appointed chief justice on 7 May 1982 when that position replaced the former position of chief judge. He was the chairperson of the Law Reform Commission of the Australian Capital Territory from 1971 to 1976. In 1979, <mask> authored a biographical entry in the Australian Dictionary of Biography about his father. In keeping with <mask>'s nature of not seeking honours, he failed to note in the entry that he had himself gone on to become a distinguished judge.He was Patron of the St John Council for Australian Capital Territory from 1981 to 1984. In 1981, he became a Commander of the Order of St John of Jerusalem in honour of his service. He was knighted in the New Years Honours of 1983 for his services to the law. He became Chancellor of the Australian National University in 1984. Retirement
<mask> retired as Chief Justice due to ill health on 31 March 1985. At his retirement ceremony, Faulks J, speaking on behalf of the legal profession said:

In 1986 he was elected an Hononary Fellow of St Mark's College. <mask> was also invited to give the first Harrison Memorial Lecture at the Royal Military College at Duntroon after the Officer Training School was moved from .In May of that year, <mask> was one of three former chief justices appointed by the Australian Government to be Parliamentary Commissioners in a Special Commission of Inquiry to investigate the conduct of Justice Lionel Murphy concerning allegations that Murphy had attempted to pervert the course of

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 justice in the criminal proceeding involving solicitor Morgan Ryan. He was appointed notwithstanding his ill-health because of his skills and abilities. While the inquiry did not proceed to conclusion because of Murphy's own illness and subsequent death, the commissioners did make a report on what constituted misconduct for a judge under the Australian Constitution. <mask> concluded:

<mask> died on 1 October 1987. He was survived by his wife Bryony <mask>, who died in 2005, and children Charlotte Calder and <mask> . Sir <mask> Lectures
In 1986, the Law Society of the Australian Capital Territory inaugurated the Sir <mask> Lecture in honour of <mask>'s services to the legal community. <mask> himself gave the first lecture.Michael Black, former Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Australia, is the only person to have given the lecture twice, in 1994 and 2012, although the latter lecture made no reference to having done so previously. 1986 – Sir <mask>, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory: The Courts and the Community. 1987 – Sir Harry Gibbs, Chief Justice of the High Court of Australia: The Powers of the Police to Question and Search. 1988 – Michael Kirby, President of the Court of Appeal of New South Wales: The Politics of Law Reform. 1989 – Sir Anthony Mason, Chief Justice of the High Court of Australia: Administrative Review – the Experience of the First Twelve Years. 1990 – Sir Gerard Brennan, Justice of the High Court of Australia: Courts, Democracy and the Law. 1991 – Sir Zelman Cowen, former Governor-General of Australia: Crown and Representative in the Commonwealth.1992 – Mary Gaudron, Justice of the High Court of Australia: Equal Rights and Anti-Discrimination Law. 1993 – Jeffrey Miles, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory: The State of the Judicature in the ACT. 1994 – Michael Black, Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Australia: Letting the Public

masks:
Blackburn
Blackburn
Helen Blackburn
Tom Blackburn
Richard Blackburn
Richard Blackburn
Blackburn
Blackburn
Richard Blackburn


title: Maria Monk

texts: <mask> (June 27, 1816 – summer of 1849) was a Canadian woman whose book Awful Disclosures of <mask>, or, The Hidden Secrets of a Nun’s Life in a Convent Exposed (1836) claimed to expose systematic sexual abuse of nuns and infanticide of the resulting children by Catholic priests in her convent in Montreal. The book is considered by scholars to be an anti-Catholic hoax. Awful Disclosures of <mask> was published in January 1836. In it, <mask> claimed that nuns of the Religious Hospitallers of St. Joseph of the Montreal convent of the Hôtel-Dieu, whom she called "the Black Nuns", were forced to have sex with the priests in the seminary next door. The priests supposedly entered the convent through a secret tunnel. If the sexual union produced a baby, it was baptized and then strangled and dumped into a lime pit in the basement. Uncooperative nuns disappeared.<mask>'s story contains various inconsistencies. In her account, she stated that there were three convents in Montreal: "1st. The Congregational Nunnery. 2d. The Black Nunnery, or Convent of Sister Bourgeoise. 3d The Grey Nunnery." The Congregational Nuns were the Congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal, founded by Marguerite Bourgeoys, not the Sisters of Charity, as <mask> stated at the beginning of her text; the Religious Hospitallers of St. Joseph, whose habits were black but who were not typically called "Black Nuns", operated the Hotel-Dieu, where <mask> claimed that she entered and suffered, and it was not founded by "Sister Bourgeoise [sic]"; and it was the Sisters of Charity who were commonly known as the Grey Nuns.It is known that <mask> lived in an asylum in her early years and that one of the nuns mentioned in her story was actually a fellow patient in the asylum. There is some evidence that <mask> had suffered a brain injury as a child. One possible result of this alleged

