title: Frederick Catherwood

texts:
 formulated a different hypothesis. It is well known that during the second expedition in Central America, Stephens and <mask> were accompanied by a young surgeon (and ornithologist) from Boston, Samuel Cabot III, born in Boston on 20 September 1815.The Cabot family was part of the upper class in Boston. At the time of the trip, he was almost 27 years old. Years later he would become an eminent surgeon and a well known personality in Boston. Samuel III was described as a person rather slender, tall, with light hair and light eyes. There is an image taken by Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894) with members of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement, around 1853. Samuel is seated, third from left. Eleven years had passed since the adventure in Yucatan, but he could very well be the person depicted by <mask> in the table, holding a measuring tape.<mask>, in fact, was a pragmatic man, used to documenting the reality with his pencil. <mask> presumably had no interest in representing himself, indeed he never painted his self-portrait. Notes

References

External links

 "Drawing From the Past: Maya Antiquity Through the Eyes of <mask>", online exhibition by Smith College Libraries of <mask>'s Views of Ancient Monuments lithographs
 "<mask>'s Lithographs", online reproductions of a permanent exhibition of his work at the Casa Frederick Catherwood, Mérida, Yucatán
 Reed College website including all the illustrations of Uxmal, Kabah, Sayil, and Labná in Stephens and Catherwood's 1843 Incidents of Travel in Yucatan and in Catherwood's 1844 Views of Ancient Monuments. <mask>herwood Archival card catalog. Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University. 1799 births
1854 deaths
Mayanists
19th-century Mesoamericanists
English Mesoamericanists
Mesoamerican artists
19th-century explorers
Explorers of Central America
People of the California Gold Rush
Deaths due to shipwreck at sea
Cartographers of the Middle East
19th-century cartographers
English explorers of North

masks:
Catherwood
Catherwood
Catherwood
Frederick
Frederick Catherwood
Catherwood
Frederick Catherwood
Frederick Cat


title: Richard of Poitiers

type: original

texts:
<mask>ers (died c. 1174), also known as <mask> of Cluny, was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Cluny, and author of a small number of historical works (including a universal chronicle), treatises and poems. Life

Little is known about the life of <mask>ers beyond the barest biographical details suggested in the title and dedication prefacing his . His name, , indicates that he was a native of the region of Poitou, France. He calls himself a , an ambiguous term suggesting either that he was a monk of the Abbey of Cluny or that he was a member of the Europe-wide network of Cluniac monasteries (the ). Scholars have identified no further conclusive evidence for his life or background. On the basis of unique local material in a single manuscript of <mask>'s , Élie Berger concluded that he resided in a Cluniac priory on the island of Aix in Poitou. The subsequent work of I. Schnack suggested, in contrast, that <mask> wrote in the scriptorium of the Abbey of Cluny.The lack of any conclusive evidence makes it difficult to resolve this disagreement. From <mask>'s dedication of his chronicle to Peter the Venerable, it is evident that <mask> was at work by 1156, the year of Peter's death. The poems attributed to <mask>'s authorship include an ode to London and a condemnation of sea sickness, both of which suggest that <mask> travelled beyond the confines of medieval France. <mask>ers should not be confused with <mask> of

masks: Richarditi Richard Richarditi Richard Richard Richard Richard Richard Richard Richarditi Richard


title: Richard of Poitiers

texts:
 Ilchester, an English contemporary who was also known as <mask> of Poitiers while Archdeacon of the Cathedral of Poitiers. He should also be distinguished from King <mask> of England, whom some chroniclers of the Crusades refer to as <mask> of Poitiers. Writings

Chronicle
<mask>'s major work bears the title  (The Chronicle of Richard of Poitiers, monk of Cluny, compiled from numerous sources), which draws attention to the work's nature as largely compilation. In his dedication, <mask> offers a list of sources consulted in writing his chronicle:

In this work, I excerpt from the books of Augustine, Jerome, Isidore, Theodolfus, Josephus, Hegesippus, Eutropius, Titus Livy, Suetonius, Aimoinus, Justinus  (the abridger or excerptor of Pompeius Trogus), Freculphus, Orosius, Anastasius  (the librarian of the Roman see), Anneus Florus, Gregory, Bede, Ado, Gildas  (the historian of Britain), the monk Paul  (historian of the Lombards), and of a few others.Despite this apparent openness, <mask> cites historians, such as Suetonius and Aimonius, whom he likely only knew second hand. He also does not fully reference all his sources. In addition to the sources cited explicitly, <mask>'s chronicle  tacitly includes material from contemporary historians, such as Fulcher of Chartres' crusading history as well as fantastical literature, such as the Pseudo-Alexander's Letter from Alexander to Aristotle and <mask> of Monmouth's

masks:
Richard
Richard I
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Geoffrey


title: Richard of Poitiers

texts: History of the Kings of England. The diversity of material in <mask>'s Chronicle gives it an exotic feel for the modern reader, and the resulting work is quite unlike what a modern historian seeks to do. <mask>, for example, does not attempt to come to a coherent portrait of history or distinguish true from false accounts. Instead, he juxtaposes multiple accounts in order to provide the most complete picture, even if his sources are contradictory. The reigns of kings or emperors, for example, might be recorded as having three or four different spans, depending on whether the reader wishes to follow Jerome, Josephus, Justinus or Orosius.The chronicle also contains significant prophetic material (from Biblical sources, or from <mask> of Monmouth's Prophecies of Merlin) and <mask> repeatedly seeks to identify for the reader when these prophecies are shown to be fulfilled. This concern with prophecy is an important undertone of <mask>'s work and relates to a traditional Cluniac interest with deciphering the divine plan identifiable from the course of human history (see Rodulfus Glaber). As <mask> himself states (see sidebar), the Chronicle sought to describe all of human history (as then understood) from Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden until his own time (in the 1160s and 1170s). In doing so, <mask> compiled what modern historians have called a "universal history". Universal chronicles are similar to modern-day

masks: Richard Richard Geoffrey Richard Richard Richard Richard


title: Richard of Poitiers

texts:
 textbooks of Western Civilization in the breadth of material covered. <mask>'s text strongly focuses on Christian and French subjects, but it also provides a wide range of material on Classical and Ancient Middle Eastern history. Such information was necessary for a Christian reader to understand Biblical history or the Classical texts still circulating during the Middle Ages.Other historical works

<mask> compiled a Catalogue of Popes whose brief entries provided basic information about the time and duration of their papacy, their nation of origin, and distinguishing events (such as miracles performed, synods held). Subsequent writers extended this text into the thirteenth century and their extensions were incorporated into later chronicles. I. Schnack has argued that this text, when taken together with <mask>'s treatises on the diocesan and cardinal clergy of the city of Rome, is an important source for understanding attitudes towards the developing college of cardinals. E. Berger assigns an additional work, A Lament upon the Destruction of Castle Julius, to <mask>'s authorship. It is a brief description of the siege and capture of a French castle, which Berger identifies as Châtel-Aillon, and other local history relating to the region around Aunis, France. Treatises

<mask>'s two brief descriptions of the Roman clergy are entitled, "On the seven bishops who are the vicars of the pope" and "On the seven

masks: Richard Richard Richard Richard Richard


title: Richard of Poitiers

texts:
 bishop, deacons ... who assist the pope celebrate mass". These two works briefly describe those holding religious office who are fit in dignity to serve alongside the pope in power, and in sanctity.Poems
Although the sixteenth-century bibliophile John Bale attributes seven poems in total to <mask>, the most recent editor of his poems (or ) is unsure which can conclusively be assigned to his authorship. Historiographical contribution

Relation to contemporaries

<mask> of Poitiers was among the first of a new crop of twelfth-century French chroniclers to compose a universal history. Within French-speaking regions, the genre of the universal chronicle had languished after the Carolingian works of Frechulfus of Liseaux and Ado of Vienne. Interest in composing this kind of work was rejuvenated by Hugh of St. Victor's historiographical treatise, , a text <mask> which alludes to in his prologue. <mask> also seems to take inspiration from Hugh's idea of history as a tool useful for the spiritual training of the mind and as preliminary for other study (see Hugh of Saint Victor's ). <mask>, like Hugh, calls history childish (puerile) since it is first studied by school-age children. Influence on later history writing

The writings of <mask> of Poitiers received a relatively wide circulation.In the number of extant manuscripts, his chronicle ranks alongside Otto of Freising's Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa, and Robert of

masks: Richard Richard Richard Richard Richard Richard


title: Richard of Poitiers

texts:
 Gloucester's Metrical Chronicle. The distribution of manuscripts in France, Spain, England, Italy and Germany, and its inclusion in monastic, episcopal and aristocratic libraries  suggest a broad audience. Subsequent chroniclers, such as Amaury Augier, Martin of Troppau and William Rede, continued <mask>'s text into their own times, and <mask> is noted as an accomplished historian by such humanists as Johann von Heidenberg, Conrad Gesner and Gerard Vossius. In the seventeenth century, his chronicle was conflated with the  written by <mask> of Saint Victor, a misunderstanding that was often repeated until the eighteenth century, when the publication of extracts of <mask>'s chronicle, first by Edmond Martène and later by Luigi Muratori, made this error evident. These early editors judged <mask>'s Chronicle to be overly derivative and edited only the concluding portions of his chronicle. A complete edition of the work has never been finished, but is currently under development by Marc Saurette (Carleton University) and Matthew Ponesse (Ohio Dominican University). See also
Peter the Venerable
Hugh Primas

Notes

Bibliography

Editions and translations

BERGER, Élie, ed.Appendix to « <mask> Poitevin, moine de Cluny, historien et poète ». In, Notice sur Divers Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Vaticane. Bibl. des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome. Fasc. 6. Toulouse : A. Chauvin & Fils, 1879, pp.45–140. BOUQUET,

masks:
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard le


title: Richard of Poitiers

texts:
 Martin, ed. "Ex Chronico Richardi Pictaviensis, monachi Cluniacensis." In Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France. Paris, 1781; rpt. 1869, VII, 258; IX, 21; X, 263; XI, 285; XII, 411-421. MARTÈNE, Edmond, and André DURAND, eds.Veterum scriptorum et monumentorum ecclesiasticorum et dogmaticorum amplissima collectio. 9 vols. Paris, Montalant, 1724–1738, V, col. 1160-1174. MURATORI, Ludovicus, ed. Antiquitates Italicae medii aevi. 4 vols. Milan, 1738–1743, IV, col. 1075-1104.WAITZ,Georg, ed. "Ex Richardi Pictaviensis Chronica." In [http://www.dmgh.de Monumenta Germaniae Historica Scriptores (SS in folio)']', Hanover, 1882 (reprint 1925), vol. XXVI, (Ex rerum Francogallicarum scriptoribus), p. 74. Secondary sources

