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 books—including a prose adaptation of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream () and an Igbo version of Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress (1678).Achebe eagerly anticipated traditional village events, like the frequent masquerade ceremonies, which he would later recreate in his novels and stories. In 1936, <mask> entered St Philips' Central School in the Akpakaogwe region of Ogidi. Despite his protests, he spent a week in the religious class for young children, but was quickly moved to a higher class when the school's chaplain took note of his intelligence. One teacher described him as the student with the best handwriting and the best reading skills in his class. He attended Sunday school every week and the special services held monthly, often carrying his father's bag. A controversy erupted at one such session, when apostates from the new church challenged the catechist about the tenets of Christianity. Achebe enrolled in Nekede Central School, outside of Owerri, in 1942; he was particularly studious and passed the entrance examinations for two colleges.University (1948–1953)

In 1948, Nigeria's first university opened in preparation for the country's independence. Known as University College (now the University of Ibadan), it was an associate college of the University of London. <mask> was admitted as the university's first intake and given a bursary to study medicine. During his studies, <mask> become critical of European literature about Africa, particularly Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. He decided to become a writer after reading Mister Johnson by Joyce Cary because of the book's portrayal of its Nigerian characters as either savages or buffoons. <mask> recognised his dislike for the

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texts: African protagonist as a sign of the author's cultural ignorance. He abandoned medicine to study English, history, and theology, a switch which lost him his scholarship and required extra tuition fees.To compensate, the government provided a bursary, and his family donated money—his older brother Augustine gave up money for a trip home from his job as a civil servant so Achebe could continue his studies. <mask>'s debut as an author was in 1950 when he wrote a piece for the University Herald, the university's magazine, entitled "Polar Undergraduate". It used irony and humour to celebrate the intellectual vigour of his classmates. He followed with other essays and letters about philosophy and freedom in academia, some of which were published in another campus magazine called The Bug. He served as the Herald editor during the 1951–52 school year. He wrote his first short story that year, "In a Village Church" (1951), an amusing look at the Igbo synthesis between life in rural Nigeria with Christian institutions and icons. Other short stories he wrote during his time at Ibadan—including "The Old Order in Conflict with the New" (1952) and "Dead Men's Path" (1953)—examine conflicts between tradition and modernity, with an eye toward dialogue and understanding on both sides.When the professor Geoffrey Parrinder arrived at the university to teach comparative religion, Achebe began to explore the fields of Christian history and African traditional religions. After the final examinations at Ibadan in 1953, <mask> was awarded a second-class degree. Rattled by not receiving the highest level, he was uncertain how to proceed after graduation and returned to his hometown of Ogidi. While pondering possible

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 career paths, <mask> was visited by a friend from the university, who convinced him to apply for an English teaching position at the Merchants of Light school at Oba. It was a ramshackle institution with a crumbling infrastructure and a meagre library; the school was built on what the residents called "bad bush"—a section of land thought to be tainted by unfriendly spirits. Teaching and producing (1953–1956)

As a teacher he urged his students to read extensively and be original in their work. The students did not have access to the newspapers he had read as a student, so Achebe made his own available in the classroom.He taught in Oba for four months. He left the institution in 1954 and moved to Lagos to work for the Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS), a radio network started in 1933 by the colonial government. He was assigned to the Talks Department to prepare scripts for oral delivery. This helped him master the subtle nuances between written and spoken language, a skill that helped him later to write realistic dialogue. Lagos made a significant impression on him. A huge conurbation, the city teemed with recent migrants from the rural villages. Achebe revelled in the social and political activity around him and began work on a novel.This was challenging, since very little African fiction had been written in English, although Amos Tutuola's Palm-Wine Drinkard and Cyprian Ekwensi's People of the City were notable exceptions. A visit to Nigeria by Queen Elizabeth II in 1956 highlighted issues of colonialism and politics, and was a significant moment for Achebe. Also in 1956, <mask> was selected to attend the staff training school for the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). His first trip


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 outside Nigeria was an opportunity to advance his technical production skills, and to solicit feedback on his novel (which was later split into two books). In London, he met a novelist named Gilbert Phelps, to whom he offered the manuscript. Phelps responded with great enthusiasm, asking Achebe if he could show it to his editor and publishers. Achebe declined, insisting that it needed more work.Things Fall Apart (1957–1960)

Back in Nigeria, <mask> set to work revising and editing his novel; he titled it Things Fall Apart, after a line in the poem "The Second Coming" by W. B. Yeats). He cut away the second and third sections of the book, leaving only the story of a yam farmer named Okonkwo who lives during the colonization of Nigeria and struggles with his father's debtor legacy. He added sections, improved various chapters, and restructured the prose. In 1957 he sent his only copy of his handwritten manuscript (along with the £22 fee) to a London manuscript typing service he had seen an advertisement for in The Spectator. He did not receive a reply from the typing service, so he asked his boss at the NBS, Angela Beattie, to visit the company during her travels to London. She did, and angrily demanded to know why the manuscript was lying ignored in the corner of the office. The company quickly sent a typed copy to Achebe.Beattie's intervention was crucial for his ability to continue as a writer. Had the novel been lost, he later said, "I would have been so discouraged that I would probably have given up altogether." The next year <mask> sent his novel to the agent recommended by Gilbert Phelps in London. It was sent to several publishing houses; some rejected it immediately, claiming that


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 when he arrived. The couple moved to Enugu and began to work on his administrative duties. No Longer at Ease and fellowship travels (1960–1961)
In 1960 Achebe published No Longer at Ease, a novel about a civil servant named Obi, grandson of Things Fall Aparts main character, who is embroiled in the corruption of Lagos. Obi undergoes the same turmoil as much of the Nigerian youth of his time; the clash between traditional culture of his clan, family, and home village against his government job and modern society. Later that year, <mask> was awarded a Rockefeller Fellowship for six months of travel, which he called "the first important perk of my writing career".<mask> used the fellowship to tour East Africa. He first travelled to Kenya, where he was required to complete an immigration form by checking a box indicating his ethnicity: European, Asiatic, Arab, or Other. Shocked and dismayed at being forced into an "Other" identity, he found the situation "almost funny" and took an extra form as a souvenir. Continuing to Tanganyika and Zanzibar (now united in Tanzania), he was frustrated by the paternalistic attitude he observed among non-African hotel clerks and social elites. <mask> found in his travels that Swahili was gaining prominence as a major African language. Radio programs were broadcast in Swahili, and its use was widespread in the countries he visited. Nevertheless, he found an "apathy" among the people toward literature written in Swahili.He met the poet Sheikh Shaaban Robert, who complained of the difficulty he had faced in trying to publish his Swahili-language work. In Northern Rhodesia (now called Zambia), <mask> found himself sitting in a whites-only section of a bus to Victoria


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 Falls. Interrogated by the ticket taker as to why he was sitting in the front, he replied, "if you must know I come from Nigeria, and there we sit where we like in the bus." Upon reaching the waterfall, he was cheered by the black travellers from the bus, but he was saddened by their being unable to resist the policy of segregation at the time. Two years later, <mask> travelled to the United States and Brazil as part of a Fellowship for Creative Artists awarded by UNESCO. He met with a number of writers from the US, including novelists Ralph Ellison and Arthur Miller. In Brazil, he discussed the complications of writing in Portuguese with other authors.<mask> worried that the vibrant literature of the nation would be lost if left untranslated into a more widely spoken language. Voice of Nigeria and African Writers Series (1961–1964)

On his return to Nigeria in 1961, <mask> was promoted at the NBS to the position of Director of External Broadcasting. One of his primary duties was to help create the Voice of Nigeria (VON) network, which broadcast its first transmission on New Year's Day 1962. VON struggled to maintain neutrality when Nigerian Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa declared a state of emergency in the Western Region, responding to a series of conflicts between officials of varying parties. <mask> became particularly saddened by the evidence of corruption and silencing of political opposition. The same year he attended an executive conference of African writers in English at the Makerere University College in Kampala, Uganda. He met with literary figures including Ghanaian poet Kofi Awoonor, Nigerian playwright and novelist Wole Soyinka, and US poet Langston Hughes.Among the


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 entire world view)." In September 1964 he attended the Commonwealth Literature conference at the University of Leeds, presenting his essay "The Novelist as Teacher". Personal life
<mask> and Christie married on 10 September 1961, holding the ceremony in the Chapel of Resurrection on the campus of the University of Ibadan. Their first child, a daughter named Chinelo, was born on 11 July 1962.They had a son, Ikechukwu, on 3 December 1964, and another boy, Chidi, on 24 May 1967. When the children began attending school in Lagos, their parents became worried about the worldview—especially with regard to race—expressed at the school, particularly through the mostly white teachers and books that presented a prejudiced view of African life. In 1966, <mask> published his first children's book, Chike and the River, to address some of these concerns. Arrow of God (1964–1966)
<mask>'s third book, Arrow of God, was published in 1964. The idea for the novel came in 1959, when <mask> heard the story of a Chief Priest being imprisoned by a District Officer. He drew further inspiration a year later when he viewed a collection of Igbo objects excavated from the area by archaeologist Thurstan Shaw; Achebe was startled by the cultural sophistication of the artifacts. When an acquaintance showed him a series of papers from colonial officers, Achebe combined these strands of history and began work on Arrow of God.Like Achebe's previous works, Arrow was roundly praised by critics. A revised edition was published in 1974 to correct what Achebe called "certain structural weaknesses". Like its predecessors, the work explores the intersections of Igbo tradition and European Christianity. Set in the village of Umuaro at


