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 In November 1933, <mask> signed the Vow of allegiance of the Professors of the German Universities and High-Schools to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialistic State. <mask> resigned the rectorate in April 1934, but remained a member of the Nazi Party until 1945 even though the Nazis eventually prevented him from publishing. In the autumn of 1944, <mask> was drafted into the Volkssturm, assigned to dig anti-tank ditches along the Rhine. <mask>'s Black Notebooks, written between 1931 and 1959 and first published in 2014, contain several expressions of anti-semitic sentiments, which have led to a reevaluation of <mask>'s relation to Nazism.Having analysed the Black Notebooks, Donatella di Cesare asserts in her book Heidegger and the Jews that "metaphysical anti-semitism" and antipathy toward Jews was central to <mask>'s philosophical work. <mask>, according to di Cesare, considered Jewish people to be agents of modernity disfiguring the spirit of Western civilization; he held the Holocaust to be the logical result of the Jewish acceleration of technology, and thus blamed the Jewish genocide on its victims themselves. Post-war
In late 1946, as France engaged in épuration légale in its occupation zone, the French military authorities determined that <mask> should be blocked from teaching or participating in any university activities because of his association with the Nazi Party. The denazification procedures against <mask> continued until March 1949 when he was finally pronounced a Mitläufer (the second lowest of five categories of "incrimination" by association with the Nazi regime). No punitive measures against

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 him were proposed. This opened the way for his readmission to teaching at Freiburg University in the winter semester of 1950–51. He was granted emeritus status and then taught regularly from 1951 until 1958, and by invitation until 1967.Personal life

<mask> married Elfride Petri on 21 March 1917, in a Catholic ceremony officiated by his friend , and a week later in a Protestant ceremony in the presence of her parents. Their first son, Jörg, was born in 1919. Elfride then gave birth to  in August 1920. <mask> knew that he was not Hermann's biological father but raised him as his son. Hermann's biological father, who became godfather to his son, was family friend and doctor Friedel Caesar. Hermann was told of this at the age of 14; Hermann became a historian and would later serve as the executor of <mask>'s will. <mask> died on 13 January 2020.<mask> spent much time at his vacation home at Todtnauberg, on the edge of the Black Forest. He considered the seclusion provided by the forest to be the best environment in which to engage in philosophical thought. He was a wine connoisseur, an avid hiker and an accomplished skier; he held seminars on the way up mountains and would then ski back down with his students. A few months before his death, he met with Bernhard Welte, a Catholic priest, Freiburg University professor and earlier correspondent. The exact nature of their conversation is not known, but what is known is that it included talk of <mask>'s relationship to the Catholic Church and subsequent Christian burial at which the priest officiated. <mask> died on 26 May 1976 in Meßkirch and was buried in the

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 Meßkirch cemetery. Relationships
<mask> had a long romantic relationship with Hannah Arendt and a decades-long affair with Elisabeth Blochmann, both students of his.Arendt was Jewish, and Blochmann had one Jewish parent, making them subject to severe persecution by the Nazi authorities. The 35-year-old <mask>, who was married with two young sons, began a long romantic relationship with 17-year-old Arendt  Arendt later faced criticism for this because of <mask>'s support for the Nazi Party after his election as rector at the University of Freiburg in 1933. They agreed to keep the details of the relationship a secret, preserving their letters but keeping them unavailable. The relationship was not known until Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography of Arendt appeared in 1982. At the time of publishing, Arendt and <mask> were deceased and <mask>'s wife, Elfride (1893–1992), was still alive. The affair was not well known until 1995, when Elzbieta Ettinger gained access to the sealed correspondence. It is probably fair to say that, after that with Hannah Arendt, Blochmann had one of the most important extramarital affairs with <mask> (as is known since 2005, <mask> led something of an open marriage and his wife Elfriede both knew about his affairs and conducted her own).Elfriede <mask> and Elisabeth Blochmann were friends and former classmates. The story is well documented in the 1989 edition of their letters, starting in 1918. <mask>'s letters to his wife contain information about several other affairs of his. He helped Blochmann emigrate from Germany before the start of World War II and resumed contact with both of them


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 after the war. Philosophy

Dasein
In the 1927 Being and Time, <mask> rejects the Cartesian view of the human being as a subjective spectator of objects, according to Marcella Horrigan-Kelly (et al.). The book instead holds that both subject and object are inseparable. In presenting "being" as inseparable, <mask> introduced the term Dasein (literally: being there), intended to embody a "living being" through their activity of "being there" and "being-in-the-world"."Famously, <mask> writes of Dasein as Being-in-the-world," according to Michael Wheeler (2011). Understood as a unitary phenomenon rather than a contingent, additive combination, being-in-the-world is an essential characteristic of Dasein, Wheeler writes. <mask>'s account of Dasein in Being and Time passes through a dissection of the experiences of Angst, "the Nothing" and mortality, and then through an analysis of the structure of "Care" as such. From there he raises the problem of "authenticity", that is, the potentiality for mortal Dasein to exist fully enough that it might actually understand being and its possibilities. Dasein is not "man", but is nothing other than "man", according to <mask>. Moreover, he wrote that Dasein is "the being that will give access to the question of the meaning of Being". Being
Dasein's ordinary and even mundane experience of "being-in-the-world" provides "access to the meaning" or "sense of being" (Sinn des Seins).This access via Dasein is also that "in terms of which something becomes intelligible as something." <mask> proposes that this meaning would elucidate ordinary "prescientific" understanding, which precedes

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texts: abstract ways of knowing, such as logic or theory. This supposed "non-linguistic, pre-cognitive access"  to the meaning of Being didn't underscore any particular, preferred narrative, according to an account of Richard Rorty's analysis by Edward Grippe. In this account, <mask> holds that no particular understanding of Being (nor state of Dasein and its endeavors) is to be preferred over another. Moreover, "Rorty agrees with <mask> that there is no hidden power called Being," Grippe writes, adding that <mask>'s concept of Being is viewed by Rorty as metaphorical. But <mask> actually offers "no sense of how we might answer the question of being as such," writes Simon Critchley in his 2009 nine-part blog commentary on the work for The Guardian. The book instead provides "an answer to the question of what it means to be human," according to Critchley.Nonetheless, <mask> does present the concept: "'Being' is not something like a being but is rather "what determines beings as beings." The interpreters Thomas Sheehan and Mark Wrathall each separately assert that commentators' emphasis on the term "Being" is misplaced, and that <mask>'s central focus was never on "Being" as such. Wrathall wrote (2011) that <mask>'s elaborate concept of "unconcealment" was his central, life-long focus, while  Sheehan (2015) proposed that the philosopher's prime focus was on that which "brings about being as a givenness of entities." <mask> claims that traditional ontology has prejudicially overlooked the question of being. <mask> believes that time finds its meaning in death, according to Michael Kelley. That is, time is understood only

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 from a finite or mortal vantage. Dasein's essential mode of being-in-the-world is temporal: Having been "thrown" into a world implies a “pastness” to its being.Dasein occupies itself with the present tasks required by goals it has projected on the future. Thus <mask> concludes that Dasein's fundamental characteristic is temporality, Kelley writes. Dasein as an inseparable subject/object, cannot be separated from its objective "historicality". On the one hand, Dasein is "stretched along" between birth and death, and thrown into its world; into its possibilities which Dasein is charged with assuming. On the other hand, Dasein's access to this world and these possibilities is always via a history and a tradition—this is the question of "world historicality". Ontological difference and fundamental ontology

In Being and Time,"<mask> drew a sharp distinction between ontical and the ontological -- or beings and "Being" as such. He labelled this the "Ontological Difference".It is from this distinction that he developed the concept of "Fundamental Ontology". According to Taylor Carman (2003), traditional ontology asks "Why is there anything?" whereas <mask>'s "Fundamental Ontology" asks "What does it mean for something to be?". <mask>'s ontology "is fundamental relative to traditional ontology in that it concerns what any understanding of entities necessarily presupposes, namely, our understanding of that in virtue of which entities are entities", Carman writes. This line of inquiry is based on the "ontological difference"—central to <mask>'s philosophy. In 1937's "Contributions to Philosophy" <mask> calls the


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 ontological difference "the essence of Dasein". He accuses the Western philosophical tradition of incorrectly focusing on the "ontic"—and thus forgetful of this distinction.This has led to the mistake of understanding being as such as a kind of ultimate entity, for example as idea, energeia, substantia, actualitas or will to power. According to Richard Rorty, <mask> envisioned no "hidden power of Being" as an ultimate entity. <mask> tries to rectify ontic philosophy by focusing instead on the meaning of being—or what he called "fundamental ontology". This "ontological inquiry" is required to understand the basis of the sciences, according to "Being and Time" (1927). The project is akin to contemporary meta-ontology. One way for engaging in this inquiry is by studying the human being, or Dasein, according to <mask>. This method works because of Dasein's pre-ontological understanding of being that shapes experience.This implicit understanding can be made explicit through phenomenology and its methods, but these must be employed using hermeneutics in order to avoid distortions by the forgetfulness of being, according to one interpretation of <mask>. Later works: The Turn

