title: Ivan the Terrible

texts: <mask> (; 25 August 1530 – ), commonly known in English as <mask> (from , romanized: , lit. "<mask> Formidable" or "<mask> Fearsome", , monastic name: Jonah), was the grand prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and the first Moscow ruler who declared himself Tsar of all Russia from 1547 to 1584. <mask> was the first Moscow ruler born after its independence. The son of Vasili III, the Rurikid ruler of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, he was appointed grand prince after his father's death when he was three years old. A group of reformers known as the "Chosen Council" united around the young <mask>, declaring him tsar (emperor) of All Rus' in 1547 at the age of 16 and establishing the Tsardom of Russia with Moscow as the predominant state. <mask>'s reign was characterised by Russia's transformation from a medieval state to an empire under the tsar but at an immense cost to its people and its broader, long-term economy. During his youth, there was a conquest of the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan.After he had consolidated his power, <mask> got rid of the advisers from the "Chosen Council" and triggered the Livonian War, which ravaged Russia and resulted in the loss of Livonia and Ingria but allowed him to establish greater autocratic control over Russia's nobility, which he violently purged with the Oprichnina. The later years of <mask>'s reign were marked by the Massacre of Novgorod and the burning of Moscow by Tatars. Contemporary sources present disparate accounts of <mask>'s complex personality. He was described as intelligent and devout but also prone to paranoia, rage, and

masks:
Ivan IV Vasilyevich
Ivan the Terrible
Ivan the
Ivan the
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

type: original

texts:
 episodic outbreaks of mental instability that increased with age. In one fit of anger, he murdered his eldest son and heir, <mask>, and he might also have caused the miscarriage of the latter's unborn child. This left his younger son, the politically ineffectual Feodor <mask>, to inherit the throne, a man whose rule and subsequent childless death directly led to the end of the Rurikid dynasty and the beginning of the Time of Troubles. Nickname
The English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word Грозный in <mask>'s nickname, but that is a somewhat-archaic translation.The Russian word Грозный reflects the older English usage of terrible as in "inspiring fear or terror; dangerous; powerful; formidable". It does not convey the more modern connotations of English terrible such as "defective" or "evil". Vladimir Dal defines grozny specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience". Other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars, including 'formidable'. Early life

<mask> was the first son of Vasili III and his second wife, Elena Glinskaya. Vasili's mother was a Greek princess and member of the Byzantine Palaiologos family. She was a daughter of Thomas Palaiologos, the younger brother of the last Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos ().Elena's mother was a Serbian princess and her father's family, the Glinski clan (nobles based in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania), claimed descent both from Orthodox Hungarian nobles and the Mongol ruler

masks:
Ivan Ivanovich
Ivanovich
Ivan
Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts: Mamai (1335–1380.) Born on August 25, he received the name <mask> in honor of St. John the Baptist, the day of the Beheading of which falls on August 29. In some texts of that era, it is also occasionally mentioned with the names Titus and Smaragd, in accordance with the tradition of polyonyms among the Rurikovich. Baptized in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by Abbot Joasaph (Skripitsyn), two elders of the Joseph-Volotsk monastery were elected as recipients—the monk Cassian Bossoy and the hegumen Daniel. Tradition says that in honor of the birth of <mask>, the Church of the Ascension was built in Kolomenskoye. When <mask> was three years old, his father died from an abscess and inflammation on his leg that developed into blood poisoning. The closest contenders to the throne, except for the young <mask>, were the younger brothers of Vasily.Of the six sons of <mask> III, only two remained: Prince Andrey Staritsky and Prince Dmitrovsky Yuri. <mask> was proclaimed the Grand Prince of Moscow at the request of his father. His mother Elena Glinskaya initially acted as regent, but she died in 1538 when <mask> was only eight years old; many believe that she was poisoned. The regency then alternated between several feuding boyar families that fought for control. According to his own letters, <mask>, along with his younger brother Yuri, often felt neglected and offended by the mighty boyars from the Shuisky and Belsky families. In a letter to Prince Kurbski <mask> remembered, "My brother Iurii, of blessed memory, and me they brought up like vagrants and children of the poorest. What

masks: Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts: have I suffered for want of garments and food!"That account has been challenged by the historian Edward Keenan, who doubts the authenticity of the source in which the quotations are found. On 16 January 1547, at 16, <mask> was crowned at the Cathedral of the Dormition of the Moscow Kremlin. The Metropolitan placed on <mask> the signs of royal dignity: the Cross of the Life-Giving Tree, barmas, and the cap of Monomakh; <mask>vich was anointed with myrrh, and then the metropolitan blessed the tsar. He was the first to be crowned as "Tsar of All the Russias", partly imitating his grandfather, <mask> the Great, who had claimed the title of Grand Prince of all Rus'. Until then, rulers of Muscovy were crowned as Grand Princes, but <mask> the Great had styled himself "tsar" in his correspondence. Two weeks after his coronation, <mask> married his first wife, Anastasia Romanovna, a member of the Romanov family, who became the first Russian tsaritsa. By being crowned tsar, <mask> was sending a message to the world and to Russia that he was now the only supreme ruler of the country, and his will was not to be questioned."The new title symbolized an assumption of powers equivalent and parallel to those held by former Byzantine Emperor and the Tatar Khan, both known in Russian sources as Tsar. The political effect was to elevate <mask>'s position". The new title not only secured the throne but also granted <mask> a new dimension of power that was intimately tied to religion. He was now a "divine" leader appointed to enact God's will, as "church texts described Old Testament kings as

masks:
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan Vasilie
Ivan III
Ivan III
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 'Tsars' and Christ as the Heavenly Tsar". The newly appointed title was then passed on from generation to generation, and "succeeding Muscovite rulers... benefited from the divine nature of the power of the Russian monarch... crystallized during <mask>'s reign". Domestic policy

Despite calamities triggered by the Great Fire of 1547, the early part of <mask>'s reign was one of peaceful reforms and modernization. <mask> revised the law code, creating the Sudebnik of 1550, founded a standing army (the streltsy), established the Zemsky Sobor (the first Russian parliament of feudal estates) and the council of the nobles (known as the Chosen Council) and confirmed the position of the Church with the Council of the Hundred Chapters (Stoglavy Synod), which unified the rituals and ecclesiastical regulations of the whole country.He introduced local self-government to rural regions, mainly in northeastern Russia, populated by the state peasantry. <mask> ordered in 1553 the establishment of the Moscow Print Yard, and the first printing press was introduced to Russia. Several religious books in Russian were printed during the 1550s and 1560s. The new technology provoked discontent among traditional scribes, which led to the Print Yard being burned in an arson attack. The first Russian printers, <mask> and Pyotr Mstislavets, were forced to flee from Moscow to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Nevertheless, the printing of books resumed from 1568 onwards, with Andronik Timofeevich Nevezha and his son <mask> now heading the Print Yard. <mask> had St.Basil's Cathedral constructed in Moscow

masks:
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan Fedorov
Ivan
Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 to commemorate the seizure of Kazan. There is a legend that he was so impressed with the structure that he had the architect, Postnik Yakovlev, blinded so that he could never design anything as beautiful again. However, Postnik Yakovlev really went on to design more churches for <mask> and the walls of the Kazan Kremlin in the early 1560s as well as the chapel over St. Basil's grave, which was added to St. Basil's Cathedral in 1588, several years after <mask>'s death. Although more than one architect was associated with that name, it is believed that the principal architect is the same person. Other events of the period include the introduction of the first laws restricting the mobility of the peasants, which would eventually lead to serfdom and were instituted during the rule of the future Tsar Boris Godunov in 1597.(See also Serfdom in Russia.) Oprichnina

The 1560s brought to Russia hardships that led to a dramatic change of <mask>'s policies. Russia was devastated by a combination of drought, famine, unsuccessful wars against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Tatar invasions, and the sea-trading blockade carried out by the Swedes, the Poles, and the Hanseatic League. His first wife, Anastasia Romanovna, died in 1560, which was suspected to be a poisoning. The personal tragedy deeply hurt <mask> and is thought to have affected his personality, if not his mental health. At the same time, one of <mask>'s advisors, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, defected to the Lithuanians, took command of the Lithuanian troops and devastated the Russian region of Velikiye Luki. That series of

masks: Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts: treasons made <mask> paranoically suspicious of nobility.On 3 December 1564, <mask> departed Moscow for Aleksandrova Sloboda, where he sent two letters in which he announced his abdication because of the alleged embezzlement and treason of the aristocracy and the clergy. The boyar court was unable to rule in <mask>'s absence and feared the wrath of the Muscovite citizens. A boyar envoy departed for Aleksandrova Sloboda to beg <mask> to return to the throne. <mask> agreed to return on condition of being granted absolute power. He demanded the right to condemn and execute traitors and confiscate their estates without interference from the boyar council or church. <mask> decreed the creation of the oprichnina. That was a separate territory within the borders of Russia, mostly in the territory of the former Novgorod Republic in the north.<mask> held exclusive power over the territory. The Boyar Council ruled the zemshchina ('land'), the second division of the state. <mask> also recruited a personal guard known as the Oprichniki. Originally, it numbered 1000. The oprichniki were headed by Malyuta Skuratov. One known oprichnik was the German adventurer Heinrich von Staden. The oprichniki enjoyed social and economic privileges under the oprichnina.They owed their allegiance and status to <mask>, not heredity or local bonds. The first wave of persecutions targeted primarily the princely clans of Russia, notably the influential families of Suzdal. <mask> executed, exiled or forcibly tonsured prominent members of the boyar clans on questionable accusations of conspiracy. Among

masks: Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 those who were executed were the Metropolitan Philip and the prominent warlord Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky. In 1566, <mask> extended the oprichnina to eight central districts. Of the 12,000 nobles, 570 became oprichniki and the rest were expelled. Under the new political system, the oprichniki were given large estates but, unlike the previous landlords, could not be held accountable for their actions.The men "took virtually all the peasants possessed, forcing them to pay 'in one year as much as [they] used to pay in ten. That degree of oppression resulted in increasing cases of peasants fleeing, which, in turn, reduced the overall production. The price of grain increased ten-fold. Sack of Novgorod

