title: Eduard Hanslick

texts:
 the feelings cannot be acceptable either to art or science.”

Chapter 5: An Aesthetic Hearing as Distinguished from a Pathological Hearing of Music

He identifies two modes of listening: active (“aesthetic”) and passive (“pathological”). The active listener listens to music to discover the method of composition, while to the passive listener music is merely sound. He writes,

“The most important factor in the mental process which accompanies the act of listening to music, and which converts it into a source of pleasure, is frequently overlooked. We here refer to the intellectual satisfaction which the listener derives from continually following and anticipating the composer’s intentions – now, to see his expectations fulfilled, and now, to find himself agreeably mistaken. It is a matter of course that this intellectual flux and reflux, this perpetual giving and receiving takes place unconsciously, and with the rapidity of lightning flashes. Only that music can yield truly aesthetic enjoyment which prompts and rewards the act of thus closely following the composer’s thoughts, and which with perfect justice may be called a pondering of the imagination.”

Chapter 6: Music in its Relation to Nature

<mask> suggests, “Melody is the ‘initial force,’ the life-blood, the primitive cell of the musical organism, with which the drift and development of the composition are closely bound up”; both melody and harmony are “achievement[s] of man.” Rhythm, however, and in particular duple meter, he believes is found in nature: “It is the only musical element which nature possesses, the first we are conscious of, and that with which the mind of the


title: Eduard Hanslick

type: original

texts:
 infant and the savage becomes soonest familiar.” He continues to posit that music is a product of the mind, having no precursor in nature. Even the music of a shepherd is not natural, he claims, since it was invented in the shepherd's mind, and the imitation of cuckoos in symphonies, for example, should not be considered music, since its function is not musical but poetic (i.e., to point to something outside of the music).Chapter 7: Form and Substance (Subject) as Applied to Music

<mask> concludes that the idea in music can only be purely musical (“Music consists of successions and forms of sound, and these alone constitute the subject”), and the value of a piece of music is determined by the relation between the idea (for example the theme) and the whole of the work. He writes,

“We cannot acquaint anybody with the ‘subject’ of a theme, except by playing it. The subject of a composition can, therefore, not be understood as an object derived from an external source, but as something intrinsically musical; in other words, as the concrete group of sounds in a piece of music. Now, as a composition must comply with the formal laws of beauty, it cannot run on arbitrarily and at random, but must develop gradually with intelligible and organic definiteness, as buds develop into rich blossoms.”

Works (German editions)
 <mask>, "Vom Musikalisch-Schönen". Leipzig 1854 (online version)
 <mask>, "Geschichte des Konzertwesens in Wien", 2 vol. Vienna 1869–70
 <mask>, "Die moderne Oper", 9 vol. Berlin 1875–1900
 <mask>, "Aus meinem Leben", 2 vol.Berlin 1894
 <mask>, "Suite. Aufsätze über Musik und Musiker". Vienna 1884

Compositions

masks:
Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick


title: Eduard Hanslick

texts:
 Milostná píseň pod Vyšehradem (Love song beneath Vyšehrad) for violin and piano, op.9

See also
 Aesthetics of music

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading
See  for an extensive bibliography
 Ambros Wilhelmer, "Der junge Hanslick. Sein 'Intermezzo' in Klagenfurt 1850-1852". Klagenfurt 1959
 Ludvová, Jitka. Dokonalý antiwagnerián <mask>. Paměti/Fejetony/Kritiky (Praha 1992).<mask>, "Censur und Kunst-Kritik," Wiener Zeitung, 24 March 1848, republished in his Sämtliche Schriften, vol 1, part 1, p. 157, Ed. Dietmar Strauß
 Christian Jung: Wagner und Hanslick. Kurze Geschichte einer Feindschaft. In: Österreichische Musikzeitschrift 67 (2012), p.. 14–21. Nicole Grimes et al., ed., Rethinking <mask>: Music, Formalism, and Expression, University of Rochester Press, 2013

External links

 Geoffrey Payzant and <mask> collection at University of Toronto Music Library
 <mask>, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Austrian music critics
Austrian musicologists
Austrian music journalists
Charles University alumni
German Bohemian people
Austrian people of German Bohemian descent
Czech Jews
Classical music critics
Writers from Prague
1825 births
1904 deaths
Wagner scholars
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
University of Vienna

masks:
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick


title: Carlo Francesco Pollarolo

texts:
<mask> (ca. 1653 – 7 February 1723) was an Italian composer, chiefly of operas. Born into a musical family, he became the cathedral organist of his home town of Brescia. In the 1680s he began composing operas for performance in nearby Venice. He wrote a total of 85 of them as well as 13 oratorios. His operatic style is noted for its development of arias accompanied by the orchestra and it shows some influence from the contemporary French opera of Jean-Baptiste Lully. Holden  (Viking, 1993)
Magazine de l'opéra baroque (in French)

Italian Baroque composers
Italian Baroque
1650s births
1723 deaths
Italian male classical composers
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
Italian organists
Male organists
Musicians from Brescia
17th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
18th-century keyboardists
17th-century male musicians


title: Louise Glück

texts:
<mask> (, ; born April 22, 1943) is an American poet and essayist. She won the 2020 Nobel Prize in Literature, whose judges praised "her unmistakable poetic voice that with austere beauty makes individual existence universal". Her other awards include the Pulitzer Prize, National Humanities Medal, National Book Award, National Book Critics Circle Award, and Bollingen Prize. From 2003 to 2004, she was Poet Laureate of the United States. <mask> was born in New York City and raised on Long Island. She began to suffer from anorexia nervosa while in high school and later overcame the illness. She attended Sarah Lawrence College and Columbia University but did not obtain a degree.In addition to being an author, she has taught poetry at several academic institutions. Glück is often described as an autobiographical poet; her work is known for its emotional intensity and for frequently drawing on mythology or nature imagery to meditate on personal experiences and modern life. Thematically, her poems have illuminated aspects of trauma, desire, and nature. In doing so, they have become known for frank expressions of sadness and isolation. Scholars have also focused on her construction of poetic personas and the relationship, in her poems, between autobiography and classical myth. Glück is an adjunct professor and Rosenkranz Writer in Residence at Yale University. She splits her time between Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Montpelier, Vermont.Biography

Early life
<mask> was born in New York City on April 22, 1943. She is the elder of two surviving daughters of Daniel Glück, a businessman, and <mask> (née Grosby), a homemaker. Glück's mother was of Russian Jewish descent. Her paternal grandparents, Terézia (née Moskovitz) and <mask>, were Hungarian Jews from Érmihályfalva, Bihar County, in what was then the Kingdom of Hungary,  Austro-Hungarian Empire (present-day Romania); her grandfather ran a timber company called "Feldmann és Glück". They emigrated to the United States in December

masks:
Louise Elisabeth Glück
Glück
Louise Glück
Beatrice Glück
Henrik Glück


title: Louise Glück

texts:
 was also a period of personal hardship.Her marriage to John Dranow ended in divorce in 1996, the difficult nature of which affected their business relationship, resulting in Dranow's removal from his positions at the New England Culinary Institute. Glück channeled her experience into her writing, entering a prolific period of her career. In 1994, she published a collection of essays called Proofs & Theories: Essays on Poetry. She then produced Meadowlands (1996), a collection of poetry about the nature of love and the deterioration of a marriage. She followed it with two more collections: Vita Nova (1999) and The Seven Ages (2001). In 2004, in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Glück published a chapbook entitled October. Consisting of one poem divided into six parts, it draws on ancient Greek myth to explore aspects of trauma and suffering.That same year, she was named the Rosenkranz Writer in Residence at Yale University. Since joining the faculty of Yale, Glück has continued to publish poetry. Her books published during this period include Averno (2006), A Village Life (2009), and Faithful and Virtuous Night (2014). In 2012, the publication of a collection of a half-century's worth of her poems, entitled Poems: 1962–2012, was called "a literary event". Another collection of her essays, entitled American Originality, appeared in 2017. In October 2020, Glück was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, becoming the sixteenth female literature laureate since the prize was founded in 1901. Due to restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, she received her prize at her home.In her Nobel lecture, which was delivered in writing, she highlighted her early engagement with poetry by William Blake and Emily Dickinson in discussing the relationship between poets, readers, and the wider public. Family
<mask>'s elder sister died young before Glück was born. Her younger sister, Tereze (1945–2018), worked at Citibank as a vice president and was also a writer,


title: Louise Glück

texts:
 and defiantly unillusioned, she has been powerfully responsive to the lure of the daily miracle and the sudden upsurge of overmastering emotion". The tension between competing desires in Glück's work manifests both in her assumption of different personas from poem to poem and in her varied approach to each collection of her poems. This has led the poet and scholar James Longenbach to declare that "change is <mask>lück's highest value" and "if change is what she most craves, it is also what she most resists, what is most difficult for her, most hard-won". Another of Glück's preoccupations is nature, the setting for many of her poems. In The Wild Iris, the poems take place in a garden where flowers have intelligent, emotive voices. However, Morris points out that The House on Marshland is also concerned with nature and can be read as a revision of the Romantic tradition of nature poetry. In Ararat, too, "flowers become a language of mourning", useful for both commemoration and competition among mourners to determine the "ownership of nature as a meaningful system of symbolism".Thus, in Glück's work nature is both something to be regarded critically and embraced. As the author and critic Alan Williamson has pointed out, it can also sometimes suggest the divine, as when, in the poem "Celestial Music", the speaker states that "when you love the world you hear celestial music", or when, in The Wild Iris, the deity speaks through changes in weather. Glück's poetry is also notable for what it avoids. Morris argues that "Glück's writing most often evades ethnic identification, religious classification, or gendered affiliation. In fact, her poetry often negates critical assessments that affirm identity politics as criteria for literary evaluation. She resists canonization as a hyphenated poet (that is, as a "Jewish-American" poet, or a "feminist" poet, or a "nature" poet), preferring instead to retain an aura of iconoclasm, or in-betweenness". Influences
Glück has pointed to the