<mask>'s Kehre, or "the turn" (die Kehre)  refers to a change in his work as early as 1930 that became clearly established by the 1940s, according to various commentators. <mask> rarely used the term. Recurring themes include poetry and technology. Commentators such as William J. Richardson (1963) describe, variously, a shift of focus, or a major change in outlook. The 1935  Introduction to Metaphysics "clearly shows the shift" to an emphasis on


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texts: language from a previous emphasis on Dasein in Being and Time eight years earlier, according to Brian Bard's 1993 essay titled "<mask>'s Reading of Heraclitus". In a 1950 lecture <mask> formulated the famous saying "Language speaks", later published in the 1959 essays collection Unterwegs zur Sprache, and collected in the 1971 English book Poetry, Language, Thought.This supposed shift—applied here to cover about thirty years of <mask>'s 40-year writing career—has been described by commentators from widely varied viewpoints; including as a shift in priority from Being and Time to Time and Being—namely, from dwelling (being) in the world to doing (time) in the world. (This aspect, in particular the 1951 essay "Building, Dwelling Thinking" influenced architectural theorists including Christian Norberg-Schulz, Dalibor Vesely, Joseph Rykwert, Daniel Libeskind and the philosopher-architect Nader El-Bizri.) Other interpreters believe "the Kehre" can be overstated or even that it doesn't exist. Thomas Sheehan (2001) believes this supposed change is "far less dramatic than usually suggested," and entailed a change in focus and method. Sheehan contends that throughout his career, <mask> never focused on "being", but rather tried to define "[that which] brings about being as a givenness of entities." Mark Wrathall argued (2011) that the Kehre isn't found in <mask>'s writings but is simply a misconception. As evidence for this view, Wrathall sees a consistency of purpose in <mask>'s life-long pursuit and refinement of his notion of "unconcealment".Some notable "later" works are The Origin of the Work of Art", (1935),


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 Contributions to Philosophy (1937), Letter on Humanism (1946). "Building Dwelling Thinking", (1951), "The Question Concerning Technology", (1954) " and What Is Called Thinking? (1954). Also during this period, <mask> wrote extensively on Nietzsche and the poet Holderlin. <mask> and the ground of history

In his later philosophy, <mask> attempted to reconstruct the "history of being" in order to show how the different epochs in the history of philosophy were dominated by different conceptions of being. His goal is to retrieve the original experience of being present in the early Greek thought that was covered up by later philosophers. Michael Allen Gillespie says (1984)  that <mask>'s theoretical acceptance of "destiny" has much in common with the millenarianism of Marxism.But Marxists believe <mask>'s "theoretical acceptance is antagonistic to practical political activity and implies fascism. Gillespie, however, says "the real danger" from <mask> isn't quietism but fanaticism. "History, as <mask> understands it, doesn't move forward gradually and regularly but spasmodically and unpredictably." Modernity has cast mankind toward a new goal "on the brink of profound nihilism" that is "so alien it requires the construction of a new tradition to make it comprehensible." Allen extrapolated from <mask>'s writings that mankind may degenerate into scientists, workers and brutes.<ref name="Gillespie 1984
Supposedly, this epoch would be ironically celebrated, as the most enlightened and glorious in human history. According to Allen, <mask> envisaged this abyss to be the greatest event in the West's history because it


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 would enable Humanity to comprehend Being more profoundly and primordially than the Pre-Socratics. Influences

St. Augustine of Hippo
<mask> was substantially influenced by St. Augustine of Hippo, and Being and Time would not have been possible without the influence of Augustine's thought.Augustine's Confessions was particularly influential in shaping <mask>'s thought. Almost all central concepts of Being and Time are derived from Augustine, Luther, and Kierkegaard, according to Christian Lotz. Augustine viewed time as relative and subjective, and that being and time were bound up together. <mask> adopted similar views, e.g. that time was the horizon of Being: ' ...time temporalizes itself only as long as there are human beings.' Aristotle and the Greeks
<mask> was influenced at an early age by Aristotle, mediated through Catholic theology, medieval philosophy and Franz Brentano. Aristotle's ethical, logical, and metaphysical works were crucial to the development of his thought in the crucial period of the 1920s.Although he later worked less on Aristotle, <mask> recommended postponing reading Nietzsche, and to "first study Aristotle for ten to fifteen years". In reading Aristotle, <mask> increasingly contested the traditional Latin translation and scholastic interpretation of his thought. Particularly important (not least for its influence upon others, both in their interpretation of Aristotle and in rehabilitating a neo-Aristotelian "practical philosophy") was his radical reinterpretation of Book Six of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and several books of the Metaphysics. Both informed the argument of Being and


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 Time. <mask>'s thought is original in being an authentic retrieval of the past, a repetition of the possibilities handed down by the tradition. The idea of asking about being may be traced back via Aristotle to Parmenides. <mask> claimed to have revived the question of being, the question having been largely forgotten by the metaphysical tradition extending from Plato to Descartes, a forgetfulness extending to the Age of Enlightenment and then to modern science and technology.In pursuit of the retrieval of this question, <mask> spent considerable time reflecting on ancient Greek thought, in particular on Plato, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Anaximander, as well as on the tragic playwright Sophocles. According to W. Julian Korab-Karpowicz, <mask> believed "the thinking of  Heraclitus and Parmenides, which lies at the origin of philosophy, was falsified and misinterpreted" by Plato and Aristotle, thus tainting all of subsequent Western philosophy. In his Introduction to Metaphysics, <mask> states:

Among the most ancient Greek thinkers, it is Heraclitus who was subjected to the most fundamentally un-Greek misinterpretation in the course of Western history, and who nevertheless in more recent times has provided the strongest impulses toward redisclosing what is authentically Greek. Charles Guignon wrote that <mask> aimed to correct this misunderstanding by reviving Presocratic notions of 'being' with an emphasis on "understanding the way beings show up in (and as) an unfolding happening or event." Guignon adds that "we might call this alternative outlook 'event ontology.'" Dilthey

<mask>'s very early project of

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 developing a "hermeneutics of factical life" and his hermeneutical transformation of phenomenology was influenced in part by his reading of the works of Wilhelm Dilthey. Of the influence of Dilthey, Hans-Georg Gadamer writes that Dilthey's influence was important in helping the youthful <mask> "in distancing himself from the systematic ideal of Neo-Kantianism, as <mask> acknowledges in Being and Time."Scholars as diverse as Theodore Kisiel and David Farrell Krell have argued for the importance of Diltheyan concepts and strategies in the formation of <mask>'s thought. Even though Gadamer's interpretation of <mask> has been questioned, there is little doubt that <mask> seized upon Dilthey's concept of hermeneutics. <mask>'s novel ideas about ontology required a gestalt formation, not merely a series of logical arguments, in order to demonstrate his fundamentally new paradigm of thinking, and the hermeneutic circle offered a new and powerful tool for the articulation and realization of these ideas. Husserl

Husserl's infuence on <mask> is controversial. Disagreements centre upon how much of Husserlian phenomenology is contested by <mask>, and how much his phenomenology in fact informs <mask>'s own understanding. On the relation between the two figures, Gadamer wrote: "When asked about phenomenology, Husserl was quite right to answer as he used to in the period directly after World War I: 'Phenomenology, that is me and Heidegger'." Nevertheless, Gadamer noted that <mask> was no patient collaborator with Husserl, and that <mask>'s "rash ascent to the top, the incomparable fascination he aroused, and his stormy

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 temperament surely must have made Husserl, the patient one, as suspicious of <mask> as he always had been of Max Scheler's volcanic fire."Robert J. Dostal understood the importance of Husserl to be profound:
<mask> himself, who is supposed to have broken with Husserl, bases his hermeneutics on an account of time that not only parallels Husserl's account in many ways but seems to have been arrived at through the same phenomenological method as was used by Husserl.... The differences between Husserl and <mask> are significant, but if we do not see how much it is the case that Husserlian phenomenology provides the framework for <mask>'s approach, we will not be able to appreciate the exact nature of <mask>'s project in Being and Time or why he left it unfinished. Daniel O. Dahlstrom saw <mask>'s presentation of his work as a departure from Husserl as unfairly misrepresenting Husserl's own work. Dahlstrom concluded his consideration of the relation between <mask> and Husserl as follows:

<mask>'s silence about the stark similarities between his account of temporality and Husserl's investigation of internal time-consciousness contributes to a misrepresentation of Husserl's account of intentionality. Contrary to the criticisms <mask> advances in his lectures, intentionality (and, by implication, the meaning of 'to be') in the final analysis is not construed by Husserl as sheer presence (be it the presence of a fact or object, act or event). Yet for all its "dangerous closeness" to what <mask> understands by temporality, Husserl's account of internal time-consciousness does differ fundamentally. In Husserl's account

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 the structure of protentions is accorded neither the finitude nor the primacy that Heidegger claims are central to the original future of ecstatic-horizonal temporality.Kierkegaard

Heideggerians regarded Søren Kierkegaard as, by far, the greatest philosophical contributor to <mask>'s own existentialist concepts. <mask>'s concepts of anxiety (Angst) and mortality draw on Kierkegaard and are indebted to the way in which the latter lays out the importance of our subjective relation to truth, our existence in the face of death, the temporality of existence, and the importance of passionate affirmation of one's individual being-in-the-world. Patricia J. Huntington claims that <mask>'s book Being and Time continued Kierkegaard's existential goal. Nevertheless, she argues that <mask> began to distance himself from any existentialist thought. Calvin Shrag argues <mask>'s early relationship with Kierkegaard as:

Hölderlin and Nietzsche

Friedrich Hölderlin and Friedrich Nietzsche were both important influences on <mask>, and many of his lecture courses were devoted to one or the other, especially in the 1930s and 1940s. The lectures on Nietzsche focused on fragments posthumously published under the title The Will to Power, rather than on Nietzsche's published works. <mask> read The Will to Power as the culminating expression of Western metaphysics, and the lectures are a kind of dialogue between the two thinkers.This is also the case for the lecture courses devoted to the poetry of Friedrich Hölderlin, which became an increasingly central focus of <mask>'s work and thought. <mask> grants to Hölderlin a singular place


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 within the history of being and the history of Germany, as a herald whose thought is yet to be "heard" in Germany or the West. Many of <mask>'s works from the 1930s onwards include meditations on lines from Hölderlin's poetry, and several of the lecture courses are devoted to the reading of a single poem (see, for example, Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister"). <mask> and Eastern thought
Some writers on <mask>'s work see possibilities within it for dialogue with traditions of thought outside of Western philosophy, particularly East Asian thinking. Despite perceived differences between Eastern and Western philosophy, some of <mask>'s later work, particularly "A Dialogue on Language between a Japanese and an Inquirer", does show an interest in initiating such a dialogue. <mask> himself had contact with a number of leading Japanese intellectuals, including members of the Kyoto School, notably Hajime Tanabe and Kuki Shūzō. Reinhard May refers to Chang Chung-Yuan who stated (in 1977) "<mask> is the only Western Philosopher who not only intellectually understands Tao, but has intuitively experienced the essence of it as well."May sees great influence of Taoism and Japanese scholars in <mask>'s work, although this influence is not acknowledged by the author. He asserts (1996): "The investigation concludes that <mask>'s work was significantly influenced by East Asian sources. It can be shown, moreover, that in particular instances <mask> even appropriated wholesale and almost verbatim major ideas from the German translations of Daoist and Zen Buddhist classics. This clandestine textual appropriation of non-Western


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texts: spirituality, the extent of which has gone undiscovered for so long, seems quite unparalleled, with far-reaching implications for our future interpretation of <mask>'s work." <mask> has been influential in research on the relationship between Western philosophy and the history of ideas in Islam, particularly for some scholars interested in Arabic philosophical medieval sources. These include the Lebanese philosopher and architectural theorist Nader El-Bizri, who, as well as focusing on the critique of the history of metaphysics (as an 'Arab Heideggerian'), also moves towards rethinking the notion of "dwelling" in the epoch of the modern unfolding of the essence of technology and Gestell, and realizing what can be described as a "confluence of Western and Eastern thought" as well. El-Bizri has also taken a new direction in his engagement in 'Heidegger Studies' by way of probing the Arab/Levantine Anglophone reception of Sein und Zeit in 1937 as set in the Harvard doctoral thesis of the 20th century Lebanese thinker and diplomat Charles Malik.It is also claimed that the works of counter-enlightenment philosophers such as <mask>, along with Friedrich Nietzsche and Joseph de Maistre, influenced Iran's Shia Islamist scholars, notably Ali Shariati. A clearer impact of <mask> in Iran is associated with thinkers such as Reza Davari Ardakani, Ahmad Fardid, and Fardid's student Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, who have been closely associated with the unfolding of philosophical thinking in a Muslim modern theological legacy in Iran. This included the construction of the ideological foundations of the Iranian Revolution and modern

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 political Islam in its connections with theology. <mask> and the Nazi Party

The rectorate

Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933. <mask> was elected rector of the University of Freiburg on 21 April 1933, and assumed the position the following day. On May 1, he joined the Nazi Party. On 27 May 1933, <mask> delivered his inaugural address, the Rektoratsrede ("The Self-assertion of the German University"), in a hall decorated with swastikas, with members of the Sturmabteilung and prominent Nazi Party officials present.His tenure as rector was fraught with difficulties from the outset. Some Nazi education officials viewed him as a rival, while others saw his efforts as comical. Some of <mask>'s fellow Nazis also ridiculed his philosophical writings as gibberish. He finally offered his resignation as rector on 23 April 1934, and it was accepted on 27 April. <mask> remained a member of both the academic faculty and of the Nazi Party until the end of the war. Philosophical historian Hans Sluga wrote:

Though as rector he prevented students from displaying an anti-Semitic poster at the entrance to the university and from holding a book burning, he kept in close contact with the Nazi student leaders and clearly signaled to them his sympathy with their activism. In 1945, <mask> wrote of his term as rector, giving the writing to his son Hermann; it was published in 1983:

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 Germans' Western historical essence.It will in no way be denied that at the time I believed in such possibilities and for that reason renounced the actual vocation of thinking in favor of being effective in an official capacity. In no way will what was caused by my own inadequacy in office be played down. But these points of view do not capture what is essential and what moved me to accept the rectorate. Treatment of Husserl
Beginning in 1917, German-Jewish philosopher Edmund Husserl championed <mask>'s work, and helped <mask> become his successor for the chair in philosophy at the University of Freiburg in 1928. On 6 April 1933, the Reichskommissar of Baden Province, Robert Wagner, suspended all Jewish government employees, including present and retired faculty at the University of Freiburg. <mask>'s predecessor as rector formally notified Husserl of his "enforced leave of absence" on 14 April 1933. <mask> became Rector of the University of Freiburg on 22 April 1933.The following week the national Reich law of 28 April 1933 replaced Reichskommissar Wagner's decree. The Reich law required the firing of Jewish professors from German universities, including those, such as Husserl, who had converted to Christianity. The termination of the retired professor Husserl's academic privileges thus did not involve any specific action on <mask>'s part. <mask> had by then broken off contact with Husserl, other than through intermediaries. <mask> later claimed that his relationship with Husserl had already become strained after Husserl publicly "settled accounts" with <mask> and Max Scheler in the early 1930s. <mask> did not


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 attend his former mentor's cremation in 1938. In 1941, under pressure from publisher Max Niemeyer, <mask> agreed to remove the dedication to Husserl from Being and Time (restored in post-war editions).<mask>'s behavior towards Husserl has provoked controversy. Hannah Arendt initially suggested that <mask>'s behavior precipitated Husserl's death. She called <mask> a "potential murderer". However, she later recanted her accusation. In 1939, only a year after Husserl's death, <mask> wrote in his Black Notebooks: "The more original and inceptive the coming decisions and questions become, the more inaccessible will they remain to this [Jewish] 'race'. Thus, Husserl's step toward phenomenological observation, and his rejection of psychological explanations and historiological reckoning of opinions, are of enduring importance—yet it never reaches into the domains of essential decisions", seeming to imply that Husserl's philosophy was limited purely because he was Jewish. Post-rectorate period
After the failure of <mask>'s rectorship, he withdrew from most political activity, but remained a member of the Nazi Party.In May 1934 he accepted a position on the Committee for the Philosophy of Law in the Academy for German Law (Ausschuß für Rechtphilosophie der Akademie für Deutsches Recht), where he remained active until at least 1936. The academy had official consultant status in preparing Nazi legislation such as the Nuremberg racial laws that came into effect in 1935. In addition to <mask>, such Nazi notables as Hans Frank, Julius Streicher, Carl Schmitt and Alfred Rosenberg belonged to the Academy and served on this