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 the start of the twentieth century, the novel tells the story of Ezeulu, a Chief Priest of Ulu. Shocked by the power of British intervention in the area, he orders his son to learn the foreigners' secret. Ezeulu is consumed by the resulting tragedy. In a letter written to Achebe, US writer John Updike expressed his surprised admiration for the sudden downfall of Arrow of Gods protagonist and praised the author's courage to write "an ending few Western novelists would have contrived".Achebe responded by suggesting that the individualistic hero was rare in African literature, given its roots in communal living and the degree to which characters are "subject to non-human forces in the universe". A Man of the People (1966–1967)
A Man of the People was published in 1966. A bleak satire set in an unnamed African state which has just attained independence, the novel follows a teacher named Odili Samalu from the village of Anata who opposes a corrupt Minister of Culture named Nanga for his Parliament seat. Upon reading an advance copy of the novel, <mask>'s friend John Pepper Clark declared: "Chinua, I know you are a prophet. Everything in this book has happened except a military coup!" Soon afterward, Nigerian Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu seized control of the northern region of the country as part of a larger coup attempt. Commanders in other areas failed, and the plot was answered by a military crackdown.A massacre of three thousand people from the eastern region living in the north occurred soon afterwards, and stories of other attacks on Igbo Nigerians began to filter into Lagos. The ending of his novel had brought Achebe to the attention of military personnel, who suspected him of having


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 foreknowledge of the coup. When he received word of the pursuit, he sent his wife (who was pregnant) and children on a squalid boat through a series of unseen creeks to the Eastern stronghold of Port Harcourt. They arrived safely, but Christie suffered a miscarriage at the journey's end. Chinua rejoined them soon afterward in Ogidi. These cities were safe from military incursion because they were in the southeast, a part of the region that would later secede. Once the family had resettled in Enugu, Achebe and his friend Christopher Okigbo started a publishing house called Citadel Press to improve the quality and increase the quantity of literature available to younger readers.One of its first submissions was a story called How the Dog was Domesticated, which Achebe revised and rewrote, turning it into a complex allegory for the country's political tumult. Its final title was How the Leopard Got His Claws. Years later a Nigerian intelligence officer told Achebe, "of all the things that came out of Biafra, that book was most important." Nigeria-Biafra War (1967–1970)

In May 1967, the southeastern region of Nigeria broke away to form the Republic of Biafra; in July the Nigerian military attacked to suppress what it considered an unlawful rebellion. The <mask> family narrowly escaped disaster several times during the war, including a bombing of their house. During August 1967, Okigbo was killed fighting in the war. Achebe was shaken considerably by the loss; in 1971 he wrote "Dirge for Okigbo", originally in the Igbo language but later translated to English.As the war intensified, the <mask> family was forced to leave Enugu for the Biafran capital of Aba. He continued to write throughout the war,


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texts: but most of his creative work during this time took the form of poetry. The shorter format was a consequence of living in a war zone. "I can write poetry," he said, "something short, intense more in keeping with my mood [...] All this is creating in the context of our struggle." Many of these poems were collected in his 1971 book Beware, Soul Brother. One of his most famous, "Refugee Mother and Child", spoke to the suffering and loss that surrounded him. Dedicated to the promise of Biafra, he accepted a request to serve as foreign ambassador, refusing an invitation from the Program of African Studies at Northwestern University in the US.Meanwhile, their contemporary Wole Soyinka was imprisoned for meeting with Biafran officials, and spent two years in jail. Speaking in 1968, <mask> said: "I find the Nigerian situation untenable. If I had been a Nigerian, I think I would have been in the same situation as Wole Soyinka is—in prison." In his ambassador role, <mask> traveled to European and North American cities to promote the Biafra cause. Conditions in Biafra worsened as the war continued. In September 1968, the city of Aba fell to the Nigerian military and <mask> once again moved his family, this time to Umuahia, where the Biafran government had relocated. He was chosen to chair the newly formed National Guidance Committee, charged with the task of drafting principles and ideas for the post-war era.In 1969, the group completed a document entitled The Principles of the Biafran Revolution, later released as The Ahiara Declaration. In October of the same year, <mask> joined writers Cyprian Ekwensi and Gabriel Okara for a tour of the United States to raise awareness about the dire situation in


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 Biafra. They visited thirty college campuses and conducted numerous interviews. Although the group was well received by students and faculty, <mask> was shocked by the harsh racist attitude toward Africa he saw in the US. At the end of the tour, he said that "world policy is absolutely ruthless and unfeeling". The beginning of 1970 saw the end of the state of Biafra. On 12 January, the military surrendered to Nigeria, and <mask> returned with his family to Ogidi, where their home had been destroyed.He took a job at the University of Nigeria in Nsukka and immersed himself once again in academia. He was unable to accept invitations to other countries, however, because the Nigerian government revoked his passport due to his support for Biafra. The Achebe family had another daughter on 7 March 1970, named Nwando. Postwar academia (1971–1975)

After the war, Achebe helped start two magazines in 1971: the literary journal Okike, a forum for African art, fiction, and poetry; and Nsukkascope, an internal publication of the University. Achebe and the Okike committee later established another cultural magazine, Uwa Ndi Igbo, to showcase the indigenous stories and oral traditions of the Igbo community. In February 1972 he released Girls at War, a collection of short stories ranging in time from his undergraduate days to the recent bloodshed. It was the 100th book in Heinemann's African Writers Series.The University of Massachusetts Amherst offered <mask> a professorship in September 1972, and the family moved to the United States. Their youngest daughter was displeased with her nursery school, and the family soon learned that her frustration involved language. Achebe helped her face what he called the

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 "alien experience" by telling her stories during the car trips to and from school. As he presented his lessons to a wide variety of students (he taught only one class, to a large audience), he began to study the perceptions of Africa in Western scholarship: "Africa is not like anywhere else they know [...] there are no real people in the Dark Continent, only forces operating; and people don't speak any language you can understand, they just grunt, too busy jumping up and down in a frenzy". Further criticism (1975)

<mask> expanded this criticism when he presented a Chancellor's Lecture at Amherst on 18 February 1975, "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness". Decrying Joseph Conrad as "a bloody racist", <mask> asserted that Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness dehumanises Africans, rendering Africa as "a metaphysical battlefield devoid of all recognisable humanity, into which the wandering European enters at his peril." <mask> also discussed a quotation from Albert Schweitzer, a 1952 Nobel Peace Prize laureate: "That extraordinary missionary, Albert Schweitzer, who sacrificed brilliant careers in music and theology in Europe for a life of service to Africans in much the same area as Conrad writes about, epitomizes the ambivalence.In a comment which has often been quoted Schweitzer says: 'The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.' And so he proceeded to build a hospital appropriate to the needs of junior brothers with standards of hygiene reminiscent of medical practice in the days before the germ theory of disease came into being." The lecture was controversial immediately following his talk. Many English professors in attendance were upset by his remarks; one


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 elderly professor reportedly approached him, said: "How dare you! ", and stormed away. Another suggested that Achebe had "no sense of humour", but several days later Achebe was approached by a third professor, who told him: "I now realize that I had never really read Heart of Darkness although I have taught it for years." <mask>'s criticism has become a mainstream perspective on Conrad's work.The essay was included in the 1988 Norton critical edition of Conrad's novel. Editor Robert Kimbrough called it one of "the three most important events in Heart of Darkness criticism since the second edition of his book." Critic Nicolas Tredell divides Conrad criticism "into two epochal phases: before and after Achebe." Asked frequently about his essay, <mask> once explained that he never meant for the work to be abandoned: "It's not in my nature to talk about banning books. I am saying, read it—with the kind of understanding and with the knowledge I talk about. And read it beside African works." Interviewed on National Public Radio with Robert Siegel in October 2009, <mask> stated that he was still critical of Heart of Darkness.He tempered this criticism in a discussion entitled "'Heart of Darkness' is inappropriate", stating: "Conrad was a seductive writer. He could pull his reader into the fray. And if it were not for what he said about me and my people, I would probably be thinking only of that seduction." Retirement and politics (1976–1986)
After his service at UMass Amherst and a visiting professorship at the University of Connecticut, <mask> returned to the University of Nigeria in 1976, where he held a chair in English until his retirement in 1981. When he returned to the University of Nigeria,


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texts: he hoped to accomplish three goals: finish the novel he had been writing, renew the native publication of Okike, and further his study of Igbo culture. In an August 1976 interview, he lashed out at the archetypal Nigerian intellectual, stating that the archetype was divorced from the intellect "but for two things: status and stomach. And if there's any danger that he might suffer official displeasure or lose his job, he would prefer to turn a blind eye to what is happening around him."In October 1979, <mask> was awarded the first-ever Nigerian National Merit Award. After his 1981 retirement, he devoted more time to editing Okike and became active with the left-leaning People's Redemption Party (PRP). In 1983, he became the party's deputy national vice-president. He published a book called The Trouble with Nigeria to coincide with the upcoming elections. On the first page, <mask> says: "the Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the responsibility and to the challenge of personal example which are the hallmarks of true leadership." The elections that followed were marked by violence and charges of fraud. Asked whether he thought Nigerian politics had changed since A Man of the People, <mask> replied: "I think, if anything, the Nigerian politician has deteriorated."After the elections, he engaged in a heated argument—which almost became a fistfight—with Sabo Bakin Zuwo, the newly elected governor of Kano State. He left the PRP and kept his distance from political parties, expressing sadness with his perception of the dishonesty and weakness of the people involved. He spent most of the 1980s delivering speeches, attending conferences, and working on his sixth


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 novel. In 1986 he was elected president-general of the Ogidi Town Union; he reluctantly accepted and began a three-year term. In the same year, he stepped down as editor of Okike. Anthills and paralysis (1987–1999)

In 1987 Achebe released his fifth novel, Anthills of the Savannah, about a military coup in the fictional West African nation of Kangan. A finalist for the Booker Prize, the novel was hailed in the Financial Times: "in a powerful fusion of myth, legend and modern styles, <mask> has written a book which is wise, exciting and essential, a powerful antidote to the cynical commentators from 'overseas' who see nothing ever new out of Africa."An opinion piece in the magazine West Africa said the book deserved to win the Booker Prize, and that <mask> was "a writer who has long deserved the recognition that has already been accorded him by his sales figures." The prize went instead to Penelope Lively's novel Moon Tiger. On 22 March 1990, <mask> was riding in a car to Lagos when an axle collapsed and the car flipped. His son Ikechukwu and the driver suffered minor injuries, but the weight of the vehicle fell on Achebe and his spine was severely damaged. He was flown to the Paddocks Hospital in Buckinghamshire, England, and treated for his injuries. In July doctors announced that although he was recuperating well, he was paralyzed from the waist down and would require the use of a wheelchair for the rest of his life. Soon afterward, <mask> became the Charles P. Stevenson Professor of Languages and Literature at Bard College in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York; he held the position for more than fifteen years.Throughout the 1990s, <mask> spent little time in Nigeria but remained actively