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts: <mask> ( , ;<ref group=note>In his native Ligurian language, he is known as Gioxeppe Gaibado.</ref> 4 July 1807 – 2 June 1882) was an Italian general, patriot, revolutionary and republican. He contributed to Italian unification and the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. He is considered one of the greatest generals of modern times and one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland", along with Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and <mask>. <mask> is also known as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe. <mask> was a follower of the Italian nationalist Mazzini and embraced the republican nationalism of the Young Italy movement. He became a supporter of Italian unification under a democratic republican government. However, breaking with Mazzini, he pragmatically allied himself with the monarchist Cavour and Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in the struggle for independence, subordinating his republican ideals to his nationalist ones until Italy was unified.After participating in an uprising in Piedmont, he was sentenced to death, but escaped and sailed to South America, where he spent 14 years in exile, during which he took part in several wars and learnt the art of guerrilla warfare. In 1835 he joined the rebels known as the Ragamuffins (), in the Ragamuffin War in Brazil, and took up their cause of establishing the Riograndense Republic and later the Catarinense Republic. <mask> also became involved in the Uruguayan Civil War, raising an Italian force known as Redshirts, and is still celebrated as an important contributor to Uruguay's

masks:
Giuseppe Maria Garibaldi
Giuseppe Mazzini
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts: reconstitution. In 1848, <mask> returned to Italy and commanded and fought in military campaigns that eventually led to Italian unification. The provisional government of Milan made him a general and the Minister of War promoted him to General of the Roman Republic in 1849. When the war of independence broke out in April 1859, he led his Hunters of the Alps in the capture of major cities in Lombardy, including Varese and Como, and reached the frontier of South Tyrol; the war ended with the acquisition of Lombardy. The following year, he led the Expedition of the Thousand on behalf of and with the consent of Victor Emmanuel II.The expedition was a success and concluded with the annexation of Sicily, Southern Italy, Marche and Umbria to the Kingdom of Sardinia before the creation of a unified Kingdom of Italy on 17 March 1861. His last military campaign took place during the Franco-Prussian War as commander of the Army of the Vosges. Garibaldi became an international figurehead for national independence and republican ideals, and is considered by the twentieth-century historiography and popular culture as Italy's greatest national hero. He was showered with admiration and praise by many intellectuals and political figures, including Abraham Lincoln, William Brown, Francesco de Sanctis, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, George Sand, Charles Dickens, Friedrich Engels and Che Guevara. Historian A. J. P. Taylor called him "the only wholly admirable figure in modern history". In the popular telling of his story, he is associated with the red shirts that his volunteers, the Garibaldini, wore in lieu of a uniform.


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 Early life

<mask> was born and christened Joseph-Marie <mask>Pronounced in French as .on 4 July 1807 in Nice, which had been conquered by the French First Republic in 1792, to the Ligurian family of <mask> from Chiavari and Maria Rosa Nicoletta Raimondi from Loano. In 1814, the Congress of Vienna returned Nice to Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia; nevertheless, France re-annexed it in 1860 by the Treaty of Turin, which was ardently opposed by <mask>. <mask>'s family's involvement in coastal trade drew him to a life at sea. He participated actively in the Nizzardo Italians community and was certified in 1832 as a merchant navy captain. In April 1833, he travelled to Taganrog, Russian Empire, in the schooner Clorinda with a shipment of oranges. During ten days in port, he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo from Oneglia, a politically active immigrant and member of the secret Young Italy movement of <mask>ni. Mazzini was a passionate proponent of Italian unification as a liberal republic via political and social reform.Garibaldi joined the society and took an oath dedicating himself to the struggle to liberate and unify his homeland from Austrian dominance. In November 1833, <mask> met Mazzini in Genoa, starting a long relationship that later became troubled. He joined the Carbonari revolutionary association, and in February 1834 participated in a failed Mazzinian insurrection in Piedmont. A Genoese court sentenced Garibaldi to death in absentia, and he fled across the border to Marseille. South America

<mask> first sailed to the Beylik of Tunis before eventually finding his way to the Empire of Brazil. Once there,

masks:
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Domenico Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Giuseppe Mazzi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts: he took up the cause of the Riograndense Republic in its attempt to separate from Brazil, joining the rebels known as the Ragamuffins in the Ragamuffin War of 1835. During this war, he met Ana Maria de Jesus Ribeiro da Silva, commonly known as Anita.When the rebels proclaimed the Catarinense Republic in the Brazilian province of Santa Catarina in 1839, she joined him aboard his ship, Rio Pardo, and fought alongside him at the battles of Imbituba and Laguna. In 1841, <mask> and Anita moved to Montevideo, Uruguay, where <mask> worked as a trader and schoolmaster. The couple married in Montevideo the following year. They had four children; Domenico Menotti (1840–1903), Rosa (1843–1845), Teresa Teresita (1845–1903), and Ricciotti (1847–1924). A skilled horsewoman, Anita is said to have taught <mask> about the gaucho culture of Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay. Around this time he adopted his trademark clothing—the red shirt, poncho, and sombrero commonly worn by gauchos. In 1842, <mask> took command of the Uruguayan fleet and raised an Italian Legion of soldiers—known as Redshirts—for the Uruguayan Civil War.This recruitment was possible as Montevideo had a large Italian population back then numbering 4,205 in a total population of 30,000 according to an 1843 census. <mask> aligned his forces with the Uruguayan Colorados led by Fructuoso Rivera and Joaquín Suárez, who were aligned with the Argentine Unitarian Party. This faction received some support from the French and British in their struggle against the forces of former Uruguayan president Manuel Oribe's Blancos, which was also aligned with

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Giuseppe Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 Argentine Federales under the rule of Buenos Aires caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas. The Italian Legion adopted a black flag that represented Italy in mourning, with a volcano at the center that symbolized the dormant power in their homeland. Though contemporary sources do not mention the Redshirts, popular history asserts that the legion first wore them in Uruguay, getting them from a factory in Montevideo that had intended to export them to the slaughterhouses of Argentina. These shirts became the symbol of <mask> and his followers. Between 1842 and 1848, <mask> defended Montevideo against forces led by Oribe.In 1845, he managed to occupy Colonia del Sacramento and Martín García Island, and led the controversial sack of Gualeguaychú during the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. Adopting amphibious guerrilla tactics, <mask> later achieved two victories during 1846, in the Battle of Cerro and the Battle of San Antonio del Santo. Induction to Freemasonry
<mask> joined Freemasonry during his exile, taking advantage of the asylum the lodges offered to political refugees from European countries governed by despotic regimes. At the age of 37, during 1844, <mask> was initiated in the L' Asil de la Vertud Lodge of Montevideo. This was an irregular lodge under a Brazilian Freemasonry not recognized by the main international masonic obediences, such as the United Grand Lodge of England or the Grand Orient de France. While Garibaldi had little use for Masonic rituals, he was an active Freemason and regarded Freemasonry as a network that united progressive men as brothers both within nations and as a global

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 community. <mask> was eventually elected as the Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy."<mask> — the mason". Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M., 2003. <mask> regularized his position later in 1844, joining the lodge Les Amis de la Patrie of Montevideo under the Grand Orient of France. Election of Pope Pius IX, 1846
The fate of his homeland continued to concern <mask>. The election of Pope Pius IX in 1846 caused a sensation among Italian patriots, both at home and in exile. Pius's initial reforms seemed to identify him as the liberal pope called for by Vincenzo Gioberti, who went on to lead the unification of Italy.When news of these reforms reached Montevideo, <mask> wrote to the Pope:

Mazzini, from exile, also applauded the early reforms of Pius IX. In 1847, <mask> offered the apostolic nuncio at Rio de Janeiro, Bedini, the service of his Italian Legion for the liberation of the peninsula. Then news of an outbreak of revolution in Palermo in January 1848 and revolutionary agitation elsewhere in Italy, encouraged <mask> to lead approximately 60 members of his legion home. Return to Italy
First Italian War of Independence

<mask> returned to Italy amidst the turmoil of the revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states and was one of the founders and leaders of the Action Party. <mask> offered his services to Charles Albert of Sardinia, who displayed some liberal inclinations, but he treated Garibaldi with coolness and distrust. Rebuffed by the Piedmontese, he and his followers crossed into Lombardy where they offered assistance to the provisional government of Milan, which had

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts: rebelled against the Austrian occupation. In the course of the following unsuccessful First Italian War of Independence, <mask> led his legion to two minor victories at Luino and Morazzone.After the crushing Piedmontese defeat at the Battle of Novara on 23 March 1849, <mask> moved to Rome to support the Roman Republic recently proclaimed in the Papal States. However, a French force sent by Louis Napoleon threatened to topple it. At Mazzini's urging, <mask> took command of the defence of Rome. In fighting near Velletri, Achille Cantoni saved his life. After Cantoni's death, during the battle of Mentana, <mask> wrote the novel Cantoni the Volunteer. On 30 April 1849, the Republican army, under <mask>'s command, defeated a numerically far superior French army. Subsequently, French reinforcements arrived, and the siege of Rome began on 1 June.Despite the resistance of the Republican army, the French prevailed on 29 June. On 30 June the Roman Assembly met and debated three options: surrender, continue fighting in the streets, or retreat from Rome to continue resistance from the Apennine mountains. <mask>, having entered the chamber covered in blood, made a speech favouring the third option, ending with: Ovunque noi saremo, sarà Roma. (Wherever we will go, that will be Rome). The sides negotiated a truce on 1–2 July, <mask> withdrew from Rome with 4,000 troops, and an ambition to rouse popular rebellion against the Austrians in central Italy. The French Army entered Rome on 3 July and reestablished the Holy See's temporal power. <mask> and his forces, hunted by Austrian, French, Spanish, and Neapolitan troops,

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 fled to the north, intending to reach Venice, where the Venetians were still resisting the Austrian siege.After an epic march, <mask> took temporary refuge in San Marino, with only 250 men having not abandoned him. Anita, who was carrying their fifth child, died near Comacchio during the retreat. North America and the Pacific
<mask> eventually managed to reach Porto Venere, near La Spezia, but the Piedmontese government forced him to emigrate again. He went to Tangier, where he stayed with Francesco Carpanetto, a wealthy Italian merchant. Carpanetto suggested that he and some of his associates finance the purchase of a merchant ship, which <mask> would command. <mask> agreed, feeling that his political goals were, for the moment, unreachable, and he could at least earn a living. The ship was to be purchased in the United States.<mask> went to New York, arriving on 30 July 1850. However, the funds for buying a ship were lacking. While in New York, he stayed with various Italian friends, including some exiled revolutionaries. He attended the Masonic lodges of New York in 1850, where he met several supporters of democratic internationalism, whose minds were open to socialist thought, and to giving Freemasonry a strong anti-papal stance. The inventor Antonio Meucci employed Garibaldi in his candle factory on Staten Island. (The cottage where he stayed is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places and is preserved as the Garibaldi Memorial.) <mask> was not satisfied with this, and in April 1851 he left New York with his friend Carpanetto for Central America, where Carpanetto was establishing