masks:
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Monk
Monk
Monk
Monk
Monk
Maria Monk


title: Maria Monk

texts:
 injury could be that <mask> might have been manipulated, and might not be able to distinguish between fact and fantasy. Another possible result of the alleged injury could be that <mask> had little understanding of the devastating result of her claims. It has been suggested, though not proven, that <mask> was manipulated into playing a role for profit by her publisher or her ghost writers. Scholars consider the book a hoax. Atmosphere of anti-Catholic sensationalism
<mask>’s book was published in an American atmosphere of anti-Catholic hostility (partly fueled by early 19th-century Irish and German Catholic immigration to the U.S.) and followed the 1834 Ursuline Convent Riots near Boston.These were triggered by an incident in which one of the nuns left the convent but was persuaded to return on the following day by her superior, Mother Mary St. George, and by the Bishop of Boston, the Most Reverend Benedict Fenwick. This incident immediately gave rise to the claim that the woman was being held in the convent against her will; a mob invaded and then burned down the convent in an effort to free her. In 1835 Rebecca Reed published an anti-Catholic, gothic novel, a highly-colored account of her six months as an Episcopalian charity pupil at the Ursuline convent school in Charlestown, Massachusetts. Reed herself died of tuberculosis shortly after the publication of her book; her disease was widely believed to have been caused by the austerities to which she had been subjected at the convent. Reed’s book became a bestseller, and <mask> or her handlers might have hoped to cash in on the evident market for anti-Catholic horror fiction. <mask>’s claims might have been modeled on the gothic novels that were popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries, a literary genre that had already been used to stoke anti-Catholic sentiments in such works as

masks: Monk Monk Monk Monk Monk Monk


title: Maria Monk

texts:
 Denis Diderot's La Religieuse. <mask>’s story epitomizes the genre-defining elements of a young, innocent woman being trapped in a remote, old, gloomily picturesque estate, where she learns dark secrets and escapes after harrowing adventures.<mask> claimed that she had lived in the convent for seven years, became pregnant, and fled because she did not want her baby destroyed. She told her story to a Protestant minister, Rev. John Jay Slocum, in New York, who encouraged her to repeat it to a wider audience. According to the American Protestant Vindicator, by July 1836 the book had sold 26,000 copies. Other publishers later issued books that supported <mask>’s claims or were close imitators, or else they published tracts that refuted the tale. Historian Richard Hofstadter called it, in his 1964 essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, "[p]robably the most widely read contemporary book in the United States before Uncle Tom's Cabin." Public furor
<mask>’s book caused a public outcry.Protestants in Montreal, Quebec, demanded an investigation, and the local bishop organized one. The inquiry found no evidence to support the claims, though many American Protestants refused to accept the conclusion and accused the bishop of dishonesty. Colonel William Leete Stone, Sr., a Protestant newspaper editor from New York City, undertook his own investigation. In October 1836, his team entered the convent and found that the descriptions in the book did not match the convent's interior. During their first visit, the investigators were denied entry to the basement and the nuns’ personal quarters. There was much dispute regarding the existence of a tunnel leading to the nuns' residence. There were disputes regarding "renovations to the nuns residence and if the "tunnel " had been filled in or not.Stone returned to New York, interviewed <mask> and