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 involved in the country's politics, denouncing the usurpation of power by General Sani Abacha. Later years and death (2000–2013)

In 2000 <mask> published Home and Exile, a semi-biographical collection on both his thoughts on life away from Nigeria, as well as discussion of the emerging school of Native American literature. In October 2005, the London Financial Times reported that <mask> was planning to write a novella for the Canongate Myth Series, a series of short novels in which ancient myths from myriad cultures are reimagined and rewritten by contemporary authors. <mask> was awarded the Man Booker International Prize in June 2007. The judging panel included US critic Elaine Showalter, who said he "illuminated the path for writers around the world seeking new words and forms for new realities and societies"; and South African writer Nadine Gordimer, who said Achebe's "early work made him the father of modern African literature as an integral part of world literature." The award helped correct what "many perceived as a great injustice to African literature, that the founding father of African literature had not won some of the key international prizes." For the International Festival of Igbo culture, <mask> briefly returned to Nigeria to give the Ahajioku Lecture.Later that year he published The Education of A British-Protected Child, a collection of essays. In autumn he joined the Brown University faculty as the David and Marianna Fisher University Professor of Africana Studies. In 2010, <mask> was awarded The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize for $300,000, one of the richest prizes for the arts. In 2012, <mask> published There Was a Country: A Personal History of Biafra. The work re-opened

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 the discussion about the Nigerian Civil War. It would be his last publication during his lifetime; <mask> died after a short illness on 21 March 2013 in Boston, United States. An unidentified source close to the family said that he was ill and was hospitalised in the city.The New York Times described him in his obituary as "one of Africa's most widely read novelists and one of the continent's towering men of letters". The BBC wrote that he was "revered throughout the world for his depiction of life in Africa". He was buried in his hometown of Ogidi. Style

Oral tradition
The style of <mask>bo people. He incorporates folk tales into his stories, exposing community values in both the content and the form of the storytelling. For example, the tale about the Earth and Sky in Things Fall Apart emphasises the interdependency of the masculine and the feminine. Although Nwoye enjoys hearing his mother tell the tale, Okonkwo's dislike for it is evidence of his imbalance.<mask> used proverbs to describe the values of the rural Igbo tradition. He includes them throughout the narratives, repeating points made in conversation. Critic Anjali Gera notes that the use of proverbs in Arrow of God "serves to create through an echo effect the judgement of a community upon an individual violation." The use of such repetition in <mask>'s urban novels, No Longer at Ease and A Man of the People, is less pronounced. <mask>'s short stories are not as widely studied as his novels, and <mask> himself did not consider them a major part of his work. In the preface for Girls at War and Other Stories, he writes: "A dozen pieces in twenty years must be accounted a pretty lean harvest by any reckoning." Like his novels, the

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 short stories are heavily influenced by the oral tradition.They often have morals emphasising the importance of cultural traditions, as influenced by folk tales. Use of English
During decolonisation in the 1950s, a debate about choice of language erupted and pursued authors around the world. <mask>'s work is scrutinised for its subject matter, insistence on a non-colonial narrative, and use of English. In his essay "English and the African Writer", <mask> discusses how the process of colonialism—for all its ills—provided colonised people from varying linguistic backgrounds "a language with which to talk to one another". As his purpose is to communicate with readers across Nigeria, he uses "the one central language enjoying nationwide currency". Using English also allowed his books to be read in the colonial ruling nations. <mask> recognises the shortcomings of what Audre Lorde called "the master's tools".In another essay he notes:

In another essay, he refers to James Baldwin's struggle to use the English language to accurately represent his experience and his realisation that he needed to take control of the language and expand it. <mask>'s novels were a foundation for this process; by altering syntax, usage, and idiom, he transforms the language into a distinctly African style. In some spots this takes the form of repetition of an Igbo idea in standard English parlance; elsewhere it appears as narrative asides integrated into descriptive sentences. Themes
In his early writing, a depiction of the Igbo culture itself is paramount. Critic Nahem Yousaf highlights the importance of these depictions: "Around the tragic stories of Okonkwo and Ezeulu, Achebe sets about textualising Igbo cultural


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 identity". The portrayal of indigenous life is not simply a matter of literary background, he adds: "Achebe seeks to produce the effect of a precolonial reality as an Igbo-centric response to a Eurocentrically constructed imperial 'reality' ". Certain elements of <mask>'s depiction of Igbo life in Things Fall Apart match those in Olaudah Equiano's autobiographical Narrative.Responding to charges that Equiano was not actually born in Africa, Achebe wrote in 1975: "Equiano was an Igbo, I believe, from the village of Iseke in the Orlu division of Nigeria". Tradition and colonialism

A prevalent theme in Achebe's novels is the intersection of African tradition (particularly Igbo varieties) and modernity, especially as embodied by European colonialism. For example, the village of Umuofia in Things Fall Apart is violently shaken with internal divisions when the white Christian missionaries arrive. Nigerian English professor Ernest N. Emenyonu describes the colonial experience in the novel as "the systematic emasculation of the entire culture". Achebe later embodied this tension between African tradition and Western influence in the figure of Sam Okoli, the president of Kangan in Anthills of the Savannah. Distanced from the myths and tales of the community by his Westernised education, he does not have the capacity for reconnection shown by the character Beatrice. The colonial impact on the Igbo in Achebe's novels is often affected by individuals from Europe, but institutions and urban offices frequently serve a similar purpose.The character of Obi in No Longer at Ease succumbs to colonial-era corruption in the city; the temptations of his position overwhelm his identity and fortitude. Having shown


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 his acumen for portraying traditional Igbo culture in Things Fall Apart, <mask> demonstrated in No Longer at Ease an ability to depict modern Nigerian life. The standard Achebean ending results in the destruction of an individual, which leads to the downfall of the community. Odili's descent into the luxury of corruption and hedonism in A Man of the People, for example, is symbolic of the post-colonial crisis in Nigeria and elsewhere. Even with the emphasis on colonialism, <mask>'s tragic endings embody the traditional confluence of fate, individual and society, as represented by Sophocles and Shakespeare. <mask> seeks to portray neither moral absolutes nor a fatalistic inevitability. In 1972, he said: "I never will take the stand that the Old must win or that the New must win.The point is that no single truth satisfied me—and this is well founded in the Igbo world view. No single man can be correct all the time, no single idea can be totally correct." His perspective is reflected in the words of Ikem, a character in Anthills of the Savannah: "whatever you are is never enough; you must find a way to accept something, however small, from the other to make you whole and to save you from the mortal sin of righteousness and extremism." In a 1996 interview, Achebe said: "Belief in either radicalism or orthodoxy is too simplified a way of viewing things ... Evil is never all evil; goodness on the other hand is often tainted with selfishness." Masculinity and femininity
The gender roles of men and women, as well as society's conceptions of the associated concepts, are frequent themes in Achebe's writing. He has been criticised as a sexist author, in response to what many call the uncritical depiction


title: Chinua Achebe

texts:
 in the novel are obedient, quiet, and absent from positions of authority—despite the fact that Igbo women were traditionally involved in village leadership. The desire for feminine balance is highlighted by Ani, the earth goddess, and the extended discussion of "Nneka" ("Mother is supreme") in chapter fourteen. The perseverance and love from Okonkwo's second wife Ekwefi towards Ezinma, despite her many miscarriages, is seen as a tribute to Igbo womanhood, which is typically defined by motherhood. Okonkwo's defeat is seen by Mezu and literature scholar Nahem Yousaf as a vindication of the need for a balancing feminine ethos. Bestman argued that Okonkwo's failures are tied to his contempt for and fear of women and his inability to form quality personal relationships with the women in his life. <mask> expressed frustration at frequently being misunderstood on this point, saying that "I want to sort of scream that Things Fall Apart is on the side of women [...] And that Okonkwo is paying the penalty for his treatment of women; that all his problems, all the things he did wrong, can be seen as offenses against the feminine." On this, Bestman states that Okonkwo's violent and vehement anti-women position is the exception, not the norm, within his community of Umuofia and the wider Igbo society.Influence and legacy

Overview

Achebe is regarded as the most dominant and influential writer of modern African literature, and has been called the "father of African literature", the "founding father of African literature", and the "'father of the African novel in English". Achebe rejected such descriptions. Things Fall Apart has been described as the most important book in modern African literature and was


title: Chinua Achebe

texts:
 called a masterpiece by critic Dwight Garner. Selling over 20 million copies worldwide, it has been translated into 57 languages, making <mask> the most translated, studied and read African author. His legacy as a writer is particularly unique in regards to its substantial impact on not only African literature, but European literature as well. At the ceremony for his honorary degree from the University of Kent, professor Robert Gibson said that the Nigerian writer "is now revered as Master by the younger generation of African writers and it is to him they regularly turn for counsel and inspiration." In November 2015 the theme of the Pan African Writers' Association's 22nd International African Writers' Day and three-day conference was "Celebrating the Life and Works of Chinua Achebe: The Coming of Age of African Literature?"Scholar Simon Gikandi, recalling the schooling of himself and his classmates in Kenya, said Things Fall Apart "changed the lives of many of us". Outside of Africa, <mask>'s impact resonates strongly in literary circles. Novelist Margaret Atwood called him "a magical writer—one of the greatest of the twentieth century". Poet Maya Angelou lauded Things Fall Apart as a book wherein "all readers meet their brothers, sisters, parents and friends and themselves along Nigerian roads". Nobel laureate Toni Morrison noted that Achebe's work inspired her to become a writer and "sparked her love affair with African literature". Awards and honors
Achebe received over 30 honorary degrees from universities in Nigeria, Canada, South Africa, Nigeria, the United Kingdom and the United States, including Dartmouth College, Harvard, and Brown. Among his other honours are the first Commonwealth


title: Chinua Achebe

texts:
 Poetry Prize (1972); the Nigerian National Order of Merit, the Order of the Federal Republic (1979); an Honorary Fellowship of the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1982); the St. Louis Literary Award (1999); the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (2002); the Man Booker International Prize (2007); and the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize (2010).In 1992 he became the first living writer to be represented in the Everyman's Library collection (reprints of classic literature) published by Alfred A. Knopf. He was appointed Goodwill Ambassador to the United Nations Population Fund in 1999. Although he accepted numerous awards from the Nigerian government, <mask> refused the Nigerian Commander of the Federal Republic in 2004. Citing his frustration with the political environment, he explained:

Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan claimed that Achebe was confused by misinformation but said he still held him in high regard. <mask> was again awarded the Commander of the Federal Republic in 2011, but he declined it asserting "the reasons for rejecting the offer when it was first made have not been addressed let alone solved. It is inappropriate to offer it again to me". Despite his global standing and international renown, <mask> never received the Nobel Prize for Literature, which some—particularly Nigerians—viewed as unjust.In 1988 <mask> was asked by a reporter for Quality Weekly how he felt about never winning a Nobel Prize; he replied: "My position is that the Nobel Prize is important. But it is a European prize. It's not an African prize ... Literature is not a heavyweight championship. Nigerians may think, you know, this man has been knocked out. It's nothing to do with that." Despite his own


title: Chinua Achebe

texts:
 indifference, Soyinka reports that immediately after <mask>'s death he received a great many letters urging him to nominate Achebe posthumously.Soyinka denied such requests, explaining that Achebe "is entitled to better than being escorted to his grave with that monotonous, hypocritical aria of deprivation's lament, orchestrated by those who, as we say in my part of the world, 'dye their mourning weeds a deeper indigo than those of the bereaved'. He deserves his peace. Me too! And right now, not posthumously." Memorials and recognition
Bard College founded the Chinua Achebe Center in 2005, to "create dynamic projects for the most talented of a new generation of writers and artists of African origin." Bard also established a Chinua Achebe Fellowship in Global African Studies. Achebe was created the "Ugonabo" of Ogidi, a Nigerian chieftain, by the people of his ancestral hometown in 2013.In Igbo culture, taking a title such as this is the highest honor a man may receive. On Achebe's 86th birthday in 2016, young writers in Anambra State began the Chinua Achebe Literary Festival. In December 2019, a memorial bust commemorating Achebe and the opening of the Chinua Achebe Literary Court was unveiled at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Achebe was honored as Grand Prix de la Mémoire (Grand Prize for Memory) of the 2019 edition of the Grand Prix of Literary Associations prize. Writings

Novels

Short stories

  (Revised as  and )
  (Republished in )

  (A revision of ; revised in )

  (A revision of  and )

Poetry

Essays, criticism and articles

  to

  to
  to
  also in Hopes and Impediments


title: Chinua Achebe

texts:
 (1977). The Writings of Chinua Achebe. London: Heinemann Educational Books. .
 Naydenova, Natalia, Salihou Camara (2013).Littérature africaine et identité: un hommage à Chinua Achebe. Paris: Editions L'Harmattan. .
 Njoku, Benedict Chiaka (1984). The Four Novels of Chinua Achebe: A Critical Study. New York: P. Lang. .
 Ochiagha, Terri (2015). Achebe and Friends at Umuahia: The Making of a Literary Elite. Ogede, Ode (2001). Achebe and the Politics of Representation: Form Against Itself, From Colonial Conquest and Occupation to Post-Independence Disillusionment.Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press. .
 Ojinmah, Umelo (1991). Chinua Achebe: New Perspectives. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. .
 Okpewho, Isidore (ed.) (2003). Chinua Achebe's "Things Fall Apart": A Casebook. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. .
 Shamim, Amna (2013). Colonial/Postcolonial Paradigms in Chinua Achebe's Novels (TFA & AOG).Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing. .
 Yankson, Kofi E. (1990). <mask> Achebe's Novels: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Uruowulu-Obosi, Nigeria: Pacific Publishers. . External links

 <mask> Achebe at the Poetry Foundation

 Chinua Achebe reads the first two chapters of Things Fall Apart at PEN American Center Event: Faith & Reason: Writers Speak, 2006
 Ed Pilkington, "A long way from home". Interview in The Guardian, 10 July 2007
 "<mask> Achebe, The Art of Fiction No. 139". Interview by Jerome Brooks in The Paris Review, 1994
 The Chinua Achebe Center at Bard College

1930 births
2013 deaths
20th-century essayists
20th-century male writers
20th-century Nigerian novelists
20th-century Nigerian poets
20th-century short story writers
Chinua
Alumni of the University of London
Alumni of

masks: Chinua Chinua Chinua


title: Augusta Löwenhielm

texts:
<mask>elm (née von Fersen; 10 March 1754 – 8 April 1846), was a Swedish countess and courtier. She is known for her love affair with the later Charles XIII of Sweden. She is also famous in history as one of "the three graces" of the Gustavian age; three ladies-in-waiting (<mask>, Ulla von Höpken and Louise Meijerfeldt) immortalized in the poem Gracernas döpelse by Johan Henric Kellgren, and known profiles of the epoch. Life

Early life
<mask> was one of six daughters of the royal Crown Forester count Carl Reinhold von Fersen and the lady-in-waiting Charlotta Sparre. She was as such also the niece of Axel von Fersen the Elder, a leading force within the Caps, and the cousin of the famous Count Axel von Fersen the Younger. Her father was described as "one of the most elegant and spirited gentlemen of his time", and her mother was celebrated for her beauty at the French royal court of Versailles, when she accompanied her aunt and uncle by marriage, Ulla Tessin and the Swedish ambassador to France count Carl Gustaf Tessin, to France. Both her parents spent their life in service at the royal Swedish court, and <mask>, as well as her sisters, served as hovfröken (maid of honour) prior to her marriage.In December 1770, she married count Fredrik Adolf Löwenhielm (1743-1810). After their wedding, the couple settled in the country estate of her spouse for a while. They had one son. Love affair with Duke Charles
During the 1771 winter social season in Stockholm, <mask>elm was courted by prince Charles, who had recently returned to Sweden after having been sent abroad to separate him from Brita Horn. Prince Charles reportedly fell in love with her, she eventually reciprocated, and the relationship that followed has been described as "the most serious and tender in his [Charles'] erotic chronicle". The couple had a son, Carl Axel Löwenhielm. The relationship was

masks:
Christina Augusta Löhi
Augusta von Fersen
Augusta von Fersen
Augusta von Fersen
Augusta Löhi


title: Augusta Löwenhielm

texts: well known as accepted, but she was not an official royal mistress; the relationship was rather treated as equal to the other extramarital love affairs which was at that time accepted in the circles of the nobility and royal court.In 1774, king Gustav III convinced his brother duke Charles to agree to a dynastic marriage with Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp. The purpose of the marriage was to produce an heir to the throne, because the marriage of the king to Sophia Magdalena of Denmark was unconsummated and childless. On 6 April 1774, the spouse of <mask>m was appointed Swedish envoy to Dresden and departed for Saxony. <mask>elm remained in Sweden until she was explicitly ordered by the monarch to join her spouse in Dresden prior to the wedding of Charles. She remained in Dresden during the wedding of Charles in July and the arrival of his bride Charlotte in Sweden, but she kept in contact with Charles through secret correspondence. <mask>elm was allowed to return to Sweden after the strange affair of the pregnancy of duchess Charlotte. In the end of July 1775, an official proclamation was made stating that duchess Charlotte was pregnant.Charlotte, who initially denied being pregnant, soon herself claimed to have felt the fetus move. However, no signs of pregnancy was visible. On 14 September, Charlotte was examined again, and this time, the pregnancy was announced to have been surely assured. The date of the expected birth was given as 24 October, and preparations was made for the official customary rituals association with a royal birth. However, on 24 October, all preparations was suddenly cancelled without explanation. It is unknown whether the whole affair was a deliberate deceit and, in that case, who was responsible, and why. At the time, there was a rumor that it was in fact the king who had invented the pregnancy.The reason

masks:
Augusta Löwenhiel
Augusta Löwenhi
Augusta Löwenhi


title: Augusta Löwenhielm

texts: was that he had decided to consummate his own marriage and provide and heir to the throne by himself rather than to leave this task to his brother, and that he wished to make duchess Charlotte sexually unavailable and direct the sexual interest of his brother elsewhere to avoid any legitimate offspring of Charles. Adolf Ludvig Hamilton describes this rumor: "The king feared all influence of duke Charles upon the throne, also as the father of an heir to the throne. He found the affection between him and his young consort to be to great. The condition in question separated the prince from her, accustomed him to others, a habit he has since then never abandoned, and the purpose being achieved the monarch saw that the ridicule would affect no one but the spouses. All this was successful." During the summer of 1775, the king himself did consummate his marriage with the assistance of Adolf Fredrik Munck, and duke Charles, who had a temporary affair with countess Hedvig Amalia Lewenhaupt, asked the king for permission for <mask>elm to return to Sweden, which was granted. <mask>, who was rumored to have had an affair with Charles of Saxony, Duke of Courland while in Dresden, returned to Sweden in the autumn of 1776 and officially returned to the royal court, where she was introduced to duchess Charlotte, on 18 November 1776.The spouse of Charles, Duchess Charlotte, describes the incident in her famous journal: "She is with no doubt delightful, her facial features are pleasant, her appearance appealing, and dressed for ball, she is quite magnificent, thought perhaps somewhat stout. You should have seen how everyone looked at me, I did therefore attempt to appear indifferent, though I was really very curious." Duke Charles started to court her as soon as she return, wishing to continue their affair, dividing the court in fractions who tried to encourage or

masks:
Augusta Löwenhi
Augusta Löwenhim


title: Augusta Löwenhielm

texts:
 discourage the affair, but <mask>elm initially declined. Instead, she had a brief affair with baron Carl Adam Wachtmeister and with the Russian Prince Alexander Kurakin, who had been sent to Sweden by Catherine the Great to officially bring the news of the marriage of the Grand Duke. In December 1776, however, it was clear that the relationship between duke Charles and <mask>elm been resumed. The affair between duke Charles and <mask>elm was discontinued in the summer of 1777. It was ended by Löwenhielm, reportedly because she had fallen in love with baron Hans Henric von Essen.One year later, von Essen had become her official lover, while duke Charles had entered into his relationship with Charlotte Slottsberg. Court life