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 business operations.They first went to Nicaragua, and then to other parts of the region. <mask> accompanied Carpanetto as a companion, not a business partner, and used the name <mask>. Carpanetto went on to Lima, Peru, where a shipload of his goods was due, arriving late in 1851 with Garibaldi. En route, Garibaldi called on revolutionary heroine Manuela Sáenz. At Lima, <mask> was generally welcomed. A local Italian merchant, Pietro Denegri, gave him command of his ship Carmen for a trading voyage across the Pacific. Garibaldi took the Carmen to the Chincha Islands for a load of guano.Then on 10 January 1852, he sailed from Peru for Canton, China, arriving in April. After side trips to Xiamen and Manila, Garibaldi brought the Carmen back to Peru via the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific, passing clear around the south coast of Australia. He visited Three Hummock Island in the Bass Strait. <mask> then took the Carmen on a second voyage: to the United States via Cape Horn with copper from Chile, and also wool. <mask> arrived in Boston and went on to New York. There he received a hostile letter from Denegri and resigned his command. Another Italian, Captain Figari, had just come to the U.S. to buy a ship and hired Garibaldi to take the ship to Europe.Figari and <mask> bought the Commonwealth in Baltimore, and <mask> left New York for the last time in November 1853. He sailed the Commonwealth to London, and then to Newcastle on the River Tyne for coal. Tyneside
The Commonwealth arrived on 21 March 1854. <mask>, already a popular figure on Tyneside, was welcomed enthusiastically by local working men-although

masks:
Garibaldi
Giuseppe Pane
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 the Newcastle Courant reported that he refused an invitation to dine with dignitaries in the city. He stayed in Huntingdon Place Tynemouth for a few days, and in South Shields on Tyneside for over a month, departing at the end of April 1854. During his stay, he was presented with an inscribed sword, which his grandson <mask> II later carried as a volunteer in British service in the Second Boer War. He then sailed to Genoa, where his five years of exile ended on 10 May 1854.Second Italian War of Independence

<mask> returned to Italy in 1854. Using an inheritance from the death of his brother, he bought half of the Italian island of Caprera (north of Sardinia), devoting himself to agriculture. In 1859, the Second Italian War of Independence (also known as the Austro-Sardinian War) broke out in the midst of internal plots at the Sardinian government. <mask> was appointed major general and formed a volunteer unit named the Hunters of the Alps (Cacciatori delle Alpi). Thenceforth, <mask> abandoned Mazzini's republican ideal of the liberation of Italy, assuming that only the Piedmontese monarchy could effectively achieve it. He and his volunteers won victories over the Austrians at Varese, Como, and other places. <mask> was very displeased as his home city of Nice (Nizza in Italian) had surrendered to the French in return for crucial military assistance.In April 1860, as deputy for Nice in the Piedmontese parliament at Turin, he vehemently attacked Cavour for ceding Nice and the County of Nice (Nizzardo) to Louis Napoleon, Emperor of France. In the following years, <mask> (with other passionate Nizzardo

masks:
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 Italians) promoted the Italian irredentism of his Nizza, even with riots (in 1872). Campaign of 1860

On 24 January 1860, Garibaldi married 18-year-old Giuseppina Raimondi. Immediately after the wedding ceremony, she informed him that she was pregnant with another man's child and Garibaldi left her the same day. At the beginning of April 1860, uprisings in Messina and Palermo in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies provided Garibaldi with an opportunity. He gathered about a thousand volunteers called i Mille (the Thousand), or the Redshirts as popularly known, in two ships named Il Piemonte and Il Lombardo, and left from Quarto, in Genoa, on 5 May in the evening and landed at Marsala, on the westernmost point of Sicily, on 11 May. Swelling the ranks of his army with scattered bands of local rebels, Garibaldi led 800 volunteers to victory over an enemy force of 1,500 on the hill of Calatafimi on 15 May.He used the counter-intuitive tactic of an uphill bayonet charge. He saw that the hill was terraced, and the terraces would shelter his advancing men. Though small by comparison with the coming clashes at Palermo, Milazzo, and Volturno, this battle was decisive in establishing <mask>'s power in the island. An apocryphal but realistic story had him say to his lieutenant Nino Bixio, "Here we either make Italy, or we die." In reality, the Neapolitan forces were ill-guided, and most of its higher officers had been bought out. The next day, he declared himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. He advanced to the outskirts of Palermo, the capital of the island, and launched a siege on 27


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts: May.He had the support of many inhabitants, who rose up against the garrison—but before they could take the city, reinforcements arrived and bombarded the city nearly to ruins. At this time, a British admiral intervened and facilitated a truce, by which the Neapolitan royal troops and warships surrendered the city and departed. The young Henry Adams—later to become a distinguished American writer—visited the city in June and described the situation, along with his meeting with <mask>, in a long and vivid letter to his older brother Charles. Historians Clough et al. argue that <mask>'s Thousand were students, independent artisans, and professionals, not peasants. The support given by Sicilian peasants was not out of a sense of patriotism but from their hatred of exploitative landlords and oppressive Neapolitan officials. <mask> himself had no interest in social revolution and instead sided with the Sicilian landlords against the rioting peasants.By conquering Palermo, <mask> had won a signal victory. He gained worldwide renown and the adulation of Italians. Faith in his prowess was so strong that doubt, confusion, and dismay seized even the Neapolitan court. Six weeks later, he marched against Messina in the east of the island, winning a ferocious and difficult battle at Milazzo. By the end of July, only the citadel resisted. Having conquered Sicily, he crossed the Strait of Messina and marched north. <mask>'s progress was met with more celebration than resistance, and on 7 September he entered the capital city of Naples, by train.Despite taking Naples, however, he had not to this point defeated the


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 Neapolitan army. <mask>'s volunteer army of 24,000 was not able to defeat conclusively the reorganized Neapolitan army—about 25,000 men—on 30 September at the battle of Volturno. This was the largest battle he ever fought, but its outcome was effectively decided by the arrival of the Piedmontese Army. Following this, <mask>'s plans to march on to Rome were jeopardized by the Piedmontese, technically his ally but unwilling to risk war with France, whose army protected the Pope. The Piedmontese themselves had conquered most of the Pope's territories in their march south to meet <mask>, but they had deliberately avoided Rome, capital of the Papal state. <mask> chose to hand over all his territorial gains in the south to the Piedmontese and withdrew to Caprera and temporary retirement. Some modern historians consider the handover of his gains to the Piedmontese as a political defeat, but he seemed willing to see Italian unity brought about under the Piedmontese crown.The meeting at Teano between <mask> and Victor Emmanuel II is the most important event in modern Italian history but is so shrouded in controversy that even the exact site where it took place is in doubt. Aftermath

<mask> deeply disliked the Sardinian Prime Minister, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour. To an extent, he simply mistrusted Cavour's pragmatism and realpolitik, but he also bore a personal grudge for Cavour's trading away his home city of Nice to the French the previous year. On the other hand, he supported the Sardinian monarch, Victor Emmanuel II, who in his opinion had been chosen by Providence for the liberation of Italy. In his


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 famous meeting with Victor Emmanuel at Teano on 26 October 1860, <mask> greeted him as King of Italy and shook his hand. <mask>di Guard after him. <mask> expressed interest in aiding the Union, and he was offered a major general's commission in the U.S. Army through a letter from Secretary of State William H. Seward to Henry S. Sanford, the U.S. Minister at Brussels, 27 July 1861. On 9 September 1861, Sanford met with Garibaldi and reported the result of the meeting to Seward:

This meeting occurred a year before Lincoln was ready to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. Sanford's mission was hopeless, and <mask> did not join the Union army. A historian of the American Civil War, Don H. Doyle, however, wrote, "<mask>'s full-throated endorsement of the Union cause roused popular support just as news of the Emancipation Proclamation broke in Europe." On 6 August 1863, after the Emancipation Proclamation had been issued, Garibaldi wrote to Lincoln, "Posterity will call you the great emancipator, a more enviable title than any crown could be, and greater than any merely mundane treasure." On 5 October 1861, Garibaldi set up the International Legion bringing together different national divisions of French, Poles, Swiss, Germans and other nationalities, with a view not just of finishing the liberation of Italy, but also of their homelands.With the motto "Free from the Alps to the Adriatic," the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation of monarchial government, and continued to agitate for a republic. <mask>, frustrated at inaction by the

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title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

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 king, and bristling over perceived snubs, organized a new venture. This time, he intended to take on the Papal States. Expedition against Rome

<mask> himself was intensely anti-Catholic and anti-papal. His efforts to overthrow the Pope by military action mobilized anti-Catholic support. There were major anti-Catholic riots in his name across Britain in 1862, with the Irish Catholics fighting in defense of their Church.<mask>'s hostility to the Pope's temporal domain was viewed with great distrust by Catholics around the world, and the French emperor Napoleon III had guaranteed the independence of Rome from Italy by stationing a French garrison in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking Rome and the Pope's seat there, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions. Nonetheless, <mask> believed he had the secret support of his government. In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa to Palermo to gather volunteers for the impending campaign, under the slogan Roma o Morte (Rome or Death). An enthusiastic party quickly joined him, and he turned for Messina, hoping to cross to the mainland there. He arrived with a force of around two thousand, but the garrison proved loyal to the king's instructions and barred his passage. They turned south and set sail from Catania, where <mask> declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls.He landed at Melito on 14 August, and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains. Far from supporting this endeavor, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General Enrico

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts: Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Emilio Pallavicini, against the volunteer bands. On 28 August, the two forces met in the rugged Aspromonte. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several volleys followed, killing a few of the volunteers. The fighting ended quickly, as <mask> forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy. Many of the volunteers were taken prisoner, including <mask>, who had been wounded by a shot in the foot.The episode was the origin of a famous Italian nursery rhyme: Garibaldi fu ferito ("Garibaldi was wounded"). A government steamer took him to a prison at Varignano near La Spezia, where he was held in a sort of honorable imprisonment and underwent a tedious and painful operation to heal his wound. His venture had failed, but he was consoled by Europe's sympathy and continued interest. After he regained his health, the government released Garibaldi and let him return to Caprera. En route to London in 1864 he stopped briefly in Malta, where many admirers visited him in his hotel. Protests by opponents of his anticlericalism were suppressed by the authorities. In London his presence was received with enthusiasm by the population.He met the British prime minister Viscount Palmerston, as well as revolutionaries then living in exile in the city. At that time, his ambitious international project included the liberation of a range of occupied nations, such as Croatia, Greece, and Hungary. He also visited Bedford and was given a tour of the Britannia Iron Works, where he planted a tree (which was cut down in 1944 due to decay).