É. BERGER, '<mask> Poitevin, moine de Cluny, historien et poète', in Notice sur Divers Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Vaticane. Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome, fasc. 6, Toulouse : A. Chauvin & Fils, 1879, pp.45–140. F. CAIRNS, "The addition to the Chronica of <mask> of Poitiers," Mittellateinisches Jahrbuch 19 (1984), pp. 159–161. H. KÜHL, "Zur Überlieferung und Rezeption der Weltchronik Richards von Cluny," in Aus Überrest und Tradition. Festschrift für Anna-Dorothee von den Brincken, (ed. P. Engels) Lauf : Pegnitz, 1999, pp. 73–92.M. SAURETTE, "Tracing the Twelfth-Century Chronica of <mask>ers, Monk of Cluny," Memini. Travaux et documents, Bulletin de la Socitété

masks:
Richard le
Richard
Richarditi


title: Richard of Poitiers

texts:
 d'Études médiévales du Québec 9-10, (2005/2006), pp. 303–350. I. SCHNACK, <mask> Cluny, seine Chronik und sein Kloster in den Anfängen der Kirchenspaltung von 1159. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Anschauungen von Kardinalskolleg und Papsttum im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert (Historische Studien, 146), Berlin : Ebering, 1921. B. SCOTT, "Some Poems Attributed to <mask> of Cluny," in Medieval Learning and Literature.Essays presented to <mask> Hunt'' (ed. J. J. G. Alexander), Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1976, pp. 181–199. External links

 A manuscript copy of the Catalogus and Treatises

French Benedictines
12th-century French people
Cluniacs
12th-century historians
French chroniclers
Benedictine scholars
Benedictine

masks:
Richard von
Richard
Richard William


title: Justin Hawkins

texts:
<mask> (born 17 March 1975) is an English musician, singer, songwriter and YouTube personality best known for being the lead singer and lead guitarist of the Darkness. Heavily influenced by rock bands of the 1970s and 1980s (particularly Queen, Aerosmith, Def Leppard and AC/DC), <mask> is noted for his falsetto singing voice and flamboyant on-stage persona. He was also the lead singer and guitarist for the band Hot Leg, formed in 2008 and now on hiatus. His falsetto voice has been described as operatic and very similar to that of Queen's Roger Taylor. Music career

The Darkness

Hawkins began playing clubs and pubs with the Darkness before they were signed by record label Atlantic Records. Their debut album, Permission to Land, went straight to number two in the UK charts upon its release on 7 July 2003, before going to number one and staying there for four weeks, eventually going on to sell 1.5 million copies in the UK. 3.5m copies over all.The Darkness took inspiration for some of their work from the local north Suffolk area, including Black Shuck, which mentions the nearby village  Blythburgh. The success of this album led to heavy touring for the band, including European portions of Metallica's Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003. They went on to headline the Carling Festival in 2004. The band won three BRIT Awards in 2004 in response to the album, Best Group, Best Rock Group and Best Album. They also won two Kerrang! awards in 2004 for Best Live Act and Best British Band. The third single from the album, "I Believe in a Thing Called Love", was a substantial hit in the UK, as was their tilt at the Christmas 2003 number

masks:
Justin David Hawkins
Hawkins


title: Justin Hawkins

texts: 1, "Christmas Time (Don't Let the Bells End)", which only just fell short, both singles reaching No.2 in 2003.The band also appeared in the video for Band Aid 20, with <mask> singing a number of lines. By late 2004 the band's constant media coverage had started to lead to a general public backlash, and <mask> and the band themselves seemed to show signs that they were disillusioned with their constant media appearances, infamously walking off of an episode of the U.S.-nationally syndicated radio talk show Loveline on 19 April 2004. In October 2005, a month before the album One Way Ticket to Hell... And Back was to be officially released, <mask> won an eBay auction for a copy of One Way Ticket to Hell... and Back for £350 under the username 'turbogunhawk'. He claimed he did this so that he could track down whoever sold the digitally-marked advance copy of the album and try to prevent it from happening again. "One Way Ticket", the first single from their second album, was released on 14 November 2005, debuting and peaking at number 8 on the UK Singles chart. The album itself was released on 28 November 2005, to somewhat mixed reviews. The album was produced by rock producer Roy Thomas Baker, best known for his work with Queen.Early sales figures in the UK showed the album had not sold as well its predecessor, Permission to Land. The album debuted at no. 11, and fell to number 34 in the second week of its release. Although it went on to achieve platinum status, this was in stark contrast with their debut's five times platinum status. The second single taken from their second album was "Is It Just Me? ", released on 20

masks: Justin Hawkins Hawkins


title: Justin Hawkins

texts: February 2006. The single gained a preliminary position of No.6 all that week, but finally charted at number 8. <mask> announced when on stage that their third single to be released from the album was "Girlfriend". Released 22 May, "Girlfriend" charted at number 39. The band followed up their second album with a tour of the UK and Ireland, consisting of 12 dates in the major cities. The tour opened in Dublin's Point Depot on 4 February and closed in the Nottingham Arena on 20 February. Few of the venues sold out, their appeal seemingly having become more selective. Their world tour, which followed, arrived in Australia and Japan after touring Scandinavia and Continental Europe in March.In October 2006, <mask> left the Darkness. Although drug and alcohol problems were initially cited as the main reason, later on national television, <mask> would claim that he had grown tired of the constant routine of the band, recording and promoting an album, going on tours for months, back in the studio, etc. which he considered "monotonous and boring" and "could not understand how bands like the Rolling Stones could sustain it". For his time with the Darkness, <mask> placed at number 35 on Spin list of the greatest frontmen of all time. In 2011 the band reunited and toured Europe, Asia and North America throughout 2011 and 2012 in support of their new album Hot Cakes. They then released Last Of Our Kind in 2015. The band returned in 2017 with Pinewood Smile, their first album to come through Cooking Vinyl.Ahead of the album's announcement, The Darkness toured Europe in support of Guns N' Roses and played a number of festivals in

masks: Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins


title: Justin Hawkins

texts:
 the UK and Europe during the summer. In 2018, they released their Live At Hammersmith album. 2019 saw The Darkness release the album Easter Is Cancelled on 4 October; the album charted in the top 10 in the UK. In January 2020, The Darkness released a new video for "In Another Life", which featured model Abbey Clancy. The track then made the BBC Radio 2 B-List. Other projects
In 2005, <mask> set up a solo project, called British Whale. His debut single, "This Town Ain't Big Enough for Both of Us", a cover of the 1974 hit by Sparks, was released on 15 August, reached No.6 on the UK Singles Chart and featured multiple World Darts Champion Phil Taylor in the video. In 2006 <mask> released a second single, available only to download, an unofficial World Cup anthem called "England". <mask> sang backing vocals on Sweet's song "Hell Raiser" for Def Leppard's 2006 covers album Yeah! In early 2007, he became half of one of six acts competing to represent the UK in the Eurovision Song Contest competition in Helsinki in a duet with singer Beverlei Brown. He entered Making Your Mind Up with Beverlei Brown singing a song entitled "They Don’t Make 'Em Like They Used To" but did not win the competition. On 16 March 2007, he appeared on the Comic Relief evening during the half-hour Top Gear of the Pops programme. This saw him performing Billy Ocean's "Red Light Spells Danger" with the three Top Gear presenters.Later that month, on 29 March, <mask> created a new Myspace profile featuring songs that were planned to be included on his upcoming solo album entitled Panther. The songs are titled "You Can't Hurt Me Anymore", "I've Met


title: Justin Hawkins

texts: Jesus" and "Whichever". On 12 May, <mask> added a further song to his profile, "Gay in the 80's", to appear on the same album. Later, on 13 July, he removed all the songs, and mentioned "You'll just have to wait". He later announced a new band line-up and name: Hot Leg. The aforementioned songs featured on the Hot Leg album Red Light Fever. <mask> also announced that he had been participating in the recording of two Magnet Watch albums entitled Nude Horizon and Party Party Time Time.On 8 November 2007, at 3:00 am, <mask> posted a MySpace blog containing directions to Do the Green Thing, an organisation for which he has composed a new song, "Do It in the Dark", to accompany a short film that encourages people to switch off and save energy. The song has not been released as a single but is available as a free download. There is a wax model of <mask> at Madame Tussaud's in London. <mask> supplied the singing and guitar playing for Kurtz, the lead singer of the "bad guy band" Mantyz in the BBC's animated series Freefonix, which debuted on 4 January 2008. In the film Telstar, a film about Joe Meek's life and career that was released on 19 June 2009, he played the role of Screaming Lord Sutch. With Hot Leg in November 2008, he toured the UK supporting Alter Bridge ( 4–13 November) and Extreme ( 14–24 November). <mask> has also worked with British pop-rock band Saving Aimee, having recently completed producing their debut album.He also lent his "truth larynx" to the track "Party All Day (Fuck All Night)" guesting on the 2009 Steel Panther release, Feel the Steel. <mask> recently worked with Adam Lambert on the track "Music

masks: Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins


title: Justin Hawkins

texts:
 Again" off his debut album. <mask> played the role of Josh, a burned out rockstar in the 2010 movie Psychosis. The movie also featured three Hot Leg songs. <mask> also appeared on the Meat Loaf album Hang Cool Teddy Bear, where he co-wrote two songs ("Love Is Not Real" and "California Isn't Big Enough"). He also provided guitar on "California Isn't Big Enough" and backing vocals on "Love Is Not Real" and "Los Angeloser". In 2012, <mask> appeared in a Samsung commercial for their Galaxy Note smartphone during Super Bowl XLVI.In the same year, <mask> and brother Dan appeared in the ZingZillas episode Electric Guitar. In 2016, <mask> appeared on the De La Soul album and the Anonymous Nobody... providing vocals on the track "Lord Intended". In 2020, <mask> participated in the UK version of The Masked Singer, appearing as Chameleon. His identity was revealed in the third episode when he was voted out. During his time on the show he performed renditions of "Creep" by Radiohead, "Feel It Still" by Portugal. The Man, and "True Colors" by Cyndi Lauper. Personal life