masks: Monk Monk Monk Monk Monk


title: Maria Monk

texts:
 concluded that she had never been in the convent. On a later visit, he was given total access to all quarters. Stone’s team found no evidence that <mask> had ever lived in the convent. <mask> disappeared from the public view. It was later discovered that she had spent the seven-year period in question in the Magdalen Asylum for Wayward Girls. One critic points out that a nun character in her book, Jane Ray, was actually residing with <mask> at the Magdalen Asylum, rather than at the Hotel Dieu Nunnery. The Magdalen asylum building was a very small wooden building, quite different from the described nunnery of the book <mask> wrote.Many details of the story seem to have originated with <mask>’s legal guardian, William K. Hoyte, an anti-Catholic activist, and his associates. The writers later sued each other for a share of the considerable profits, while <mask> was left destitute. Later life
<mask> traveled to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with a lover whom historians often identify as <mask>. She penned a sequel, Further Disclosures of <mask>. When she gave birth to another child, Oliver (a brother to William), out of wedlock in 1838, most of her supporters abandoned her. The Boston Pilot published this obituary for her on September 8, 1849: "There is an end of <mask>; she died in the almshouse, still cooking as was her wont. Blackwell's Island, New York, on Tuesday".Awful Disclosures remained in print for years afterwards and was occasionally revived. There appear to have been two Australian editions (1920, 1940). The last recorded unsupplemented facsimile edition was published in 1977. Bibliography and subsequent editions
Posthumous editions of <mask> were published in 1837 (New York: Howe and Bates), 1920 (Melbourne: Wyatt and Watt), 1940? (Brisbane: Clarion Propaganda Series),1962 (Hamden: Archon), and were often reprints or

masks:
Monk
Monk
Monk
Monk
Monk
Monk
Monk
Graham Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk


title: Maria Monk

texts:
 facsimiles of the original. In 1975, a microform format was made available from New Haven, Connecticut. ISBN references are available for the following editions:
 <mask>: Awful Disclosures of <mask> and the Hotel Dieu Monastery of Montreal.New York: Arno Press: 1977:
 <mask>: Awful Disclosures of <mask>. Manchester: Milner: 1985: . <mask>: Awful Disclosures of <mask>. London: Senate: 1997:

The book has been translated into some languages, for instance, Dutch:
 <mask> de zwarte non [Dutch translation] naar het Engels door L. von Alvensleben uit het Hoogduitsch, geïllustreerde uitgave. Amsterdam: August Koster ca. 1910;
and Ukrainian:
 Strashni Tainy Monastyrs'kykh Muriv, abo, Vidkryti sekrety monashoho zhyttia po monastyrakh (Terrible Secrets of the Monastery Walls, or, Revealed Secrets of Monastic Life in Monasteries), "3rd complete and illustrated edition, translated from English by M.M.B.," Winnipeg: Ukrainska Knyharnia 1930. See also

 Ursuline Convent Riots
 Anti-Catholicism

References

Further reading
 Billington, Ray Allen."<mask> and her influence." Catholic Historical Review (1936): 283–296. in JSTOR
 Pagliarini, Marie Anne. "The pure American woman and the wicked Catholic priest: An analysis of anti-Catholic literature in antebellum America." Religion and American Culture (1999): 97–128. in JSTOR
 "Awful Disclosures of <mask> (1836)." The Public Domain Review

External links

 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

 Evidence demonstrating the falsehoods of William L. Stone concerning the Hotel Dieu Nunnery of Montreal.1816 births
1849 deaths
Impostors
Anti-Catholic publications
Catholicism-related controversies
Political forgery
Religious hoaxes
Critics of the Catholic Church
Canadian women non-fiction writers
19th-century Canadian women writers
19th-century Canadian non-fiction writers
False