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 Final struggle with Austria

<mask> took up arms again in 1866, this time with the full support of the Italian government. The Austro-Prussian War had broken out, and Italy had allied with Prussia against the Austrian Empire in the hope of taking Venetia from Austrian rule (Third Italian War of Independence). <mask> gathered again his Hunters of the Alps, now some 40,000 strong, and led them into the Trentino. He defeated the Austrians at Bezzecca, and made for Trento.The Italian regular forces were defeated at Lissa on the sea, and made little progress on land after the disaster of Custoza. The sides signed an armistice by which Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, but this result was largely due to Prussia's successes on the northern front. <mask>'s advance through Trentino was for nought, and he was ordered to stop his advance to Trento. <mask> answered with a short telegram from the main square of Bezzecca with the famous motto: Obbedisco! ("I obey!"). After the war, <mask> led a political party that agitated for the capture of Rome, the peninsula's ancient capital. In 1867, he again marched on the city, but the Papal army, supported by a French auxiliary force, proved a match for his badly armed volunteers.He was shot in the leg in the Battle of Mentana, and had to withdraw from the Papal territory. The Italian government again imprisoned him for some time, after which he returned to Caprera. In the same year, <mask> sought international support for altogether eliminating the papacy. At the 1867 congress for the League of Peace and Freedom in Geneva he proposed: "The papacy, being the most harmful of all


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 secret societies, ought to be abolished." Franco-Prussian War

When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in July 1870, Italian public opinion heavily favored the Prussians, and many Italians attempted to sign up as volunteers at the Prussian embassy in Florence. After the French garrison was recalled from Rome, the Italian Army captured the Papal States without <mask>'s assistance. Following the wartime collapse of the Second French Empire after the Battle of Sedan, <mask>, undaunted by the recent hostility shown to him by the men of Napoleon III, switched his support to the newly declared French Third Republic.On 7 September 1870, within three days of the revolution in Paris that ended the Empire, he wrote to the Movimento of Genoa, "Yesterday I said to you: war to the death to Bonaparte. Today I say to you: rescue the French Republic by every means." Subsequently, <mask> went to France and assumed command of the Army of the Vosges, an army of volunteers. French socialist Louis Blanc referred to Garibaldi as a "soldier of revolutionary cosmopolitanism" based on his support for liberation movements through the world. After the war he was elected to the French National Assembly, where he briefly served as member of Parliament for Alpes-Maritimes before returning to Caprera. Involvement with the First International
When the Paris Commune erupted in 1871, <mask> joined with younger radicals such as Felice Cavallotti in declaring his full support for the Communards and internationalism. Garibaldi suggested a grand alliance between various factions of the left: "Why don't we pull together in one organized group


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts: the Freemasonry, democratic societies, workers' clubs, Rationalists, Mutual Aid, etc., which have the same tendency towards good?"He began organizing a Congress of Unity, which was supported by many of the radical, free-thinking, and socialist groups throughout Italy such as La Plebe. The Congress was held in the Teatro Argentina despite being banned by the government, and endorsed a set of radical policies including universal suffrage, progressive taxation, compulsory lay education, administrative reform, and abolition of the death penalty. <mask> had long claimed an interest in a vague ethical socialism such as that advanced by Henri Saint-Simon and saw the struggle for liberty as an international affair, one which "does not make any distinction between the African and the American, the European and the Asian, and therefore proclaims the fraternity of all men whatever nation they belong to." He interpreted the International Workingmen's Association as an extension of the humanitarian ideals for which he had always fought. Although he did not agree with their calls for the abolition of property, <mask> defended the Communards and the First International against the attacks of their enemies: "Is it not the product of the abnormal state in which society finds itself in the world? [...] Shouldn't a society (I mean a human society) in which the majority struggle for subsistence and the minority want to take the larger part of the product of the former through deceptions and violence but without hard work, arouse discontent and thoughts of revenge amongst those who suffer?" <mask> wrote a letter to Celso

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts: Ceretti in which he declared: "The International is the sun of the future [sole dell'avvenire]!"The letter was printed in dozens of workers' newssheets and papers, and was instrumental in persuading many fence-sitters to join the organization. After <mask>'s death, many of his disciples embraced the libertarian socialist ideas of Mikhail Bakunin. As Italy still lacked an industrial proletariat, "<mask>'s socialism represented most accurately craft trade-unionism and a general focus on economic egalitarianism". His socialism was a "socialism wherein the struggle against every injustice, and a love for freedom, predominated. <mask> was not an unpractical man, but an active witness of that kind of generosity in feelings and firm wish for justice". In the first volume of Carl Landauer's European Socialism, <mask> is mentioned alongside Mazzini as outstanding "Italian revolutionaries". According to Denis Mack Smith, "the difference is not so large when we find what Garibaldi meant by the term.Socialism for him was nothing very revolutionary, and perhaps he flaunted the word partly because he delighted to feel that it would shock the Mazzinians". In describing the move to the left of <mask> and the Mazzinians, Lucy Riall writes that this "emphasis by younger radicals on the 'social question' was paralleled by an increase in what was called 'internationalist' or socialist activity (mostly Bakuninist anarchism) throughout northern and southern Italy, which was given a big boost by the Paris Commune". The rise of this socialism "represented a genuine challenge to Mazzini and the Mazzinian emphasis on politics and


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

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 culture; and Mazzinis' death early in 1872 only served to underline the prevailing sense that his political era was over. <mask> now broke definitively with Mazzini, and this time he moved to the left of him. He came out entirely in favour of the Paris Commune and internationalism, and his stance brought him much closer to the younger radicals, especially Cavallotti, and gave him a new lease on political life. From his support was born an initiative to relaunch a broad party of the radical left". Despite being elected again to the Italian parliament, first as part of the Historical Left and then of the Historical Far Left, <mask> spent much of his late years in Caprera.However, he still managed to serve the Italian parliament with extreme distinction and supported an ambitious project of land reclamation in the marshy areas of southern Lazio. In 1879, <mask> founded the League of Democracy, along with Cavallotti, Alberto Mario and Agostino Bertani, which reiterated his support for universal suffrage, abolition of ecclesiastical property, the legal and political emancipation of women and a plan of public works to improve the Roman countryside that was completed. On the Ottoman Empire
In a 6 October 1875 letter from Caprera, "To my brothers of the Herzegovina and to the oppressed of Eastern Europe", <mask> wrote:

 Death

Ill and confined to bed by arthritis, Garibaldi made trips to Calabria and Sicily. In 1880, he married Francesca Armosino, with whom he previously had three children. On his deathbed, <mask> asked for his bed to be moved to where he could view the sea. On his death on 2 June 1882 at the


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 age of almost 75, his wishes for a simple funeral and cremation were not respected. He was buried in his farm on the island of Caprera alongside his last wife and some of his children.In 2012, <mask>'s descendants announced that, with permission from authorities, they would have <mask>'s remains exhumed to confirm through DNA analysis that the remains in the tomb are indeed <mask>'s. Some anticipated that there would be a debate about whether to preserve the remains or to grant his final wish for a simple cremation. In 2013, personnel changes at the Ministry of Culture sidelined the exhumation plans. The new authorities were "less than enthusiastic" about the plan. Legacy

<mask>'s popularity, skill at rousing the common people and his military exploits are all credited with making the unification of Italy possible. He also served as a global exemplar of mid-19th century revolutionary liberalism and nationalism. After the liberation of southern Italy from the Neapolitan monarchy in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, <mask> chose to sacrifice his liberal republican principles for the sake of unification.<mask>'s acclaim stretched across Europe with his name revered in Britain to America and France, the tale of an Italian vagabond trekking the South American plains from battle to battle with his pregnant wife in tow, and then returning home and for the love of his homeland forsaking his ambition of making Italy a republic. His exploits became legendary, and when he toured Britain in his older days he was received as a hero. <mask> subscribed to the anti-clericalism common among Latin liberals and did much to

masks: Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 circumscribe the temporal power of the Papacy. His personal religious convictions are unclear to historians. In 1882, he wrote that "Man created God, not God created Man", yet he is quoted as saying in his autobiography: "I am a Christian, and I speak to Christians – I am a true Christian, and I speak to true Christians. I love and venerate the religion of Christ, because Christ came into the world to deliver humanity from slavery. [...] You have the duty to educate the people—educate the people—educate them to be Christians—educate them to be Italians.[...] Viva l'Italia! Viva Christianity!" The Protestant minister Alessandro Gavazzi was his army chaplain. <mask> was a popular hero in Britain. In his review of Lucy Riall's Garibaldi biography for The New Yorker, Tim Parks cites the English historian A. J. P. Taylor as saying that "<mask> is the only wholly admirable figure in modern history." British historian Denis Mack Smith wrote:

About G. M. Trevelyan's work on <mask>, David Cannadine wrote:

Along with <mask> and other Europeans, Garibaldi supported the creation of a European federation. Many Europeans expected that the 1871 unification of Germany would make Germany a European and world leader that would champion humanitarian policies.This idea is apparent in the following letter <mask> sent to Karl Blind on 10 April 1865:

Through the years, <mask> was showered with admiration and praises by many intellectuals and political figures. Francesco De Sanctis stated that "<mask> must win by force: he is not a man; he is a symbol, a form; he is the Italian soul. Between the beats of his heart, everyone

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Garibaldi
Garibaldi
Giuseppe Mazzini
Garibaldi
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title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 hears the beats of his own". Admiral William Brown called him "the most generous of the pirates I have ever encountered". Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara stated: "The only hero the world has ever needed is called <mask>di." Commemoration

Five ships of the Italian Navy have been named after him, including a World War II cruiser and the former flagship, the aircraft carrier <mask>. Statues of his likeness, as well as the handshake of Teano, stand in many Italian squares, and in other countries around the world.On the top of the Janiculum hill in Rome, there is a statue of Garibaldi on horse-back. His face was originally turned in the direction of the Vatican, but after the Lateran Treaty in 1929 the orientation of the statue was changed at the Vatican's request. Many theatres in Sicily take their name from him and are named Garibaldi Theatre. Several worldwide military units are named after Garibaldi, including the Polish Garibaldi Legion during the January Uprising and the French foreign Garibaldi Legion during World War I. The 39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment of the American Civil War was named Garibaldi Guard after him. Also, a bust of <mask> is prominently placed outside the entrance to the old Supreme Court Chamber in the U.S. Capitol Building in Washington, DC, a gift from members of the Italian Society of Washington. In 1865, English football team Nottingham Forest chose their home colours from the uniform worn by Garibaldi and his men in 1865.A school in Mansfield, Nottinghamshire was also named after him. The Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy (; ) is a rugby union trophy awarded to the

masks:
Giuseppe Garibal
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Giuseppe Garibaldi


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 winner of the annual Six Nations Championship match between France and Italy. The Garibaldi biscuit was named after him, as was a style of beard. Garibaldi is also a name of a cocktail made of orange juice and Campari. The Brazilian soccer club Associação Garibaldi de Esportes was named after him. Also, a species of bright red-orange fish in the damselfish family was named Garibaldi in the memory of the Garibaldi red shirts. Places named after Garibaldi
Several places worldwide are named after him, including:
 Garibaldi, Victoria, Australia
 Garibaldi, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
 Garibaldi Square, Sofia, Bulgaria
 Garibaldi, British Columbia, an abandoned settlement in British Columbia, Canada
 Mount Garibaldi, British Columbia, Canada
 Garibaldi Névé
 Garibaldi Lake
 Garibaldi Provincial Park
 Garibaldi Secondary School, British Columbia, Canada
 Garibaldi, a station on line 13 of the Paris Métro, France
 Garibaldi Station, Naples, Italy, Central Railway Station
 Plaza Garibaldi, downtown Mexico City, Mexico
 Garibaldi, Oregon, United States
 The Garibaldi School, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom

 Cultural depictions
Garibaldi is a major character in two juvenile historical novels by Geoffrey Trease: Follow My Black Plume and A Thousand for Sicily.He also appears in the novels Heart by Edmondo De Amicis and Fire on the Mountain by Terry Bisson. In movies, <mask> is played by Osvaldo Valenti in the 1940 film Antonio Meucci, by Ugo Sasso in the 1950 film Cavalcade of Heroes, by Raf Vallone in the 1952 film Red Shirts, by Renzo Ricci in the 1961 film Garibaldi, and by Gabriel Braga Nunes in the 2013 film


title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 Anita e Garibaldi. He is also played by Thiago Lacerda in the 2003 Brazilian serial A Casa das Sete Mulheres and by Giorgio Pasotti in the 2012 miniseries Anita Garibaldi. On 18 February 1960, the American television series Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre aired the episode "Guns for Garibaldi" to commemorate the centennial of the unification of Italy. This was the only such program to emphasize the role of Italians in pre-Civil War America. The episode is set in Indian Creek, a western gold mining town. Giulio Mandati, played by Fernando Lamas, takes over his brother's gold claim.People in Indian Creek wanted to use the gold to finance a dam, but Mandati plans to lend support to General <mask> and Italian reunification. <mask> had asked for financing and volunteers from around the world as he launched his Redshirts in July 1860 to invade Sicily and conquer the Kingdom of Naples for annexation to what would finally become the newly born Kingdom of Italy with King Victor Emmanuel II. In the Capcom arcade game "Knights of the Round (video game)", the final boss character is named "<mask>". Family tree

 Publications

 Non-fiction

 My Life, translated by Stephen Parkin, foreword by Tim Parks. London: Hesperus Press Limited. 2004. Fiction

 See also
 Italian irredentism
 Italian unification
 <mask>ni

 References
 Footnotes

 Sources

 Bibliography

 Braun, Martin."'Great Expectations': Cavour and <mask>: 1859-1959.” History Today (Oct. 1959) 9#10 pp. 687–692, historiography
 Gay, H. Nelson, "Lincoln's Offer of a Command to Garibaldi: Light on a Disputed Point of History," The Century

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title: Giuseppe Garibaldi

texts:
 Magazine LXXV (Nov. 1907): 66
 Hibbert, Christopher. <mask> and His Enemies: The Clash of Arms and Personalities in the Making of Italy (1965), a standard biography. pp. 332–416. Mack Smith, Denis, ed. <mask> (Great Lives Observed), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. (primary and secondary sources)
 Mack Smith, Denis."<mask>di: 1807-1882". History Today (March 1956) 5 #3 pp. 188–196. Mack Smith, Denis. Garibaldi: A Great Life in Brief (1956) online
 Marraro, Howard R. "Lincoln's Offer of a Command to Garibaldi: Further Light on a Disputed Point of History." Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 36 #3 (Sept. 1943): 237–270
 Parks, Tim. The Hero's Way: Walking With Garibaldi From Rome to Ravenna (W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2021), travelogue in which Parks and his partner retrace Garibaldi and the <mask>i's 1849 march
 Riall, Lucy.The Italian Risorgimento: State, Society, and National Unification (Routledge, 1994) online
 Riall, Lucy. <mask>: Invention of a Hero (Yale UP, 2007). Riall, Lucy. "Hero, saint or revolutionary? Nineteenth-century politics and the cult of <mask>." Modern Italy 3.02 (1998): 191–204. Riall, Lucy."Travel, migration, exile: <mask>'s global fame." Modern Italy 19.1 (2014): 41–52. Ridley, Jasper. <mask>'' (1974), a standard biography online

External links

1807 births
1882 deaths
19th-century Italian novelists
19th-century Italian male writers
Carbonari
Critics of the Catholic Church
Italian Christians
Italian exiles
Italian expatriates in Brazil
Italian expatriates in Uruguay
Italian Freemasons
Italian generals
Italian irredentism
Italian male

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title: Wilopo

texts: <mask> ( ; 21 October 1909 – 1 June 1981) was an Indonesian politician and lawyer of the Indonesian National Party (PNI), who served as the seventh prime minister of Indonesia from his appointment in April 1952 until his resignation June 1953. Generally considered a member of the PNI's liberal wing, <mask>'s tenure as prime minister was "bolder and more ambitious than any other cabinet of the post-revolutionary period". Born to a muslim family in Purworejo, in what was then the Dutch East Indies, <mask> attained a law degree from the Rechts Hogeschool (what is today the University of Indonesia) in 1939. He then became involved in the struggle of independence, becoming a member of the Gerindo political party in 1937. Following the proclamation of independence and the subsequent national revolution which followed, <mask> served as Deputy Minister, and later Minister of Labor. After the end of the national revolution, <mask> remained active in politics. In April 1952, after the fall of Soekiman Wirjosandjojo's cabinet due to a foreign policy debacle, <mask> was chosen by President Sukarno to lead a new cabinet.For the new cabinet, <mask> opted to form "business cabinet", with unity and a common policy orientation even at the risk of uncertain party and parliamentary support. During his government, Indonesia oversaw important changes in the political balance. Including the split between the Masyumi Party and the Nahdlatul Ulama as well as the re-entry of the Communist Party in politics and the worsening relations between the government and the army, which culminated in a show of force by General Abdul Haris Nasution. In 1953, an incident occurred in Medan, when police attempted to evict illegal squatters,

masks: Wilopo Wilopo Wilopo Wilopo Wilopo Wilopo Wilopo


title: Wilopo

texts:
 leading to a confrontation that left five people dead. In the aftermath, the cabinet decided to dissolve itself, and <mask> returned his mandate to Sukarno. After elections were held in 1955, he was appointed the speaker of the Constitutional Assembly. An office he held for three years, until Sukarno dissolved the body in 1959.In 1968, <mask> was appointed the Chairman of the Supreme Advisory Council. He also chaired a commission on corruption, where despite finding "corruption everywhere", no actions were taken by the government. He left politics in 1978, and he died in 1981. Early life and education

Early life
<mask> was born in Purworejo, on October 21, 1909. He was born to modest family in Central Java. His father was man named Soedjono Soerodirjo, but he was raised by his uncle, a man known as Mantri Guru Prawirodiharjo. He wouldn't know of his real father until he reached adulthood.When he was eight years old, he and his family had to moved to Loano which is five kilometers from Purworejo. They returned to Purworejo when he was in sixth grade. Education
Wilopo attended the Holland Inlandse School (HIS). He could have continued education at the Europese Hogere School (ELS), but he didn't  because he wanted to continue his education at the Opleiding School Voor Inlandsche Ambtenaren (OSVIA). After graduating from HIS, Wilopo continued his education to the Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs (MULO) in Magelang. After studying at MULO, <mask> continued his education at Algemene Middelbare School (AMS), in Yogyakarta. At AMS, Wilopo took part in exact sciences and physics.He received a scholarship to make ends meet during his life in Yogyakarta. During his saty in Yogyakarta, he enjoyed reading

masks: Wilopo Wilopo Wilopo Wilopo


title: Wilopo

texts:
 newsletters of the De Locomotief, Darmo Kondo and Soeara Oemoem newspapers. Through this, he found the name of Sukarno (future President of Indonesia). <mask> also joined the Jong Java youth organization around this time. He continued his education at the Technischeh Hoge School (THS) in Bandung. There, <mask> lived in the Prawirosentiko family's house. After some illnesses, he moved to Sukabumi, living in his cousin's house.There, he became a teacher at the Taman Siswa. He moved to Jakarta and continued his studies at the Rechts Hoge School (RHS). During this time, he lived at the house of Abdul Rasyid, a friend of his from MULO. Political career