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 committee. In a 1935 lecture, later published in 1953 as part of the book Introduction to Metaphysics, <mask> refers to the "inner truth and greatness" of the Nazi movement (die innere Wahrheit und Größe dieser Bewegung), but he then adds a qualifying statement in parentheses: "namely, the confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity" (nämlich die Begegnung der planetarisch bestimmten Technik und des neuzeitlichen Menschen). However, it subsequently transpired that this qualification had not been made during the original lecture, although <mask> claimed that it had been. This has led scholars to argue that <mask> still supported the Nazi party in 1935 but that he did not want to admit this after the war, and so he attempted to silently correct his earlier statement. In private notes written in 1939, <mask> took a strongly critical view of Hitler's ideology; however, in public lectures, he seems to have continued to make ambiguous comments which, if they expressed criticism of the regime, did so only in the context of praising its ideals.For instance, in a 1942 lecture, published posthumously, <mask> said of recent German classics scholarship:

In the majority of "research results," the Greeks appear as pure National Socialists. This overenthusiasm on the part of academics seems not even to notice that with such "results" it does National Socialism and its historical uniqueness no service at all, not that it needs this anyhow. An important witness to <mask>'s continued allegiance to Nazism during the post-rectorship period is his former student Karl Löwith, who met <mask> in 1936 while <mask> was

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 visiting Rome. In an account set down in 1940 (though not intended for publication), Löwith recalled that <mask> wore a swastika pin to their meeting, though <mask> knew that Löwith was Jewish. Löwith also recalled that <mask> "left no doubt about his faith in Hitler", and stated that his support for Nazism was in agreement with the essence of his philosophy. <mask> rejected the "biologically grounded racism" of the Nazis, replacing it with linguistic-historical heritage. Post-war period
After the end of World War II, <mask> was summoned to appear at a denazification hearing.<mask>'s former lover Hannah Arendt spoke on his behalf at this hearing, while Karl Jaspers spoke against him. He was charged on four counts, dismissed from the university and declared a "follower" (Mitläufer) of Nazism. <mask> was forbidden to teach between 1945 and 1951. One consequence of this teaching ban was that <mask> began to engage far more in the French philosophical scene. In his postwar thinking, <mask> distanced himself from Nazism, but his critical comments about Nazism seem "scandalous" to some since they tend to equate the Nazi war atrocities with other inhumane practices related to rationalisation and industrialisation, including the treatment of animals by factory farming. For instance in a lecture delivered at Bremen in 1949, <mask> said: "Agriculture is now a motorized food industry, the same thing in its essence as the production of corpses in the gas chambers and the extermination camps, the same thing as blockades and the reduction of countries to famine, the same thing as the manufacture of hydrogen bombs." In 1967


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 <mask> met with the Jewish poet Paul Celan, a concentration camp survivor.Having corresponded since 1956, Celan visited <mask> at his country retreat and wrote an enigmatic poem about the meeting, which some interpret as Celan's wish for <mask> to apologize for his behavior during the Nazi era. Der Spiegel interview
On 23 September 1966, <mask> was interviewed by Rudolf Augstein and Georg Wolff for Der Spiegel magazine, in which he agreed to discuss his political past provided that the interview be published posthumously. (Indeed, "Only a God Can Save Us" was published five days after his death, on 31 May 1976.) In the interview, <mask> defended his entanglement with Nazism in two ways: first, he argued that there was no alternative, saying that he was trying to save the university (and science in general) from being politicized and thus had to compromise with the Nazi administration. Second, he admitted that he saw an "awakening" (Aufbruch) which might help to find a "new national and social approach," but said that he changed his mind about this in 1934, largely prompted by the violence of the Night of the Long Knives. In his interview <mask> defended as double-speak his 1935 lecture describing the "inner truth and greatness of this movement." He affirmed that Nazi informants who observed his lectures would understand that by "movement" he meant Nazism.However, <mask> asserted that his dedicated students would know this statement wasn't praise for the Nazi Party. Rather, he meant it as he expressed it in the parenthetical clarification later added to Introduction to Metaphysics (1953), namely, "the


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 confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity." The eyewitness account of Löwith from 1940 contradicts the account given in the Der Spiegel interview in two ways: that he did not make any decisive break with Nazism in 1934, and that <mask> was willing to entertain more profound relations between his philosophy and political involvement. The Der Spiegel interviewers did not bring up <mask>'s 1949 quotation comparing the industrialization of agriculture to the extermination camps. In fact, the interviewers were not in possession of much of the evidence now known for <mask>'s Nazi sympathies. Der Spiegel journalist Georg Wolff had been an SS-Hauptsturmführer with the Sicherheitsdienst, stationed in Oslo during World War II, and had been writing articles with antisemitic and racist overtones in Der Spiegel since the end of the war. Influence and reception in France
<mask> is "widely acknowledged to be one of the most original and important philosophers of the 20th century while remaining one of the most controversial."His ideas have penetrated into many areas, but in France there is a very long and particular history of reading and interpreting his work which in itself resulted in deepening the impact of his thought in Continental Philosophy. He influenced Jean Beaufret, François Fédier, Dominique Janicaud, Jean-Luc Marion, Jean-François Courtine, Jean Paul Sartre, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and others. Existentialism and pre-war influence
<mask>'s influence on French philosophy began in the 1930s, when Being and Time, "What is Metaphysics?" and other Heideggerian texts were read by Jean-Paul

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 Sartre and other existentialists, as well as by thinkers such as Alexandre Kojève, Georges Bataille and Emmanuel Levinas. Because <mask>'s discussion of ontology (the study of being) is rooted in an analysis of the mode of existence of individual human beings (Da-sein, or there-being), his work has often been associated with existentialism. The influence of <mask> on Sartre's Being and Nothingness (1943) is marked, but <mask> felt that Sartre had misread his work, as he argued in later texts such as the "Letter on Humanism". In that text, intended for a French audience, <mask> explained this misreading in the following terms:

 Sartre's key proposition about the priority of existentia over essentia  [that is, Sartre's statement that "existence precedes essence"] does, however, justify using the name "existentialism" as an appropriate title for a philosophy of this sort.But the basic tenet of "existentialism" has nothing at all in common with the statement from Being and Time [that "the 'essence' of Dasein lies in its existence"]—apart from the fact that in Being and Time no statement about the relation of essentia and existentia can yet be expressed, since there it is still a question of preparing something precursory. "Letter on 'Humanism'" is often seen as a direct response to Sartre's 1945 lecture "Existentialism Is a Humanism". Aside from merely disputing readings of his own work, however, in the "Letter on Humanism" <mask> asserts that "Every humanism is either grounded in a metaphysics or is itself made to be the ground of one." <mask>'s largest issue with Sartre's existential humanism is that, while it


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 does make a humanistic 'move' in privileging existence over essence, "the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement." From this point onward in his thought, <mask> attempted to think beyond metaphysics to a place where the articulation of the fundamental questions of ontology were fundamentally possible: only from this point can we restore (that is, re-give [redonner]) any possible meaning to the word "humanism". Post-war forays into France
After the war, <mask> was banned from university teaching for a period on account of his support of Nazism while serving as Rector of Freiburg University. He developed a number of contacts in France, where his work continued to be taught, and a number of French students visited him at Todtnauberg (see, for example, Jean-François Lyotard's brief account in <mask> and "the Jews", which discusses a Franco-German conference held in Freiburg in 1947, one step toward bringing together French and German students).<mask> subsequently made several visits to France, and made efforts to keep abreast of developments in French philosophy by way of correspondence with Jean Beaufret, an early French translator of <mask>, and with Lucien Braun. Derrida and deconstruction
Deconstruction came to <mask>'s attention in 1967 by way of Lucien Braun's recommendation of Jacques Derrida's work (Hans-Georg Gadamer was present at an initial discussion and indicated to <mask> that Derrida's work came to his attention by way of an assistant). <mask> expressed interest in meeting Derrida personally after the latter sent him some of his work. There was discussion of a meeting


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 in 1972, but this failed to take place. <mask>'s interest in Derrida is said by Braun to have been considerable (as is evident in two letters, of September 29, 1967 and May 16, 1972, from <mask> to Braun). Braun also brought to <mask>'s attention the work of Michel Foucault. Foucault's relation to <mask> is a matter of considerable difficulty; Foucault acknowledged <mask> as a philosopher whom he read but never wrote about.(For more on this see Penser à Strasbourg, Jacques Derrida, et al., which includes reproductions of both letters and an account by Braun, "À mi-chemin entre Heidegger et Derrida"). Derrida attempted to displace the understanding of <mask>'s work that had been prevalent in France from the period of the ban against <mask> teaching in German universities, which amounted to an almost wholesale rejection of the influence of Jean-Paul Sartre and existentialist terms. In Derrida's view, deconstruction is a tradition inherited via <mask> (the French term "déconstruction" is a term coined to translate <mask>'s use of the words "Destruktion"—literally "destruction"—and "Abbau"—more literally "de-building"). According to Derrida, Sartre's interpretation of Dasein and other key Heideggerian concerns is overly psychologistic, anthropocentric, and misses the historicality central to Dasein in Being and Time. The Farías debate
Jacques Derrida, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, and Jean-François Lyotard, among others, all engaged in debate and disagreement about the relation between <mask>'s philosophy and his Nazi politics. These debates included the question of whether it was possible to do without <mask>'s