Conditions under the Oprichnina were worsened by the 1570 epidemic, a plague that killed 10,000 people in Novgorod and 600 to 1,000 daily in Moscow. During the grim conditions of the epidemic, a famine and the ongoing Livonian War, <mask> grew suspicious that noblemen of the wealthy city of Novgorod were planning to defect and to place the city itself into the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A Novgorod citizen Petr Volynets warned the tsar about the alleged conspiracy, which modern historians believe to be false. In 1570, <mask> ordered the Oprichniki to raid the city.The Oprichniki burned and pillaged Novgorod and the surrounding villages, and the city has never regained its former prominence. Casualty figures vary greatly from different sources. The First Pskov Chronicle estimates the number of victims at 60,000. According to the Third Novgorod Chronicle, the massacre

masks: Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 lasted for five weeks. The massacre of Novgorod consisted of men, women and children that were tied to sleighs and run into the freezing waters of the Volkhov River, which <mask> ordered on the basis of unproved accusations of treason. He then tortured its inhabitants and killed thousands in a pogrom. The archbishop was also hunted to death.Almost every day, 500 or 600 people were killed or drowned, but the official death toll named 1,500 of Novgorod's big people (nobility) and mentioned only about the same number of smaller people. Many modern researchers estimate the number of victims to range from 2,000 to 3,000 since after the famine and epidemics of the 1560s, the population of Novgorod most likely did not exceed 10,000–20,000. Many survivors were deported elsewhere. The Oprichnina did not live long after the sack of Novgorod. During the 1571–72 Russo-Crimean War, the Oprichniki failed to prove themselves worthy against a regular army. In 1572, <mask> abolished the Oprichnina and disbanded his oprichniki. Pretended resignation
In 1575, <mask> once again pretended to resign from his title and proclaimed Simeon Bekbulatovich, his statesman of Tatar origin, the new Grand Prince of All Rus'''.Simeon reigned as a figurehead leader for about a year. According to the English envoy Giles Fletcher, the Elder, Simeon acted under <mask>'s instructions to confiscate all of the lands that belonged to monasteries, and <mask> pretended to disagree with the decision. When the throne was returned to <mask> in 1576, he returned some of the confiscated land and kept the rest. Foreign

masks: Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 policy
Diplomacy and trade

In 1547, Hans Schlitte, the agent of <mask>, recruited craftsmen in Germany for work in Russia. However, all of the craftsmen were arrested in Lübeck at the request of Poland and Livonia. The German merchant companies ignored the new port built by <mask> on the River Narva in 1550 and continued to deliver goods in the Baltic ports owned by Livonia. Russia remained isolated from sea trade.<mask> established close ties with the Kingdom of England. Russian-English relations can be traced to 1551, when the Muscovy Company was formed by Richard Chancellor, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby and several London merchants. In 1553, Chancellor sailed to the White Sea and continued overland to Moscow, where he visited <mask>'s court. <mask> opened up the White Sea and the port of Arkhangelsk to the company and granted it privilege of trading throughout his reign without paying the standard customs fees. With the use of English merchants, <mask> engaged in a long correspondence with Elizabeth I of England. While the queen focused on commerce, <mask> was more interested in a military alliance. During his troubled relations with the boyars, <mask> even asked her for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England if his rule was jeopardised.Elizabeth agreed if he provided for himself during his stay. <mask> corresponded with overseas Orthodox leaders. In response to a letter of Patriarch Joachim of Alexandria asking him for financial assistance for the Saint Catherine's Monastery, in the Sinai Peninsula, which had suffered by the Turks, <mask> sent in 1558 a


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 delegation to Egypt Eyalet by Archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. From then on, the embassy was headed by Smolensk merchant Vasily Poznyakov, whose delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo and Sinai; brought the patriarch a fur coat and an icon sent by <mask> and left an interesting account of his two-and-a-half years of travels. <mask> was the first ruler to begin cooperating with the free cossacks on a large scale. Relations were handled through the Posolsky Prikaz diplomatic department; Moscow sent them money and weapons, while tolerating their freedoms, to draw them into an alliance against the Tatars. The first evidence of cooperation surfaces in 1549 when <mask> ordered the Don Cossacks to attack Crimea.Conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan

While <mask> was a child, armies of the Kazan Khanate repeatedly raided northeastern Russia. In the 1530s, the Crimean khan formed an offensive alliance with Safa Giray of Kazan, his relative. When Safa Giray invaded Muscovy in December 1540, the Russians used Qasim Tatars to contain him. After his advance was stalled near Murom, Safa Giray was forced to withdraw to his own borders. The reverses undermined Safa Giray's authority in Kazan. A pro-Russian party, represented by Shahgali, gained enough popular support to make several attempts to take over the Kazan throne. In 1545, <mask> mounted an expedition to the River Volga to show his support for the pro-Russians.In 1551, the tsar sent his envoy to the Nogai Horde, and they promised to maintain neutrality during the impending war. The Ar


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts: begs and Udmurts submitted to Russian authority as well. In 1551, the wooden fort of Sviyazhsk was transported down the Volga from Uglich all the way to Kazan. It was used as the Russian place d'armes during the decisive campaign of 1552. On 16 June 1552, <mask> led a strong Russian army towards Kazan. The last siege of the Tatar capital commenced on 30 August. Under the supervision of Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky, the Russians used battering rams and a siege tower, undermining and 150 cannons.The Russians also had the advantage of efficient military engineers. The city's water supply was blocked and the walls were breached. Kazan finally fell on 2 October, its fortifications were razed and much of the population massacred. Many Russian prisoners and slaves were released. <mask> celebrated his victory over Kazan by building several churches with oriental features, most famously Saint Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow. The fall of Kazan was only the beginning of a series of so-called "Cheremis wars". The attempts of the Moscow government to gain a foothold on the Middle Volga kept provoking uprisings of local peoples, which was suppressed only with great difficulty.In 1557, the First Cheremis War ended, and the Bashkirs accepted <mask>'s authority. In campaigns in 1554 and 1556, Russian troops conquered the Astrakhan Khanate at the mouths of the Volga River, and the new Astrakhan fortress was built in 1558 by <mask> to replace the old Tatar capital. The annexation of the Tatar khanates meant the conquest of vast territories, access to large markets and control

masks:
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan Vyrodkov


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 of the entire length of the Volga River. Subjugating Muslim khanates turned Muscovy into an empire. After his conquest of Kazan, <mask> is said to have ordered the crescent, a symbol of Islam, to be placed underneath the Christian cross on the domes of Orthodox Christian churches. Russo-Turkish War

In 1568, Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, who was the real power in the administration of the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim, initiated the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and its future northern rival. The results presaged the many disasters to come.A plan to unite the Volga and Don by a canal was detailed in Constantinople. In the summer of 1569, a large force under Kasim Paşa of 1,500 Janissaries, 2,000 Spakhs and a few thousand Azaps and Akıncıs were sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and to begin the canal works while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov. In early 1570, <mask>'s ambassadors concluded a treaty at Constantinople that restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar. Livonian War

In 1558, <mask> launched the Livonian War in an attempt to gain access to the Baltic Sea and its major trade routes. The war ultimately proved unsuccessful and stretched on for 24 years and engaging the Kingdom of Sweden, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Teutonic Knights of Livonia. The prolonged war had nearly destroyed the economy, and the Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government. Meanwhile, the Union of Lublin had united the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 acquired an energetic leader, Stefan Batory, who was supported by Russia's southern enemy, the Ottoman Empire.<mask>'s realm was being squeezed by two of the time's great powers. After rejecting peace proposals from his enemies, <mask> had found himself in a difficult position by 1579. The displaced refugees fleeing the war compounded the effects of the simultaneous drought, and the exacerbated war engendered epidemics causing much loss of life. Batory then launched a series of offensives against Muscovy in the campaign seasons of 1579–81 to try to cut the Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovy. During his first offensive in 1579, he retook Polotsk with 22,000 men. During the second, in 1580, he took Velikie Luki with a 29,000-strong force. Finally, he began the Siege of Pskov in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army.Narva, in Estonia, was reconquered by Sweden in 1581. Unlike Sweden and Poland, Frederick II of Denmark had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy. He came to an agreement with John III of Sweden in 1580 to transfer the Danish titles of Livonia to John III. Muscovy recognised Polish–Lithuanian control of Livonia only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland, the brother of Fredrick II and a former ally of <mask>, died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in the Duchy of Courland, and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of Saaremaa, Denmark had left Livonia by 1585. Crimean raids

In the later years of <mask>'s reign, the southern borders of Muscovy were disturbed by Crimean Tatars, mainly to capture slaves.(See also Slavery in

masks: Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts: the Ottoman Empire.) Khan Devlet I Giray of Crimea repeatedly raided the Moscow region. In 1571, the 40,000-strong Crimean and Turkish army launched a large-scale raid. The ongoing Livonian War made Moscow's garrison to number only 6,000 and could not even delay the Tatar approach. Unresisted, Devlet devastated unprotected towns and villages around Moscow and caused the Fire of Moscow (1571). Historians have estimated the number of casualties of the fire to be 10,000 to 80,000. To buy peace from Devlet Giray, <mask> was forced to relinquish his claims on Astrakhan for the Crimean Khanate, but the proposed transfer was only a diplomatic maneuver and was never actually completed.The defeat angered <mask>. Between 1571 and 1572, preparations were made upon his orders. In addition to Zasechnaya cherta, innovative fortifications were set beyond the Oka River, which defined the border. The following year, Devlet launched another raid on Moscow, now with a numerous horde, reinforced by Turkish janissaries equipped with firearms and cannons. The Russian army, led by Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, was half the size but was experienced and supported by streltsy, equipped with modern firearms and gulyay-gorods. In addition, it was no longer artificially divided into two parts (the "oprichnina" and "zemsky"), unlike during the 1571 defeat. On 27 July, the horde broke through the defensive line along the Oka River and moved towards Moscow.The Russian troops did not have time to intercept it, but the regiment of Prince Khvorostinin vigorously attacked the Tatars from the rear. The Khan

masks: Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 stopped only 30 km from Moscow and brought down his entire army back on the Russians, who managed to take up defense near the village of Molodi. After several days of heavy fighting, Mikhail Vorotynsky with the main part of the army flanked the Tatars and dealt a sudden blow on 2 August, and Khvorostinin made a sortie from the fortifications. The Tatars were completely defeated and fled. The next year, <mask>, who had sat out in distant Novgorod during the battle, killed Mikhail Vorotynsky. Conquest of Siberia