Minister of Labour
<mask>'s first government position was as the Junior Minister of Labour during the First and Second Amir Sjarifuddin Cabinets from 3 July 1947 to 29 January 1948. After a brief hiatus, he became the Minister of Labour during the Republic of the United States of Indonesia Cabinet from 20 December 1949 to 6 September 1950; he was later the Minister of Trade and Industry during the Sukiman Cabinet. Prime Minister of Indonesia
After completing his tenure as Minister of Trade and Industry, on 19 March 1952, <mask> was told to choose a cabinet to lead. Three days after giving his list to President Sukarno, on 1 April he and his cabinet took power; it was essentially a coalition of necessity between the Masyumi and National parties.During his time as prime minister he also spent 26 days as Foreign Minister, from 3 to 29 April, making him the shortest serving Indonesian foreign minister as of 2011. As prime minister, he was initially able to draw support from the army by unhesitatingly accepting Sultan of Yogyakarta Hamengkubuwono IX as defence


title: Wilopo

texts:
 minister. After fourteen months, the cabinet collapsed; the collapse was blamed on land issues. Post-prime ministership
From 1955 to 1959, <mask> served as the Speaker of the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia. He later became head of the Commission of Four, a part of the Corruption Eradication Team, with his service beginning in June 1970. Despite finding "corruption everywhere", no actions were taken by the government. Death
<mask> died in Jakarta in 1981.Personal life
During his time in Jakarta, he met Sumikalimah, the younger sister of Abdul Rasyid's mother. Sumikalimah is a teacher at an elementary school. <mask> began a relationship with Sumikalimah until they got married in October 1917. Legacy

Historical assessment
Herbert Feith, an Australian scholar on Indonesian politics, notes that Wilopo was widely considered fair-minded and sympathetic to the plight of the working classes, working carefully towards his goals. As he did not prioritize party loyalty, he was known as being able to cooperate with anyone. References

Footnotes

Bibliography

People from Purworejo Regency
Javanese people
Prime Ministers of Indonesia
1908 births
1981 deaths
Indonesian National Party politicians
Members of the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia
Foreign ministers of

masks: Wilopo Wilopo Wilopo


title: Pietro Gonzaga

texts:
<mask> (Pierre Gothard Gonzague in contemporary French sources, Пьетро Гонзага in Russian sources, 25 March 1751 – ) was an Italian theatre set designer who worked in Italy and, since 1792, in the Russian Empire. A vedutist, master of chiaroscuro art and trompe-l'œil optical illusions, <mask> was primarily known for his fantastic yet deceptively realistic stage sets, and summarized the theory and purpose of his art as music for the eyes (): "a perspective that changes in relation to variations in musical expression." According to Ferrero, <mask> was the first to promote scenic design into an art "in its own right" and shake off the derided image of mere decoration devoid of art. With age he lost confidence in his profession and aspired, in vain, to become a practicing architect. Career in Italy

<mask> was born in Longarone, Italy. He trained in Venice from 1769 to 1772 under Giuseppe Moretti and Antonio Visentini. He was influenced by the art of Canaletto, Bibiena, Tiepolo but most of all Piranesi.In 1772 he joined the art firm of the Galliari family. In 1779 <mask> debuted as solo stage designer in Teatro alla Scala production of ballets by Giuseppe Canziani and Sebastiano Gallet, and stayed with this theatre until the 1792 season. Subsequently, he produced over sixty sets in Milan, Genoa, Rome and Venice. His curtain for the La Fenice theatre became a standard copied by numerous imitators. <mask>'s Italian works, along with Galliari family legacy, were published in Milan in three installments between 1803 and 1821. <mask>'s life changed after meeting prince Nikolay Yusupov, personal envoy of

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Gonzaga
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title: Pietro Gonzaga

texts:
 Catherine II of Russia to Italian states, who was based in Turin during 1784–1789. Yusupov returned to Saint Petersburg in 1791 to accept the role of managing entertainment of the imperial court, which placed him at the helm of state theatre companies.It is not known reliably whether <mask> was invited to Russia by Yusupov or by Giacomo Quarenghi, but in 1792 Yusupov, representing the state, and Gonzaga signed a hire contract that made the latter chief decorator (stage designer) for all performances of the Saint Petersburg state theatre, with an unusually generous pay provision. Yusupov remained Gonzaga's patron until their deaths in 1831. <mask>'s line of scenic design at La Scala was continued by his trainee Paolo Landriani. Career in Russia

Gonzaga surprised Saint Petersburg audience by novel use of optical illusions and bold chiaroscuro that supported them (dim, diffused light of oil lamps of the period washed out subtle tones and called for radical, contrasting blacks and whites). According to Alexander Benois, "he painted right on the floor, not like in easel painting, but simply sketching with a thick brush, spreading paint with his foot, and this foot painting under artificial lighting completely enchanted [the witnesses]." Contrary to recommendation of Alexander Cozens, he sketched his drafts in lampblack, not black ink. Gonzaga dominated the art department of imperial theatres for over thirty years, surviving three monarchs: Catherine II, Paul I and Alexander I.He decorated coronations of Paul (1797), Alexander I (1801) and Nicholas I (1826) while his lifelong benefactor Yusupov

masks: Gonzaga Gonzaga


title: Pietro Gonzaga

texts: administered all three events. <mask> became a trusted consultant to heiress and later empress Maria Fyodorovna, Golitsyn and Yusupov families and diversified into decorating palace interiors and landscape design. Fyodor Glinka described <mask>'s three-dimensional trompe-l'œil folly in Pavlovsk Park (1815): "What is a reality and what is a dream? ... Convinced at the existence of what was before me, I kept going further and further forward. But suddenly something strange began to happen to my eyes: it was as if an invisible curtain of some sort was descending upon these objects and swallowing them from sight ... At length I began to quarrel with my own eyes and my head began to spin, and I hastened to be gone from this realms of charms and magic!" <mask> summarized his experience and theory of theatrical presentation and illusion in a series of books printed in Saint Petersburg in French language, notably the 1807 Information a mon chef and 1800 La musique des yeux et l'optique theatrale (English: Music for the Eyes).Gonzaga claimed that optical illusions are not abstract theories but correspond to "things that are easily perceived when one looks with a certain degree of attention", thus the stage set should be designed as a "perceived reality to be grasped with attention in all changing aspects". As he grew older, <mask> gradually became more and more dissatisfied with the work of producing ephemeral follies that rarely lasted longer than a single theatrical season. He suffered depression, feeling that his life was spent in vain, and begged his patrons to offer him a chance to prove himself in

masks: Gonzaga Gonzaga Gonzaga Gonzaga


title: Pietro Gonzaga

texts:
 architecture and leave a tangible trace of his talent. He applied to all available vacancies and architectural contests, and was always rejected. By 1827, when Emperor Nicholas awarded him an honorary title of court architect, Gonzaga was already too old for practical construction. Nestor Kukolnik suggested that earlier, in the 1810s, <mask> designed and built Yusupov's private theatre in Arkhangelskoye Estate, but his attribution was later discarded. He died in Saint Petersburg, Russia, in 1831.Works

Graphic works by <mask> are preserved in the Hermitage Museum, the National Gallery of Art and the Art Institute of Chicago

Arkhangelskoye Estate museum stocks the original stage curtain painted by <mask> and four complete original stage backdrops out of sixteen he produced for Yusupov's private theatre. The museum intends to make life-sized copies for public display, as the originals are too fragile. Elektronny Arhiv, a Russian company that digitized this artwork, claimed to have built the world's largest scanner specifically for this job

Designs based on drawings by <mask> and Angelo Toselli were used to decorate the concrete walls of the private Museum for Architectural Drawing in Berlin (architects Sergei Tchoban and Sergey Kuznetsov, 2013). References

Sources
 Ferrero, Mercedes Vialle (2002). Stage and set, in:

Further reading

1751 births
1831 deaths
People from the Province of Belluno
18th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
19th-century Italian painters
19th-century male artists
Italian neoclassical painters
Italian scenic designers
Russian scenic designers
Bolshoi Theatre,


title: Randy Shilts

texts:
<mask> (August 8, 1951February 17, 1994) was an American journalist and author. After studying journalism at the University of Oregon, he began working as a reporter for both The Advocate and the San Francisco Chronicle, as well as for San Francisco Bay Area television stations. In the early 1980s, he was noted for being the first openly-gay reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle. His first book The Mayor of Castro Street: The Life and Times of Harvey Milk was a biography of LGBT activist Harvey Milk. His 1987 book And the Band Played On chronicled the history of the AIDS epidemic. Despite some controversy surrounding the book in the LGBT community, <mask> was praised for his meticulous documentation of an epidemic that was little-understood at the time. It was later made into an HBO film of the same name in 1993.His final book, Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the US Military from Vietnam to the Persian Gulf, which examined discrimination against lesbians and gays in the military, was published in 1993. <mask> garnered several accolades for his work. He was honored with the 1988 Outstanding Author award from the American Society of Journalists and Authors, the 1990 Mather Lectureship at Harvard University, and the 1993 Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Lesbian and Gay Journalists' Association. Diagnosed with HIV in March 1987, <mask> died of an AIDS-related illness in 1994, at the age of 42. He is the subject of a 2019 biography, The Journalist of Castro Street: The Life of <mask> by Andrew E. Stoner, released May 30, 2019 from the University of Illinois Press. Early life
Born August 8, 1951, in Davenport, Iowa, <mask> grew up in Aurora, Illinois, with five brothers in a conservative, working-class family. He majored in journalism at the University of Oregon, where he worked on the student newspaper, the Oregon Daily Emerald, as managing editor.While an undergraduate he came out publicly as gay, and ran for student office with the slogan "Come out for <mask>." Journalism
<mask> graduated near the top of his class in