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 philosophy, a position which Derrida in particular rejected. Forums where these debates took place include the proceedings of the first conference dedicated to Derrida's work, published as "Les Fins de l'homme à partir du travail de Jacques Derrida: colloque de Cerisy, 23 juillet-2 août 1980", Derrida's "Feu la cendre/cio' che resta del fuoco", and the studies on Paul Celan by Lacoue-Labarthe and Derrida which shortly preceded the detailed studies of Heidegger's politics published in and after 1987.When in 1987 Víctor Farías published his book Heidegger et le nazisme, this debate was taken up by many others, some of whom were inclined to disparage so-called "deconstructionists" for their association with <mask>'s philosophy. Derrida and others not only continued to defend the importance of reading <mask>, but attacked Farías on the grounds of poor scholarship and for what they saw as the sensationalism of his approach. Not all scholars agreed with this negative assessment: Richard Rorty, for example, declared that "[Farías'] book includes more concrete information relevant to <mask>'s relations with the Nazis than anything else available, and it is an excellent antidote to the evasive apologetics that are still being published." Bernard Stiegler
More recently, <mask>'s thought has influenced the work of the French philosopher Bernard Stiegler. This is evident even from the title of Stiegler's multi-volume magnum opus, La technique et le temps (volume one translated into English as Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus). Stiegler offers an original reading of <mask>, arguing that there can be no access


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 to "originary temporality" other than via material, that is, technical, supports, and that <mask> recognised this in the form of his account of world historicality, yet in the end suppressed that fact. Stiegler understands the existential analytic of Being and Time as an account of psychic individuation, and his later "history of being" as an account of collective individuation.He understands many of the problems of <mask>'s philosophy and politics as the consequence of <mask>'s inability to integrate the two. Giorgio Agamben
<mask> has been very influential on the work of the Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben. Agamben attended seminars in France led by <mask> in the late 1960s. Criticism

Early criticisms
According to Husserl, Being and Time claimed to deal with ontology but only did so in the first few pages of the book. Having nothing further to contribute to an ontology independent of human existence, <mask> changed the topic to Dasein. Whereas <mask> argued that the question of human existence is central to the pursuit of the question of being, Husserl criticised this as reducing phenomenology to "philosophical anthropology" and offering an abstract and incorrect portrait of the human being. In 1929 the Neo-Kantian Ernst Cassirer and <mask> engaged in an influential debate, during the Second Davos Hochschulkurs in Davos, concerning the significance of Kantian notions of freedom and rationality (see Cassirer–Heidegger debate).Whereas Cassirer defended the role of rationality in Kant, <mask> argued for the priority of the imagination. Dilthey's student Georg Misch wrote the first extended critical


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 appropriation of <mask>heyschen Richtung mit <mask> und Husserl, Leipzig 1930 (3rd ed. Stuttgart 1964). The Young Hegelians and critical theory
Hegel-influenced Marxist thinkers, especially György Lukács and the Frankfurt School, associated the style and content of <mask>'s thought with German irrationalism and criticised its political implications. Initially members of the Frankfurt School were positively disposed to <mask>, becoming more critical at the beginning of the 1930s. <mask>'s student Herbert Marcuse became associated with the Frankfurt School.Initially striving for a synthesis between Hegelian Marxism and <mask>'s phenomenology, Marcuse later rejected <mask>'s thought for its "false concreteness" and "revolutionary conservatism". Theodor Adorno wrote an extended critique of the ideological character of <mask>'s early and later use of language in the Jargon of Authenticity. Contemporary social theorists associated with the Frankfurt School have remained largely critical of <mask>'s works and influence. In particular, Jürgen Habermas admonishes the influence of <mask> on recent French philosophy in his polemic against "postmodernism" in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (1985). However, work by philosopher and critical theorist Nikolas Kompridis tries to show that <mask>'s insights into world disclosure are badly misunderstood and mishandled by Habermas, and are of vital importance for critical theory, offering an important way of renewing that tradition. Reception by analytic and Anglo-American philosophy
Criticism of <mask>'s philosophy has also come from analytic philosophy, beginning with

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 logical positivism. In "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" (1932), Rudolf Carnap accused <mask> of offering an "illusory" ontology, criticising him for committing the fallacy of reification and for wrongly dismissing the logical treatment of language which, according to Carnap, can only lead to writing "nonsensical pseudo-propositions".The British logical positivist A. J. Ayer was strongly critical of <mask>'s philosophy. In Ayer's view, <mask> proposed vast, overarching theories regarding existence, which are completely unverifiable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis. For Ayer, this sort of philosophy was a poisonous strain in modern thought. He considered <mask> to be the worst example of such philosophy, which Ayer believed to be entirely useless. Bertrand Russell considered <mask> an obscurantist, writing,
Highly eccentric in its terminology, his philosophy is extremely obscure. One cannot help suspecting that language is here running riot. An interesting point in his speculations is the insistence that nothingness is something positive.As with much else in Existentialism, this is a psychological observation made to pass for logic. This quote expresses the sentiments of many 20th-century analytic philosophers concerning <mask>. Roger Scruton stated that:  "His major work Being and Time is formidably difficult—unless it is utter nonsense, in which case it is laughably easy. I am not sure how to judge it, and have read no commentator who even begins to make sense of it". The analytic tradition values clarity of expression. <mask>, however, has on occasion


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 appeared to take an opposing view, stating for example:

those in the crossing must in the end know what is mistaken by all urging for intelligibility: that every thinking of being, all philosophy, can never be confirmed by "facts," i.e., by beings. Making itself intelligible is suicide for philosophy.Those who idolise "facts" never notice that their idols only shine in a borrowed light. They are also meant not to notice this; for thereupon they would have to be at a loss and therefore useless. But idolizers and idols are used wherever gods are in flight and so announce their nearness. Apart from the charge of obscurantism, other analytic philosophers considered the actual content of <mask>'s work to be either faulty and meaningless, vapid or uninteresting. Positive evaluations include Gilbert Ryle's critical yet supportive review of Being and Time and a remark attributed to Ludwig Wittgenstein by Friedrich Waismann: "To be sure, I can imagine what <mask> means by being and anxiety" which has been construed by some commentators as sympathetic to <mask>'s philosophical approach. Positive and negative analytic evaluations have been collected in Michael Murray (ed. ), Heidegger and Modern Philosophy: Critical Essays (Yale University Press, 1978).<mask>'s reputation within English-language philosophy has slightly improved in philosophical terms in some part through the efforts of Hubert Dreyfus, Richard Rorty, and a recent generation of analytically oriented phenomenology scholars. Pragmatist Rorty claimed that <mask>'s approach to philosophy in the first half of his career has much in common with that of the


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 latter-day Ludwig Wittgenstein. Nevertheless, Rorty asserted that what <mask> had constructed in his writings was a myth of being rather than an account of it. Contemporary European reception
Although <mask> is considered by many observers to be one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century, aspects of his work have been criticised by those who nevertheless acknowledge this influence, such as Hans-Georg Gadamer and Jacques Derrida. Some questions raised about <mask>'s philosophy include the priority of ontology, the status of animals, the nature of the religious, <mask>'s supposed neglect of ethics (Levinas), the body (Maurice Merleau-Ponty), sexual difference (Luce Irigaray), or space (Peter Sloterdijk). Levinas was deeply influenced by <mask>, and yet became one of his fiercest critics, contrasting the infinity of the good beyond being with the immanence and totality of ontology. Levinas also condemned <mask>'s involvement with Nazism, stating: "One can forgive many Germans, but there are some Germans it is difficult to forgive.It is difficult to forgive <mask>." <mask>'s defenders, notably Arendt, see his support for Nazism as arguably a personal " 'error' " (a word which Arendt placed in quotation marks when referring to <mask>'s Nazi-era politics). Defenders think this error was irrelevant to <mask>'s philosophy. Critics such as Levinas, Karl Löwith, and Theodor Adorno claim that <mask>'s support for Nazism revealed flaws inherent in his thought. W. Julian Korab-Karpowicz states in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy that <mask>'s writing is "notoriously difficult", possibly because his