During <mask>'s reign, Russia started a large-scale exploration and colonization of Siberia. In 1555, shortly after the conquest of Kazan, the Siberian khan Yadegar and the Nogai Horde, under Khan Ismail, pledged their allegiance to <mask> in the hope that he would help them against their opponents.However, Yadegar failed to gather the full sum of tribute that he proposed to the tsar and so <mask> did nothing to save his inefficient vassal. In 1563, Yadegar was overthrown and killed by Khan Kuchum, who denied any tribute to Moscow. In 1558, <mask> gave the Stroganov merchant family the patent for colonising "the abundant region along the Kama River", and, in 1574, lands over the Ural Mountains along the rivers Tura and Tobol. The family also received permission to build forts along the Ob River and the Irtysh River. Around 1577, the Stroganovs engaged the Cossack leader Yermak Timofeyevich to protect their lands from attacks of the Siberian Khan Kuchum. In 1580, Yermak started his conquest of Siberia. With some 540 Cossacks, he started to penetrate territories that


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 were tributary to Kuchum.Yermak pressured and persuaded the various family-based tribes to change their loyalties and to become tributaries of Russia. Some agreed voluntarily because they were offered better terms than with Kuchum, but others were forced. He also established distant forts in the newly conquered lands. The campaign was successful, and the Cossacks managed to defeat the Siberian army in the Battle of Chuvash Cape, but Yermak still needed reinforcements. He sent an envoy to <mask> the <mask> with a message that proclaimed Yermak-conquered Siberia to be part of Russia to the dismay of the Stroganovs, who had planned to keep Siberia for themselves. <mask> agreed to reinforce the Cossacks with his streltsy, but the detachment sent to Siberia died of starvation without any benefit. The Cossacks were defeated by the local peoples, Yermak died and the survivors immediately left Siberia.Only in 1586, two years after the death of <mask>, would the Russians manage to gain a foothold in Siberia by founding the city of Tyumen. Personal life
Marriages and children

<mask> <mask> had at least six (possibly eight) wives, although only four of them were recognised by the Church. Three of them were allegedly poisoned by his enemies or by rivaling aristocratic families who wanted to promote their daughters to be his brides. Anastasia Romanovna (in 1547–1560, death):
 Tsarevna <mask>na (10 August 154820 July 1550)
 Tsarevna <mask>na (17 March 1551young)
 Tsarevich Dmitri <mask> (October 155226 June 1553)
 Tsarevich <mask> (28 March 155419 November 1581)
 Tsarevna Eudoxia

masks:
Ivan
Terrible
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan the
Terrible
Anna Ivanov
Maria Ivanov
Ivanovich
Ivan Ivanovich


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 <mask>na (26 February 1556June 1558)
 Tsar Feodor I of Russia (31 May 15576 January 1598)
 Maria Temryukovna (in 1561–1569, death):
 Tsarevich Vasili <mask> (21 March 15633 May 1563)
 Marfa Sobakina (28 October – 13 November 1571, death)
 Anna Koltovskaya (in 1572, sent to monastery). This was the last of his church-authorized weddings. She was later canonized as Saint Daria (locally-venerated saint). Anna Vasilchikova (in 1575/76, sent to monastery)
 Vasilisa Melentyeva (?–1579) (existence disputed)
 Maria Dolgorukaya (1580) (existence disputed)
 Maria Nagaya (from 1580), widow:
 Tsarevich Dmitri <mask> (19 October 158215 May 1591) He was later canonized as Saint Right-Believing Demetrius of Uglich and Moscow, tsarevich.In 1581, <mask> beat his pregnant daughter-in-law, Yelena Sheremeteva, for wearing immodest clothing, which may have caused her to suffer a miscarriage. Upon learning of the altercation, his second son, also named <mask>, engaged in a heated argument with his father. The argument ended with the elder <mask> fatally striking his son in the head with his pointed staff. The event is depicted in the famous painting by Ilya Repin, <mask> the <mask> and his son <mask> on Friday, 16 November 1581, better known as <mask> the Terrible killing his son. Arts
<mask> was a poet and a composer of considerable talent. His Orthodox liturgical hymn, "Stichiron No. 1 in Honor of St. Peter", and fragments of his letters were put into music by the Soviet composer Rodion Shchedrin.The recording, the first Soviet-produced CD, was released in 1988 to mark the millennium of

masks: Ivanov Ivanovich Ivanovich Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Terrible Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 Christianity in Russia. Epistles
D. S. Mirsky called <mask> "a pamphleteer of genius". The letters are often the only existing source on <mask>'s personality and provide crucial information on his reign, but Harvard professor Edward L. Keenan has argued that the letters are 17th-century forgeries. That contention, however, has not been widely accepted, and most other scholars, such as John Fennell and Ruslan Skrynnikov, have continued to argue for their authenticity. Recent archival discoveries of 16th-century copies of the letters strengthen the argument for their authenticity.Martin, pp. 328–29. Religion

<mask> was a devoted follower of Christian Orthodoxy but in his own specific manner.He placed the most emphasis on defending the divine right of the ruler to unlimited power under God. Some scholars explain the sadistic and brutal deeds of <mask> the <mask> with the religious concepts of the 16th century, which included drowning and roasting people alive or torturing victims with boiling or freezing water, corresponding to the torments of Hell. That was consistent with <mask>'s view of being God's representative on Earth with a sacred right and duty to punish. He may also have been inspired by the model of Archangel Michael with the idea of divine punishment. Despite the absolute prohibition of the Church for even the fourth marriage, <mask> had seven wives, and even while his seventh wife was alive, he was negotiating to marry Mary Hastings, a distant relative of Queen Elizabeth of England. Of course, polygamy was also prohibited by the Church, but <mask> planned to

masks: Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Terrible Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 "put his wife away". <mask> freely interfered in church affairs by ousting Metropolitan Philip and ordering him to be killed and accusing of treason and deposing the second-oldest hierarch, Novgorod Archbishop Pimen.Many monks were tortured to death during the Massacre of Novgorod. <mask> was somewhat tolerant of Islam, which was widespread in the territories of the conquered Tatar khanates, since he was afraid of the wrath of the Ottoman sultan. However, his anti-Semitism was so fierce that no pragmatic considerations could hold him back. For example, after the capture of Polotsk, all unconverted Jews were drowned, despite their role in the city's economy. Death
<mask> died from a stroke while he was playing chess with Bogdan Belsky on . Upon <mask>'s death, the Russian throne was left to his unfit middle son, Feodor, a weak-minded figure. Feodor died childless in 1598, which ushered in the Time of Troubles.Appearance

Little is known about <mask>'s appearance, as virtually all existing portraits were made after his death and contain uncertain amounts of artist's impression. In 1567, the ambassador Daniel Prinz von Buchau described <mask> as follows: "He is tall, stout and full of energy. His eyes are big, observing and restless. His beard is reddish-black, long and thick, but most other hairs on his head are shaved off according to the Russian habits of the time". According to <mask>-Rostovsky, the son-in-law of Michael I of Russia, <mask> had an unpleasant face with a long and crooked nose. He was tall and athletically built, with broad shoulders and a narrow waist. In

masks:
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan Katyryov
Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 1963, the graves of <mask> and his sons were excavated and examined by Soviet scientists.Chemical and structural analysis of his remains disproved earlier suggestions that <mask> suffered from syphilis or that he was poisoned by arsenic or strangled. At the time of his death, he was 178 cm tall (5 ft. 10 in.) and weighed 85–90 kg (187–198 lb.). His body was rather asymmetrical, had a large amount of osteophytes uncharacteristic of his age and contained excessive concentration of mercury. Researchers concluded that <mask> was athletically built in his youth but, in his last years, had developed various bone diseases and could barely move. They attributed the high mercury content in his body to his use of ointments to heal his joints. Legacy

<mask> completely altered Russia's governmental structure, establishing the character of modern Russian political organisation.<mask>'s creation of the Oprichnina, answerable only to him, afforded him personal protection but also curtailed the traditional powers and rights of the boyars. Henceforth, Tsarist autocracy and despotism would lie at the heart of the Russian state. <mask> bypassed the Mestnichestvo system and offered positions of power to his supporters among the minor gentry. The empire's local administration combined both locally and centrally appointed officials; the system proved durable and practical and sufficiently flexible to tolerate later modification. <mask>'s expedition against Poland failed at a military level, but it helped extend Russia's trade, political and cultural links with other European states. Peter the

masks: Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 Great built on those connections in his bid to make Russia a major European power. At <mask>'s death, the empire encompassed the Caspian to the southwest and Western Siberia to the east.His southern conquests ignited several conflicts with the expansionist Turkey, whose territories were thus confined to the Balkans and the Black Sea regions. <mask>'s management of Russia's economy proved disastrous, both in his lifetime and afterward. He had inherited a government in debt, and in an effort to raise more revenue for his expansionist wars, he instituted a series of increasingly-unpopular and burdensome taxes. Successive wars drained Russia of manpower and resources and brought it "to the brink of ruin". After <mask>'s death, his empire's nearly-ruined economy contributed to the decline of his own Rurik dynasty, leading to the "Time of Troubles". Posthumous reputation
<mask>'s notorious outbursts and autocratic whims helped characterise the position of tsar as one accountable to no earthly authority but only to God. Tsarist absolutism faced few serious challenges until the 19th century.The earliest and most influential account of his reign prior to 1917 was by the historian N.M.Karamzin, who described <mask> as a 'tormentor' of his people, particularly from 1560, though even after that date Karamzin believed there was a mix of 'good' and 'evil' in his character. In 1922, the historian Robert Wipper - who later returned to his native Latvia to avoid living under communist rule - wrote a biography that reassessed <mask> as a monarch "who loved the ordinary people" and praised