masks:
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk
Maria Monk


title: Félix Fénéon

texts:
<mask> (; 22 June 1861 – 29 February 1944) was a French art critic, gallery director, writer and  anarchist during the late 19th century and early 20th century. He coined the term Neo-Impressionism in 1886 to identify a group of artists led by Georges Seurat, and ardently promoted them. The Fénéon Prize was established in 1949 by his wife, Fanny Goubaux, from proceeds from the sale of his art collection. Early life
<mask> was born in Turin, Italy in 1861 to Marie-Louise Jacquin (a Swiss Schoolteacher) and <mask> (a French salesman). He was raised in Burgundy. After placing first in the competitive exams for jobs, Fénéon moved to Paris at age 20 to work for the War Office where he achieved the rank of chief clerk. During his time in there he edited many literary works, including those of Rimbaud and Lautréamont, and helped to advance the fledgling pointillist movement under Georges Seurat.He was a regular at Mallarmé's salons on Tuesday evenings, and active in anarchist circles. Political activity

<mask> worked for 13 years at the War Office while remaining heavily active in supporting anarchist circles and movements. In March 1892 French police talked about <mask> as an "active Anarchist", and they had him shadowed. In 1894 Fénéon was arrested on suspicion of conspiracy because of an anarchist bombing of the Foyot restaurant, a popular haunt of politicians. He was also suspected of being connected with the assassination of the French President, Sadi Carnot, by an Italian anarchist. He and twenty-nine others were arrested on charges of conspiracy in what became known as the Trial of the Thirty. Fénéon was

masks:
Félix Fénéon
Fénéon
Pierre Marie Jules Félix Fon
Fénéon
Fénéon


title: Félix Fénéon

texts:
 subsequent expulsion from the War Office; he worked for that magazine until 1903. In that time, he went on to promote the works of Seurat and Signac through the magazine. He organized the first retrospective of Seurat's work in 1900. Seurat is known for a number of works, most significantly A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte ().Hajo Düchting, the author of Seurat, The Master of Pointillism notes that "Actually he [<mask>] was the only critic who proved capable of articulating an appreciation of Seurat's picture, and the new method of painting it exemplified, in words notable for their objective tone". After La Revue Blanche failed, Fénéon went to work for Le Matin, where he anonymously composed daily news "fillers", what the French call "faits-divers" or "sundry events", of three lines each. His authorship was not revealed until the 1940s. In these fillers he captured the complex subtleties of French daily life. The following examples highlight the wit typical of this critic of the mundane:

 A criminal virago, Mlle Tulle, was sentenced by the Rouen court to 10 years hard labor, while her lover got five. In a café on Rue Fontaine, Vautour, Lenoir, and Atanis exchanged a few bullets regarding their wives, who were not present. "If my candidate loses, I will kill myself," M. Bellavoine, of Fresquienne, Seine-Inferieure, had declared.He killed himself. Women suckling their infants argued the workers' cause to the director of the streetcar lines in Toulon. He was unmoved. After his post at Le Matin, Fénéon directed the Galerie Bernheim-Jeune and became increasingly involved with


title: Félix Fénéon

texts:
 Neo-Impressionism, especially the art of Georges Seurat. He was the director of the gallery from 1906 to 1925. Before his retirement from the gallery, he is reported to have told a friend that he was "ready for idleness", and then he abruptly quit at the age of 63. Works
 Les Impressionnistes en 1886
 Œuvres; preface by Jean Paulhan, Paris, Gallimard, 1948
 Œuvres plus que complètes, 1970
 Novels in Three Lines (), translated and with an introduction by Luc Sante, 2007
 Correspondance de Fanny & Félix Fénéon avec Maximilien Luce, 2001
 Petit supplément aux œuvres plus que complètes, 2 volumes
 Le Procès des Trente, 2004
 Correspondance de Stéphane Mallarmé et Félix Fénéon, Maurice Imbert, editor, 2007

References

Further reading

 Reilly, Samuel."The Secret Sharer: Felix Feneon, the publicity-averse critic, collector and anarchist who moved in avant-garde circles and was an early champion of African art, is being celebrated in a series of exhibitions in Paris and New York", Apollo (July-Aug 2019), p66+. online
 Starr Figura, Isabelle Cahn, Phillipe Peltier. <mask>: The Anarchist and the Avant-Garde — From Signac to Matisse and Beyond. Exh. cat. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2020. External links