<mask> is a vegan.He resides in Switzerland with his wife and daughter. <mask> supported Manchester United growing up, but he is primarily a supporter of Norwich City. Equipment

<mask> is seen playing Gibson Les Paul Customs almost exclusively. He is most commonly seen playing an alpine white model which he used with the Darkness (as seen in the "I Believe in a Thing Called Love" & "Love is Only a Feeling" music videos), and with Hot Leg. It is rare to see him use another guitar, although he can be seen playing a custom Ibanez Jem for the song "Bald". He has

masks: Justin Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins Hawkins


title: Justin Hawkins

texts: also been seen using an ebony Gibson Les Paul Custom, a one-off Gibson "Less Paul" custom sculpted to resemble a shell, and a custom finished blue Les Paul standard airbrushed with the mythical dog Black Shuck and Blythburgh church. In 2004 Gibson issued a limited run of <mask> signature Les Paul Customs based on the '68 RI with abalone and mother of pearl "flame" inlays on the fretboard, a sparkle finish in either Silverburst or Pinkburst (a Blueburst and Redburst have also been pictured, as well as a one-off Gold Mirror finish produced by SimS Custom Guitars).These have become highly valuable because of their scarcity and unique features. <mask> used Mesa Boogie dual and triple rectifier amplifiers rather than Marshall Amplification when performing with the Darkness. The stacks he was using had custom-made speaker cabs coated in red leather. During his time in Hot Leg he was exclusively seen using Cornford MK50H II's in white vinyl with two Cornford, 16-ohm, 4x12 cabinets loaded with Celestion "Vintage 30s". Since the Darkness reformation he has been seen using multiple modified Marshall 1959 MKII Plexi Reissue guitar amps with a boosted gain stage run through Marshall 1960B cabinets. Since 2016, <mask> uses EVH and Wizard amplifiers. In a 2012 edition of Guitarist Magazine's video series "On the Road with..." <mask>'s pedal setup consisted of a Boss Analog Delay, a Pro Co RAT, a Diamond Pedals Compressor, a Boss TU-3 Tuner, and a Dunlop Cry Baby DCR-2SR rack module which allows him to have three separate wah-wah pedals strategically placed around the stage.As of 2016, <mask> does not use any pedals. On the song

masks:
Justin Hawkins
Hawkins
Hawkins
Hawkins
Hawkins


title: Justin Hawkins

texts:
 "Girlfriend", <mask> uses a Moog Keytar for the solo. <mask> is regularly seen playing a Martin Backpacker travel guitar on his various YouTube videos. References

External links
 <mask> Rides Again, YouTube channel
 Official Website of British Whale
 They Don’t Make 'Em Like They Used To MP3 – <mask> and Beverlei Brown's entry into Making Your Mind Up
 JustinHawkinsRocks.co.uk, UK-based fan site for <mask> and his projects

1975 births
Living people
21st-century English male singers
English rock singers
English singer-songwriters
People from Lowestoft
English rock guitarists
English tenors
Countertenors
Sopranists
Lead guitarists
People from Chertsey
The Darkness (band) members
People educated at East Point Academy
Ivor Novello Award winners
English male guitarists
Participants in British reality television

masks:
Hawkins
Hawkins
Justin Hawkins
Justin Hawkins
Justin Hawkins


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: <mask> (; born 31 May 1963) is a Hungarian politician who has served as prime minister of Hungary since 2010, previously holding the office from 1998 to 2002. He has presided over Fidesz, a national conservative political party, since 1993, with a brief break between 2000 and 2003. <mask> studied at Eötvös Loránd University and, briefly, at the University of Oxford before entering politics in the wake of the Revolutions of 1989. He headed the reformist student movement the Alliance of Young Democrats (), the nascent Fidesz. <mask> became nationally known after giving an address at the 1989 reburial of Imre Nagy and other martyrs of the 1956 revolution, in which he openly demanded that Soviet troops leave the country. After Hungary's transition to multiparty democracy in 1990, he was elected to the National Assembly and led Fidesz's parliamentary caucus until 1993. Under his leadership, Fidesz shifted away from its original centre-right, classical liberal, pro-European platform toward right-wing national conservatism.<mask>'s first term as prime minister, from 1998 to 2002 at the head of a conservative coalition government, was dominated by the economy and Hungary's accession to NATO. He served as leader of the opposition from 2002 to 2010. In 2010, <mask> again became prime minister after Fidesz's supermajority victory in coalition with the Christian Democrats. Central issues during <mask>'s second premiership have included major constitutional and legislative reforms, the European migrant crisis, the lex CEU, and the COVID-19 pandemic. He has won reelection twice, in 2014 and 2018, and in November 2020 became the country's longest-serving prime minister. In December 2021, he became the longest-serving incumbent head of government in the European Union.

masks:
Viktor Mihály Orbán
Orbán
Orbán
Orbán
Orbán
Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 Because of <mask>'s curtailing of press freedom, erosion of judicial independence and undermining of multiparty democracy, many political scientists and watchdogs consider Hungary to have experienced democratic backsliding during <mask>'s tenure.<mask>'s attacks on the European Union while accepting its money and funneling it to his allies and family have also led to characterizations of his government as a kleptocracy. Between 2010 and 2020, Hungary dropped 69 places in the Press Freedom Index and 11 places in the Democracy Index; Freedom House has downgraded the country from "free" to "partly free." <mask> defends his policies as "illiberal democracy." As a result, Fidesz was suspended from the European People's Party from March 2019 until March 2021, when Fidesz left the EPP over a dispute over new rule-of-law language in the latter's bylaws. Early life
<mask> was born on 31 May 1963 in Székesfehérvár into a rural middle-class family, as the eldest son of the entrepreneur and agronomist Győző <mask> (born 1940) and the special educator and speech therapist, Erzsébet Sípos (born 1944). He has two younger brothers, both entrepreneurs, Győző, Jr. (born 1965) and Áron (born 1977). His paternal grandfather, Mihály <mask>, practiced farming and animal husbandry.<mask> spent his childhood in two nearby villages, Alcsútdoboz and Felcsút in Fejér County; he attended school there and in Vértesacsa. In 1977, his family moved permanently to Székesfehérvár. <mask> graduated from Blanka Teleki High School in Székesfehérvár in 1981, where he studied English. After completing two years of military service, he studied law at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, writing his thesis on the Polish Solidarity movement. After obtaining his JD degree (equivalent to a

masks: Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 Master study) in 1987, he lived in Szolnok for two years, commuting to his job in Budapest as a sociologist at the Management Training Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food. In 1989, <mask> received a scholarship from the Soros Foundation to study political science at Pembroke College, Oxford. His personal tutor was the Hegelian political philosopher Zbigniew Pełczyński.In January 1990, he left Oxford and returned to Hungary to run for a seat in Hungary's first post-communist parliament. At the age of 14 and 15, he was a secretary of the communist youth organization, KISZ, of his secondary grammar school (KISZ membership was mandatory in order to matriculate to a university). <mask> said in a later interview that his political views had radically changed during the military service: earlier he had considered himself a "naive and devoted supporter" of the Communist regime. Early career (1988–1998)

On 30 March 1988, <mask> was one of the founding members of Fidesz (originally an acronym for Fiatal Demokraták Szövetsége, "Alliance of Young Democrats") and served as its first spokesperson. The first members of the party, including <mask>, were mostly students from the Bibó István College for Advanced Studies who opposed the Communist regime. At the college, itself a part of Eötvös Loránd University, <mask> also co-founded the dissidenting social science journal Századvég. On 16 June 1989, <mask> gave a speech in Heroes' Square, Budapest, on the occasion of the reburial of Imre Nagy and other national martyrs of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution.In his speech, he demanded free elections and the withdrawal of Soviet troops. The speech brought him wide national and political acclaim. In summer 1989, he took part in the opposition round table talks,

masks: Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: representing Fidesz alongside László Kövér. On returning home from Oxford, he was elected Member of Parliament from his party's Pest County Regional List during the 1990 parliamentary election. He was appointed leader of the Fidesz's parliamentary group, serving in this capacity until May 1993. On 18 April 1993, <mask> became the first president of Fidesz, replacing the national board that had served as a collective leadership since its founding. Under his leadership, Fidesz gradually transformed from a radical liberal student organization to a center-right people's party.The conservative turn caused a severe split in the membership. Several members left the party, including Péter Molnár, Gábor Fodor and Zsuzsanna Szelényi. Fodor and others later joined the liberal Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), initially a strong ally of Fidesz, but later a political opponent. During the 1994 parliamentary election, Fidesz barely reached the 5% threshold. <mask> became MP from his party's Fejér County Regional List. He served as chairman of the Committee on European Integration Affairs between 1994 and 1998. He was also a member of the Immunity, Incompatibility and Credentials Committee for a short time in 1995.Under his presidency, Fidesz adopted "Hungarian Civic Party" (Magyar Polgári Párt) to its shortened name in 1995. His party gradually became dominant in the right-wing of the political spectrum, while the former ruling conservative Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF) had lost much of its support. From April 1996, <mask> was chairman of the Hungarian National Committee of the New Atlantic Initiative (NAI). In September 1992, <mask> was elected vice chairman of the Liberal International. In November 2000, however, Fidesz left the Liberal International and joined

masks: Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 the European People's Party (EPP). During the time, <mask> worked hard to unite the center-right liberal conservative parties in Hungary. At the EPP's Congress in Estoril in October 2002, he was elected vice-president, an office he held until 2012.First premiership (1998–2002)