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts: his agrarian reforms. In the 1920s, Mikhail Pokrovsky, who dominated the study of history in the Soviet Union attributed  that the success of the Oprichnina to their being on the side of the small state owners and townsfolk in a decades class long struggle against the large landowners, and downgrade <mask>'s role to that of the instrument of the emerging Russian bourgeoisie. But in February 1941, the poet Boris Pasternak observantly remarked in a letter to his cousin that "the new cult, openly proselytized, is <mask> the Terrible, the Oprichnina, the brutality." Joseph Stalin, who had read Wipper's biography had decided that Soviet historians should praise the role of strong leaders, such as <mask>, Alexander Nevsky and <mask> Great, who had strengthened and expanded Russia. In post-Soviet Russia, a campaign has been run to seek the granting of sainthood to <mask> IV. but the Russian Orthodox Church opposed the idea.A consequence was that the writer Alexei Tolstoy began work on a stage version of <mask>'s life, and Sergei Eisenstein began what was to be a three part film tribute to <mask>. Both projects were personally supervised by Stalin, at a time when the Soviet Union was engaged in a war with Nazi Germany. He read the scripts of Tolstoy's play and the first of Eisenstein's film in tandem after the Battle of Kursk in 1943, praised Eisenstein's version but rejected Tolstoy's. It took Tolstoy until 1944 to write a version that satisfied the dictator. Eisenstein's success with Ivan the Terrible Part 1 was not repeated with the follow-up, The Boyar's Revolt, which angered

masks:
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Peter the
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts: Stalin because it portrayed a man suffering pangs of conscience. Stalin told Eisenstein: "<mask> the Terrible was very cruel. You can show that he was cruel, but you have to show why it was essential to be cruel.One of <mask> <mask>'s mistakes was that he didn't finish off the five major families." The film was suppressed until 1958. The first statue of <mask> <mask> was officially open in Oryol, Russia in 2016. Formally, the statue was unveiled in honor of the 450th anniversary of the founding of Oryol, a Russian city of about 310,000 that was established as a fortress to defend Moscow's southern borders. Informally, there was a big political subtext. The opposition thinks that <mask> the <mask>'s rehabilitation echoes of Stalin's era. The erection of the statue was vastly covered in international media like The Guardian, The Washington Post, Politico, and others.The Russian Orthodox Church officially supported the erection of the monument. <mask> was a popular character in Russian and Bulgarian folklore. In classic Russian literature, <mask> appears in such famous works as Prince Serebrenni, The Song of the Merchant Kalashnikov, The Tsar's Bride and others. The image of <mask> is played out in numerous operas (The Maid of Pskov, The Tsar's Bride, <mask> of Bizet etc.) and ballet <mask> Terrible of Prokofiev. The Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein made two films based on <mask>'s life and reign, <mask> the Terrible. The first part is about <mask>'s early years.The second covers the period of his maturity. A third was planned but never completed. In Night at the Museum:

masks:
Ivan
Ivan the
Terrible
Ivan the
Terrible
Ivan
Terrible
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan IV
Ivan the
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 Battle of the Smithsonian, <mask> <mask> is the one the trio of henchmen that assist Kahmunrah to conquer the world, alongside Napoleon and Al Capone. Tsar is a 2009 Russian drama film directed by Pavel Lungin. <mask> <mask> is a major character in the Soviet-era fiction comedy <mask>vich: Back to the Future, based on a play by Mikhail Bulgakov. It was one of the most popular films in the Soviet Union in 1973 and sold more than 60 million tickets. <mask> appears as a major character in the novel The Ringed Castle (1971), the fifth of the six novels in Dorothy Dunnett's historical fiction series, the Lymond Chronicles.<mask> was portrayed on BBC Radio 4 by David Threlfall in the radio play <mask> Terrible: Absolute Power, written by Mike Walker and which was the first play in the first series of Tsar. The play was broadcast on 11 September 2016. A monstrous Rider version of <mask> the Terrible was depicted as a major character in the mobile game Fate Grand Order on the second chapter 'Cosmos in the Lostbelt's first story arc 'Permafrost Empire: Anastasia'. He appears as a slumbering titan and king of the human-monster hybrid locals called Yaga, forced into eternal sleep because of the sheer power of his ability to destroy his people and kept it under his rule for nearly 450 years. He later appears as a summonable character with the body of the monstrous version from the Lost Belt. See also
 Illustrated Chronicle of <mask> the Terrible
 Tsars of Russia family tree
 Tsardom of Russia, history of the Tsardom of Russia

References

Notes

Bibliography

General

masks:
Ivan the
Terrible
Ivan the
Terrible
Ivan Vasilie
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan the
Ivan
Ivan


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 references

 Bobrick, Benson. <mask> the Terrible.Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 1990 (hardcover, ). (Also published as Fearful Majesty)
 Hosking, Geoffrey. Russia and the Russians: A History. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004 (paperback, ). Payne, Robert; Romanoff, Nikita. Ivan the Terrible. Lanham, Maryland: Cooper Square Press, 2002 (paperback, ).Troyat, Henri. Ivan the Terrible. New York: Buccaneer Books, 1988 (hardcover, ); London: Phoenix Press, 2001 (paperback, ). Ivan IV, World Book Inc, 2000. World Book Encyclopedia. Further reading
 Cherniavsky, Michael. "Ivan the Terrible as Renaissance Prince", Slavic Review, Vol.27, No. 2. (Jun. 1968), pp. 195–211. Hunt, Priscilla. "Ivan IV's Personal Mythology of Kingship", Slavic Review, Vol.52, No. 4. (Winter, 1993), pp. 769–809. Menken, Jules. "Ivan the Terrible." History Today (Mar 1953) 3#3, Vol.3 Issue 3, pp. 167–73. Perrie, Maureen. The Image of Ivan the Terrible in Russian Folklore(Cambridge University Press, 1987; ). Perrie, Maureen. The Cult of Ivan the Terrible in Stalin's Russia. (New York: Palgrave, 2001  ).Platt, Kevin M.F. ; Brandenberger, David. "Terribly Romantic, Terribly Progressive, or Terribly Tragic: Rehabilitating Ivan IV under I.V. Stalin", Russian Review, Vol. 58, No. 4. (Oct. 1999), pp.635–54. Isolde Thyrêt, "The Royal Women of <mask> IV's Family and the Meaning of Forced Tonsure," in Anne Walthall (ed), Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History'' (Berkeley, Univ. California Press, 2008), 159–71. External links

 The throne of <mask> <mask>
 The holy gospel of <mask> <mask>
 <mask>

masks:
Ivan
Ivan
Ivan the
Terrible
Ivan the
Terrible
Ivan the


title: Ivan the Terrible

texts:
 <mask> with videos, images and translations from the Russian Archives and State Museums
 , versions of a poem by Felicia Hemans. |-

|-

Antireligion
1530 births
1584 deaths
16th-century Grand Princes of Moscow
Filicides
Folk saints
Modern child rulers
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Rurik dynasty
Rurikids
Russian people of Serbian descent
Russian people of Tatar descent
Russian tsars
People of the Livonian War
Antisemitism in


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts: <mask> () (24 September 1882 – 15 January 1964) was a pioneering Palestinian physician, medical researcher, ethnographer, and Palestinian nationalist. Born in Beit Jala during the rule of the Ottoman Empire, he served as a medical officer in the Ottoman army during World War I. During British rule, he served as the first President of the Palestine Arab Medical Association founded in 1944, and as the director of several Jerusalem area hospitals before, during, and after the 1948 war. Over the course of his medical career, he authored more than thirty-seven studies on topics including tropical medicine, bacteriology, malaria, tuberculosis, and health conditions in Palestine, and contributed to research that led to a cure for leprosy. Deeply interested in Palestinian folklore, popular beliefs, and superstitions, <mask> collected over 1,400 amulets and talismanic objects held to have healing and protective properties. His published analyses of these objects, and other popular folk traditions and practices, brought him recognition as an ethnographer and anthropologist. The several books and more than 50 articles he wrote in English and German serve as valuable resources to researchers of Palestinian and Middle-Eastern heritage.<mask> also published works in Arabic and was fluent in Hebrew. An outspoken public figure, he also wrote two books on the Palestine problem, reflecting his involvement in confronting British imperialism and Zionism. He was arrested by the British authorities in 1939. The last two decades of his life were lived in the shadow of several personal tragedies: the loss of his brilliant son in an accident at Jerash, the loss and destruction of his family home, and of his clinic in Jerusalem during the 1948

masks:
Tawfiq Canaan
Canaan
Canaan


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 war. <mask> managed to re-establish his life and career in East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule. First taking sanctuary in a convent in the Old City for two years, he was appointed director of the Augusta Victoria Hospital on the Mount of Olives, where he lived with his family through his retirement until his death in 1964. Early life

Born in the village of Beit Jala in Palestine during the rule of the Ottoman Empire, <mask> studied as a child at the Schneller School, founded by German missionaries in nearby Jerusalem.His father Bechara, who was also schooled there, founded the first Lutheran church, YMCA, and co-ed school in Beit Jala and the first Arab pastor for the German Protestant Palestine Mission. His mother, Katharina, was raised in a German orphanage in Beirut and met Bechara while working at a hospital in Jerusalem. In 1898-9, <mask> went to Beirut to study medicine at the Syrian Protestant College (today the American University of Beirut). Obliged to work while studying as his father died of pneumonia shortly after his arrival, he graduated with distinction in 1905. His valedictory speech, "Modern Treatment", was likely his first published piece and broached the use of serums, animal organs and X-rays. <mask> attributed his love of, interest in, and dedication to the people, culture and land of Palestine to his upbringing and the influence of his father who regularly took the family with him on his trips around the country. In the Jerusalem Quarterly, Khaled Nashef suggests <mask>'s knowledge of nature in Palestine as exhibited in writings such as "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928) among others were informed by these trips.Medical career

Returning to Jerusalem from Beirut, <mask> began work

masks: Canaan Canaan Canaan Canaan Canaan Canaan


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 in the German Deaconesses Hospital [German], co-administering it with Dr. Adalbert Einsler (1848–1919) during a senior physician’s absence in 1906. He was also sought as a manager at the German-Jewish Hospital (Shaare Zedek). His first published medical article as a practicing physician, “Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis in Jerusalem" (1911), was based on studies he conducted with the director there. Between 1912-1914, <mask> travelled to Germany several times to further his knowledge of microbiology and tropical diseases. He met his wife, Margot Eilender, in an Esperanto class on his first trip there. Margot's father was a German importer and she was born and raised in Palestine. They were quickly married, having their first child Yasma that same year, and built their family home in the al-Musrarah district of Jerusalem in 1913, where their three other children (Theo, Nada, and Leila) were born.In that home, <mask> also opened the only Arab clinic operating in Jerusalem at the time. One of the physicians <mask> collaborated with in Germany was Hans Müch, head of a mission to Palestine whose 1913 report on tuberculosis included three research papers authored by <mask>. That same year, he was appointed director of the Malaria Branch of the International Health Bureau, a world center for medical research and microscopic examination founded by The German Society for Fighting Malaria, The Jewish Health Bureau, and The Jewish Physicians and Scientists for Improving Health in Palestine. He also served patients at the Arab General Hospital in the hilltop village of Sheikh Badr next to Jerusalem. World Wars I & II
<mask> was working in the German Hospital in Jerusalem in 1914 when World War I began in October. As a citizen of the