 Olga's Gallery Newsletter: <mask> and Pointillism
Signac, 1863-1935, a fully digitized exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, which contains material on <mask> (see index)
Online exhibition page for <mask>: The Anarchist and the Avant-Garde—From Signac to Matisse and Beyond.Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2020. 1861 births
1944 deaths
French anarchists
French art critics
French male

masks:
Félix Féon
Félix Fon
Félix Féon
Félix Fon


title: Mark Catesby

texts:
<mask> (24 March 1683 – 23 December 1749) was an English naturalist who studied the flora and fauna of the New World. Between 1729 and 1747 Catesby published his Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands, the first published account of the flora and fauna of North America. It included 220 plates of birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, mammals and plants. Life and works
<mask> was born on 24 March 1683 and baptised at Castle Hedingham, Essex on 30 March 1683. His father, <mask> (buried 12 November 1703), was a local politician and gentleman farmer. His mother was Elizabeth Jekyll (buried 5 September 1708). The family owned a farm and house, Holgate, in Sudbury, Suffolk as well as property in London.An acquaintance with the naturalist John Ray led to <mask> becoming interested in natural history. The death of his father left Catesby enough to live on, so in 1712, he accompanied his sister Elizabeth to Williamsburg, Virginia. She was the wife of Dr. William Cocke, who had been a member of the Council and Secretary of State for the Colony of Virginia. According to their father's will, Elizabeth had married Dr. Cocke against her father's wishes. Catesby visited the West Indies in 1714, and returned to Virginia, then home to England in 1719. Catesby had collected seeds and botanical specimens in Virginia and Jamaica. He sent the pressed specimens to Dr Samuel Dale of Braintree in Essex, and gave seeds to a Hoxton nurseryman Thomas Fairchild as well as to Dale and to the Bishop of London, Dr Henry Compton.Plants from Virginia, raised from Catesby's seeds, made his name known to gardeners and scientists in England, and in 1722 he was recommended by William Sherard to undertake a plant-collecting expedition to Carolina on behalf of certain members of the Royal Society. From May 1722,

masks:
Mark Catesby
Catesby
John Catesby
Catesby


title: Mark Catesby

texts: Catesby was based in Charleston, South Carolina, and travelled to other parts of that colony, collecting plants and animals. He sent preserved specimens to Hans Sloane and to William Sherard, and seeds to various contacts including Sherard and Peter Collinson. Consequently, Catesby was responsible for introducing such plants as Catalpa bignonioides and the eponymous Catesbaea spinosa (lilythorn) to cultivation in Europe. Catesby returned to England in 1726. Catesby spent the next twenty years preparing and publishing his Natural History. Publication was financed by subscriptions from his "Encouragers" as well as an interest-free loan from one of the fellows of the Royal Society, the Quaker Peter Collinson.Catesby learnt how to etch the copper plates himself. The first eight plates had no backgrounds, but from then on Catesby included plants with his animals. He completed the first part in May 1729 and presented it to Queen Caroline; first volume, comprising five parts, was finished in November 1732. <mask> was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in February 1733 and was made a member of the Society of Gentlemen of Spalding in December 1743. The second volume containing another five parts was completed in December 1743, and in 1747 he produced a supplement from material sent to him by friends in America, particularly John Bartram, and also his younger brother, John, who was based with a British regiment in Gibraltar. Not all the plates in Natural history are by Catesby: several, including the splendid and famous image of Magnolia grandiflora were by Georg Ehret. Catesby's original preparatory drawings for Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands are in the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, and selections have been exhibited in USA, Japan and various places in England including at the