In 1998, <mask> formed a successful coalition with the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF) and the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and won the 1998 parliamentary elections with 42% of the national vote. <mask> became the second youngest prime minister of Hungary at the age of 35 (after András Hegedüs), serving between 1998 and 2002. The new government immediately launched a radical reform of state administration, reorganizing ministries and creating a superministry for the economy. In addition, the boards of the social security funds and centralized social security payments were dismissed. Following the German model, <mask> strengthened the prime minister's office and named a new minister to oversee the work of his Cabinet. Despite vigorous protests from the opposition parties, in February the government decided that plenary sessions of the unicameral National Assembly would be held only every third week. As a result, according to opposition arguments, parliament's legislative efficiency and ability to supervise the government were reduced.In late March, the government tried to replace the National Assembly rule that requires a two-thirds majority vote with one of a simple majority, but the Constitutional Court ruled this unconstitutional. The year saw only minor changes in top government officials. Two of <mask>'s state secretaries in the prime minister's office had to resign in May, due to their implication in a bribery scandal involving the American military manufacturer

masks: Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: Lockheed Martin Corporation. Before bids on a major jet-fighter contract, the two secretaries, along with 32 other deputies of <mask>'s party, had sent a letter to two US senators to lobby for the appointment of a Budapest-based Lockheed manager to be the US ambassador to Hungary. On 31 August, the head of the Tax Office also resigned, succumbing to protracted attacks by the opposition on his earlier, allegedly suspicious, business dealings. The tug-of-war between the Budapest City Council and the government continued over the government's decision in late 1998 to cancel two major urban projects: the construction of a new national theatre and of the fourth subway line. Relations between the Fidesz-led coalition government and the opposition worsened in the National Assembly, where the two seemed to have abandoned all attempts at consensus-seeking politics.The government pushed to swiftly replace the heads of key institutions (such as the Hungarian National Bank chairman, the Budapest City Chief Prosecutor and the Hungarian Radio) with partisan figures. Although the opposition resisted, for example by delaying their appointing of members of the supervising boards, the government ran the institutions without the stipulated number of directors. In a similar vein, <mask> failed to show up for question time in parliament, for periods of up to 10 months. His statements of the kind that "The parliament works without opposition too..." also contributed to the image of an arrogant and aggressive governance. A later report in March by the Brussels-based International Federation of Journalists criticized the Hungarian government for improper political influence in the media, as the country's public service broadcaster teetered close to bankruptcy. Numerous

masks: Orbán Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 political scandals during 2001 led to a de facto, if not actual, breakup of the coalition that held power in Budapest. A bribery scandal in February triggered a wave of allegations and several prosecutions against the Independent Smallholders' Party.The affair resulted in the ousting of József Torgyán from both the FKGP presidency and the top post in the Ministry of Agriculture. The FKGP disintegrated and more than a dozen of its MPs joined the government faction. Economy
Orbán's economic policy was aimed at cutting taxes and social insurance contributions over four years, while reducing inflation and unemployment. Among the new government's first measures was to abolish university tuition fees and reintroduce universal maternity benefits. The government announced its intention to continue the Socialist–Liberal stabilization program and pledged to narrow the budget deficit, which had grown to 4.5% of GDP. The previous Cabinet had almost completed the privatization of government-run industries and had launched a comprehensive pension reform. However, the Socialists had avoided two major socioeconomic issues—reform of health care and agriculture, these remained to be tackled by <mask>'s government.Economic successes included a drop in inflation from 15% in 1998 to 10.0% in 1999, 9.8% in 2000 and 7.8% in 2001. GDP growth rates were fairly steady: 4.4% in 1999, 5.2% in 2000, and 3.8% in 2001. The fiscal deficit fell from 3.9% in 1999, to 3.5% in 2000 and 3.4% in 2001 and the ratio of the national debt decreased to 54% of GDP. Under the <mask> cabinet, there were realistic hopes that Hungary would be able to join the Eurozone by 2009. However, negotiations for entry into the European Union slowed in the fall of 1999, after the EU included six more countries


title: Viktor Orbán

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 (in addition to the original six) in the accession discussions. <mask> repeatedly criticized the EU for its delay. <mask> also came under criticism for pushing through an unprecedented two-year budget and for failing to curb inflation, which only dropped a half point, from 10% in 1999 to 9.5% in 2000, despite the tight monetary policy of the Central Bank.However, investments continued to grow. Foreign policy
In March 1999, after Russian objections were overruled, Hungary joined NATO along with the Czech Republic and Poland. The Hungarian membership to NATO demanded its involvement in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's Kosovo crisis and modernization of its army. NATO membership also gave a blow to the economy because of a trade embargo imposed on Yugoslavia. Hungary attracted international media attention in 1999 for passing the "status law" concerning estimated three-million ethnic Hungarian minorities in neighbouring Romania, Slovakia, Serbia and Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia and Ukraine. The law aimed to provide education, health benefits and employment rights to those, and was said to heal the negative effects of the disastrous 1920 Trianon Treaty. Governments in neighbouring states, particularly Romania, claimed to be insulted by the law, which they saw as an interference in their domestic affairs.The proponents of the status law countered that several of the countries criticizing the law themselves have similar constructs to provide benefits for their own minorities. Romania acquiesced after amendments following a December 2001 agreement between <mask> and Romanian Prime Minister Adrian Năstase; Slovakia accepted the law after further concessions made by the new government after the 2002 elections. Leader of the Opposition (2002–2010)

The level of

masks: Orbán Orbán Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: public support for political parties generally stagnated, even with general elections coming in 2002. Fidesz and the main opposition Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP) ran neck and neck in the opinion polls for most of the year, both attracting about 26% of the electorate. According to a September 2001 poll by the Gallup organization, however, support for a joint Fidesz – Hungarian Democratic Forum party list would run up to 33% of the voters, with the Socialists drawing 28% and other opposition parties 3% each. Meanwhile, public support for the FKGP plunged from 14% in 1998 to 1% in 2001. As many as 40% of the voters remained undecided, however.Although the Socialists had picked their candidate for prime minister—former finance minister Péter Medgyessy—the opposition largely remained unable to increase its political support. The dark horse of the election was the radical nationalist Hungarian Justice and Life Party (MIÉP), with its leader, István Csurka's radical rhetoric. MIÉP could not be ruled out as the key to a new term for <mask> and his party, should they be forced into a coalition after the 2002 elections. The elections of 2002 were the most heated Hungary had experienced in more than a decade, and an unprecedented cultural-political division formed in the country. In the event, <mask>'s group lost the April parliamentary elections to the opposition Hungarian Socialist Party, which set up a coalition with its longtime ally, the liberal Alliance of Free Democrats. Turnout was a record-high 70.5%. Beyond these parties, only deputies of the Hungarian Democratic Forum made it into the National Assembly.The populist Independent Smallholders' Party and the right Hungarian Justice and Life Party lost all their seats. Thus, the number of political


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: parties in the new assembly was reduced from six to four. MIÉP challenged the government's legitimacy, demanded a recount, complained of election fraud, and generally kept the country in election mode until the October municipal elections. The socialist-controlled Central Elections Committee ruled that a recount was unnecessary, a position supported by observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, whose only substantive criticism of the election conduct was that the state television carried a consistent bias in favour of Fidesz. <mask> received the Freedom Award of the American Enterprise Institute and the New Atlantic Initiative (2001), the Polak Award (2001), the Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (2001), the "Förderpreis Soziale Marktwirtschaft" (Price for the Social Market Economy, 2002) and the Mérite Européen prize (2004). In April 2004, he received the Papal Grand Cross of the Order of St. Gregory the Great. In the 2004 European Parliament election, the ruling Hungarian Socialist Party was heavily defeated by the opposition conservative Fidesz.Fidesz gained 47.4% of the vote and 12 of Hungary's 24 seats. <mask> was the Fidesz candidate for the parliamentary election in 2006. Fidesz and its new-old candidate failed again to gain a majority in this election, which initially put <mask>'s future political career as the leader of Fidesz in question. However, after fighting with Socialist-Liberal coalition, <mask>'s position solidified again, and he was elected president of Fidesz yet again for another term in May 2007. On 17 September 2006, an audio recording surfaced from a closed-door Hungarian Socialist Party meeting, which was held on 26 May 2006, in which Hungarian Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány gave an


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 obscenity-laden speech. The leak ignited mass protests. On 1 November, <mask> and his party announced their plans to stage several large-scale demonstrations across Hungary on the anniversary of the Soviet suppression of the 1956 Revolution.The events were intended to serve as a memorial to the victims of the Soviet invasion and a protest against police brutality during the 23 October unrest in Budapest. Planned events included a candlelight vigil march across Budapest. However, the demonstrations were small and petered out by the end of the year. A new round of demonstrations expected in the spring of 2007 did not materialize. On 1 October 2006, Fidesz won the municipal elections, which counterbalanced the MSZP-led government's power to some extent. Fidesz won 15 of 23 mayoralties in Hungary's largest cities—although it narrowly lost Budapest to the Liberal Party—and majorities in 18 of 20 regional assemblies. On 9 March 2008, a national referendum took place on revoking government reforms which introduced doctor fees per visit and medical fees paid per number of days spent in hospital as well as tuition fees in higher education.Fidesz initiated the referendum against the ruling MSZP. The procedure for the referendum started on 23 October 2006, when <mask> announced they would hand in seven questions to the National Electorate Office, three of which (on abolishing copayments, daily fees and college tuition fees) were officially approved on 17 December 2007 and called on 24 January 2008. The referendum passed, a significant victory for Fidesz. In the 2009 European Parliament election, Fidesz won by a large margin, garnering 56.36% of votes and 14 of Hungary's 22 seats. Second premiership (2010–present)

During the 2010 parliamentary elections, <mask>'s


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: party won 52.73% of the popular vote, with a two-thirds majority of seats, which gave <mask> enough authority to change the Constitution. As a result, <mask>'s government drafted and passed a new constitution in 2011. Among other changes, it includes support for traditional values, nationalism, references to Christianity, and a controversial electoral reform, which lowered the number of seats in the Parliament of Hungary from 386 to 199.The new constitution entered into force on 1 January 2012 and was later amended further. In his second term as prime minister, he garnered controversy for his statements against liberal democracy, for proposing an "internet tax", and for his perceived corruption. His second premiership has seen numerous protests against his government, including one in Budapest in November 2014 against the proposed "internet tax". In terms of domestic legislation, <mask>'s government implemented a flat tax on personal income. This tax is set at 16%. <mask> has called his government "pragmatic", citing restrictions on early retirement in the police force and military, making welfare more transparent, and a central banking law that "gives Hungary more independence from the European Central Bank". After the 2014 parliamentary election, Fidesz won a majority, garnering 133 of the 199 seats in the National Assembly.While he won a large majority, he garnered 44.54% of the national vote, down from 52.73% in 2010. During the 2015 European migrant crisis, <mask> ordered the erection of the Hungary–Serbia barrier to block entry of illegal immigrants so that Hungary could register all the migrants arriving from Serbia, which is the country's responsibility under the Dublin Regulation, a European Union law. Under <mask>, Hungary took numerous