masks: Canaan Canaan Canaan Canaan Canaan


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts: Ottoman Empire, which administered Palestine at the time, <mask> was drafted as an officer into the Ottoman army. First assigned as a physician to a contingent in Nazareth, he was transferred that same year to 'Awja al-Hafeer.He was appointed Head of the Laboratories on the Sinai Front by the German chief physician in charge there, a position that allowed Canaan to travel between Bir as-Saba, Beit Hanoun, Gaza, and Shaykh Nouran, as well as Damascus, Amman, and Aleppo. During this period, he collected more than 200 amulets to add to a collection he had begun in the early 20th century. He contracted both cholera and typhus during the war and survived, though his brother Wadia was killed in the fighting and buried at the Zion cemetery in Jerusalem. Soon after the end of the war, in 1919, <mask> was appointed Director of The Leprosy Hospital (Asylum of the Lepers Jesushilfe, now Hansen House) in Talbiyyah, the only leprosy hospital in Syria, Palestine, and the Transjordan. Considered an incurable disease at the time, Canaan contributed to research in the fields of bacteriology and microscopic examination that resulted in the discovery of a cure using chaulmoogra oil. With the reopening of the German Hospital in 1923, <mask> was appointed head of the Internal Medicine Division, a position he held until the hospital had to cease operations in 1940. The onset of World War II meant that most German citizens had either left Palestine or been arrested by the British Mandatory authorities as enemy aliens.Over the course of his medical career, <mask> treated people from all classes and segments of Palestinian and Arab society. He was one of a number of physicians from Jerusalem to examine Sherif Hussein of Mecca in Amman before

masks: Canaan Canaan Canaan Canaan


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 his death in 1931, and removed a bullet from the thigh of Abu Jildah, a notorious Palestinian rebel, in 1936. An entry on Canaan is included in the book Famous Doctors in Tropical Medicine (1932) by Dr. G. Olpp, director of the tropical medicine center in Tübingen, indicating he was well known & regarded within the medical community. Research & writings on Palestine
Canaan's interest in Palestinian peasantry (fellaheen) found its first public expression in an Arabic lecture he gave on "Agriculture in Palestine" in 1909. Published in German translation in the geographical journal Globus in 1911, it continues to be recognized as a useful historical reference for basic information on the development of Palestinian agriculture in the early 20th century. In this first article outside the field of medicine, Canaan exhibits his deep familiarity with the field of "Oriental Studies", referencing the work of Schumacher, Bauer, Guthe and Burckhardt, alongside classical sources, like Strabo and Josephus, and Arab sources like Mujir ad-Din. Influenced too by the Old Testament studies of Gustaf Dalman, Albrecht Alt, and Martin Noth, all of whom were personal acquaintances, Canaan used the Bible as a basic source to compare past and present agricultural practices.<mask> and Dalman co-headed The Evangelical German Institute beginning in 1903, and they shared the idea that it is not possible to understand the Old Testament without studying Palestinian folklore. In "The Calendar of Palestinian Peasants," published by the Journal of the German Palestine Society () in 1913, Canaan focused on traditional beliefs organizing the agricultural practices of Palestinian fellaheen. A significant observation recorded in this paper was that


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 people in southern Palestine divided the year into 7 periods of 50 days, a type of pentecontad calendar. Subsequent scholars referencing his work traced the origins of this calendar system to Western Mesopotamia circa the 3rd millennium BCE, suggesting it was also used by the Amorites. <mask>'s first book on Palestinian folklore practices was published in 1914 and entitled Superstition and Popular Medicine. Palestine Oriental Society & its journal

A member of the American School for Oriental Research (established 1900), the Jerusalem branch of which was headed from 1920 to 1929 by the American archaeologist William Foxwell Albright, Canaan was also a member of the Palestine Oriental Society, (established in 1920 by Albert Tobias Clay). Albright was a lifelong friend of <mask>'s, and edited his book 'Mohammedan Saints and Sancruaries (1927), as well as several of his articles, the last in 1962.<mask> played a very active role in the Palestine Oriental Society, serving as a member of the board, as well as secretary and sometime treasurer from early in the 1920s through until 1948, though the last article he published in its journal was in 1937. Other articles <mask> published for the Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (1920-1948) – such as, "Haunted Springs and Water Demons in Palestine" (1920–1921), "Tasit ar-Radjfeh" ("Fear Cup"; 1923), and "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928) – exhibit his deep interest in superstition. Salim Tamari, director of the Institute of Jerusalem Studies, describes <mask> as the most prominent member of a school of "nativist" ethnographers who published their works in The Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (JPOS). Their research and contributions were motivated by


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 their belief that the "native culture of Palestine" was best represented in the traditions of the fellaheen, and that this ancient "living heritage" had to be urgently documented as the modern world encroached upon the Palestinian countryside. These Palestinian ethnographers included Omar Saleh al-Barghouti, Stephan Hanna Stephan, Elias Haddad, and Khalil Totah, and all of them (excepting Totah) were Jerusalemites, like Canaan. Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine
Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (1927) is identified by Meron Benvenisti as <mask>'s "most outstanding contribution to the ethnography of Arab Palestine and to the annals of his country." In the introduction to the book, <mask> makes explicit his urgent motivation to document ancient, still practiced Palestinian traditions & beliefs threatened by Western influence and the spread of European educational models: "The primitive features of Palestine are disappearing so quickly that before long most of them will be forgotten."The shrines (awlia), sanctuaries (maqamat) and cults that made up popular Islam and popular religion in Palestine, and local Christian, Jewish and Muslim rituals held in common are outlined in Canaan's work. While local saints worshipped in Palestine can be said to be rooted in Muslim traditions, "they are actually ennobled sheikhs, who after their death, have been elevated to sainthood." Local Muslims, many of whom had never stepped into a mosque, honoured these village saints at awlia, often situated by trees or other natural landmarks, some at or nearby ancient sites of worship for the "local Baals of Canaan" given, as John Wilkinson puts it, a 'Muslim disguise'. Canaan saw these practices as evidence that the

masks: Canaan Canaan


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 fellaheen were heirs to the practices of the earlier pre-monotheistic inhabitants of Palestine, "who built the first high places." Also covered in this work are therapeutic bathing rituals people undertook to cure diseases and ailments, with descriptions of the specific water sources perceived to be especially holy or effective. Canaan noted how people with fevers, many from malaria, would drink from al-Suhada cistern in Hebron and bathe in springs in Silwan, Kolonia (Ein al-Samiya) and Nebi Ayyub (Ein al-Nebi Ayyub) and a well in Beit Jibrin for al-Sheikh Ibrahim. Specific swamps were also considered to be sacred healing places.Al-Matbaa at Tel al-Sammam in the Plain of Esdraelon, associated with the wali ("saint") al-Sheik Ibrek, was widely renowned for curing sterility, rheumatism and nervous pains. <mask> noted that after washing in its water, women seeking to conceive would offer a present to al-Sheikh Ibrek. Archaeology & ethnography
Among <mask>'s acquaintances were a number of specialists in the field of Palestinian archaeology, including William Foxwell Albright, Nelson Glueck, and Kathleen Kenyon, and his interest in the history of the region naturally extended to the field of archaeology. In 1929, he participated in an archaeological expedition in Petra organized by George Horsfield, and discovered at its northern boundary a Kebaran shelter that he named Wadi Madamagh. That same year he published a five chapter article, "Studies in the Topography and Folklore of Petra", in the JPOS that included topographical maps with Arabic names for the features and sites that he collected from the local Bedouin population, along with oral histories associated with them. He also devoted a chapter to an ethnographic


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 study of the Lijatne tribe, and politely dispelled their erroneous identification as "Simeonites or other Beni-Israel" by non-Arabic speaking authors, due to their sidelocks, noting it just happened to be a recent fashion among them at the time. Nationalist writings

<mask>'s politics and strong sense of nationalism find clear expression in two of his published works: The Palestine Arab Cause (1936) and Conflict in the Land of Peace (1936).Published in English, Arabic, and French, The Palestine Arab Cause was a 48-page booklet that collated a series of articles <mask> authored for the local and foreign press following the outbreak of the 1936 Arab revolt. <mask> described British policy in Palestine as, "a destructive campaign against the Arabs with the ultimate aim of exterminating them from their country." He questioned the nationality laws enacted by the Mandatory authorities which prevented Palestinian immigrants in the Americas, who had been citizens of the Ottoman Empire, from obtaining Palestinian citizenship in Mandate Palestine. Directed at influencing British public opinion, the writings were seen by the Mandatory authorities as subversive. Conflict in the Land of Peace was penned to respond to an anonymous rebuttal of "The Palestine Arab Cause" that claimed European Jewish immigration to Palestine brought benefits, such as improvements in agriculture and the general health of the peasantry. <mask> delves more deeply into the Palestine problem and deconstructs the alleged benefits. For example, he concedes that Zionist settlers did contribute to controlling the malaria epidemic in Palestine through the draining of swamps, but notes that the workers who performed the actual task were Arabs, who thus


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 transformed lands purchased by Zionist owners at very low prices into more valuable agricultural lands for their exclusive benefit.Recalling that dozens of the Egyptian labourers employed to dig the drainage channels died in the process, <mask> writes: "Baron De Rothschild supplied the money and the Egyptians gave their lives." <mask> further notes that the anonymous pamphleteer ignores that Palestinians and Arabs drained swamps in dozens of sites throughout Palestine, under the supervision of the Department of Health, with Arab financial support and volunteer labour, caring for and improving their own lands and lives. <mask> was also co-signatory to a document sent to the Higher Arab Committee on 6 August 1936, and there is reason to believe that he supported Arab armed resistance. From 1936 onward, <mask>, clearly expressed his rejection of British policies, in particular the policy of Zionist immigration to Palestine. Published works
(Partial list)

Folklore and ethnography

Alternative:  See also Jumana Emil Abboud

Alt:

  (translated from German by William Templer)
orig:

Politics
  (48-page booklet)
  (Published in English, Arabic, and French)

Medical

War & Nakba

Imprisonment of <mask>, his wife, and his sister
<mask> was arrested by the British Mandate authorities the same day that Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. Ordered released at his second court session, the Criminal Investigation Department intervened and had him imprisoned for nine weeks in Acre. His wife Margot and his sister Badra were also arrested, and imprisoned at a women's facility for criminal prisoners in Bethlehem; Margot for nine months, and Badra for four


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 medical associations  to send help, and limited medical aid was sent by some in the Arab world. Canaan was also a founding member of the Higher Arab Relief Committee, established on 24 January 1948, to receive aid coming to the country and supervise its distribution. The Nakba