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title: Randy Shilts

texts:
 1975, but as an openly gay man, he struggled to find full-time employment in what he characterized as the homophobic environment of newspapers and television stations at that time. <mask> wrote for gay news magazine The Advocate but quit in 1978 after publisher David Goodstein began requiring employees to participate in EST; <mask> later wrote an exposé of Goodstein's brand of EST, the Advocate Experience. <mask> also says The Advocate was a "publication that had all these dirty classified ads in it. That I couldn’t send the publication to my parents that I worked for because it was all filled up with 'Gay white man wants somebody to piss on,' you know?" After several years of freelance journalism and the period working for The Advocate, he was finally hired as a national correspondent by the San Francisco Chronicle in 1981, becoming "the first openly gay reporter with a gay 'beat' in the American mainstream press." AIDS, the disease that would later take his life, first came to nationwide attention that same year and soon <mask> devoted himself to covering the unfolding story of the disease and its medical, social, and political ramifications.During the early years of the AIDS crisis, he denounced San Francisco’s gay leaders as “inept” and “a bunch of jerks,” accusing them of hiding the emerging epidemic. In 1984, <mask> controversially supported closing the city’s gay bathhouses. Books
In addition to his extensive journalism, <mask> wrote three books. His first book, The Mayor of Castro Street: The Life and Times of Harvey Milk, is a biography of openly gay San Francisco politician Harvey Milk, who was assassinated by a political rival, Dan White, in 1978. The book broke new ground, being written at a time when "the very idea of a gay political biography was brand-new." <mask>'s second book, And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic, published in 1987, won the Stonewall Book Award and would sell over 700,000 copies until 2004. And the Band Played On  is an extensively researched account of the early days of the AIDS

masks: Shilts Shilts Shilts Shilts Shilts Shilts Shilts


title: Randy Shilts

texts:
 epidemic in the United States.The book was translated into seven languages, and was later made into an HBO film of the same name in 1993, with many big-name actors in starring or supporting roles, including Matthew Modine, Richard Gere, Anjelica Huston, Phil Collins, Lily Tomlin, Ian McKellen, Steve Martin, and Alan Alda, among others. The film earned twenty nominations and nine awards, including the 1994 Emmy Award for Outstanding Made for Television Movie. His last book, Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the US Military from Vietnam to the Persian Gulf, which examined discrimination against lesbians and gays in the military, was published in 1993. <mask> and his assistants conducted over a thousand interviews while researching the book, the last chapter of which <mask> dictated from his hospital bed. <mask> saw himself as a literary journalist in the tradition of Truman Capote and Norman Mailer. Undaunted by a lack of enthusiasm for his initial proposal for the Harvey Milk biography, <mask> reworked the concept, as he later said, after further reflection: I read Hawaii by James Michener. That gave me the concept for the book, the idea of taking people and using them as vehicles, symbols for different ideas.I would take the life-and-times approach and tell the whole story of the gay movement in this way, using Harvey as the major vehicle. Criticism and praise
Although <mask> was applauded for bringing public attention to gay civil rights issues and the AIDS crisis, he was also harshly criticized (and spat upon on Castro Street) by some in the gay community for calling for the closure of gay bathhouses in San Francisco to slow the spread of AIDS. Fellow Bay Area journalist Bob Ross called <mask> "a traitor to his own kind". In a note included in The Life and Times of Harvey Milk, <mask> expressed his view of a reporter's duty to rise above criticism: I can only answer that I tried to tell the truth and, if not be objective, at least be fair; history is not served when reporters prize trepidation and propriety over the robust


title: Randy Shilts

texts:
 journalistic duty to tell the whole story. <mask> was also criticized by some segments of the gay community on other issues, including his opposition to the controversial practice of outing prominent but closeted lesbians and gay men. Nevertheless, his tenacious reporting was highly praised by others in both the gay and straight communities who saw him as "the pre-eminent chronicler of gay life and spokesman on gay issues". <mask> was honored with the 1988 Outstanding Author award from the American Society of Journalists and Authors, the 1990 Mather Lectureship at Harvard University, and the 1993 Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Lesbian and Gay Journalists' Association.In 1999, the Department of Journalism at New York University ranked <mask>'s AIDS reporting for the Chronicle between 1981 and 1985 as number 44 on a list of the top 100 works of journalism in the United States in the 20th century. Illness and death
<mask> declined to be told the results of his HIV test until he had completed the writing of And the Band Played On, concerned that the test result, whatever it might be, would interfere with his objectivity as a writer. He was finally found to be HIV positive in March 1987. In 1992, <mask> became ill with pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and suffered a collapsed lung; the following year, he was diagnosed with Kaposi's sarcoma. In a New York Times interview in the spring of 1993, <mask> observed, "HIV is certainly character-building. It's made me see all of the shallow things we cling to, like ego and vanity. Of course, I'd rather have a few more T-cells and a little less character."Despite being effectively homebound and on oxygen, he was able to attend the Los Angeles screening of the HBO film version of And the Band Played On in August 1993. <mask> died at 42 on February 17, 1994 at Davies Medical Center in San Francisco, California, being survived by his partner, Barry Barbieri, his mother, and his brothers. His brother Gary had conducted a commitment service for the couple the previous year. After a funeral service


title: Randy Shilts

texts:
 at Glide Memorial Church, <mask> was buried at Redwood Memorial Gardens in Guerneville alongside his long time friend, Daniel R. Yoder (1952-1995). <mask> bequeathed 170 cartons of papers, notes, and research files to the local history section of the San Francisco Public Library. At the time of his death, he was planning a fourth book, examining homosexuality in the Roman Catholic Church. As a fellow reporter put it, despite an early death, in his books <mask> "rewrote history.In doing so, he saved a segment of history from extinction." Historian Garry Wills wrote of And the Band Played On, "This book will be to gay liberation what Betty Friedan was to early feminism and Rachel Carson's Silent Spring was to environmentalism." NAMES Project founder Cleve Jones described <mask> as "a hero" and characterized his books as "without question the most important works of literature affecting gay people." After his death, a longtime friend and assistant explained the motivation that drove <mask>: "He chose to write about gay issues for the mainstream precisely because he wanted other people to know what it was like to be gay. If they didn't know, how were things going to change?" In 1998, <mask> was memorialized in the Hall of Achievement at the University of Oregon School of Journalism, honoring his refusal to be "boxed in by the limits that society offered him. As an out gay man, he carved a place in journalism that was not simply groundbreaking but internationally influential in changing the way the news media covered AIDS."A San Francisco Chronicle reporter summed up the achievement of his late "brash and gutsy" colleague:

Perhaps because <mask> remains controversial among some gays, there is no monument to him. Nor is there a street named for him, as there are for other San Francisco writers such as Jack Kerouac and Dashiell Hammett. ... <mask>' only monument is his work. He remains the most prescient chronicler of 20th century American gay history. In 2006, Reporter Zero, a half-hour biographical documentary about <mask> featuring interviews

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Legacy Shilts
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title: Randy Shilts

texts:
 with friends and colleagues, was produced and directed by filmmaker Carrie Lozano. <mask> is the subject of a 2019 biography, The Journalist of Castro Street: The Life of <mask> by Andrew E. Stoner, released May 30, 2019 from the University of Illinois Press. In 2014 <mask> was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields."In June 2019, <mask> was one of the inaugural fifty American “pioneers, trailblazers, and heroes” inducted on the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor within the Stonewall National Monument in New York City’s Stonewall Inn. Bibliography
 Familiar Faces, Hidden Lives: The Story of Homosexual Men in America Today, by Howard J. Brown, M.D., Introduction by <mask>, 1976 ()
 The Mayor of Castro Street: The Life and Times of Harvey Milk, 1982 ()
 And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic (1980–1985), 1987 ()
 Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the U.S. Military, 1993 ()

Further reading

 Andrew E. Stoner: The Journalist of Castro Street. The Life of <mask>. University of Illinois Press, 2019,  (paperback),  (ebook)

References

External links

"Alband (Linda) Collection of <mask>lts Materials" at Calisphere
"AIDS at 25 – Reflections on reporter <mask>," podcast by the San Francisco Chronicle

<mask> on glbtq.com

1951 births
1994 deaths
AIDS-related deaths in California
American male journalists
American gay writers
Historians of LGBT topics
Lambda Literary Award winners
Stonewall Book Award winners
People from Aurora, Illinois
Writers from Davenport, Iowa
Writers from San Francisco
University of Oregon alumni
LGBT journalists from the United States
20th-century American biographers
Journalists from Illinois
LGBT people from Iowa
LGBT people from Illinois
20th-century American male writers
Historians from Illinois
People from Guerneville, California
20th-century American journalists
People with HIV/AIDS
American male biographers
San Francisco Chronicle

masks:
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Randy Shilts
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title: Román Fresnedo Siri

texts:
<mask> (February 4, 1903 – June 26, 1975) was a Uruguayan architect. Biography
<mask> was born in 1903 in Salto, Uruguay, a small river city about 300 miles northwest of Montevideo on the border with Argentina. He left behind no autobiography or significant writings, so little is known of his early life. He spent his primary and secondary school years a few hundred miles upriver from Salto in Asunción, Paraguay. In 1920, he received certification in Paraguay as a surveyor—background that surely informed the deep integration of site, landscape and building that would inform his later architectural work. At the age of 20, <mask> returned to Uruguay, to its capital city of Montevideo, to pursue a degree in architecture. <mask> trained at Uruguay's University of the Republic in Montevideo between 1923 and 1930.The university's architecture school was then dominated by professor Joseph Paul Carré, a French architect who lived and taught in Uruguay from 1907 until his death in 1941. Carré had graduated in 1900 from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, influenced by the eclectic neo-classicism of the Paris school but also the emerging rationalist rejection of historicism and excessive ornamentation. Carré was not captive to any specific doctrine, in fact worrying that the new ideas could represent a stifling “new form of academism as troubling as the one that preceded it.”  He believed that good architecture needed to combine functional imperatives with the emotion of art: “architecture, like the other arts, should adhere to the qualities of composition. Scale, contrasts, rhythm, proportion, the combinations of forms and volumes—all the qualities that define a work of art cannot be arbitrarily grouped; they must co-exist in intimate and harmonious relation. To do otherwise results in things of no artistic interest—rigid, cold, dead.” <mask> <mask> seems to have absorbed a similar point of view, and throughout his career his projects evinced a keen attention to not only exterior and