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: actions to combat illegal immigration and reduce refugee levels. In May 2020, the European Court of Justice ruled against Hungary's policy of migrants transit zones, which <mask> subsequently abolished while also making the country's asylum rules stricter. <mask> questioned Nord Stream II, a new Russia–Germany natural gas pipeline. He said he wants to hear a "reasonable argument why South Stream was bad and Nord Stream is not". "South Stream" refers to the Balkan pipeline cancelled by Russia in December 2014 after obstacles from the EU.Since 2017, Hungary's relations with Ukraine rapidly deteriorated over the issue of the Hungarian minority in Ukraine. <mask> and his cabinet ministers repeatedly criticized Ukraine's 2017 education law, which makes Ukrainian the only language of education in state schools, and threatened to block further Ukraine's EU and NATO integration until it is modified or repealed. In July 2018, <mask> travelled to Turkey to attend the inauguration ceremony of re-elected Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. In October 2018, <mask> said after talks with President Erdoğan in Budapest that "A stable Turkish government and a stable Turkey are a precondition for Hungary not to be endangered in any way due to overland migration." In April 2019, <mask> attended China's Belt and Road forum in Beijing, where he met the Chinese President Xi Jinping. In June 2019, <mask> met Myanmar’s State Counsellor and Nobel Peace Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi. They discussed bilateral ties and illegal migration.On 30 March 2020, the Hungarian parliament voted 137 to 53 in favor of passing legislation that would create a state of emergency without a time limit, grant the Prime Minister the ability to rule by decree, the suspension of by-elections, and

masks: Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

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 possibly prison sentences for spreading fake news and sanctions for leaving quarantine. Two and a half months later, on 16 June 2020, the Hungarian parliament passed a bill that ended the state of emergency effective 19 June. However, on the same day the parliament passed a new law removing the requirement of parliamentary approval for future "medical" states of emergencies, allowing the government to declare them by decree. In 2021, the parliament transferred control of 11 state universities to foundations led by allies of Orbán. The Mathias Corvinus Collegium, a residential college, received an influx of government funds and assets equal to about 1% of Hungary's gross domestic product, reportedly as part of a mission to train future right-wing intellectuals. Due to a combination of unfavourable conditions, which involved soaring demand of natural gas, its diminished supply from Russia and Norway to the European markets, and less power generation by renewable energy sources such as wind, water and solar energy, Europe faced steep increases in energy prices in 2021. In October 2021, Orbán blamed a record-breaking surge in energy prices on the European Commission's Green Deal plans.Amidst the 2021-2022 Ukraine crisis <mask> was the first EU leader to meet with Vladimir Putin in Moscow in a visit which he called "a peacekeeping mission". They also discussed Russian gas export to Hungary. Anti-LGBT policies
Since his election as prime minister in 2010, <mask> has led initiatives and laws to hinder human rights of LGBT+ people, regarding those as "not compatible with Christian values." In 2020, <mask>'s government ended legal recognition of transgender people, receiving widespread criticism both in Hungary and abroad. In 2021 his party proposed legislation


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 to censor any "LGBT+ positive content" in movies, books or public advertisements and to severely restrict sex education in school forbidding any information thought to "encourage gender change or homosexuality". The law has been likened to Russia's restriction on "homosexual propaganda." German Chancellor Angela Merkel and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen harshly criticized the law, while a letter from sixteen EU leaders including Pedro Sánchez and Mario Draghi warned against “threats against fundamental rights and in particular the principle of non-discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation”.His anti-LGBT+ positions came under more scrutiny after the revelation that one of the European deputies of his party, József Szájer, had participated in a gay sex party in Brussels, despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic quarantine restrictions. Szájer was one of the major architects behind the 2011 Constitution of Hungary. This new constitution has been criticized by Human Rights Watch for being discriminatory towards the LGBT+ community. Hungary's ascension to the Organization of Turkic States

Since 2014 Hungary has had observer status at the General Assembly of Turkic-speaking States, and in 2017 it submitted an application for accession to the International Turkic Academy. During the 6th Summit of Turkic Council, <mask> said that Hungary is seeking even closer cooperation with the Turkic Council. In 2018, Hungary obtained its observer status in the council. In 2021, <mask> mentioned that the Hungarian and Turkic peoples share a historical and cultural heritage "reaching back many long centuries".He also pointed out that the Hungarian people are "proud of this heritage, and "were also proud when their opponents in Europe mocked them as


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 barbarian Huns and Attila's people". Nationalistic and racist views
In his 2018 speech at the meeting of the Association of Cities with County Rights, <mask> said We must state that we do not want to be diverse and do not want to be mixed: we do not want our own colour, traditions and national culture to be mixed with those of others. We do not want this. We do not want that at all. We do not want to be a diverse country. In his 2021 speech, <mask> said “The challenge with Bosnia is how to integrate a country with 2 million Muslims”. Bosnian leaders responded with calling for <mask>'s visit to Sarajevo to be cancelled.The head of the country's Islamic Community, Husein Kavazović, characterized his statement “xenophobic and racist”. Views and public image

<mask>'s blend of soft Euroscepticism, populism, and national conservatism has seen him compared to politicians and political parties as diverse as Jarosław Kaczyński's Law and Justice, Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia, Matteo Salvini's League, Marine Le Pen's National Rally, Donald Trump, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Vladimir Putin. Orbán has sought to make Hungary an "ideological center for ... an international conservative movement." According to Politico, Orbán's political philosophy "echoes the resentments of what were once the peasant and working classes" by promoting an "uncompromising defense of national sovereignty and a transparent distrust of Europe's ruling establishments". Orbán had a close relationship with the former Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, having known him for decades. He is described as "one of Mr Netanyahu's closest allies in Europe." Orbán received personal advice on economic reforms from Netanyahu, while the latter was Finance Minister of Israel (2003–2005).In


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: February 2019, Netanyahu thanked <mask> for "deciding to extend the embassy of Hungary in Israel to Jerusalem". <mask> is seen as having laid out his political views most concretely in a widely cited 2014 public address at Băile Tușnad (known in Hungary as the Tusnádfürdői beszéd, or "Tusnádfürdő speech"). In the address, <mask> repudiated the classical liberal theory of the state as a free association of atomistic individuals, arguing for the use of the state as the means of organizing, invigorating, or even constructing the national community. Although this kind of state respects traditionally liberal concepts like civic rights, it is properly called "illiberal" because it views the community, and not the individual, as the basic political unit. In practice, <mask> claimed, such a state should promote national self-sufficiency, national sovereignty, familialism, full employment and the preservation of cultural heritage, and cited countries such as Turkey, India, Singapore, Russia, and China as models. <mask>'s second and third premierships have been the subject of significant international controversy, and reception of his political views is mixed. The 2011 constitutional changes enacted under his leadership were, in particular, accused of centralizing legislative and executive power, curbing civil liberties, restricting freedom of speech, and weakening the Constitutional Court and judiciary.For these reasons, critics have described him as "irredentist," "right-wing populist," "authoritarian," "autocratic," "Putinist," as a "strongman," and as a "dictator." Other commentators, however, noted that the European migrant crisis, coupled with continued Islamist terrorism in the European Union, have popularized <mask>'s nationalist, protectionist policies


title: Viktor Orbán

texts: among European conservative leaders. "Once ostracized" by Europe's political elite, writes Politico, <mask> "is now the talisman of Europe's mainstream right." As other Visegrád Group leaders, Orbán opposes any compulsory EU long-term quota on redistribution of migrants. He wrote in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: "Europe's response is madness. We must acknowledge that the European Union's misguided immigration policy is responsible for this situation." He also demanded an official EU list of "safe countries" to which migrants can be returned.According to <mask>, Turkey should be considered a safe third country. <mask> has promoted the Great Replacement conspiracy theory. Le Journal du Dimanche reported on <mask>'s explicit adoption of the conspiracy theory, after he claimed; "if we let tens of millions of migrants travel to Europe from Africa and the Middle East... the young people of Western Europe will know the day when they will be in a minority in their own country." During a press conference in January 2019, <mask> praised Brazil's president Jair Bolsonaro, saying that currently "the most apt definition of modern Christian democracy can be found in Brazil, not in Europe." Despite the anti-immigration rhetoric from <mask>, it has been reported that Hungary has actually increased immigration of foreign workers into the country. Donald Trump's former chief strategist, Steve Bannon, once called Orbán "Trump before Trump." As stated by The Guardian, the "Hungarian government doubled family spending between 2010 and 2019," intending to achieve "a lasting turn in demographic processes by 2030."<mask> has espoused an anti-immigration platform, and has also advocated for increased investment into "Family First." <mask> has disregarded the European

masks: Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán Orbán


title: Viktor Orbán

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 Union's attempts to promote integration as a key solution to population distribution problems in Europe. He has also supported investments into the country's low birth rates. <mask> has tapped into the "great replacement theory" which emulates a nativist approach to rejecting foreign immigration out of fear of replacement by immigrants. He has stated that "If Europe is not going to be populated by Europeans in the future and we take this as given, then we are speaking about an exchange of populations, to replace the population of Europeans with others." The Guardian stated that "This year the Hungarian government introduced a 10 million forint (£27,000) interest-free loan for families, which does not have to be paid back if the couple has three children." In July 2020, <mask> expressed that he still expects arguments over linking of disbursement of funds of the European Union to rule-of-law criteria but remarked in a state radio interview that they "didn't win the war, we (they) won an important battle."In August 2020, <mask> whilst speaking at an event to inaugurate a monument commemorating the Treaty of Trianon, said Central European nations should come together to preserve their Christian roots as western Europe experiments with same-sex families, immigration and atheism. In January 2022 Donald Trump endorsed <mask> in the 2022 Hungarian parliamentary election saying in a statement that he “truly loves his Country and wants safety for his people,” while also touting his hard-line immigration policies. Criticism
<mask>'s critics have included domestic and foreign leaders (including former United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, and the Presidents of the European Commission José Manuel Barroso, and Jean-Claude