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 thinking was "original" and focused on obscure and innovative topics. He concludes that Being and Time "remains his most influential work". In film
 Being in the World draws on <mask>'s work to explore what it means to be human in a technological age.A number of Heidegger scholars are interviewed, including Hubert Dreyfus, Mark Wrathall, Albert Borgmann, John Haugeland and Taylor Carman. The Ister (2004) is a film based on <mask>'s 1942 lecture course on Friedrich Hölderlin, and features Jean-Luc Nancy, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Bernard Stiegler, and Hans-Jürgen Syberberg. The film director Terrence Malick translated <mask>'s 1929 essay Vom Wesen des Grundes into English. It was published under the title The Essence of Reasons (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1969, bilingual edition). It is also frequently said of Malick that his cinema has Heideggerian sensibilities. See for instance: Marc Furstenau and Leslie MacAvoy, "Terrence Malick's Heideggerian Cinema: War and the Question of Being in The Thin Red Line" In The cinema of Terrence Malick: Poetic visions of America, 2nd ed. Edited by Hanna Patterson (London: Wallflower Press 2007): 179–91.See also: Stanley Cavell, The World Viewed: Reflections on the Ontology of Film (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1979): XV. The 2006 experimental short Die Entnazifizierung des MH by James T. Hong imagines Heidegger's denazification proceedings. In the 2012 film Hannah Arendt, <mask> is portrayed by actor Klaus Pohl. Bibliography

Gesamtausgabe
Heidegger's collected works are published by Vittorio Klostermann. The Gesamtausgabe was begun during <mask>'s


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 lifetime. He defined the order of publication and dictated that the principle of editing should be "ways not works". Publication has not yet been completed.The contents are listed here: Heidegger Gesamtausgabe. by Joseph Margolis and Tom Rockmore
 Hugo Ott, <mask>: A Political Life
 Otto Pöggeler, <mask>'s Path of Thinking, trans. by D. Magurshak and S. Barber, Humanities Press, 1987. Rüdiger Safranski, <mask>: Between Good and Evil
 John van Buren, The Young Heidegger: Rumor of the Hidden King

Politics and Nazism
 Pierre Bourdieu, The Political Ontology of <mask>
 Miguel de Beistegui, Heidegger and the Political: Dystopias
 Jacques Derrida, Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question
 Víctor Farías, Heidegger and Nazism, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1989. Emmanuel Faye, Heidegger, l'introduction du nazisme dans la philosophie : autour des séminaires inédits de 1933–1935, Paris, Albin Michel,  2005.  in French language
 Emmanuel Faye, <mask>. The Introduction of Nazism into Philosophy in Light of the Unpublished Seminars of 1933–1935, Translated by Michael B. Smith, foreword by Tom Rockmore, Yale University Press, 2009, 436 p. Foreword Award: Book of the year 2009 for Philosophy. Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert & Otto Pöggeler (eds.), <mask> und die praktische Philosophie, Frankfurt a. M., Suhrkamp, 1989. in German language
 Dominique Janicaud, The Shadow of That Thought
 W.J. Korab-Karpowicz, "Heidegger's Hidden Path: From Philosophy to Politics", Review of Metaphysics, 61 (2007)
 Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, "Transcendence Ends in Politics", in Typography: Mimesis, Philosophy, Politics
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 Lacoue-Labarthe, <mask>, Art, and Politics: The Fiction of the Political
 George Leaman, Heidegger im Kontext: Gesamtüberblick zum NS-Engagement der Universitätsphilosophen, Argument Verlag, Hamburg, 1993. Karl Löwith, <mask> and European Nihilism
 Karl Löwith, Heidegger's Existentialism
 Jean-François Lyotard, <mask> and "the Jews"
Hugo Ott, Heidegger. A Political Life. Günther Neske & Emil Kettering (eds. ), <mask> and National Socialism: Questions and Answers
 Political Texts – Rectoral Addresses
 Guillaume Payen, <mask>. Catholicisme, révolution, nazisme, Perrin, 2016 (in French)
 Tom Rockmore and Joseph Margolis (ed.), The Heidegger Case
 Daniel Ross, <mask> and the Question of the Political
 Hans Sluga, <mask>'s Crisis: Philosophy and Politics in Nazi Germany
 Iain Thomson, <mask> on Ontotheology: Technology and the Politics of Education
 Dana Villa, Arendt and Heidegger:  the Fate of the Political
 Richard Wolin (ed. ), The Heidegger Controversy . Julian Young, <mask>, Philosophy, Nazism

Other secondary literature
 Renate Maas, Diaphan und gedichtet. Der künstlerische Raum bei <mask> und Hans Jantzen, Kassel 2015, 432 Pages, 978-3-86219-854-2. Jeffrey Andrew Barash, <mask> and the Problem of Historical Meaning (New York: Fordham, 2003)
 Robert Bernasconi, Heidegger in Question: The Art of Existing
 Babette Babich, Words in Blood, Like Flowers. Philosophy and Poetry, Music and Eros in Hoelderlin, Nietzsche and Heidegger (2006). Walter A. Brogan, Heidegger and Aristotle: The Twofoldness of Being
 Scott M. Campbell: The Early Heidegger's Philosophy of Life: Facticity, Being, and Language.Fordham University

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 Press, 2012. Richard M. Capobianco, Engaging <mask> with a foreword by William J. Richardson. University of Toronto Press, 2010. Richard M. Capobianco, Heidegger's Way of Being. University of Toronto Press, 2014. Maxence Caron, <mask> – Pensée de l'être et origine de la subjectivité, 1760 pages, first and only book on <mask> awarded by the Académie française. Gabriel Cercel and Cristian Ciocan (eds.), The Early Heidegger (Studia Phaenomenologica I, 3–4), Bucharest: Humanitas, 2001, 506 p., including letters by <mask> and Pöggeler, and articles by Walter Biemel, Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann, Theodore Kisiel, Marion Heinz, Alfred Denker
 Steven Galt Crowell, Husserl, <mask>, and the Space of Meaning: Paths toward Transcendental Phenomenology
 Walter A. Davis. Inwardness and Existence: Subjectivity in/and Hegel, <mask>, Marx, and Freud. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. Jacques Derrida, "Ousia and Gramme: Note on a Note from Being and Time", in Margins of Philosophy
 Hubert L. Dreyfus & Mark A. Wrathall, A Companion to Heidegger (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007)
 Paul Edwards, <mask>'s Confusions
 Nader El-Bizri The Phenomenological Quest Between Avicenna and Heidegger (New York, 2000); reprinted by SUNY Press in 2014
 Christopher Fynsk, Heidegger: Thought and Historicity
 Michael Allen Gillespie,  Hegel, <mask>, and the Ground of History (University of Chicago Press, 1984)
 Glazebrook, Trish (2000), <mask>'s Philosophy of Science, Fordham University Press. Patricia Altenbernd Johnson, On Heidegger (Wadsworth Philosophers Series), Wadsworth Publishing, 1999
 Alan Kim, Plato in Germany: Kant-Natorp-<mask>


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 (Academia, 2010)
 Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Poetry as Experience
 Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Heidegger and the Politics of Poetry
 S. J. McGrath, Heidegger. A (Very) Critical Introduction
 William McNeill, The Glance of the Eye: Heidegger, Aristotle, and the Ends of Theory
 William McNeill, The Time of Life: Heidegger and Ethos
 Jean-Luc Nancy, "The Decision of Existence", in The Birth to Presence
 Herman Philipse, Heidegger's Philosophy of Being: A Critical Interpretation
 Richard Polt, Heidegger: An Introduction
 François Raffoul, Heidegger and the Subject
 François Raffoul & David Pettigrew (ed), Heidegger and Practical Philosophy
 François Raffoul & Eric S. Nelson (ed), The Bloomsbury Companion to Heidegger (Bloomsbury, 2013)
 William J. Richardson, Heidegger: Through Phenomenology to Thought. John Sallis, Echoes: After Heidegger
 John Sallis (ed), Reading Heidegger: Commemorations, including articles by Robert Bernasconi, Jacques Derrida, Rodolphe Gasché, and John Sallis, among others.Reiner Schürmann, <mask> on Being and Acting: From Principles to Anarchy
 Tony See, Community without Identity: The Ontology and Politics of Heidegger
 Adam Sharr, <mask>'s Hut
 Bernard Stiegler, Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus
 Leo Strauss, "An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism", in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism (University of Chicago: 1989). Andrzej Warminski, Readings in Interpretation: Hölderlin, Hegel, <mask>
 Hue Woodson, Heideggerian Theologies: The Pathmarks of John Macquarrie, Rudolf Bultmann, Paul Tillich, and Karl Rahner (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2018)
 Julian Young,