Bombs and mortar shells hit Arab houses in al-Musrarah quarter of Jerusalem where the Canaan family home was located on 22 February 1948. Shortly thereafter, the children were moved to a safer location, but <mask>, Margot, Badra, and Nora (his sister-in-law) stayed, until the house sustained a direct hit on 9 May 1948. The extended family all then went to stay at a convent in the Old City in a room given to them by the  Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, where they lived for two and a half years.<mask>'s daughter Leila Mantoura wrote of this time: "Mother and father would go daily to the top of the Wall of Jerusalem to look at their home. They witnessed it being ransacked, together with the wonderful priceless library and manuscripts, which mother guarded jealously and with great pride. They saw mother's Biedermeyer furniture being loaded into trucks and then their home being set on fire." <mask>'s family home, library, and three manuscripts ready for publication were destroyed in the process. His collection of amulets and icons was spared, as it had already been entrusted to an international organization in the western part of Jerusalem earlier that same year for safekeeping. Awards
 Order of the Red Crescent (in World War I)
 Iron Cross of 1914
 Holy Sepulchre Cross with a red ribbon, awarded by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch (1951)
 Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1951)

See also
 Saint George Interfaith

masks: Tawfiq Canaan Canaan


title: Tawfiq Canaan

texts:
 shrine
Palestinian Christians

References

Bibliography

  Originally presented in 1988 as author's thesis (doctoral) at Fachbereich Evangelische Theologie of Philipps-Universität in Marburg

External links
 The Tawfiq <mask> Collection of Palestinian Amulets – A virtual gallery
The Great War in Palestine: Dr <mask> <mask>’s Photographic Album, Norbert Schwake, 2014, Jerusalem Quarterly, Institute for Palestine Studies

1882 births
1964 deaths
People from Beit Jala
Arab people in Mandatory Palestine
Ottoman Army personnel
Ottoman military personnel of World War I
Palestinian Lutherans
20th-century Palestinian physicians
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914)
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Arabs in Ottoman Palestine
Palestinian Christians
20th-century physicians of the Ottoman Empire
20th-century Lutherans
Palestine

masks: Canaan Tawfiq Canaan


title: Aqualung (musician)

texts:
Matthew Nicholas Hales (born 17 January 1972) is an English songwriter, musician, and record producer who has been performing professionally under the name Aqualung since the early 2000s. <mask> is best known in the UK for his song "Strange and Beautiful," which was featured on a television advertisement for the new Volkswagen Beetle during the summer of 2002 and went on to become a Top 10 hit in the UK Singles Chart later that year. In the United States, Aqualung is also known for the song "Brighter Than Sunshine," which had considerable airplay and was used in the film A Lot Like Love and various television spots. Hales has released six albums as Aqualung. The most recent, 10 Futures, appeared in 2015. As a songwriter and record producer, Hales has collaborated with Lianne La Havas, Bat for Lashes, Tom Chaplin, Mika, Daniel Wilson, Kina Grannis, Andreya Triana, The Fray, Kwabs, Jason Mraz, Reignwolf, Sara Bareilles, Jacob Banks, Paloma Faith, Disclosure, Alex Clare, Mansionair, Mikky Ekko, For King & Country and many others. Hales' work has earned him various awards and nominations, including two Grammy and three Ivor Novello nominations.Life and career

Early life
Hales grew up in Southampton, where his parents ran an independent record shop. He aspired to be a musician from an early age, writing songs using the family piano when he was just 4 years old. When he was 16, Hales was awarded a scholarship to study music composition at Winchester College. Within a year, he wrote his first symphony titled "Life Cycle," and formed his first band, which carried several different names during its lifespan. In the spring of 1990, the band (known at the time as Mecano Pig) produced their debut


title: Aqualung (musician)

texts: eponymous debut album Aqualung, which according to the sleeve notes was recorded entirely in Hales' hallway. It peaked at No. 15 on the UK Albums Chart, and achieved Gold status before year's end. The album's second single "Good Times Gonna Come" was released on 2 December 2002.It was featured on the British television show Skins, and reached No. 71 on the UK Singles Chart. Several singles followed into the next year, as did Aqualung's second album Still Life, which spawned the single "Brighter Than Sunshine". The song attracted the attention of film and television music supervisors in both Europe and North America, and was featured in the television show CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and the motion picture A Lot Like Love. "Brighter Than Sunshine" enjoyed Top 40 airplay success in the United States, leading <mask> to a worldwide recording contract with Columbia Records in 2005, and the US release of Strange and Beautiful, a compilation of tracks from his first two UK albums. It reached No. 3 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart, eventually selling more than 250,000 copies in the US.Throughout the mid and late 2000s, Aqualung's music was used in television shows such as Grey's Anatomy, The O.C., CSI: Miami, Gossip Girl, Cold Case, Scrubs, One Tree Hill, Eli Stone, and Brothers and Sisters. Hales and his touring band spent the next two years performing throughout North America, participating in the Hotel Cafe Tour, which also featured Cary Brothers, Meiko, Greg Laswell, Tom McRae, Joe Purdy, and Jim Bianco. While on the road, Hales would routinely switch up the Aqualung show with different musicians, settings, and approaches. The diverse elements he explored during these tours (including the


title: Jodie Prenger

texts:
<mask> (born 12 June 1979) is an English actress and singer, best known as the winner of BBC television series I'd Do Anything on 31 May 2008 and the second series of The Biggest Loser in 2006. Early life
Prenger was educated at Elmslie Girls' School in Blackpool and Blackpool and the Fylde College before starting work in the area as an entertainer. She has performed extensively on the cabaret circuit in Northern England and particularly her hometown of Blackpool and Fylde coast where she has also worked as an agony aunt. In June 1998 she appeared in two different shows each night in two Blackpool theatres. First she had a solo spot in the Tiptoes Summer Spectacular at the resort's Opera House theatre before appearing 20 minutes later in one of the main roles in a Blackpool and the Fylde College production of the musical comedy Hot Mikado at the Grand Theatre. <mask>'s first appearance on television came in 1999 when she appeared on A Taste for Travel on Granada Television with her mother. In 2000 she took part in the Dale Winton show The Other Half on BBC One in which she had to pretend to be the wife of boxer Chris Eubank.Later that year, she played the role of the good witch Hurricane in a non-skating role in Halloween Spectacular on Ice at Alton Towers in Staffordshire. In 2001, she spent eight months as one of four main entertainers in a team of 19 aboard the cruise ship Disney Wonder. Career

The Biggest Loser

Prenger won the second series of The Biggest Loser in 2006, making her the first female in the world to win the show, starting the show a size 22 and weighing . During the series, she lost over . Her final weight was  and she slimmed

masks:
Jodie Prenger
Prenger


title: Jodie Prenger

texts:
 down to a size 10 before settling at a size 14/16. Prenger won £25,000 for winning the series. In 2006, <mask> <mask> was also featured on Charlotte Coyle's Fat Beauty Contest on Channel 4, where Coyle searched for plus sized models for a beauty pageant.On 10 March 2009, <mask> appeared on The Paul O'Grady Show and spoke about her time on The Biggest Loser. On seeing a picture of herself after initially losing weight, she said that she believed she lost too much weight and became too thin at that time. She also commented that she believed all women should have curves. I'd Do Anything

<mask> was the winner of I'd Do Anything on 31 May 2008, giving her the opportunity to play Nancy in a West End revival of the British musical Oliver! at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Prenger attended auditions for the show in Manchester in January 2008, and made it through to the final 42 at "Nancy School" from where she was eventually chosen as one of the twelve finalists to perform in the live shows each week. After her performance of "Chasing Pavements" in the first live show of the series, <mask> was the joint favourite to win.Panelist John Barrowman said, "I love you to death, you connected with everyone and told the story – that's making a good Nancy!" while Denise Van Outen, another panellist, commented that "Nancy needs to have a lot of life experience and I see that coming through in your performance. It was absolutely brilliant". Barry Humphries, another panellist, who had played Mr Sowerberry, the undertaker, in the original Lionel Bart West End stage production, said "You've got that toughness and also a tenderness. A beautiful performance and a fine

masks: Jodie Prenger Prenger Prenger Prenger


title: Jodie Prenger

texts: actress." Head judge Andrew Lloyd Webber said that <mask> could "absolutely play this role." In week five Humphries said that <mask> was "destined for the West End", and in week eight Barrowman labelled <mask> his "perfect Nancy".In the week leading up to the final in week ten, the Nancy finalists posed for publicity pictures recreating some of Madonna's iconic images. <mask> posed in a wedding dress to recreate the cover of the album Like a Virgin. On 30 May, Webber revealed that theatrical producer Cameron Mackintosh, who produced the show in the West End, and joined the panel in week nine, was concerned about her curvaceous figure saying, "Cameron thinks she is a bit too big and has more or less said so". However, Webber defended Prenger, saying that she had both the vocal talents and personality for the role, saying "Jodie could be anybody's idea of Nancy – I can see it absolutely. She has got a lovely voice and a super personality. She has experience as well." In the final, on 31 May, Prenger performed a total number of seven songs including her performance of "As Long as He Needs Me" after she was announced as winner.She also performed "I'd Do Anything" with all the Nancy and Oliver finalists; "Son of a Preacher Man"; "Getting to Know You" from the musical The King and I with Laurence ; "Maybe This Time" from the film Cabaret with Jessie Buckley and Samantha Barks as well as also singing "As Long as he Needs Me" and "I Have Nothing" from A Star Is Born before the final vote. Of her performance of "Son of a Preacher Man", Mackintosh said: "<mask> has convinced me that she could make a Nancy. You absolutely deserve to be in the final." Barrowman

masks: Jodie Prenger Prenger Prenger Jodie


title: Jodie Prenger

texts:
 said, "every song she sings, you believe the words. I look forward to the day I can guest star with you on the West End stage!" and Webber said, "that was a very, very, very good performance. You have an outsize talent, and a very strong voice.I just don't know if it's going to be quite enough tonight, but it might be." In the second part of the live final, <mask> performed her favourite song from the series, "I Have Nothing", and Nancy's tragic love ballad, "As Long As He Needs Me". After she was announced as the winner, <mask> said, "You have genuinely given me my dream, I can't actually put into words how I feel. I'm so grateful and so chuffed. I'm just <mask> from Blackpool and to be here is my dream." Andrew Lloyd Webber said, "The people's Nancy. <mask> was always going to be the people's choice," adding " I think people love her, they love her open personality.I think they relate to that personality and I think that's what makes her Nancy for the public. Her strengths are her personality and her very, very strong voice." Mackintosh said, "I'm thrilled for <mask>, congratulations!" adding, "She is obviously the public's view of what they want to see as Nancy. She'll give a terrific performance and I really look forward to putting her into training and getting her into rehearsals." Please note this is a list of her individual performances only