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 Juncker), intergovernmental organizations, and non-governmental organizations. He has been accused of pursuing anti-democratic reforms; attacking the human rights of the LGBT community; reducing the independence of Hungary's press, judiciary and central bank; amending Hungary's constitution to prevent amendments to Fidesz-backed legislation; and of cronyism and nepotism. Pork Barrel spending
He was accused of pork barrel politics for building a 4,000-seat stadium in the village in which he grew up, Felcsút, at a distance of some  from his country house. Economic cronyism
A 2019 New York Times investigation revealed how Orban leased plots of farm land to politically connected individuals and supporters of his and his party, thereby channeling dispropotionate amounts of the EU's agricultural subsidies Hungary receives every year into the pockets of cronies. Opposition to European integration
Some opposition parties and critics also consider <mask> an opponent of European integration.In 2000, opposition parties MSZP and SZDSZ and the left-wing press presented <mask>'s comment that "there's life outside the EU" as proof of his anti-Europeanism and sympathies with the radical right. In the same press conference, <mask> clarified that "[w]e're trying to make the accession fast because it may boost the growth of Hungary's economy." Migrant Crisis
Hungarian-American business magnate and political activist George Soros criticized <mask>'s handling of the European migrant crisis in 2015, saying: "His plan treats the protection of national borders as the objective and the refugees as an obstacle. Our plan treats the protection of refugees as the objective and national borders as the obstacle." The <mask> government began to attack Soros and his NGOs in early


title: Viktor Orbán

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 2017, particularly for his support for more open immigration. In July 2017, the Israeli ambassador in Hungary joined Jewish groups and others in denouncing a billboard campaign backed by the government. <mask>'s critics claimed it "evokes memories of the Nazi posters during the Second World War".The ambassador stated that the campaign "evokes sad memories but also sows hatred and fear", an apparent reference to the Holocaust. Hours later, Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a "clarification", denouncing Soros, stating that he "continuously undermines Israel's democratically elected governments" and funded organizations "that defame the Jewish state and seek to deny it the right to defend itself". The clarification came a few days before an official visit to Hungary by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. The anti-Soros messages became key elements of the government's communication and campaign since then, which, among others, also targeted the Central European University (CEU). Orban has been criticized for engineering the 2015 European migrant crisis for his own political gain. Specifically, he has been accused of mistreating migrants within Hungary and later sending many to Western Europe in an effort to stoke far-right sympathies in Western European countries. Democratic backsliding
Following a decade of Fidesz–KDNP rule led by Orbán, Freedom House's Nations in Transit 2020 report reclassified Hungary from a democracy to a transitional or hybrid regime.Personal life

<mask> married jurist Anikó Lévai in 1986; the couple have five children. Their eldest daughter, Ráhel, is married to entrepreneur , whose company, Elios, was accused of receiving unfair advantages when winning public tenders. (see )  <mask>'s son, Gáspár, is a retired


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 footballer, who played for Ferenc Puskás Football Academy in 2014. He is also the founder of a religious community called Felház. <mask> has three younger daughters (Sára, Róza, Flóra) and three granddaughters (Ráhel's children Aliz and Anna Adél; Sára's daughter Johanna). <mask> is a member of the Calvinist Hungarian Reformed Church, while his wife and their five children are Roman Catholic. Football interests
<mask> is very fond of sports, especially of football; he was a signed player of the FC Felcsút, and as a result he also appears in Football Manager 2006.<mask> has played football from his early childhood. He was a professional player with FC Felcsút. After ending his football career, he became one of the main financiers of the Hungarian football and his hometown's club, Felcsút FC, later renamed the Ferenc Puskás Football Academy. He had a prominent role in the foundation of Puskás Akadémia in Felcsút, creating one of the most modern training facilities for young Hungarian footballers. He played an important role in establishing the annually organised international youth cup, the Puskás Cup, at Pancho Aréna, which he also helped build, in his hometown of Felcsút. His only son, Gáspár, learned and trained there. <mask> is said to watch as many as six games a day.His first trip abroad as prime minister in 1998 was to the World Cup final in Paris; according to inside sources, he has not missed a World Cup or Champions League final since. Then FIFA president Sepp Blatter visited the facilities at the Puskás Academy in 2009. Blatter, together with the widow of Ferenc Puskás, as well as <mask>, founder of the academy, announced the creation of the new FIFA Puskás Award during that visit. He played the minor role of a footballer in the Hungarian


title: Viktor Orbán

texts:
 family film Szegény Dzsoni és Árnika (1983). See also
 First Orbán Government
 Second Orbán Government
 Third Orbán Government
 Fourth Orbán Government
 Orbanomics

References

Bibliography

 Fabry, Adam. "Neoliberalism, crisis and authoritarian–ethnicist reaction: The ascendancy of the Orbán regime." Competition & Change 23.2 (2019): 165–191.online

 Metz, Rudolf, and Daniel Oross. "Strong Personalities’ Impact on Hungarian Party Politics: <mask> and Gábor Vona." in Party Leaders in Eastern Europe (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020) pp. 145–170. Rydliński, Bartosz. "<mask>–First among Illiberals? Hungarian and Polish Steps towards Populist Democracy."Online Journal Modelling the New Europe 26 (2018): 95–107. online
 Szikra D. "Democracy and welfare in hard times: the social policy of the Orban Government in Hungary between 2010 and 2014" Journal of European Social Policy (2014)  24(5): 486–500. Szilágyi, Anna, and András Bozóki. "Playing it again in post-communism: the revolutionary rhetoric of <mask> in Hungary." Advances in the History of Rhetoric 18.sup1 (2015): S153–S166. online
 Toomey, Michael. "History, nationalism and democracy: myth and narrative in <mask>’s ‘illiberal Hungary’."New Perspectives. Interdisciplinary Journal of Central & East European Politics and International Relations 26.1 (2018): 87–108 online. Further reading
 Hollós, János – Kondor, Katalin: Szerda reggel – Rádiós beszélgetések Orbán Viktor miniszterelnökkel, 1998. szeptember – 2000. december;
 Hollós, János – Kondor, Katalin: Szerda reggel – Rádiós beszélgetések Orbán Viktor miniszterelnökkel, 2001–2002;
 A történelem főutcáján – Magyarország 1998–2002, Orbán <mask> miniszterelnök beszédei és beszédrészletei, Magyar Egyetemi Kiadó;
 20 év – Beszédek, írások, interjúk,

masks:
Viktor Orbán
Viktor Orbán
Viktor Orbán
Viktor Orbán
Viktor


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texts:
 1986–2006, Heti Válasz Kiadó,
 Egy az ország. Helikon Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 2007. (translated into Polish as Ojczyzna jest jedna in 2009). Rengéshullámok. Helikon Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 2010.Janke, Igor: Hajrá, magyarok! – Az <mask> Viktor-sztori egy lengyel újságíró szemével Rézbong Kiadó, 2013. (, ). External links

 News from the BBC (2002)
 Hungarian PM puts football first – BBC
 Orbán in 1989

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Members of the Fourth Orbán Government
1963 births
Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford
Critics of Islamism
Critics of multiculturalism
Conservatism in Hungary
Eötvös Loránd University alumni
European People's Party politicians
Fidesz politicians
Hungarian anti-communists
Hungarian Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Hungarian footballers
Hungarian lawyers
Hungarian sportsperson-politicians
Living people
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (1990–1994)
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (1994–1998)
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (1998–2002)
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (2002–2006)
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (2006–2010)
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (2010–2014)
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (2014–2018)
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (2018–2022)
People from Székesfehérvár
Prime Ministers of Hungary
Association footballers not categorized by position
Hungarian national


title: Rebecca Adamson

texts:
<mask> (born 1950) is an American businessperson and advocate. She is former director, former president, and founder of First Nations Development Institute and the founder of First Peoples Worldwide. Personal life
Born in Akron, Ohio, to a father of Swedish-American ancestry and of a mother who identified as being Cherokee, Adamson grew up in Akron and spent summers with her grandmother in Lumberton, North Carolina where she learned about the history and culture of Native Americans. She holds a master of science in economic development from the Southern New Hampshire University in Manchester, New Hampshire, where she teaches a graduate course on indigenous economics. Career
After graduating from Firestone High School in Akron in 1967, she studied philosophy at the University of Akron and then took courses in law and economics at Piedmont College in Georgia. Adamson left college in 1970 to work on western reservations to help end the practice of removing Native American children from their homes and placing them in government or missionary-ran boarding schools in the hope of destroying their connections to their native languages and cultures. From 1972-1976, she was a member of the board of directors of Denver, Colorado's Coalition of Indian-Controlled School Boards, where she worked toward synthesizing and facilitating policy reform at the national level.The Coalition worked to "wrest control of Indian schools from the U.S. government and Christian religious groups that had been running them for more than 100 years." Her work contributed to the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975. In 1982, she became founder and president of First Nations Development Institute in Falmouth, Virginia to promote economic development by founding


title: Rebecca Adamson

texts: commercial enterprises on reservations. In 1986, she served as an adviser on rural development for the United Nations (UN) during their Decade of Women. She became the adviser for the UN's International Labor Organization International Indigenous Rights from 1988-1989. She has also served on the board of directors for the National Center for Enterprise Development and the Council on Foundations. In 1992, she became an adviser for the Catholic Conference's Campaign for Human Development.She has also served on the President's Council on Sustainable Development/Sustainable Communities Task Force. Her work led to the first microloan fund in the United States associated with a reservation, the first tribal investment model. This was a national movement for reservation land reform, and legislation on federal trust responsibility for Native Americans. <mask>'s international work created the Lumba Aboriginal Community Foundation in Australia. It enabled the Sans Tribe to secure its traditional homelands in Botswana, Namibia, and southern Africa. She launched a strategy (that includes Alcoa, Texaco, Rio Tinto, Merck, Ford, and Occidental) with investment criteria that protect the rights of indigenous peoples and has been adopted by a mutual fund, an index fund, and investment advisors. She established a scholarship program for native people at the Yale School of Organization and Management and at the Carlson School of Management at the University of Minnesota.She convinced the World Bank to create the First Global Indigenous Peoples' Facility Fund to make small building grants. She was appointed by the Obama administration to serve a three year term on the U.S. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Advisory Committee to increase