From 1777 to 1795, <mask>elm served as statsfru (Lady of the Bedchamber) to Queen Sophia Magdalena. Alongside Ulla von Höpken and Louise Meijerfeldt, she became known as one of "the three graces" in the poem Gracernas döpelse (The Baptism of the Graces) by Johan Henric Kellgren, which was written in circa 1779 and published in 1781. During her stay in Paris, her mother had studied dance under Marie Sallé and in turn instructed her daughters, who became known for their grace and talent within dance in the amateur theatre in the court of Gustav III. The most talented participators within the famous amateur court theater of Gustav III were Caroline Lewenhaupt, Carl von Fersen, Hedvig Ulrika De la Gardie, Nils Barck, Maria Aurora Uggla, Otto Jacob von Manteuffel Zöge, Bror Cederström and the sisters Ulla von Höpken and <mask> Fersen. <mask>elm became known for her elegance, her good taste and her charm. Duchess Charlotte, the wife of Duke Charles, noted in her famous journal that <mask> did not have a bad effect on Charles, and that she was a kind person who, due to her tolerant attitude toward others, was also treated tolerantly

masks:
Augusta Löwenhi
Augusta Löhi
Augusta Löhi
Augusta Löhi
Augusta von
Augusta Löwenhi
Augusta


title: Augusta Löwenhielm

texts: herself: "As it happened the other day, Countess Löwenhielm was late at dinner and arrived a quarter of an hour after it had started, and unfortunately, Baron von Essen arrived at the same time.All of us aware of their relationship found it amusing, and some could not hide a smile." Ulla von Höpken remarked of the incident: "To think if something of that sort would happen to another poor soul - they would never hear the end of it. But my sister is always excused, and it can only be seen as proof of her open nature and her frankness to expose her relationship to that meek Essen for the world". Charlotte then replied: "She may not be more careful than others, but of a kind and goodhearted nature, she is friendly toward all and does not interfere in other people's business, which makes her less exposed to slander than most". <mask> was indirectly involved in a scandalous duel. From 1778 until 1788, she had a permanent relationship with baron Hans Henric von Essen. In 1788, her lover, von Essen, proposed to the heiress Charlotta Eleonora De Geer (1771–1798) and was accepted.His proposal was met with great dislike within the royal court because of sympathy with the popular <mask> Fersen, and he was challenged to a duel by his rival count Adolph Ribbing. Ribbing had also proposed to De Geer but had been declined by her father, which he refused to accept, as he believed he had reasons to think that De Geer preferred him and that Essen had proposed because of economic reasons, and because von Essen's proposal and marriage plans was commonly disliked within the court. The duel took place in the royal riding house in the presence of several officers and led to the defeat of von Essen, who was slightly injured. The duel was regarded as a scandal and a crime against the King  The duel affair also caused great Ribbing to feel great animosity against the king,

masks:
Augusta
Augusta von


title: Augusta Löwenhielm

texts:
 and he was later involved in the regicide against Gustav III. After the Riksdag of the Estates of 1789, when Gustav III came in conflict with the nobility, he arrested her uncle Axel von Fersen the Elder as a leader of the aristocratic opposition to the Union and Security Act and the Russo-Swedish War (1788–90), but unlike many other female members of the nobility, she never joined the demonstration of Jeanna von Lantingshausen. In 1795, her mother, chief lady in waiting to queen Sophia Magdalena although bedridden, was relieved from her position, and her daughters Ulla and <mask> simultaneously left their positions at court in solidarity, officially to tend to their mother's health. Her mother died later that same year.In 1799, she presented Lolotte Forssberg at court. Her last years were spent in religion and charity. Children
 Gustaf Löwenhielm (1771–1856)
 Carl Löwenhielm (1772–1861), with Duke Charles
 Charlotta Lovisa Löwenhielm (1774-1783)
 Fredrik August Löwenhielm (1776-1776)

References
 https://web.archive.org/web/20071109181125/http://historiska-personer.nu/min-s/pc399b874.html (Swedish)
 Ingvar Andersson: Gustavianskt (The Gustavian age) (1979)
 Ulf Sundberg (Swedish): Kungliga släktband (Lund 2004)
 Svensk biografiskt lexikon (Swedish)
 Personhistorisk tidskrift, (Första årgången 1898–99) (Swedish)
 Carl Forsstrand (in Swedish): De tre gracerna, minnen och anteckningar från Gustaf III:s Stockholm ("The three graces, memories and notes from the Stockholm of Gustav III") Hugo Gebers förlag (1912)
 Carl Rimberg (Swedish) : Svenska Folkets underbara öden VII. Gustav III:s och Gustav IV Adolfs tid 1756-1792
 Wilhelmina Stålberg and P. G. Berg : Anteckningar om svenska qvinnor (Notes on Swedish women) (Swedish)

Mistresses of Charles XIII
1754 births
1846 deaths
Swedish ladies-in-waiting
Swedish countesses
Gustavian era people
Court of


title: Michael Rogers (cyclist)

texts:
<mask> (born 20 December 1979) is an Australian retired professional road bicycle racer who competed professionally between 1999 and 2016, for the , , ,  and  teams. He is a three-time World Time Trial Champion, winning consecutively in 2003 (after David Millar was stripped for doping), 2004 and 2005, and won Grand Tour stages at the Tour de France and the Giro d'Italia. In April 2016, <mask> announced via Twitter, that he was being forced to retire from professional cycling due to a congenital heart defect condition which had been worsening. Career

Early career
<mask> was part of the Australian Institute of Sport, which led him to move to Europe at age 16 as an amateur. He started as a track racer under coach Charlie Walsh. At the 2002 Tour Down Under, <mask>' team-prepared bicycle was damaged in a collision with a motorcycle (which was not captured on TV cameras) forcing <mask> to come to a halt by the roadside. There were no team cars nearby, and <mask> appeared visibly frustrated with the turn of events.Fortunately an amateur cyclist, Adam Pyke, who was spectating offered his own Colnago bicycle as a replacement and <mask> was able to continue needing only a minor saddle height adjustment on route from a mechanic alongside in a car. He went on to finish second on the stage, took the race lead, and ultimately went on to win the race overall. The entire episode including swapping bicycles was captured by the television cameras while <mask>, Pyke and the borrowed bicycle were reunited at the end of the stage by the Australian broadcaster Seven in a televised interview. <mask> won the world time-trial championship in 2003, 2004 and 2005. He came second in 2003 but became champion after the winner, David Millar, was disqualified for doping. <mask>

masks:
Michael Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers
Rogers


title: Michael Rogers (cyclist)

texts:
 received his rainbow jersey and gold medal on the day of the 2004 championship, thereby receiving two gold medals on the same day. In the 2003 Tour de France, <mask> helped Richard Virenque win his sixth mountains classification.He was the last rider left to help in Virenque's day-long escape and stage win. <mask> finished fourth in the road time trial at the 2004 Olympics in Athens. In May 2011 US cyclist Tyler Hamilton returned his gold medal for this event after admitting to doping during his cycling career, and in August 2012 the International Olympic Committee formally stripped Hamilton of his victory, resulting in <mask> being awarded the bronze medal. In September 2015, he received the Olympic medal in a ceremony at the IOC headquarters in Lausanne, Switzerland. T Mobile (2006–2010)
<mask> joined  for the 2006 season, and finished 9th overall in the Tour de France. In an interview during the 2006 season, <mask> disclosed that he had received training advice by Italian doctor Michele Ferrari for several months during 2006. On 15 July, <mask> withdrew on the 8th stage of the 2007 Tour de France after breaking a collarbone in a crash descending the Cormet de Roselend.He continued until the doctor arrived from attending fellow Australian Stuart O'Grady, who ended up stretchered to hospital. It was after this that <mask> contracted infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever), which caused a dip in his racing form for some time. By late 2009 he had returned to form and began to have significant racing success, with , the successor to T-Mobile. In 2010, as leader of his team, he won the Vuelta a Andalucía, and then the Tour of California (the first non-American to do so). After a disappointing Tour de France (37th overall), <mask> announced he

masks: Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers


title: Michael Rogers (cyclist)

texts:
 would concentrate in future on shorter races (e.g. one week in length) as he was no longer suited to the longer tours. Team Sky (2011–2012)

In October 2010 it was announced that he would leave  and join British based  for the 2011 racing season.However he suffered a relapse of his mononucleosis early in the season and was unable to defend his 2010 Tour of California title. <mask> returned to fitness towards the end of the season. <mask> began the 2012 season with third place in the Australian National Time Trial Championships, and led  at the Tour Down Under, where he finished 4th in the general classification. In March, <mask> finished third at the Critérium International; he placed second to 's Cadel Evans in the individual time trial around Porto-Vecchio, and finished eighth on the final stage, the summit finish of the . After finishing fifth in April's Tour de Romandie, <mask> won May's Bayern–Rundfahrt stage race in Germany, winning Stage 2 and the time trial Stage 4 in the process, his first victories whilst riding for . <mask> then rode the Critérium du Dauphiné, helping leader Bradley Wiggins win the race, whilst finishing second overall himself after a strong ride in the time trial. <mask> was selected in the  squad for the Tour de France, as one of Wiggins' key domestiques.He suffered a crash towards the end of Stage 1, but was able to make it back to the peloton. <mask> played a key team role in the rest of the race, setting the tempo on mountains and notably bringing back a long range attack by Cadel Evans on Stage 11, as Sky ultimately achieved a 1–2 finish in the GC with Wiggins and Chris Froome. Team Saxo-Tinkoff (2013–2016)
<mask> left Sky to join  in 2012 following a new Sky policy requiring all riders to sign to confirm they


title: Michael Rogers (cyclist)