Theatre
In June 2008, it was confirmed that <mask> would be performing six of the eight weekly shows of Oliver! after it opened at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane on 12 December 2008.She performed on Monday and Tuesday evenings, Wednesday matinees, Friday evenings and both the matinee and evening shows each

masks: Prenger Prenger Jodie Jodie Jodie Prenger


title: Jodie Prenger

texts: Saturday. Prior to that she appeared in the ensemble in Les Misérables at the Queen's Theatre from 26 August 2008, in order to gain some experience of performing in the West End. Oliver! opened successfully on 14 January 2009, and <mask> received positive reviews. On 16 March 2009, a new cast recording of the revival was released with <mask> and the rest of the cast. For her role as Nancy, <mask> received the Theatregoers' Choice Whatsonstage Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Musical. She played her final performance as Nancy on 27 March 2010, and was succeeded by fellow West End leading lady Kerry Ellis, who is best known for her role as Elphaba in the hit musical Wicked.<mask> reprised the role of Nancy once more, for two one-off performances on 13 November 2010, whilst Ellis was absent. After winning I'd Do Anything, <mask> was given a civic reception in her hometown of Blackpool on 7 June 2008, with a specially erected stage in front of the town hall where she performed several songs from Oliver!. On 24 August 2008, she performed in a "Music Under the Stars" event at the annual Faenol Festival held near Y Felinheli in Gwynedd, North Wales. <mask> played the role of The Lady of the Lake in the UK tour of the hit musical Spamalot, which began performances at New Wimbledon Theatre on 29 May 2010. She was also cast as Diane in the new drama series, Candy Cabs, about a group of friends who set up a female-only taxi company in a seaside town in Northern England. In 2015, <mask> played Miss Hannigan in the UK tour of the musical Annie at Oxford's New Theatre. <mask> appeared in One Man, Two Guvnors at the Haymarket Theatre in London, alongside

masks: Prenger Prenger Prenger Prenger Prenger Prenger Prenger Prenger


title: Jodie Prenger

texts:
 Owain Arthur who took over the role of Francis Henshall from Tony award-winning actor James Corden.<mask> played Elsie Tanner in the ill-fated Street of Dreams, the Coronation Street musical written by Trisha Ward. The show finally premiered in May 2012 after its opening was delayed by more than a month at the Manchester Arena and then was supposed to tour around major UK arenas, It closed after a couple of nights amid controversy. <mask> was in an episode of the food factory titled "Just Add Water". <mask> performed in the UK tour of Tell Me on a Sunday before taking on the title role in the UK tour of Shirley Valentine. In 2017/18 <mask> played the lead role of Kelly in the world premiere of Kay Mellor's Fat Friends The Musical alongside Andrew Flintoff, Sam Bailey, Kevin Kennedy, Natalie Anderson, Neil Hurst and Rachel Wooding

2019 saw <mask> touring in Abigail's Party alongside Coronation Street's Vicky Binns. Television and radio
In 2013, Prenger participated in Let's Dance for Comic Relief. Boyzone's Keith Duffy had originally planned to participate in the programme, but was unable to compete due to private matters.<mask> then took his place on the show. Her first appearance was in the third heat on 2 March 2013, where she danced to the song "Word Up" by Cameo. She was saved by the public, and as a result, made it through to the final on 9 March 2013 where she finished second place to Antony Cotton. In July 2009, <mask> was a guest panellist on ITV's Loose Women. She occasionally presented the midweek National Lottery draw on BBC One. In June 2011, <mask> appeared in an episode of Waterloo Road, playing Linda Wickes. She has been a regular

masks: Prenger Prenger Jodie Prenger Jodie Prenger Prenger Prenger


title: Jodie Prenger

texts:
 contributor on The Alan Titchmarsh Show and This Morning.Prenger also frequently sits in for Paul O'Grady and Elaine Paige, when they are absent from their BBC Radio 2 shows. On 4 December 2011 <mask> appeared on CBeebies Justin's House. <mask> host's the weekly 'Mishaps Podcast' with Emmerdale actress Natalie Anderson and Neil Hurst

Other work
On 23 February 2009, Prenger released her autobiography, It's a Fine Life. Personal life
<mask> was engaged to her boyfriend, Steve Greengrass, who proposed to her after the Saturday show in week three of I'd Do Anything on 12 April 2008; a whirlwind romance which was featured throughout the series as their first date some three months earlier had been Prenger's audition in Manchester. She split from Greengrass a few weeks after the show's finale. In April 2012, Prenger announced her engagement to boyfriend of two years, Simon Booth, soon after her father Marty died of kidney cancer. Theatre Credits

Filmography
Television
The Biggest Loser (2006) – Participant, winner
I'd Do Anything (2008) – Participant, winner
Loose Women (2009) – Guest panellist
The National Lottery Draws (2009–2011) – Presenter
Candy Cabs (2011) – Diane
Born to Shine (2011) – Participant
Sing If You Can (2011) – Participant
Waterloo Road (2011) – Linda Wickes
Hustle (2012) – Carol
Let's Dance for Comic Relief (2013) – Participant
Wizards vs Aliens (2013) – Mrs. Meeks
Casualty (2015) – Sorcha Greene
Jamie Johnson (2017) – Joanne Simmonds
Years and Years (2019) – Debbie Green
Shakespeare & Hathaway: Private Investigators (2022) – Val Twigg

Guest appearances
Celebrity Bargain Hunt
New Year Live (2008)
As Seen on TV (2009)
All Star Family

masks: Jodie Jodie Prenger


title: Walter Alvarez

texts:
<mask> (born October 3, 1940) is a professor in the Earth and Planetary Science department at the University of California, Berkeley. He is most widely known for the theory that dinosaurs were killed by an asteroid impact, developed in collaboration with his father, Nobel Prize winning physicist <mask>. Biography
Born in Berkeley, California, <mask> is the son of <mask>, a Nobel prize-winner in physics, and Geraldine Smithwick. His grandfather was the famed physician <mask><mask> and his great-grandfather, Spanish-born Luis F<mask>, worked as a doctor in Hawaii and developed a method for the better diagnosis of macular leprosy. His great-aunt <mask> was a noted California artist and oil painter. <mask> earned his B.A. in geology in 1962 from Carleton College in Minnesota and Ph.D. in geology from Princeton University in 1967.He worked for American Overseas Petroleum Limited in the Netherlands, and in Libya at the time of Colonel Gadaffi's revolution. Having developed a side interest in archaeological geology, he left the oil company and spent some time in Italy, studying the Roman volcanics and their influence on patterns of settlement in early Roman times. <mask> then moved to Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory of Columbia University, and began studying the Mediterranean tectonics in the light of the new theory of plate tectonics. His work on tectonic paleomagnetism in Italy led to a study of the geomagnetic reversals recorded in Italian deep-sea limestones. <mask> and his colleagues were able to date the reversals for an interval of more than 100 million years of the Earth's history by using Foraminifera biostratigraphy. Impact theory

<mask> and his father Luis W<mask> are most widely known for their discovery (with Frank Asaro and Helen Michel) that a clay layer occurring right at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary was highly enriched in the element iridium. Since iridium enrichment is common in asteroids, but very uncommon on the

masks:
Walter Alvarez
Luis Alvarez
Alvarez
Luis Walter Alvarez
Walter C
. Alvarez
. Alvarez
Mabel Alvarez
Alvarez
Alvarez
Alvarez
Alvarez
. Alvarez


title: Walter Alvarez

texts:
 Earth, they further postulated that the layer had been created by the impact of a large asteroid with the Earth and that this impact was the likely cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.This iridium enrichment has now been observed in many other sites around the world. In addition, the immense Chicxulub crater off the northeast coast of the Yucatan Peninsula was identified and is now regarded as the definitive evidence of a large impact, and perhaps the cause of the event. Consequently, a majority of scientists now accept an impact scenario as the most likely cause for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction which occurred 66 million years ago and was responsible for the elimination of 75% of all then-existent species, including all non-avian dinosaurs. His book, T. Rex and the Crater of Doom, details the discovery of the event. In addition to his interest in extinction events and impacts, <mask> has contributed to the understanding of Mediterranean tectonics, Roman geology and archeology, and the establishment of magnetostratigraphic correlations. Big History

<mask> began teaching a course in Big History at UC Berkeley in 2006 under the title "Big History: Cosmos, Earth, Life, Humanity." He last taught the course in 2011 where it was videotaped and made freely available online.According to <mask>, Big History is the "attempt to understand, in a unified and interdisciplinary way, the history of the Cosmos, Earth, Life and Humanity." This definition was later adopted by the International Big History Association (IBHA). <mask>'s course is open to all majors and grade levels and seeks to provide a broad understanding of the past, present and future. <mask> helped organize a meeting of Big Historians at the Geological Observatory at Coldigioco in Italy in 2010 which resulted in the establishment of the International Big History Association. In 2011, the IBHA is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization. <mask> was one of the founding members of

masks: Alvarez Alvarez Alvarez Alvarez Alvarez Alvarez


title: Walter Alvarez

texts:
 the IBHA, and served on the advisory board until August 7, 2014 when he stepped down at the 2014 IBHA conference held at Dominican University of California. ChronoZoom

<mask>'s most recent contribution to the field of Big History has been the creation of a free, open source, zoomable timeline in partnership with Microsoft Research called ChronoZoom.ChronoZoom is a computer-graphical approach to dealing with this problem of visualizing and understanding time scales, and presenting vast quantities of historical information in a useful way. ChronoZoom was introduced at the 97th Annual Faculty Research Lecture at UC Berkeley. Awards and honors

<mask> is the recipient of numerous awards and honors. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1983, and elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1991. He was awarded the 2006 Nevada Medal, the 2008 Vetlesen Prize, and the Penrose Medal from the Geological Society of America. In 2005, he received the doctorate "Honoris Causa" in Geological Sciences from the University of Siena, Italy. Minor planet 3581 <mask> is named after him and his father, <mask> <mask>.Works
T. Rex and the Crater of Doom (Princeton University Press, 1997)
The Mountains of Saint Francis: The Geologic Events that Shaped Our Earth (W. W. Norton, December 2008)
A Most Improbable Journey: A Big History of our Planet and Ourselves (W. W. Norton, 2016)