title: Rebecca Adamson

texts:
 the transparency in the reporting on natural resource extraction. <mask> serves on the board of directors for the Calvert Social Investment Fund and the Calvert Small Cap Fund which are known for socially-responsible investing and co-founded a fund there. She is on the board and trustee for Tom's of Maine, Inc. She is on the boards of Corporation for Enterprise Development, The Bay Foundation, Josephine Bay Paul and C. Michael Paul Foundation, The Bridgespan Group, and First Voice International. She is a founding member of Native Americans in Philanthropy, Funders Who Fund Native Americans, and International Funders for Indigenous Peoples. She has been a member of the editorial boards of Indian Country Today, Native Americas, and for Akwe:kon Journal. In 2016, the Standing Rock Sioux asked her to develop and coordinate an investor engagement strategy to pressure the builders of the Dakota Access Pipeline to change the planned route which was to pass near a river used for potable water near their reservation.She was able to secure statements from ESG investors with over $1.7 trillion in invested assets requesting that the banks funding the pipeline support the tribe's request to reroute the pipeline. Her efforts helped to embolden activists who forced shareholder resolutions to require that the environmental and social risks were more adequately disclosed (including at Marathon Petroleum, Enbridge, and Wells Fargo) and encouraged over 500 NGOs to pressure the banks financing the pipeline with three major banks pulling out of the syndication (BNP Paribas, DNB ASA, and ING) and ten other banks supported strengthening the Equator Principles. Awards
In 1996, she was awarded the Robert W. Scrivner Award from the Council on


title: Rebecca Adamson

texts:
 Foundations for grant-making and the National Center for American Indian Enterprise Development's Jay Silverheels Award. Ms. magazine named her one of their seven "Women of the Year" in 1997. In 1998, Who Cares magazine named her one of the top 10 Social Entrepreneurs of the Year. In 2001 she was received the John W. Gardener Leadership Award. In 2004, she was Scwab's Outstanding Social Entrepreneur.In 2012, she was featured as one of the most influential women in America on PBS' MAKERS: Women Who Make America program. She writes a monthly column for Indian Country Today newspaper. When asked about her accomplishments in 2015, she said, "I come from a matrilineal society and having women be a source of power was there in my DNA." Publications
"Adapting the Evaluation Process to the Organizational Culture," a chapter in Evaluation with Power, 1997
"The Native American Credit Market: Opportunity Knocks, but Relationships Stay," RMA's Journal of Lending & Credit Risk Management, Fall 1997
"Can't Give It Away Fast Enough? Try This," Foundation News & Commentary, January/February 1998
The Color of Wealth – The Story behind the U.S. Racial Wealth Divide, June 2006

References

External links
Adamson on understanding sufficiency
Adamson's TEDMED profile
Biography at Learning to Give. Guide to the <mask>on papers at Smith College Special Collections

1950 births
Living people
American directors
American people of Cherokee descent
American people of Swedish descent
American women business executives
Southern New Hampshire University alumni
Southern New Hampshire University faculty
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American businesswomen
21st-century American businesswomen
21st-century American businesspeople
American


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts:
<mask> (; 1437–1508), commonly referred to as Abarbanel (), also spelled Abravanel, Avravanel or Abrabanel, was a Portuguese Jewish statesman, philosopher, Bible commentator, and financier. Name
There is some debate over whether his last name should be pronounced <mask> or Abravanel. The traditional pronunciation is Abarbanel. Modern scholarly literature, since Graetz and Baer, has most commonly used Abravanel. However, his own son Judah insisted on Abarbanel, and Sefer HaTishbi by Elijah Levita, who was a nearby contemporary, twice vowels the name as Abarbinel (אַבַּרְבִּינֵאל). The name's etymology is uncertain. Some say it comes from "Ab Rabban El", meaning "father of the rabbis of God", which seems to favor the pronunciation "Abrabanel".Biography
<mask> was born in Lisbon, Portugal, into one of the oldest and most distinguished Iberian Jewish families. the Abravanel or Abarbanel family, had escaped the massacre in Castile in 1391. A student of the rabbi of Lisbon, Joseph Chaim, he became well versed in rabbinic literature and in the learning of his time, devoting his early years to the study of Jewish philosophy. <mask> is quoted as saying that he included Joseph ibn Shem-Tov as his mentor. At twenty years old, he wrote on the original form of the natural elements, on religious questions and prophecy. Together with his intellectual abilities, he showed a complete mastery of financial matters. This attracted the attention of King Afonso V of Portugal, who employed him as treasurer.He used his high position, and the great wealth

masks:
Isaac ben Judah Abarbanel
Abarbanel
Abarbanel
Abarbanel


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts: he had inherited from his father, to aid his co-religionists. When his patron Afonso captured the city of Arzila, in Morocco, the Jewish captives faced being sold as slaves. Abarbanel contributed largely to the funds needed to free them, and personally arranged for collections throughout Portugal. He also wrote to his learned and wealthy friend, Vitale (Yehiel) Nissim da Pisa, on behalf of the captives. After the death of Afonso he was obliged to relinquish his office, having been accused by King John II of connivance with the Duke of Braganza, who had been executed on the charge of conspiracy. <mask>, warned in time, saved himself by a hasty flight to Castile in 1483. His large fortune was confiscated by royal decree.At Toledo, his new home, he occupied himself at first with Biblical studies, and in the course of six months produced an extensive commentary on the books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel. But shortly afterward he entered the service of the house of Castile. Together with his friend, the influential converso Don Abraham Senior, of Segovia, he undertook to farm the revenues and to supply provisions for the royal army, contracts that he carried out to the entire satisfaction of Queen Isabella I of Castile. During the Moorish war, Abarbanel advanced considerable sums of money to the king. When the Jews were ordered banished by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain with the Alhambra Decree, he did all in his power to induce the king to revoke the edict. He unsuccessfully offered the king 30,000 ducats ($68,400 nominal value). He


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts:
 philosophy, and apologetics. His philosophy dealt with the sciences and how the general field relates to the Jewish religion and traditions, and his  apologetics defends the idea of the Messiah in Judaism while criticizing the Christian version. Abarbanel's exegetic writings were different from the usual biblical commentaries because he took social and political issues of the times into consideration. He believed that mere commentary was not enough, but that the actual lives of the Jewish people must be deliberated on as well when discussing such an important topic as the Bible. He also took the time to include an introduction concerning the character of each book he commented on, as well as its date of composition, and the intention of the original author, in order to make the works more accessible to the average reader. Exegesis

Abarbanel composed commentaries on the Torah and Nevi'im.These were published in three works: "Perush" (Commentary) on the Torah (Venice, 1579); "Perush" on the Earlier Prophets (Pesaro, 1511? ); "Perush" on the Later Prophets (Pesaro, 1520?). His commentaries are divided into chapters, each of which is preceded by a list of questions or difficulties that he sets out to explain over the course of the chapter. Not only did this make it easier for scholars to find the answers they were looking for, but these lists of difficulties aided the average student in studying <mask>'s work. In his commentary on the Torah, these questions have no fixed number, sometimes amounting to over 40, but in his commentary to


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts: the Prophets he limits himself to six. Abarbanel rarely forayed into the world of grammatical or philological investigation in the vein of Abraham ibn Ezra or David Kimhi before him, instead focusing on a content-based investigation of the Scripture at hand. Occasionally <mask> digresses from the subject under discussion, particularly in his commentary on the Torah.His style and presentation is prolix and often repetitive. Some of his interpretations derive from homilies delivered in the synagogue. He vehemently fought the extreme rationalism of philosophical interpretation as well as interpretations based on philosophical allegory. At the same time he himself had recourse, especially in his commentary on the Torah, to numerous interpretations based on philosophy. His opposition to philosophical allegory must also be ascribed to the conditions of his time, the fear of undermining the unquestioning faith of the simple Jew, and the danger to Jewish survival in exile. This also explains <mask>'s faith in the Messianic concepts of Judaism, as well as his need to make his work accessible to all Jews instead of writing merely for the scholars of his time. Although his commentary often differed from kabbalistic interpretations, <mask> nonetheless believed that the Torah had a hidden meaning in addition to its overt significance, and thus he interpreted passages in the Torah in various ways.His commentary to Deuteronomy 25:5 demonstrates both his knowledge and endorsement of kabbalists and kabbalistic understanding of Scripture. Side by

masks: Abarbanel Abarbanel Abarbanel


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts: than those of his predecessors. In them he deals with the content of the books, the division of the material, their authors and the time of their compilation, and also drew comparisons between the method and style of the various prophets. His investigations are made in the spirit of medieval scholasticism. He may consequently be considered as a pioneer of the modern science of Bible propædeutics.However, the major characteristic that separated Abarbanel from his predecessors was his unflagging commitment toward using the Scripture as a means of elucidating the status quo of his surrounding Jewish community; as a historical scholar, Abarbanel was able to contemporize the lessons of the historical eras described in the Scripture and apply them successfully in his explanations of modern Jewish living. <mask>, who had himself taken part in the politics of the great powers of the day, believed that mere consideration of the literary elements of Scripture was insufficient, and that the political and social life of the characters in the Tanakh must also be taken into account. Due to the overall excellence and exhaustiveness of Abarbanel's exegetical literature, he was looked to as a beacon for later Christian scholarship, which often included the tasks of translating and condensing his works. His exegetical writings are set against a richly conceived backdrop of the Jewish historical and sociocultural experience, and it is often implied that his exegesis was sculpted with the purpose of giving hope to the Jews of Spain that the arrival of


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts:
 the Messiah was imminent in their days. This idea distinguished him from many other philosophers of the age, who did not rely as heavily on Messianic concepts. Philosophy

Abarbanel's Jewish predecessors in the realm of philosophy did not receive the same tolerance at his hands as the Christians did. Men like <mask>, Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera, Gersonides, Moses ben Joshua, and others, were denounced by Abarbanel as infidels and misleading guides for assuming a comparatively liberal standpoint in religio-philosophical questions.<mask> was essentially an opponent of philosophy, despite his authority on the subject, because his entire understanding of the Jewish religion was based on God's revelation in Jewish history. A characteristic instance of his vacillation is afforded by his most important religious work, the Rosh Amanah (The Pinnacle of Faith) (Amsterdam, 1505), whose title derives from Song of Songs 4:8. This work, devoted to the championship of the Maimonidean 13 articles of belief against the attacks of Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo, ends with the statement that Maimonides compiled these articles merely in accordance with the fashion of other nations, which set up axioms or fundamental principles for their science. However, he holds that Judaism has nothing in common with human science; that the teachings of the Torah are revelations from God, and therefore are all of equal value; that among them are neither principles nor corollaries from principles. Abarbanel agrees with and supports some of Maimonides' ideas; however he

masks:
Isaac Albalag
Abarbanel


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts:
 assails Maimonides' conception that the prophetic visions were the creations of imagination. Abarbanel will not hear of this explanation, even for the bat kol of the Talmud, which, according to him, was an actual voice made audible by God — a miracle, in fact. In like manner, Abarbanel exceeded all his predecessors in combating Maimonides' theory of the "Heavenly Chariot" in Ezekiel.Apologetics