texts:
 have no history of doping although he denied leaving for that reason. In May, <mask> was the runner-up to Tejay van Garderen in the Tour of California. In July <mask> rode the Tour de France in support of Alberto Contador and finished in 16th place. In October he won the Japan Cup one-day race. In December it was announced that he had tested positive for clenbuterol at the latter race, and was suspended from cycling pending further investigation.On 23 April 2014 the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) announced he would be cleared of any wrongdoing, no further action would be taken and that <mask> would be free to race again. The UCI accepted that there was a significant probability that the clenbuterol came from contaminated meat consumed while <mask> was competing in China, where the drug is often consumed by animals in slaughterhouses to exhibit better performance in farm sporting events. He returned to racing just in time to ride the 2014 Giro d'Italia. Throughout much of the race, he rode in support of Rafał Majka. He won his first Grand Tour individual stage on the eleventh stage and also won the penultimate stage summit finish at the Monte Zoncolan. On 22 July 2014, <mask> won his first Tour de France stage, winning stage 16 of the race. The longest stage of the race, a  route from Carcassonne to Bagnères-de-Luchon, <mask> attacked Cyril Gautier at the bottom of the descent of the Port de Balès with  remaining to win in solo fashion.Post-cycling career
After his active cycling career <mask> had been working as 's technical partner manager, and, prior to that, he had been the founder and CEO of virtual-world training platform VirtuGO, which closed down in November 2019. Since November 2020 <mask> is employed by the UCI as its "innovation


title: Jacob Gellert Frick

texts:
<mask>. (January 23, 1825 – March 5, 1902) was a United States infantry officer who fought with several Union Army regiments during the American Civil War, including as lieutenant colonel of the 96th Pennsylvania Infantry and as colonel of the 129th Pennsylvania Infantry. He received his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for his gallantry during the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, Virginia. Grabbing the American flag from his regiment's color-bearer at Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, he inspired his men to move forward "through a terrible fire of cannon and musketry"; at Chancellorsville, he personally engaged in hand-to-hand combat on May 3, 1863, to retrieve his regiment's flag which had been captured by the enemy. He was 67 years old when his Medal of Honor was conferred on June 7, 1892. In praising Frick, Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Gregg Curtin said:

Col. <mask> is every inch a soldier, a rigid disciplinarian, an efficient and worthy officer. His conduct on the battlefields at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville was characterized by coolness and courage that plainly showed his capability to manage a large crowd. Formative years and early military service
<mask> was born in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, a fourth-generation descendant of Swiss immigrants.In June 1846, following the outbreak of the Mexican–American War, he was commissioned as a Third Lieutenant in the 3rd Ohio Infantry Regiment. When the war ended, he received a regular army commission in the 11th US Infantry Regiment. He served as an instructor at Fort McHenry, and was a delegate to the 1860 Republican National Convention. Married to Pottsville native Catharine (Schuyler<mask> (1827–1864), he and his wife were the parents of: George Augustus (d. 1873), Sallie Schuyler (1856–1857), William Russell (1859–1939), and James Cameron (1860–1864). American Civil War

masks:
Jacob Gellert Frick Sr
Frick
Frick
) Frick


title: Jacob Gellert Frick

texts:
 <mask><mask> became one of the early responders to President Abraham Lincoln's call for volunteers to help preserve his nation's union following the April 1861 fall of Fort Sumter to Confederate States Army. On September 23 of that year, at the age of 36, he enrolled for Civil War military service in Pottsville, Pennsylvania, and officially mustered in there that same day with the field and staff officers' corps of the 96th Pennsylvania Infantry. Commissioned as a lieutenant colonel, he served as his regiment's second in command, and participated with his regiment in the Seven Days Battles from June 25—July 1, 1862, including the battles of Gaines's Mill (June 27), Glendale (June 30) and Malvern Hill (July 1).On July 29, 1862, <mask> was honorably discharged in order to assume command of a new regiment, the 129th Pennsylvania Infantry. Commissioned as a colonel, he re-enrolled and re-mustered for military service at Camp Curtin in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania on August 15. Transported with his men to Washington, D.C., he and his regiment then made camp near Alexandria, Virginia, on August 18. Assigned to guard duties there, two of his companies were then detached and assigned to build a bridge across Bull Run. The remainder of his men were then ordered to guard a Union ammunition train on August 30 near Centreville, where they came under brief, but heavy enemy artillery fire. Attached to the brigade commanded by Union General E. B. Tyler beginning September 3, he continued to drill his men at their encampments at Fairfax Seminary and Fort Richardson. He and his men experienced their first true exposure to combat in December during the Battle of Fredericksburg.According to historian Samuel Bates:

Shortly after noon of the 13th of December, the division crossed the Rappahannock, and proceeding through the town to a position in full view of the field, awaited the order to enter the fight.

masks:
Jacob G
. Frick
Frick


title: Jacob Gellert Frick

texts: It was not long delayed ... advancing by a main road, the brigade halted in low, open ground, where the men were ordered to lie down....[T]he enemy opened a destructive fire from his batteries [wounding many Union soldiers].... Moving to the left of the road, the division was shortly after formed in line of battle on the crest of the hill, the brigade in two lines, the One Hundred and Twenty-ninth on the left front. In the hopeless and fruitless charge which followed, made under a ceaseless fire of musketry and artillery from the impregnable position which the enemy held, officers and men did everything that true soldiers could do, traversing in good order the lines of dead and wounded left in previous charges, and pressing forward in the gathering darkness until they attained position in advance of every previous charge, and from which it was impossible to go farther. In the brief space that it was in motion, the regiment lost one hundred and forty-two in killed and wounded. The caps of some were subsequently found close up to the famous stone-wall, and an officer and seven privates of company D were taken prisoners. Afterward <mask> and his fellow Union officers were praised by Tyler as having "discharged their respective duties creditably and satisfactorily, their voices being frequently heard above the din of battle, urging on their men against the terrible shower of shot and shell, and the terrific musketry, as we approached the stone wall." <mask>'s actions that day were later cited as evidence of his fitness for designation as a U.S. Medal of Honor recipient.Assigned to guard and occupation duties within and outside of Frederick for the next several days, <mask> and his men then participated in the "Mud March" under Major-General Ambrose Burnside (January 1863). Afterward, <mask> was "Cashiered by sentence of Court Martial 1-25-63 & recommissioned by order of War Dept",

masks: Frick Frick Frick Frick


title: Jacob Gellert Frick

texts: according to his entry in the Civil War Veterans' Card File at the Pennsylvania State Archives. <mask> and his 129th Pennsylvanians then distinguished themselves in combat during the Battle of Chancellorsville (May 1–3, 1863), a fight in which the 129th Pennsylvania engaged again in intense hand-to-hand combat with the enemy. Afterwards, Tyler praised <mask>'s men, noting that "no man ever saw cooler work on field drill than was done by this regiment", and adding, "Their firing was grand, by rank, by company, and by wing, in perfect order." Five members of the regiment were dead, 32 were wounded, and five were missing. <mask> and his men were then honorably mustered out on May 18, 1863, and returned home to Pennsylvania. As with Fredericksburg, <mask>'s conduct at Chancellorsville was later cited as a reason that he was a worthy candidate for the U.S. Medal of Honor.At Chancellorsville, he had personally engaged in hand-to-hand combat in order to retake the colors of his regiment after they had fallen into enemy hands. After mustering out from the 96th Pennsylvania on May 18, 1863, <mask> then re-enlisted with a third Pennsylvania unit. Re-enrolling at Camp Curtin in Harrisburg just over a month later on June 22, he was commissioned that same day as the colonel of the 27th Pennsylvania Militia (Emergency of 1863), one of multiple short-term units which were quickly raised during that summer to turn back Confederate General Robert E. Lee's army as it advanced into Pennsylvania. As the commanding officer of this regiment, <mask> led the 27th Pennsylvania Emergency Militia during the Gettysburg Campaign. Among his regiment's successes, his men burned the Columbia-Wrightsville Bridge to prevent its capture by the Confederate infantry led by Brig. Gen. John B. Gordon. <mask> then mustered out with his regiment on July 31 when state leaders determined that the emergency had ended.The

masks: Frick Frick Frick Frick Frick Frick Frick


title: Jacob Gellert Frick

texts:
 fourth year of the war proved to be another challenging one for Frick with the majority of those challenges occurring on the home front. On February 16, 1864, his wife died in childbirth. Their son, John C<mask>, who was born that day, then survived just five months before he died at the family's Pottsville home on August 12. Another of the <mask>' children, James Cameron, then died four days after Christmas that same year. In the midst of this, he was called upon to advise Col. Henry Pleasants regarding the placement of mines under Confederate entrenchments during the 1864 Siege of Petersburg, a process which culminated in the Battle of the Crater. Post-war life
After the war, <mask> returned to Pottsville, Pennsylvania, where, during the 1880s, he served as a deputy collector for the U.S. Internal Revenue Service. Remarried, he and his second wife, Priscilla H. (McGinnes) <mask> (1840–1891), a native of New York who was a daughter of Enoch William McGinnes and Elizabeth (Patten) McGinnes, welcomed the births of children: Mason Mitchell (1869–1901), Annie (born July 1870), <mask>. (born July 1872), and Thomas Percy (1874–1874), who was just two months old when he died.Preceded in death by his wife in 1891, <mask><mask>, Sr. continued to reside in Pottsville with his civil engineer son, Mason, daughter Annie, and son, <mask>., a coal office clerk. <mask>, Sr. died in Pottsville on March 5, 1902. Following funeral services, he was buried in that city's Presbyterian Cemetery (also known as Bunker Hill Cemetery). Medal of Honor citation
Rank and organization: Colonel, 129th Pennsylvania Infantry
Place and date: At Fredericksburg, Virginia, December 13, 1862. At Chancellorsville, Va., May 3, 1863. Entered service at: Pottsville, Pennsylvania
Born: January 23, 1838, Northumberland County, Pennsylvania
Date of issue: June 7, 1892. Citation:
The President of the United States of America,

masks:
. Frick
Fricks
Frick
Frick
Jacob Jr
Jacob G
. Frick
Jacob Jr
Frick


title: Jacob Gellert Frick

texts:
 in the name of Congress, takes pleasure in presenting the Medal of Honor to Colonel (Infantry) <mask><mask>, United States Army, for extraordinary heroism on 13 December 1862, while serving with 129th Pennsylvania Infantry, in action at Fredericksburg, Virginia.Colonel <mask> seized the colors and led the command through a terrible fire of cannon and musketry. In a hand-to-hand fight at Chancellorsville, Virginia, on 3 May 1863, he recaptured the colors of his regiment. Popular culture
Red-Tape and Pigeon-Hole Generals, was a fictional account of a soldier's life in the Army of the Potomac during the American Civil War. First published in 1864, it presented "a thinly disguised attack on the character and military ability of General Andrew A. Humphreys", according to Frederick B. Arner, who wrote the commentary for the book's 1999 re-release. The book has been "ascribed by some to Col. <mask><mask>", according to the compilers of the U.S. War Department's Bibliography of State Participation in the Civil War 1861–1866, which was published in 1913. See also