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Román Fresnedo Siri
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title: Román Fresnedo Siri

texts: interior building design, but also to building systems, the site and landscape, furnishings and art. He was himself a multi-faceted artist, with avid interests ranging from painting, photography and music to boat and furniture design. Uruguay's architectural community closely followed emerging trends in Europe and the U.S.In his essay for the New York Museum of Modern Art (MOMA)’s catalogue for its 1955 exhibition “Latin American Architecture since 1945,” Henry-Russell Hitchcock described Montevideo's national university architecture faculty as “the most advanced in Latin America.”  Amid these flourishing intellectual currents, <mask> <mask> would surely have been impacted by the 1929 visit to Montevideo of famed modernist architect Le Corbusier. Modernist architectural ideas were fast moving from theory to implementation in the region, as Latin American governments backed ambitious expressions of the new ideas earlier than did their counterparts in Europe and elsewhere. An iconic early example of the movement was Brazil's Ministry of Education and Health building (1937), designed by Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemayer with Le Corbusier as consultant. A decade later, Niemayer and Julio Vilamajo of Uruguay (who had joined the architecture faculty in Montevideo during <mask> <mask>'s final year of study) would be the sole Latin American representatives on the design team for the United Nations headquarters building in New York. Another decade beyond that, Costa and Niemayer's design for Brazil's new capital city of Brasilia, now a UNESCO world heritage site often cited as an exemplar of modernist architecture, would be inaugurated just months before PAHO launched its design competition in Washington. In 1938, together with fellow Uruguayan architect Mario Muccinelli, <mask> gained his first major commission by winning the competition to build a new complex for his alma mater's School of Architecture in Montevideo. The ambitious project spread over several city blocks and today stands

masks: Fresnedo Siri Fresnedo Siri Fresnedo


title: Román Fresnedo Siri

texts: alongside the early work of Costa and Niemayer as one of the important early examples of Latin American modernist architecture.The Government of Uruguay declared it a national historical monument in 2000. The graceful curve of its main faculty building would be echoed later in <mask> <mask>'s design for PAHO. During his period of study in the 1920s, <mask> <mask> was an enthusiast of Frank Lloyd Wright's work, embracing the ideas of “organic architecture”: the harmonious integration of the built environment with its natural setting so that a building's design and placement, its furnishings and landscaping together comprised a unified whole. In 1940, New York's Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) sponsored a contest challenging designers from the United States and Latin America to submit furniture, lamps, and textiles of “Organic Design,” which curator Elliot Noyes described as a “harmonious organization of the parts within the whole, according to structure, material, and purpose... with no vain ornamentation or superfluity, but the part of beauty is none the less great in ideal choice of material, in visual refinement, and in the rational elegance of things intended for use.”  <mask> <mask> was one of the five Latin American winners for his design of chairs using Uruguayan leather and skins on a steel frame. <mask> <mask> and the other winning designers had their work exhibited in the 1941 MOMA exhibition, Organic Design in Home Furnishings, and several were also awarded contracts for manufacture and distribution with major department stores. It was this landmark exhibition that introduced the world to Eero Saarinen and Charles Eames, who worked together as a team and won in both the chair design (the now-iconic Organic Chair) and living room categories. Thanks to the MOMA's $1,000 prize and an invitation to its award event in New York, Fresnedo Siri was able to make his first trip to the U.S. in 1941.He was at the time serving as chief architect of Uruguay's national power and telephone

masks: Fresnedo Siri Fresnedo Siri Fresnedo Siri Fresnedo Siri


title: Román Fresnedo Siri

texts: utility company (UTE), which was developing plans to build a new company headquarters complex. He spent the next five months touring the United States to study examples of modern office buildings. In addition to New York City, his stops included Boston, Chicago, San Francisco, and Washington, as well as the Cranbrook Academy in Michigan—the first building designed in the U.S. by fellow modernist Eliel Saarinen. Returning to Uruguay, <mask> <mask> worked on the UTE project between 1942 and 1948. It entailed the development of what was essentially an entirely new “company town” in Montevideo's Arroyo Seco district, with worker housing and schools, retail spaces, company workshops, service centers and warehouses, a thermo-electric plant, and a company headquarters building. For the latter, he was inspired by the example of the Rockefeller Center complex in New York. The centerpiece of his own design was known as the Palacio de la Luz (Palace of Light, a play on words denoting not only the light-filled building but also the power company itself - “luz” is the word commonly used by Uruguayans to refer to electricity in general).The 11-story Palacio de la Luz fills a full city block with its rectangular form of perfect symmetry, marked by soaring white vertical columnar ribs evenly separating dark vertical columns of glass – a design that Fresnedo would repeat in the main PAHO building. The Palacio de la Luz was an early example in Uruguay of a large, centrally air conditioned building with hermetically sealed windows. <mask> Siri located the mechanical systems in a central core to maximize natural light in all of the building's functional space, and engaged leading Uruguayan artists to contribute monumental mural and sculpture elements to the building. The building was awarded a Gold Medal in 1948 at the VI Pan American Congress of Architecture in Lima, Peru. Another signature Fresnedo Siri building from the same period, Montevideo's Sanatorio Americano (American Hospital) of 1946

masks: Fresnedo Siri Fresnedo


title: Román Fresnedo Siri

texts: represented a new approach to hospital design, inverting the traditional model through which the patients were isolated inside within buildings that formed a barrier between the healthy outside and the sick inside. <mask> Siri wanted patients to be in visual contact with green spaces, and to feel integrated into the city around them. As with the earlier Architecture School main faculty building and the later PAHO design, his use of a long curve in the Sanatorio Americano building exemplified his consistent interest in blending expressionist elements into his architecture, just as his attention to the integration of landscape and building in the project reflected his enduring commitment to principles of organic architecture.The success of the Sanatorio Americano project won him recognition as a regional leader of hospital design. He would devote much of the 1950s to work in this area, including several large hospital facilities in Uruguay, another in São Paulo, Brazil and the National Hospital of Asuncion, Paraguay. Sporting clubs and arenas formed another side specialty for the versatile architect, with projects dating back to 1930. Horseracing was then among the most popular sports in the region, with thousands crowding the tribunes from all social classes. The arenas were also important centers for elites, offering a weekend fresh-air outing with private club dining and social areas, and usually linked to an exclusive downtown “Jockey Club” location. In 1951, <mask> <mask> won an international competition to design a horse racing complex in Porto Alegre, a major city of southern Brazil. The resulting Hipodromo do Cristal's flamboyant modern design and engineering innovations make it one of his most notable achievements.Brazilians today regard it as a landmark example of South American modernist architecture; the municipal government of Porto Alegre listed it as protected cultural historical patrimony in 2003. Following the success of the PAHO building in Washington, the

masks: Fresnedo Fresnedo Siri


title: Román Fresnedo Siri

texts:
 organization again commissioned him in 1971 to design its regional headquarters in Brazil. PAHO requested a similar design, seeking a sort of organizational “branding” through architecture. The resulting Brasilia complex is similarly anchored by a curved main office building with an attached cylindrical annex containing the main meeting hall. He supervised an additional PAHO project in Lima Peru in 1973, the PAHO Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences. <mask> <mask> died in 1975. Selected works
Siri won acclaim for designing major civic buildings throughout South America, including offices and hospitals.He also had a passion for the ocean, and even used his talents to design racing yachts. PAHO Headquarters Project
An international competition to choose the most original design had been won in 1961 by <mask>. Just over two years after work began, the completed secretariat was ready to house hundreds of staff members in approximately  of space, furnished with marble, paintings, sculptures, and other gifts from PAHO member nations. The council chamber alone could accommodate 400 delegates within its circular walls. The new PAHO headquarters was officially opened on September 27, 1965. Other works
In his prolific and significant architectural production worth mentioning:
 Tribune Folle Ylla(1938) and Local Tribune(1945) in Hipodromo Nacional de Maroñas;
 Building of the Faculty of Architecture, Montevideo, opened in 1947 (in collaboration with his colleague Mario Muccinelli);
 Palace of Light, the headquarters of UTE in the neighborhood Arroyo Seco, Montevideo;
 Luis Batlle Berres monument, Montevideo, opened in 1967;
 American Hospital in the area of Parque Batlle, Montevideo;
 Hipodromo do Cristal, in Porto Alegre, Brazil;
 Headquarters of the Pan American Health Organization in Washington, D.C., United States, opened in 1965. References

External links

1903 births
1976 deaths
People from Salto Department
University of the Republic (Uruguay)

masks: Fresnedo Siri Siri


title: Alexander P. de Seversky

texts:
<mask> () (June 7, 1894 – August 24, 1974) was a Russian-American aviation pioneer, inventor, and influential advocate of strategic air power. Early life
Of noble Russian parentage, <mask> was born in Tiflis, Russian Empire (now Tbilisi, Georgia). He entered a military school at age 10. <mask>'s father was one of the first Russian aviators to own an aircraft (a modified Blériot XI built by Mikheil Grigorashvili) and by the age of 14, when <mask> entered the Imperial Russian Naval Academy, his father had already taught him how to fly. Graduating in 1914 with an engineering degree, Lieutenant <mask> was serving at sea with a destroyer flotilla when World War I began. World War I
<mask> was selected for duty as a naval aviator, transferring to the Military School of Aeronautics at Sebastopol, Crimea. After completing a postgraduate program on aeronautics in 1914–15, he was reassigned as a pilot in the summer of 1915 to an aviation unit in the Baltic Fleet.While stationed in the Gulf of Riga, on his first mission, he attacked a German destroyer but was shot down by enemy anti-aircraft fire before he could drop his bombs. The bombs exploded in the crash, killing his observer and badly wounding <mask>. Doctors amputated his leg below the knee and although he was fitted with an artificial leg, despite his protests, authorities deemed him unfit to return to combat. To prove to his superiors that he could still fly, <mask> appeared unannounced at an air show. Following his impromptu spirited aerial performance, authorities arrested him. Tsar Nicholas II intervened on his behalf and in July 1916, <mask> returned to combat duty, downing his first enemy aircraft three days later. In February 1917, he assumed command of the 2nd Naval Fighter Detachment, until he was seriously injured in an accident where a horse-drawn wagon broke his good

masks: Alexander Nikolaievich Prokofiev de Seversky