title: Mark Catesby

texts:
 Queen's Gallery, London, in 1997–1998, and Gainsborough House in Sudbury in 2015.On 5 March 1747, <mask> read a paper entitled "Of birds of passage" to the Royal Society in London, and he is now recognised as one of the first people to describe bird migration. <mask> married Elizabeth Rowland on 8 October 1747 in St George's Chapel, Hyde Park Corner, but they had been a couple for about 17 years, having at least six children between April 1731 and June 1740. They were parishioners of St Giles Cripplegate in London and later, when that parish was subdivided, of St Luke Old Street. He died just before Christmas 1749 on Saturday 23 December in his house behind St Luke Old Street, London, and was buried in its churchyard. His grave is now lost. <mask>'s Hortus britanno-americanus ... was published posthumously in 1763, and a second edition, entitled Hortus Europae americanus ... was issued in 1767. The Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus included information from <mask>'s Natural History in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae (1758).Legacy
Catesbaea, lilythorn, a genus of thorny shrubs belonging to Rubiaceae (madder family) from the West Indies and southeastern USA was named after Catesby, originally by J. K. Gronovius. However, under present rules of nomenclature, this name was formally published by Linnaeus in 1753 in his Species plantarum (volume 1, pp 108–109), based on plate 100 in volume two of <mask>'s Natural history of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. The American bullfrog, Lithobates catesbeianus, is named in honor of Catesby. Catesby is commemorated in the scientific names of two species of New World snakes: Dipsas catesbyi and Uromacer catesbyi. See also
List of wildlife artists

References

Further reading

Jackson, Christine E. (1985). Bird Etchings: The Illustrators and Their

masks:
Catesby
Mark Catesby
Catesby
Catesby
Catesby


title: Mark Catesby

texts:
 Books, 1655-1855. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. .
Walters, Michael (2003).A Concise History of Ornithology. London: Christopher Helm. .
Wiatt, Alex L. (1992). The Descendants of Stephen Field of King and Queen County, Virginia, 1721. Fredericksburg, Virginia: BookCrafters. McBurney, Henrietta; Myers, Amy R. W. (1997). <mask>'s Natural History of America. The watercolours from the Royal Library Windsor Castle.London: Merrell Holberton, in association with The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. .
Myers, Amy R. W.; Pritchard, M. B. (1998). Empire's Nature. <mask>'s New World Vision. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press. .
Nelson, E. Charles; Elliott, David J. (2015). The curious Mister Catesby a "truly ingenious" naturalist explores new worlds.Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. . External links

<mask>, <mask> (1729–32). The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and (v1). Online scanned edition from Rare Book Room. <mask>, <mask> (1734–43, 1747). The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and (v2). Online scanned edition from Rare Book Room.<mask>, <mask> (1729–1747). The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahamas Electronic edition: high quality images and user-friendly text from the American Studies Programs at the University of Virginia. University of South Florida Libraries: Catesby Collection
View works by <mask> online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library. Digitized works by <mask> at the John Carter Brown Library can be viewed here. 1683 births
1749 deaths
People from Castle Hedingham
English botanists
English naturalists
English ornithologists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Natural history of the Bahamas
Natural history of Florida
Natural history of North Carolina
Natural history of South Carolina
Natural history of the Caribbean
British bird artists
Botanical

masks:
Mark Catesby
Mark Catesby
Catesby
Mark
Catesby
Mark
Catesby
Mark
Mark Catesby
Mark Catesby


title: Hans Kuhn (chemist)

texts:
<mask> (5 December 1919 – 25 November 2012) was a Swiss chemist. He was professor emeritus for physical chemistry and former scientific director  at the  Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry (Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer Institute) in Göttingen. Biography

Curriculum
<mask> was born in Bern, Switzerland. He studied chemistry at the ETH Zürich and worked for his doctorate at University of Basel under the guidance of <mask> (not related). He received his habilitation in 1946. From 1946 until 1947 he worked as a post doctoral fellow with Linus Pauling at Caltech in Pasadena and in 1950 with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen. In 1951, he became professor at the University of Basel.He was appointed in 1953  as professor and director of the Institute of Physical Chemistry  of the Philipps University of Marburg where he stayed until 1970. Then he was at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry (Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer Institute) in Göttingen as director of the department 'Molecular Systems Assembly' until his retirement 1985. Fritz Peter Schäfer, , Horst-Dieter Försterling, Viola Vogel and Dietmar Möbius were among <mask>'s students. Erwin Neher was member in his department 'Molecular Systems Assembly'. <mask> married Elsi Hättenschwiler 1948. Their four children were Elisabeth, Andreas, Eva and Christoph. Elsi died 2004.Scientific research
<mask> began to work for his doctorate by investigating decoiling of a random coiled chain molecule in a flowing viscous solvent. <mask> suggested him to replace the random coil by a dumbbell-model. <mask> was fascinated by the model's simplicity and by its great success in theoretically analyzing a broad variety of experiments in quantitative terms. This experience and his postdoctoral work with