References

External links
<mask>'s Berkeley homepage
ChronoZoom project homepage

1940 births
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Living people
American geologists
Carleton College alumni
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
Big History
Penrose Medal winners
Princeton University alumni
Columbia University faculty
People from Berkeley, California
American people of Asturian descent
American people of Spanish descent
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Barringer Medal

masks:
Alvarez
Alvarez
Alvarez
Luis Walter
Alvarez
Walter Alvarez


title: Alfred Manessier

texts:
<mask> (5 December 1911, Saint-Ouen – 1 August 1993, Orléans) was a non-figurative French painter, stained glass artist, and tapestry designer, part of the new School of Paris and the Salon de Mai. Biography
<mask> was born among fishers and masons in the Picardy province of Northern France. There was a family precedent for creative work, as the grandfather was a decorative stonemason while his father and uncle had studied at Ecole des Beaux Arts at Abbeville. The "father gave the young man permission to go to Paris on condition that he studied architecture, which was a safer occupation than that of painter. It was not until his father, then a wholesale wine merchant in Amiens, suddenly died that he was able to change over" to his preferred art studies. He had enrolled in architecture in 1929, switched to art with Roger Bissiere at Académie Ranson in 1935 just prior to the father's death in 1936. In 1937 at the Paris International Exposition, the French government appointed Sonia Delaunay and Robert Delaunay to represent avant-garde art in Paris transportation centers such as Air Palace and Railways Palace.The couple was given the task to employ and reside with 50 unemployed artists for March and April to create a substantial project of  of artwork. Among the artists were Bissiere, Jean Bertholle, and <mask>, who worked on four murals. The following year he married painter Therese Simonnet. In 1939 Manessier was called into military conscription, as a technical draftsman. In 1940, expecting the birth of his son, he found work as a farmhand to support the growing family

masks:
Alfred Manessier
Manessier
Manessier


title: Edén Pastora

texts:
<mask> (November 15, 1936 or January 22, 1937 – June 16, 2020) was a Nicaraguan politician and guerrilla who ran for president as the candidate of the Alternative for Change (AC) party in the 2006 general elections. In the years prior to the fall of the Somoza regime, <mask> was the leader of the Southern Front, the largest militia in southern Nicaragua, second only to the FSLN (Sandinista National Liberation Front) in the north. <mask> was nicknamed Comandante Cero ("Commander Zero"). His group was the first to call itself "Sandinistas", and was also the first to accept an alliance with the FSLN, the group that was to become more popularly identified by the name. At the end of 1982, a few years after the revolutionary victory, <mask> became disillusioned with the government of the FSLN, and formed the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE) with the object of confronting the "pseudo-Sandinistas" politically and militarily. As of 2010, he was reconciled with the FSLN and held a ministerial post in the government of Daniel Ortega. His role in a border dispute with Costa Rica and allegations of environmental damage to territory claimed by that country led to legal indictment by the government of Costa Rica.Sandinista

<mask> was born in Ciudad Darío. When he was seven, <mask>'s father was killed in a boundary dispute. While in high school with the Jesuits in Granada, he first learned about Augusto César Sandino through his Panamanian history teacher. He began his rebel career when he decided that the government of Anastasio Somoza Debayle was corrupt and formed the southern Nicaraguan ARDE from local peasant farmers (called campesinos) and aboriginal tribes living according to more traditional ways. <mask> allied himself with the FSLN in the mid-1960s. He became a rebel guerrilla and was the mastermind behind the August 1978 standoff in the Nicaraguan National Palace, in which he and 19 FSLN commandos disguised as members of Somoza's National Guard stormed the Palace, disarming or killing the real Nicaraguan National Guard members. Among the hostages taken were members

masks:
Edén Atanacio Pastora Gómez
Pastora
Pastora
Pastora
Pastora
Pastora
Pastora


title: Edén Pastora

texts:
 of the Nicaraguan Congress, which was in session at the time of the attack, and Somoza's half brother, José Somoza.Members of the commando used numbers as codenames, with <mask> as Zero, and Dora Maria Tellez as Commander "two" leading to a lasting identification of Eden as Comandante Cero and Dora Maria as Commander "two." The operation infuriated Somoza and was considered one of the turning points in the insurgency. Originally organized to free FSLN members imprisoned by the regime — among the prisoners being Daniel Ortega and Tomas Borge — the raid marked an uncontested victory for the FSLN. After negotiating a USD $500,000 deal with Somoza and Cardinal Miguel Obando, <mask>, Ortega and other released prisoners left for Cuba, where he claimed to have been a "prisoner" lavished with women and luxury, but not allowed to leave the country until Martín Torrijos, the son of then Panamanian strongman Omar Torrijos and <mask>'s personal friend, voiced his concern and went to Cuba to rescue him personally. <mask> was put in command of the FSLN's Southern Front, advancing on the town of Rivas from bases in Costa Rica. In reaction to <mask>'s widely held reputation, Somoza sent his best troops against him and as a consequence the Southern Front made little headway while suffering heavy casualties. However, the Southern Front contributed to the Sandinista victory by tying down over 2,000 heavily equipped Nicaraguan National Guard forces, as Somoza remained fixated on stopping Pastora, even as major cities fell to the rebels.Contra

<mask> became disenchanted with the turn of the revolution when most of the Sandinista leaders moved to the luxury residences of Managua; he felt the leadership was doing too little to benefit the campesinos and aboriginal tribes he represented and was overly concerned with propagating ideological consistency in a poorly concealed bid to consolidate Ortega's political power. Consequently, <mask> turned against the Sandinista regime to fight against it. He once again began military operations in southern Nicaragua, loosely federated with northern

masks: Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora


title: Edén Pastora

texts:
 forces which, composed mostly of highly paid former National Guard members and some Miskito Indians, were collectively referred to as the Contras. From a military standpoint, <mask>'s efforts contributed much less than did forces in the north. <mask> also received less support from the US government; whether his performance was a result or cause of this disparity is subject to debate. Military achievements aside, the presence of <mask>, a former FSLN revolutionary hero, among the Contras, helped the public image of the Contras abroad and provided a sort of public-relations counterweight to the bad reputation accorded to the FDN faction (mostly led by ex-National-Guard "Somocistas"). However, <mask> soon lost whatever popularity he might have had among common Nicaraguans as he adopted the strategy of the northern Contras, committing human rights abuses while mostly avoiding direct encounters with the Nicaraguan military.In 1984, <mask> was apparently the intended target of the La Penca bombing, which killed four people at a press conference he was holding. He was seriously wounded. <mask> became disillusioned with Nicaragua and became a refugee in Costa Rica during the 1990s, where he became a citizen. Later, however, he returned to Nicaragua. Later years
<mask> since opened a shark fishing business in San Juan del Norte on the San Juan River along the border with Costa Rica. He was seen at a Sandinista demonstration over the slow certification of winners in the November 5, 2000 municipal elections. Álvaro Pardo made a documentary about <mask> in 2006 called Edén Pastora - Commandante Cero.It portrays <mask>'s return to the political arena of Nicaragua when he was nominated as a candidate for the mayor of Managua. <mask> ran for president in the general election of 2006. He finished in fifth place, with 0.29% of the vote. In 2008, <mask> announced that he had become reconciled with the current FSLN and pledged support for the government of Daniel Ortega. He is quoted as saying, "this government is making a revolution, one-eyed or lame, but it is a revolution." As of

masks: Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora


title: Edén Pastora

texts:
 2010, he held the title of Minister of Development of the Rio San Juan Basin. In November 2010, in perhaps the most publicized Costa Rican arrest warrant issued in years, prosecutors in northern Caribbean canton of Pococí announced that <mask>, now 73 years old, had been indicted for severe environmental damage caused in the eastern Limón province near the Río San Juan that the Republic of Nicaragua claims to be a part of their territory.In a taunt taken at face value by many in the international media, <mask> (and the Nicaraguan Government) based his arguments not on official maps but on faulty border information obtained from Google Maps. <mask> and his soldiers invaded the Caleros Island in order to create a channel connecting the San Juan River with the Atlantic Ocean. The government of Costa Rica, which disputes ownership of the island with Nicaragua, holds that this has caused irreparable ecological destruction. In April 2015 photos show the now 78-year-old <mask> watching as the canal that provoked the international incident was filled with sand. He is well above the ground watching from a ladder lashed to trees. Personal life and death
<mask> had three failed marriages. Lamenting about the interpersonal strains that occur in the life of a revolutionary, <mask> said: "The first thing we revolutionaries lose is our wives.The last thing we lose is our lives. In between our women and our lives, we lose our freedom, our happiness, our means of living." <mask> died at a military hospital in Managua on June 16, 2020, at the age of 83. The cause of death was reported variously as either respiratory failure or a heart attack. While hospitalized, <mask> was also treated for symptoms of COVID-19, although his grandson said he was not tested for the coronavirus. See also
 CIA and Contras cocaine trafficking in the US

References

1930s births
2020 deaths
Alternative for Change politicians
Guerrilla warfare theorists
Nicaraguan anti-communists
Nicaraguan revolutionaries
People from Matagalpa Department
People of the Nicaraguan Revolution
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in

masks: Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora Pastora


title: Chick Strand

texts:
Mildred "<mask>" <mask> (December 3, 1931 – July 11, 2009) was an experimental filmmaker, "a pioneer in blending avant-garde techniques with documentary". <mask> contributed to the movement of women's experimental cinema in the early 1960s1970's. <mask>'s film making and directing approach incorporates personal elements from her own life experiences and societal forces and realities. The film Elasticity (1976) is an example of <mask>'s attempts at autobiographical work that also incorporates Strand's specific standpoint on certain social issues. Feminist issues and anthropological inquiries about the human condition are frequent themes in Strand's films. However, because <mask>'s films and work were often deeply personal and subjective, they were often rejected from male-dominated academic circles of anthropologists and critiqued for being non-academic works. Biography
Born Mildred D. Totman in Northern California she was given the nickname "<mask>" by her father.She married her first husband, Paul Anderson <mask>, in 1957, and they had one son, film editor <mask>, best known for his work on Donnie Darko. <mask> <mask> studied anthropology at Berkeley, and in the early 1960s organized film happenings with Bruce Baillie. Bruce Baillie taught <mask> <mask> basic film technique before launching film projects together. Before becoming involved with film making, <mask> was interested in photography and collages due to taking a photography course early on in life. In 1961, <mask> established the Canyon CinemaNews, a monthly filmmakers' journal which became a focal point for the West Coast independent film movement. Baillie, among others, founded a filmmakers' collective called Canyon Cinema in 1967. <mask> <mask> made her first film at age 34.<mask> met her second husband, Neon Park, an artist, in the early 1960s in Berkeley. They were collaborators in art and life for over 30 years, dividing their time between Los Angeles and San Miguel de Allende, a small town in Mexico. Neon Park died from ALS (Lou Gehrig's disease) in 1993. In 1966 she enrolled in the

masks:
Chick
Strand
Chick Strand
Strand
Strand
Strand
Chick
Strand
Eric Strand
Chick
Strand
Chick
Strand
Strand
Strand
Chick
Strand
Strand