<mask> felt deeply the hopelessness and despair which possessed Spanish Jews in the years following their expulsion from Spain, and set himself, therefore, to champion and strengthen their Messianic belief. With this aim he wrote the following three works:
 "The Wellsprings of Salvation" (, Maʿyānei haYəshuʿāh, 1496), which is a commentary on the Book of Daniel;
 "The Salvation of His Anointed" (, Yəshuʿot Meshiho, 1497), an interpretation of rabbinic literature about the Messiah; and
 "Announcing Salvation" (, 1498), a commentary on the messianic prophecies in the prophetical books. These three books are considered the separate parts of a larger work entitled Tower of Salvation (, Migdāl Yəshuʿot). The first work is in the form of a commentary upon Daniel, in which he controverts both the Christian exposition of and the Jewish rationalistic approach to this book. Curiously enough, in opposition to the Talmud and all later rabbinical tradition, he counts Daniel among the prophets, coinciding therein—but therein only—with the current Christian interpretation. He is impelled to this by the fact that Daniel furnishes the foundation for his


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts:
 Messianic theory. The remainder of his commentary is devoted to an exhaustive and caustic criticism of the Christian exposition.The second work is probably unique in being an exposition of the doctrine concerning the Messiah according to the traditional testimony of Talmud and Midrash. His third apologetic work contains a collection of Messianic passages of the Bible and their interpretations, in the course of which Abarbanel criticizes the Christian interpretation of these passages. Other works

Other works by Abarbanel include:
 "The Crown of the Ancients" (Ateret Zkenim)
 "The Pinnacle of Faith" (Rosh Amanah)
 "Inheritance of the Fathers" (Nachlat Avot)
 "The Forms of the Elements" (Tzurot Hayesodot)
 "New Heavens" (Shamayim Hadashim)
 "Deeds of God" (Mifalot Elohim)
 "Passover Offering" (Zevach Pesach)

Assessment of his works

Race and slavery
Ironically, according to David Brion Davis, a Yale historian who specializes in slavery, Abarbanel played a pivotal role in providing the conceptual basis for black slavery: "[...] the great Jewish philosopher and statesman <mask> Abravanel, having seen many black slaves both in his native Portugal and in Spain, merged Aristotle's theory of natural slaves with the belief that the biblical Noah had cursed and condemned to slavery both his son Ham and his young grandson Canaan. Abravanel concluded that the servitude of animalistic black Africans should be perpetual." <mask>'s view on slavery, however, stood in direct contradiction to that of Rashi, who, citing an earlier Talmudic source,

masks:
Isaac ben
Abarbanel


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts: wrote that the heathen were never included in the sanction of possessing slaves as the children of Israel were permitted to do, for the Scripture says (Leviticus 25:44): "Of them you shall buy, etc. ", meaning, "Israel alone is permitted to buy from them [enslaved persons], but they are not permitted to buy [enslaved persons] from you, nor from one another." Scholars including Jonathan Schorsch and David M. Goldenberg point out Abarbanel's comments on the Book of Amos as indicating very humanistic sentiments: "[Abarbanel] responded with unconcealed anger to the comment of a tenth-century Karaite from Jerusalem, Yefet b. Ali, on the issue of Black [promiscuity].Yefet had interpreted a biblical verse (Amos 9:7) to refer to Black women as being 'promiscuous and therefore no one knows who his father is.' Abarbanel: 'I don't know who told Yefet this practice of promiscuity among Black women, which he mentions. But in the country of my birth [Portugal] I have seen many of these people and their women are loyal to their husbands unless they are prisoners and captive to their enemies. They are just like any other people.'" Schorsch argues that concerning <mask>'s views about the connection between slavery and the curse of Ham, Abarbanel was influenced by the writings of his contemporaries and predecessors, including Christian and Muslim writers, as well as the culture around him, and was hardly considered unique in his views. Abarbanel's commentary on Amos 9:7 and other writings, argues Schorsch, show the complexity of Abarbanel's views of


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts:
 Blacks. "Abarbanel's conflicting passages regarding Blacks were written at different times and addressed different realms of discourse, the one abstract myth, the other actual living Blacks."Schorsch shows how contemporary travel books described Ethiopians as barbarians, stealing each other's children to sell to Muslim foreigners. "Hence, the many statements that Ethiopians engaged in relations... with their siblings or parents. In this view, families, a cultured product, would not have been known to primitives who lived like animals. Yet Abarbanel dismissed all these derogatory notions when defending the behavior of actual Blacks living in Portugal." Alhambra Decree
The widely circulating <mask>'s response to the Alhambra Decree is a literary invention in a fictional work The Alhambra Decree by David Raphael; it bears no relation to <mask>'s actual thoughts and ideas. Legacy
The Synagogue <mask> Abravanel in Paris, France, was named in his memory. See also
Jewish commentaries on the Bible

References

Further reading

Bar Eitan, Zev (2012).Abravanel’s World of Torah: Series. Torah Renaissance Press. [http://arilipinski.com/pesach-haggadah-abravanel-comment-explained-by-ari-lipinski/ Elazar Ari Lipinski: Pesach - A holiday of questions. About the Haggadah-Commentary Zevach Pesach of Rabbi Isaak <mask> (1437–1508).] Published first in German in the official quarterly of the Organization of the Jewish Communities of Bavaria: Jüdisches Leben in Bayern. Mitteilungsblatt des Landesverbandes der Israelitischen Kultusgemeinden in Bayern.

masks:
Abarbanel
Abarbanel
Don Isaac
Abarbanel


title: Isaac Abarbanel

texts:
 Pessach-Ausgabe = Nr.109, 2009, , S. 3–4. Sid Leiman: Abarbanel and the Censor . An article by Professor Sid Leiman regarding censorship of <mask>'s works and on the proper pronunciation of his name. External links
Short biography of <mask>
Abrabanel
Columbia Encyclopedia entry
Seder Hagadah shel Pesḥ Haggadot with commentary provided by <mask>, at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York

1437 births
1508 deaths
15th-century philosophers
15th-century Portuguese businesspeople
16th-century Portuguese Jews
Isaac
Bible commentators
Court Jews
Jewish philosophers
Jews expelled from Spain in 1492
15th-century Portuguese Jews
People from Lisbon
Portuguese rabbis
Portuguese refugees
Rishonim
16th-century Venetian businesspeople
15th-century Jewish biblical scholars
16th-century Jewish biblical

masks:
Abarbanel
Isaac Abravanel
Isaac Abarbanel


title: Lisa Della Casa

texts:
<mask> (2 February 191910 December 2012) was a Swiss soprano most admired for her interpretations of major heroines in operas by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Richard Strauss, and of German lieder. She was also described as “the most beautiful woman on the operatic stage”. Life and career

Early years
<mask> was born in Burgdorf, Switzerland to an Italian-Swiss father, <mask>, and a German mother, Margarete Mueller. She began studying singing at the age of 15 at the Zurich Conservatory, and her teachers included Margarete Haeser. She made her operatic debut in the title role of Puccini's Madama Butterfly at Solothurn-Biel Municipal Theater in 1940. She joined the ensemble of Zurich Municipal Opera House in 1943 (staying there until 1950) and sang various parts, from the Queen of the Night in Mozart's The Magic Flute to Dorabella in Così fan tutte. Later she sang Fiordiligi.She sang the part of Zdenka in the performance of Richard Strauss's Arabella at Zurich Municipal Opera House alongside Maria Cebotari's Arabella in 1946. Cebotari recognized her talent and introduced her at the Salzburg Festival in 1947, where she sang Zdenka again in a production starring Maria Reining and Hans Hotter. After the premiere performance, Strauss himself commented, "The little <mask> will one day be Arabella!" ("Die Kleine Della Casa wird eines Tages Arabella sein!"). That same year on 18 October, she made her debut at the Vienna State Opera House, singing the part of Nedda in Leoncavallo's Pagliacci. Soon she moved to Vienna and joined the ensemble of the Vienna State Opera House. In 1949, she made her debut at La Scala in Milan as Sophie in Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier and Marzelline in Beethoven's Fidelio.Victor de Sabata, the musical director of La Scala at that time, tried to persuade her to move to La Scala, but she chose to remain in Vienna. In 1944, she married Ernst Geiser from Langenthal. After the divorce in 1949, she married Yugoslavian-born journalist

masks:
Lisa Della Casa
Della Casa
Francesco Della Casa
Della Casa


title: Lisa Della Casa

texts:
 and violinist Dragan Debeljevic (1921-2014), with whom she had a daughter, Vesna. Mid-career
<mask> made her British debut singing the part of Countess Almaviva in Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro at the Glyndebourne Festival. She went on to sing the title role in Arabella for the first time, at the Bavarian State Opera House in Munich in 1951. It became her signature role. She sang Eva in Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg at the Bayreuth Festival in 1952, in what proved to be her only appearance at Bayreuth.In 1953, <mask> sang Arabella in the Bavarian State Opera Company's performances at the London Royal Opera House, and sang the part of Octavian in Der Rosenkavalier for the first time, at the Salzburg Festival. On 20 November 1953, she made her debut at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York (the Met) as the Countess Almaviva in The Marriage of Figaro. Since her debut, she sang a total of 173 complete opera performances at the Met until her last performance there on 9 December 1967 as Countess Almaviva. Her repertoire at the Met was as follows:
 The Marriage of Figaro: Countess Almaviva (47 performances)
 Don Giovanni: Donna Elvira (34 performances)
 Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg: Eva (23 performances)
 Der Rosenkavalier: Die Feldmarschallin (17 performances) and Octavian (8 performances)
 Der Zigeunerbaron: Saffi (17 performances)
 Arabella: Arabella (16 performances)
 Ariadne auf Naxos: Ariadne (4 performances)
 Lohengrin: Elsa (4 performances)
 Madama Butterfly: Cio-Cio-San (2 performances)
 La bohème: Mimì (1 performance)

In 1955, she sang the part of the Marschallin in Richard Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier for the first time; this was in a series of performances to celebrate the opening of the restored Vienna State Opera House. As a result, she had sung all three parts - the Marschallin, Octavian, Sophie - in Der Rosenkavalier as well as a single performance as Annina replacing an indisposed singer in Zurich. The Salzburg

masks:
Della Casa
Della Casa