masks:
Hans Kuhn
Hans Kuhn
Werner Kuhn
Kuhn
Kuhn
Kuhn
Werner Kuhn
Kuhn


title: Hans Kuhn (chemist)

texts:
 Linus Pauling and Niels Bohr, supported this fascination for powerful simple models and was determining for his life's work in research. Polymer molecules were described as chains of statistical chain elements. The preferential statistical elements were defined in 1943. Today the preferential element is called Kuhn length, in the recent textbook Principles of Physical Chemistry it is simply called statistical chain element.<mask> made experiments with macroscopic models of random coils to describe the behavior in flowing liquids more accurately than based on the dumbbell-model. In Pauling's lab, <mask> was trying to understand the color of polyenes by describing π-electrons as particles in a box and he was greatly disappointed - it did not work. Later, when applying the model to cyanine dyes he observed a quantitative agreement with experiment. Today the model is called free electron model (FEMO). He saw the reason why he had failed in polyenes: an instability when assuming equal bonds leads to an alternation between single- and double-bonds caused by
the condition of self-consistency between bond length and π-electron density distribution. He justified this assumption by finding agreement between measured and theoretically predicted absorption spectra. Later this assumption was theoretically verified.This effect is often called Peierls instability: starting from a linear chain of equally spaced atoms Peierls considered first order perturbation theory with Bloch functions showing the instability, but he did not consider the self-consistency resulting in the transition to alternation of single and double bonds. The particular properties of conducting polymers are based on the theoretical relation between bond alternation and

masks: Kuhn Kuhn


title: Hans Kuhn (chemist)

texts: equalization. The FEMO and its improvements led to a theory on the light absorption of organic dyes.<ref name=Zech>H. <mask>: The Electron Gas Theory of the Color of Natural and  Artificial Dyes'. Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products (L.Zechmeister ed.) 16:169 (1958) and ibid. 17:404 (1959).</ref> In Marburg, shortly before the age of digital computers,  <mask> and Fritz Peter Schäfer developed an analogue computer to solve the 2-dimensional Schrödinger equation.This room-filling analogue computer was applied by <mask>'s research group to calculate bond lengths in π-electron systems.H<mask>: Analogiebetrachtungen und Analogrechner zur quantenmechanischen Behandlung der Lichtabsorption der Farbstoffe  Chimia 15:53-62 (1961)H.D. Försterling, W. Huber and H<mask>: Projected electron density method of π-electron systems I. Electron distribution in the ground state. Int. J. Quantum Chem. 1, 225 (1967). In the beginning of the 1960s, <mask> thought about a new paradigm in chemistry: the synthesis of different molecules which fit structurally into each other in such a way that they form planned functional units (supramolecular machines).His research group constructed simple prototypes of supramolecular functional units by advancements of the Langmuir–Blodgett films.H. <mask>, D. Möbius: "Systems of monomolecular layers-assembling and physico-chemical properties" Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl, 10:620–37 (1971). Such films are known today under the name Langmuir–Blodgett-Kuhn-films (LBK-films) or Langmuir–Blodgett-Kuhn-(LBK)-layers.The many different techniques to manipulate systems of monolayers were developed in close cooperation of <mask> and Dietmar Möbius. Thus the layers should be called Langmuir–Blodgett-Möbius-Kuhn

masks:
Kuhn
Kuhn
Kuhn
. Kuhn
. Kuhn
Kuhn
Kuhn
Kuhn