 List of Medal of Honor recipients
 List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F
 Pennsylvania in the American Civil War

References

External links
 "<mask>, <mask>.: Correspondence" (letters from <mask> to Eli Slifer regarding military peronnel and other matters). Carlisle, Pennsylvania: Dickinson College, published online May 1, 2009."<mask>t Frick" (memorial with photographs and gravesite information). Salt Lake City, Utah: Find A Grave, retrieved online October 14, 2008. 1825 births
1902 deaths
Union Army officers
United States Army officers
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
People from Northumberland County, Pennsylvania
People from Pottsville, Pennsylvania
American Civil War recipients of the Medal

masks:
Jacob G
. Frick
Frick
Jacob G
. Frick
Frick
Jacob G
Frick
Jacob Geller


title: John M. Lounge

texts:
<mask> "<mask>" <mask> (June 28, 1946March 1, 2011) was an American engineer, a United States Navy officer, a Vietnam War veteran, and a NASA astronaut. A veteran of three Space Shuttle flights, <mask> logged over 482 hours in space. He was a mission specialist on STS-51-I (1985) and STS-26 (1988) and was the flight engineer on STS-35 (1990). Personal
<mask> "<mask><mask> was born June 28, 1946, in Denver, Colorado, but considered Burlington, Colorado to be his hometown. He graduated from Burlington High School in 1964, then received a Bachelor of Science degree from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1969 and a Master of Science degree in astrogeophysics from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1970. <mask> was an associate fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.He is survived by his three children. The <mask> family is of Irish and Mexican descent. Military career
<mask> entered on active duty with the United States Navy following graduation from the U.S. Naval Academy and spent the next nine years in a variety of assignments. He completed Naval Flight Officer training at Pensacola, Florida, went on to advanced training as a radar intercept officer in the F-4J Phantom II, and subsequently reported to Fighter Squadron 142 (VF-142) based at Naval Air Station Miramar, California. While with VF-142, he completed a nine-month Southeast Asia cruise aboard  (participating in 99 combat missions in the Vietnam War) and a seven-month Mediterranean cruise aboard . In 1974, he returned to the U.S.Naval Academy as an instructor in the Physics Department. <mask> transferred to the Navy Space Project Office in Washington, D.C., in 1976, for a two-year tour as a staff project office.

masks:
John Michael
Mike
Lounge
Lounge
John Michael
Mike
" Lounge
Lounge
Lounge
Lounge
Lounge


title: John M. Lounge

texts:
 He resigned his regular Navy commission in 1978 and joined the Naval Air Reserve. While in the Naval Air Reserve, he served in Reserve Fighter Squadron 201. Later, he became a Lieutenant Colonel in the Texas Air National Guard, serving with the 147th Fighter Interceptor Group. NASA career
<mask> was employed at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center beginning in July 1978. During this time, he worked as lead engineer for Space Shuttle-launched satellites, and also served as a member of the Skylab Reentry Flight Control Team.He completed these assignments while with the Payload Operations Division. Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in 1980, he completed a one-year training and evaluation period, and became an astronaut in August 1981. He served as a member of the launch support team at Kennedy Space Center for the STS-1, STS-2, and STS-3 missions. Following his first flight, he was assigned to the first mission to carry the Centaur (cryogenically fueled) upper stage (STS-61-F). After the mission was canceled, he participated in Space Station design development. From 1989 through 1991, <mask> served as Chief of the Space Station Support Office, representing astronaut interests in Space Station design and operation planning. Spaceflights
STS-51-I Space Shuttle Discovery, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985.During that mission Lounge's duties included deployment of the Australian AUSSAT communications satellite and operation of the Remote Manipulator System (RMS). The crew deployed two other communications satellites, the Navy's SYNCOM IV-4, and American Satellite Company's ASC-1, and also performed a successful on-orbit rendezvous and repair of the ailing

masks: Lounge Lounge


title: John M. Lounge

texts:
 15,400 lb (6,990 kg) SYNCOM IV-3 satellite. STS-51-I completed 112 orbits of the Earth before landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985. Mission duration was 171 hours, 17 minutes, 42 seconds. STS-26 Discovery, the first flight to be flown after the Challenger accident, launched from the Kennedy Space Center on September 29, 1988. During the four-day mission, the crewmen successfully deployed the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-C), which was subsequently carried to orbit by the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) rocket. They also operated eleven mid-deck experiments.Discovery completed 64 orbits of the Earth before landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on October 3, 1988. Mission duration was 97 hours, 57 seconds. STS-35 Columbia, launched from the Kennedy Space Center on December 2, 1990. <mask> served as flight engineer on this 9-day flight that was dedicated to astronomy. Observations of the Universe were collected by the ASTRO-1 ultraviolet telescope and by the Broad Band X-Ray Telescope. Columbia completed 142 orbits of the Earth before landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on December 10, 1990. Mission duration was 215 hours, 5 minutes, 8 seconds.Post-NASA career
<mask> resigned from NASA in June 1991 to join SPACEHAB (now Astrotech Corporation). At the time, <mask> explained his resignation from the NASA Astronaut Corps by saying "This is a very tough job to leave, but I feel that three flights is my fair share, and I'm ready for a new challenge." In 2002, <mask> became Director of Space Shuttle and Space Station Program Development for Boeing. Two years later he became Director for Business Development for integrated defense systems and

masks: Lounge Lounge Lounge Lounge


title: John M. Lounge

texts:
 space exploration. <mask> joined Sure Secure Solutions, an 8(a) company,  as Director Business Development in March 2010. He also launched his new engineering venture Cisneros Innovation Strategies the same year. Death
Lounge died on March 1, 2011, of complications from liver cancer.Awards and honors
Navy Air Medals (6)
Navy Commendation Medals (with Combat "V") (3)
Johnson Space Center Superior Achievement Award (for service as a member of the Skylab Reentry Team)
NASA Exceptional Service Medals (3)
NASA Space Flight Medals (3)
 Part of 18th Street in his hometown of Burlington, Colorado was renamed <mask> Drive in his honor. References

External links

Spacefacts biography of <mask>. <mask>

1946 births
2011 deaths
NASA civilian astronauts
People from Burlington, Colorado
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Naval Academy faculty
University of Colorado alumni
United States Navy officers
United States Naval Flight Officers
United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War
Deaths from liver cancer
Recipients of the Air Medal
Recipients of the NASA Exceptional Service Medal
Texas National Guard personnel
United States Air Force officers
United States Navy reservists
United States Air Force reservists
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Military personnel from

masks:
Lounge
Mike Lounge
John M
Lounge


title: Alexandre Marie Léonor de Saint-Mauris de Montbarrey

texts:
<mask> of Saint-Mauris, count of Montbarrey, then prince of Montbarrey and Prince of the Holy Roman Empire (1774), grandee of Spain of first class (1780), knight of the Holy Spirit, lieutenant general (1780). Biography
Born in Besançon on 20 April 1732, he belonged to a family from Franche-Comté (Dole), ennobled in 1537 by letter of the Emperor Charles V in the person of Jean of Saint-Mauris, doctor of Law, professor at the University of Dole and counselor at the parliament of Dole, and finally chief of the State Council of the Netherlands under Charles V and Philip II. The prince of Montbarrey was very proud about the origin of the nobility of his family and imbued with his titles of prince and grandee of Spain newly acquired (he paid 100,000 pounds for his title of prince of the Holy Roman Empire granted by the Emperor Joseph II), had been making a fake genealogy linking his family to the family of Saint-Moris-Salins, another family of old nobility from the same county. The prince of Saint-Mauris-Montbarrey was the only son of lieutenant-general <mask>nor of Saint-Mauris, count of Montbarrey (1694–1751) and Mary Therese Eleanor du Maine du Bourg (1711–1732). After an early and distinguished military career, the prince of Montbarrey came to the court of the king Louis XVI where he was protected by his parent Madame of Maurepas, wife of the marquis of Maurepas, prime minister of Louis XVI. Through her husband, Madame of Maurepas managed to appoint Montbarrey as director of war (position created especially for him without specific assignment) and deputy of the count of Saint-Germain, secretary of State for

masks:
Alexandre Marie Eleonor
Claude Francois Eleno


texts:
 lived in Dole in Franche-Comté until her own death in 1819. The prince of Montbarrey wrote autograph Memories (published in 1826), where pages after pages it extends on his genealogy, his relationships and energy to take advantage of his position as minister to advance his fortune and personal interest (in exchange for a refund by the royal treasury of the amount of three millions of doubtful debts of war claimed by the prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken, the prince of Montbarrey organized in 1779 the marriage of his daughter 20 years old with the crown prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken aged just 11 years)

Marriage and issue
The prince of Montbarrey married on 29 October 1753 Parfaite Thais Françoise of Mailly-Nesle (born in 1737 – died in Dole on 23 April 1819.) Montbarrey and his wife had little affinity (he had throughout his life many mistresses and she was the mistress of the famous Masson of Pezay (1741–1777), soldier and writer). The prince of Montbarrey and his wife had two children:

 <mask> Louis Stanislas (as known as the prince of Saint-Mauris) born in 1756 – died guillotined in Paris on 17 June 1794 without descendants from his marriage on 25 November 1789 with Genevieve Andrault <mask>ron (but with Louise Adrienne Cantagrelle he had an illegitimate son named François Maurice, born in Paris on 19 October 1789 that got the name of Saint-Mauris Montbarrey) We do not know what became of this child. <mask> Maximilienne, born in 1759, wife of the last prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken (died in 1797) she had no child (she did not live with her husband). The prince of Montbarrey had an official mistress during

masks:
François Marie
de Lange
Marie Françoise


texts:
 eight years (1767–1775), Jeanne Catherine Delachaux (born in Brussels on 4 May 1748 – died in Paris on 4 May 1818) who married at 27 years on 26 July 1775 the painter Francesco Giuseppe Casanova, brother of the famous Giacomo Casanova.She brought a dowry thanks to the generosity of the prince of Montbarrey. Francesco Casanova recognized the two illegitimate children of the prince of Montbarrey as his own. The marriage did not last because Casanova abandoned his wife in 1783. One of the two illegitimate children of Jeanne Catherine Delachaux and the prince of Montbarrey recognized by Francesco Casanova was known as <mask> Jean Dufay, Casanova (born in Paris in 1770 – died in Paris in 1844). He had as teacher the famous painter David, but did not get a great success. At the end of his life, he took the title of painter of the King of Oudh (India) to have been the official painter of this monarch in Lucknow from 1834 to 1837. His brother (also illegitimate son of the prince of Montbarrey) emigrated and joined the army of the princes abroad before returning to live in Paris where he died before 1844.We do not know whether the two sons of the prince of Montbarrey and Jeanne Catherine Delachaux had descendants. Maximilienne of Saint-Mauris-Montbarrey, princess of Nassau-Saarbrücken, daughter of the prince of Montbarrey, died on 2 February 1838 in Maisons-Alfort (near Paris), aged 79 years old. She was the last of his family and of the name of Saint-Mauris-Montbarrey. His heir was his cousin the duke of Avaray. References

People from Besançon
1732 births
1796 deaths
Secretaries of State for War


title: John Olsen

texts:
<mask>, AO (born 7 June 1945) is a former Australian politician, diplomat and football commissioner. He was Premier of South Australia between 28 November 1996 and 22 October 2001. He is now President of the Federal Liberal Party, Chairman of the Australian American Association, Chairman of the Adelaide Football Club and Deputy Chairman of the Adelaide Oval Stadium Management Authority. <mask> was twice the parliamentary leader of the South Australian Division of the Liberal Party of Australia in the South Australian House of Assembly, from 1982 to 1990 and again from 1996 to 2001. He unsuccessfully led the party to both the 1985 election and 1989 election. After the 1989 election he left South Australian parliament to fill a casual vacancy in the Australian Senate. He returned to the South Australian parliament in 1992, but was defeated for the Liberal party leadership by Dean Brown.However, in 1996, <mask> successfully challenged Brown for the Liberal leadership, and hence became Premier. He led the party to a narrow victory at the 1997 election, and remained Premier until 2001. He was resigned in 2001, after he was found to have misled parliament during the Motorola affair. <mask> is the longest-serving Liberal Party of Australia Premier of South Australia and the fourth-longest-serving Leader of the Opposition. After politics <mask> worked as a diplomat and political lobbyist. He became the State President of the South Australian Liberal Party in June 2017. He previously held that position from 1976 to 1979.He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia in January 2007. Early life
<mask> was born on 7 June 1945 in Kadina, South Australia, the son of Joyce Rosalind (née Heath) and <mask> <mask>, and the nephew of  South Australian Politician Leslie Heath. When he was 18, his father suffered a fatal heart attack while

masks:
John Wayne Olsen
Olsen
Olsen
Olsen
Olsen
Olsen
Stanley John
Olsen


title: John Olsen

texts:
 driving the family speedboat. He attended Kadina Memorial High School, later completing a certificate in business studies at the University of Adelaide and becoming a fellow of the National Institute of Accountants. <mask> began his working career in 1962 as a clerk with the Savings Bank of South Australia. He later became managing director of the family business J. R. Olsen & Sons Pty Ltd, a car and machinery dealer. He served as president of the Federation of Chambers of Commerce of South Australia from 1974 to 1976.Political career
<mask> was elected to the Kadina Town Council in 1971. He served as mayor from 1974 to 1977, reputedly "South Australia's youngest ever mayor". He was the final mayor before the town was merged into the District Council of Kadina. In 1976, <mask> was elected president of the Liberal Party of Australia (South Australian Division), serving until 1979. He was first elected to the South Australian House of Assembly at the 1979 election as a Liberal in the Barossa Valley seat of Rocky River. He represented this seat, renamed Custance at the 1985 election, until 1990. <mask>'s political career was marked by a bitter rivalry with Dean Brown, the two representing the conservative and moderate wings of the South Australian Liberal Party respectively.After the 1982 election and the electoral defeat and retirement of David Tonkin, <mask> defeated Brown for the state Liberal Party leadership and became Leader of the Opposition. Up against the Labor premier <mask>, <mask> lost both the 1985 election and 1989 election. In the latter election, the Liberals won a majority of the two-party vote (52 percent) with a five-seat swing. However, most of that majority was wasted on landslides in the Liberals' rural heartland. Even with the likely support of the one National Party MP, the Liberals were still one seat short

masks:
Olsen
Olsen
Olsen
Olsen
Olsen
John Bannon
Olsen


title: John Olsen

texts: of making <mask> Premier. <mask> resigned as state Liberal leader soon after the election and returned to the backbench. He was appointed to the Australian Senate in 1990 to fill a casual vacancy caused by the resignation of Tony Messner.However, in 1992, after less than two years in the Senate, he resigned to return to state politics. The Bannon government was under pressure from the collapse of the State Bank of South Australia. However, <mask>'s successor as state Liberal leader, Dale Baker, was unable to gain significant ground. Baker resigned as state Liberal leader in 1992 and called a spill for all leadership positions, intending to hand the leadership back to <mask> as soon as he was securely back in the legislature. To facilitate this, former Deputy Premier Roger Goldsworthy, a leading member of the Liberals' right wing, resigned his seat of Kavel, based on Mount Barker, and handed it to <mask>. However, several members of the party's moderate wing were unwilling to see <mask> take the leadership uncontested. They arranged for leading party moderate Ted Chapman to give up his seat of Alexandra and hand it to Brown so Brown could challenge for the leadership.<mask> returned to the House of Assembly at the 1992 Kavel by-election, on the same day as Brown at the 1992 Alexandra by-election. This time, Brown narrowly defeated <mask> in the leadership ballot, and thus became premier when the Liberals won the 1993 election in a landslide where the Liberals won 37 of the 47 seats available, the most that any party has won since the abolition of the Playmander. <mask> became Minister for Industry and Minister for Infrastructure until 1997, when a cabinet reshuffle saw him become Minister for Information Technology and Minister for Multicultural and Ethnic Affairs. Soon after taking office, <mask> led negotiations with Motorola to

masks: Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen


title: John Olsen

texts:
 build a software centre in Adelaide. Motorola decided to open the centre in April after winning a number of incentives, including becoming the supplier for a government radio network, and a contract was signed in June. During a September Question Time, <mask> stated that there had been no discussions with Motorola about the radio contract. This statement would ultimately prove to be his undoing.Premier
By late 1996, however, the Liberals' poll numbers under Brown were stagnating in the face of factional battles and concerns about the slow pace of reform. With a statutory general election due in 1997, two prominent Liberal moderate backbenchers, Joan Hall (wife of former Premier Steele Hall) and Graham Ingerson, threw their support to <mask>. With Hall and Ingerson's support, <mask> challenged Brown for the party leadership in November 1996. This time, he succeeded and was sworn in as Premier, with Ingerson as his deputy. During the ensuing 1997 election campaign, most commentators agreed that <mask> lost the leaders' debate against Labor's Mike Rann. The election was extremely close; on election night many Liberals feared that Labor had managed the 12-seat swing it needed to take back government (Labor had taken two Liberal seats at by-elections). Ultimately, the Liberals suffered a 9.4% swing and lost 11 seats, one short of making Rann Premier.<mask> was forced into a minority government supported by National and independent MPs. It was the first time that the main non-Labor party in South Australia had won a second term since adopting the Liberal Party label in 1974. After one of those crossbenchers, former Liberal Mitch Williams, returned to the party in December 1999, <mask> held a one-seat majority for eight months until he expelled longtime Liberal maverick Peter Lewis in July 2000. Policies
Among a number of controversial

masks: Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen Olsen


title: John Olsen

texts:
 policies, <mask>'s government undertook the privatisation of the state-owned electricity industry (ETSA), partly to improve the government's parlous financial situation due to the State Bank disaster and partly in response to the introduction of the Australian National Electricity Market, despite promising not to do so at the 1997 election. The fiscal arguments for privatisation were vigorously criticised by a number of economists. Sharp increases in the retail price of electricity, a consequence of the working of the National Electricity Market, contributed to the growing unpopularity of the government. The management of the state's water supply was privatised in 1996 with a $1.5bn 15-year contract being awarded to United Water, a subsidiary of Veolia.<mask> steered water management and conservation projects, including the recycling of water from Adelaide's Bolivar Water Treatment Plant to the Northern Adelaide Plains. He also endorsed and facilitated the Barossa Water Project, a water distribution scheme from the River Murray to the Barossa Valley floor, alleviating the Barossa Valley winegrowers' water irrigation problems and boosting annual production by $30 million. While in office, he negotiated a $850 million ‘smart-city' redevelopment of Adelaide's northern suburban area (Mawson Lakes) and facilitated the contract negotiations and construction of the Adelaide-Darwin Rail line. The Olsen Government also secured major sporting events including the Tour Down Under and V8 Supercar Series. The Tour Down Under has become an economic plus for South Australia generating almost 40,000 visitors and $50million in economic benefit during the annual 5 day event. The V8 Supercar series attracts more than 270,000 attendees most years

He pursued a vigorous program of economic reform through the corporatisation and privatisation of

masks: Olsen Olsen