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 Heidegger's Philosophy of Art
 Julian Young, Heidegger's Later Philosophy
 Bastian Zimmermann, Die Offenbarung des Unverfügbaren und die Würde des Fragens. Ethische Dimensionen der Philosophie Martin Heideggers (London: 2010)
 Sean J. McGrath and Andrzej Wierciński, ed., A Companion to Heidegger's "Phenomenology of Religious Life" (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010). Umberto Pagano, L'uomo senz'ombra. Elementi di sociologia dell'inautentico ,(The Man with no Shadow. Principles for a Sociology of Inauthenticity) (Milan, 2007), FrancoAngeli, . Reception in France
 Jean Beaufret, Dialogue avec Heidegger, 4 vols., Paris: Minuit, 1973–1985.Jean-François Courtine, Heidegger et la phénoménologie, Paris: Vrin, 1990. John E. Drabinski and Eric S. Nelson, eds., Between Levinas and Heidegger, Albany: SUNY Press, 2014. Dominique Janicaud, trans. François Raffoul and David Pettigrew, Heidegger en France, 2 vols., Paris: Albin Michel, 2001. Ethan Kleinberg, Generation Existential: <mask>'s Philosophy in France, 1927–1961
 David Pettigrew and François Raffoul, eds., French Interpretations of Heidegger: An Exceptional Reception, Albany : SUNY Press, 2006. Influence on Japanese philosophy
 Mayeda, Graham. 2006.Time, space and ethics in the philosophy of Watsuji Tetsurō, Kuki Shūzō, and <mask> (New York: Routledge, 2006). (alk. paper). Heidegger and Asian philosophy
 Parkes, Graham (1987). Heidegger and Asian Thought. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. May, Reinhard, & Parkes, Graham (1996).<mask>'s Hidden Sources: East Asian influences on his work. London: Routledge. Nelson, Eric S. (2017). Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early

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 Twentieth-Century German Thought London: Bloomsbury. External links

Archival collections
 Original Heidegger manuscripts are kept at the Loyola University Chicago archives. See also the "The transcripts and photocopies of <mask>’s writings were given to Barbara Fiand, SNDdeN, Ph.D., by <mask> in 1978". Guide to the Student Notes from Lectures by <mask>.Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California. Works by <mask> and on <mask> (categorization)

General information
 Political Texts – Rectoral Addresses

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<mask> (born 29 April 1949) is a former Colombian military General and Commander of the Colombian National Army () until his resignation on November 4, 2008 following the 'false positives' scandal involving the deaths of 11 civilians at the hands of the military. <mask> holds a graduate title in Top management from the Los Andes University (Colombia). He has trained in armored vehicles courses in Fort Knox, Kentucky and served as the Army, Navy and Air Attaché in the Colombian Embassy at the United Kingdom in London, England. <mask> was succeeded by General Óscar González on November 6, 2008 as Commander of the Colombian National Army. In September 2010 <mask>, now Colombia's ambassador to the Dominican Republic, was charged with murder by an Ecuadorean court for his role in the 2008 incursion of the Colombian military into Ecuador which destroyed a FARC camp and left more than 20 dead. Colombian National Army career

Commands
During <mask>'s military career he has commanded the following units of the Colombian National Army:
Company Commander at the Military School of Cadets
No. 5 Cavalry Group Commander (Cúcuta, N.S.)No. 4 Intelligence Battalion (Villavicencio, Meta)
Cavalry School Director
Operative Command No. 9 Commander (Bagre, Antioquia)
18th Brigade Commander, (Arauca). Commander of the Caribbean Joint Command
Army Intelligence Director
Joint Task Force of the South Commander
Fourth Brigade Commander
First Division Commander

Honors
The following honors have been bestowed upon <mask> <mask> for his service:
Order of the Libertadores "Cruz de Boyacá"
Distinguished Services in Public Order for first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth time. Order of Military Merit José María Córdova, in the Officer and Commander category
Order of Military Merit Antonio Nariño, in the

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 Officer and Commander categories
Distinguished services from the Marine Corps
Order of Naval Merit Admiral Padilla
Order to the Aeronautical Military Merit Order to the Military Merit from the Lancer’s School
United States of America Army Medal
Order from the Chamber of Representatives
Distinguished services to the National Police for first and second time
Distinguished services to the Military School
San Jorge Medal
Distinguished services to the National Police in the category of Commander for second time
Medal from the Non Commissioned Officer’s School
Medal from the Military School of cadets
Order from the Congress
Service Badges for 15, 20,25 and 30 years

Controversy
There have been several controversial accusations regarding different events during General <mask>oya's military career. BINCI and AAA
A declassified 1979 report from the United States Embassy in Bogotá, Colombia details a plan for the foundation of the Anticommunist American Alliance () (AAA) by General Jorge Robledo Pulido and the Colombian National Army's Battalion of Intelligence and Counterintelligence (BINCI). The AAA and BINCI have been linked to a number of bombings, kidnappings and assassinations against leftists and guerrilla detainees between the years of 1978 and 1979.Then-Lieutenant <mask> served in BINCI at the time and was mentioned in a November 29, 1980 article published by the Mexican newspaper El Día, containing allegations about BINCI's and AAA's activities as told by five individuals identified as former Colombian military. Lieutenant <mask> is mentioned as a participant in the bombing of the Communist newspaper Voz Proletaria. A 1992 human rights publication, El Terrorismo de Estado en Colombia (State Terrorism in Colombia), was based on the previous El Día article and repeated many of

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title: Mario Montoya Uribe

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 its claims. In 1999 the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) found no evidence to support the charges against <mask>, citing the previously known information as "a NGO smear campaign dating back 20 years." Operation Orion
In March 2007 a report by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was leaked to the Los Angeles Times by an anonymous U.S. government employee who was said to be unsatisfied by the Bush administration's handling of the Colombian government's accountability. The report detailed a number of claims concerning links between Colombian security forces and illegal paramilitary groups. According to the CIA document, an allied Western intelligence agency reported the existence of such links during a 2002 Medellín offensive carried out against the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia () (FARC) under the title of "Operation Orion".While the operation was considered a success, there were allegations that over 40 people had disappeared during the operation and that the impending power vacuum was filled by paramilitary forces. The Western intelligence agency mentioned in the report considered that, the source of the claim was yet-unproven. A Defense attaché to the United States Embassy in Bogotá told the Los Angeles Times that  "this report confirms information provided by a proven source." General <mask> was commander of the area police force during the operation. The report cites an informant who claimed that plans for the attack were signed by General <mask> and paramilitary leader Fabio Jaramillo, who was a subordinate of Diego Fernando Murillo Bejarano, also known as Don Berna. Don Berna became known for taking over the drug trade around Medellín after drug kingpin Pablo Escobar was killed. The CIA didn't confirm nor deny the authenticity of the

masks:
Montoya
Mario Montoya
Montoya


title: Mario Montoya Uribe

texts:
 report.CIA spokesman Paul Gimigliano stated that "by describing what it calls a leaked CIA report containing material from another intelligence service — and unconfirmed material at that — the Los Angeles Times makes it less likely that friendly countries will share information with the United States" and "that ultimately could affect our ability to protect Americans". Douglas Frantz, a managing editor of the Los Angeles Times, responded that "we listened carefully to the CIA concerns and agreed to withhold details that the agency said jeopardized certain sources and ongoing operations, but our judgment is that the significance of the issues raised in this story warrant its publication." President of Colombia, Álvaro <mask> (no relation to <mask> <mask>), has denied any links between his government and paramilitary forces. In popular culture
In the 15th episode of the fifth season of The Simpsons, Deep Space Homer, Mr. Burns references <mask> when he begins delivering the incorrect speech to his nuclear power plant employees. See also
Colombian Armed Conflict
Communism in Colombia
Irregular military
Paramilitarism in Colombia
Paramilitary forces
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia

References

1949 births
National Army of Colombia
Living people
Colombian generals
Ambassadors of Colombia to the Dominican Republic
Colombian

masks: Uribe Montoya Uribe Montoya


title: Abu Hamza al-Masri

texts:
Mustafa Kamel Mustafa (; born 15 April 1958), also known as <mask>-Masri (; ,  – literally, father of <mask>, the Egyptian), or simply <mask>, is an Egyptian cleric who was the imam of Finsbury Park Mosque in London, England, where he preached Islamic fundamentalist views. In 2004, <mask> was arrested by British police after the United States requested he be extradited to face charges. He was later charged by British authorities with sixteen offences for inciting violence and racial hatred. In 2006, a British court found him guilty of inciting violence, and sentenced him to seven years' imprisonment. On 5 October 2012, after an eight-year legal battle, he was extradited from the UK to the United States to face terrorism charges and on 14 April 2014 his trial began in New York. On 19 May 2014, <mask> was found guilty of eleven terrorism charges by a jury in Manhattan. On 9 January 2015, he was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole.Background
<mask> was born Mustafa Kamel Mustafa, in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1958, the son of a middle-class army officer. In 1979, he entered Britain on a student visa. His initial reaction to life in Britain was to describe it as "a paradise, where you could do anything you wanted." He studied civil engineering at Brighton Polytechnic. Prior to his adoption of Islamism in Malta, 1999, <mask> was known as a "gentle giant" and a "womaniser". <mask> gained employment as a bouncer in the strip bars of Soho under his original name from 1980 until 1983, when club baron Jean Agius was arrested and charged for conspiring to be a pimp. Agius alleges that <mask> may have also co-owned a club during this time.In the early 1990s, <mask> lived in Bosnia under another name, and fought alongside Bosniaks against Serbs and Croats during the Bosnian War. <mask>, who has one eye and no hands, once claimed he lost them fighting Soviet forces in Afghanistan. CNN reported they were "injuries he says he sustained while tackling a landmine in Afghanistan." Among several accounts that take

masks:
Abu Hamza al
Hamza
Abu Hamza
Hamza
Hamza
Hamza
Hamza
Hamza
Hamza
Hamza
Hamza


title: Abu Hamza al-Masri

texts:
 issue with <mask>'s story, BBC security correspondent Gordon Corera's introduction to Omar Nasiri's memoir Inside the Jihad: My Life with Al Qaeda says <mask> "boosted his credibility" with rumours he sustained the injuries fighting jihad; also that Nasiri knew they resulted from "an accident during experiments in a training camp", and <mask> asked Nasiri "to keep this secret in order to avoid undermining his reputation." During his trial in the United States, <mask> stated that his injuries occurred whilst working with explosives with the Pakistani military in Lahore. The UK tabloid press have nicknamed him "Captain Hook" in allusion to the fictional pirate Captain Hook. Family
On 16 May 1980, <mask> married British citizen Valerie Fleming, a Roman Catholic convert to Islam, and soon after they had a son, Mohammed Mustafa Kamel born in October 1981.In 1984, their relationship came under increasing strain and later in that year <mask> took three-year-old Mohammed with him to Egypt, effectively breaking contact with Valerie. Eventually they divorced and he married Najat Mustafa, with whom he has seven children: five sons followed by two daughters. <mask>'s stepdaughter, Donna Traverso, told The Times in 2006 that she was convinced <mask> had duped her mother, Valerie, into marrying him in order to gain the right to stay in the UK (see "Arrests, charges and imprisonment" below). In 1999, <mask>'s son Mohammed, then 17 years old, was arrested in Yemen with <mask>'s stepson Mohssin Ghalain and eight other men. All were tried and convicted of planning a terrorist bombing campaign that the prosecution alleged <mask> had sent the men to carry out. Mohammed and Mohssin received prison sentences of three and seven years, respectively. Mohammed, Mohssin, and <mask>'s oldest son with Najat, <mask> Mustafa Kamel, were convicted of fraud by a London court in 2009, and sentenced to prison terms.<mask>'s third son with Najat, Yasser Kamel, was sentenced to 12 months in youth detention in 2010, for violent disorder at anti-Israel

masks: Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza


title: Abu Hamza al-Masri

texts:
 protests in 2009. In 2012, <mask>'s second youngest son, Imran Mustafa Kamel, was convicted of armed robbery and illegal possession of a firearm with intent to commit an offence and was sentenced to 11 years' imprisonment. In 2013, the Evening Standard reported that <mask>'s second-oldest son with Najat, Uthman Mustafa Kamal, delivered sermons at An-Noor mosque in Acton, west London, that were allegedly 'in support of holy war', videos of which were uploaded online but have since been taken down. In 2017, <mask>'s youngest son, Sufiyan Mustafa Kamel, was stripped of his UK passport after travelling to Syria in 2013 to fight alongside rebel groups against Bashar al-Assad. <mask>'s Moroccan daughter-in-law was jailed for attempting to smuggle a mobile phone sim card when visiting him in Belmarsh prison in 2012. She is now facing deportation but because she is the sole carer of her son, a British national, the European Court of Justice's advocate general has ruled she cannot automatically be deported despite her criminality unless she is deemed to pose a 'serious' threat to society. Religious life
<mask> was the imam of Finsbury Park Mosque from 1997, and a leader of the Supporters of Sharia, a group that believed in a strict interpretation of Islamic law.On 14 September 1999, he sent an article to Al-Hayat, one of the largest pan-Arab newspapers, supporting the Russian apartment bombings, claiming that, while "in a war, no one targets women and children in a war", these attacks were necessary as "a Muslim revenge for the Russian criminal policies in Chechnya". In 2003, he addressed a rally in central London called by the Islamic al-Muhajiroun, where members spoke of their support for Islamist goals such as the creation of a new Islamic caliphate and replacing the Western-backed Middle Eastern regimes. On 4 February 2003 (after being suspended since April 2002), <mask> was dismissed from his position at the Finsbury Park Mosque by the Charity Commission, the government department that regulates charities in England and

masks: Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza


title: Abu Hamza al-Masri

texts:
 Wales. After his exclusion from the mosque, he preached outside the gates until May 2004, when he was arrested at the start of US extradition proceedings against him (see below). <mask> publicly expressed support for Islamist goals such as creating a caliphate, and for Osama bin Laden. He wrote a paper entitled El Ansar (The Victor) in which he expressed support for the actions of the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) in Algeria, but he later rejected them when they started killing civilians. In one sermon relating to the necessity of Jihad, he said: "Allah likes those who believe in Him who kill those who do not believe in Him.Allah likes that. So if you Muslims don't like that because you hate the blood, there is something wrong with you." He allegedly associated with Abdullah el-Faisal, a Jamaican Muslim convert cleric who preached in the UK until he was imprisoned for urging his followers to murder Jews, Hindus, Christians and Americans, subsequently being deported to Jamaica in 2007. Arrests, charges and imprisonment
<mask> was arrested in December 1980, during a raid on a Soho strip club, for overstaying his tourist visa, which allowed him to stay in the UK for one month. He pleaded guilty to overstay but was allowed to remain in the UK as he was married to a British citizen, Valerie Fleming. On 26 August 2004, <mask> was arrested by British police under section 41 of the Terrorism Act 2000, which covers the instigation of acts of terrorism. Charges against him were dropped on 31 August 2004, but he was kept in jail whilst a US extradition case was developed and British authorities drew up further criminal charges of their own.Almost two months later, on 19 October 2004, <mask> was charged with fifteen offences under the provisions of various British statutes, including encouraging the killing of non-Muslims, and intent to stir up racial hatred. The trial commenced on 5 July 2005, but was adjourned, and not resumed until 9 January 2006. On 7 February 2006, he was found guilty on eleven charges and not guilty on four:

masks: Hamza Hamza Hamza Hamza


title: Abu Hamza al-Masri

texts:
 Guilty of six charges of soliciting murder under the Offences Against the Person Act 1861; not guilty on three further such charges. Guilty of three charges related to "using threatening, abusive or insulting words or behaviour with intent to stir up racial hatred, contrary to section 18 (1) of the Public Order Act 1986", not guilty on one further such charge. Guilty of one charge of "possession of threatening, abusive or insulting recordings of sound, with intent to stir up racial hatred, contrary to section 23 of the Public Order Act 1986". Guilty of one charge of "possessing a document containing information likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism", under the Terrorism Act 2000, s58. This charge under the Terrorism Act of 2000 related to his possession of an Encyclopedia of Afghan Jihad, an Al Qaeda Handbook and other propaganda materials produced by <mask>.In sentencing, Mr Justice Hughes said Hamza had "helped to create an atmosphere in which to kill has become regarded by some as not only a legitimate course but a moral and religious duty in pursuit of perceived justice." <mask> was sentenced to seven years' imprisonment. In September 2012, Frank Gardner claimed that Queen Elizabeth II had been upset some years earlier that <mask> al-Masri could not be arrested. The BBC apologised later that day for the claim. Costs
On 18 January 2007, Lord Justice Hughes made an order for the recovery of the full costs of the court-appointed defence of the race-hate charges, estimated in excess of £1 million. This judgement was based on his view that "the story I have been told today (by <mask>) is simply not true" that he [<mask>] had no share in a £220,000 house in Greenford, west London. <mask> had claimed it belonged to his sister.The court also found that <mask> was contributing £9,000 a year for private education for his children. Extradition to the United States
On 27 May 2004, <mask> was detained on remand by British authorities and appeared before magistrates at the start of a

masks:
Abu Hamza
Abu Hamza
Abu Hamza
Abu Hamza
Abu Hamza
Hamza
Abu Hamza
Hamza


title: Abu Hamza al-Masri

texts: process to try to extradite him to the United States. Yemen also requested his extradition. The United States wanted <mask> to stand trial for eleven counts relating to the taking of sixteen hostages in Yemen in 1998, advocating jihad in Afghanistan in 2001, supporting James Ujaama in an alleged attempt to establish a "terrorist training camp" in late 1999 and early 2000 near Bly, Oregon, and of providing aid to al-Qaeda. Ujaama is a US citizen who had met <mask> in England in 1999 and was indicted in the US for providing aid to al-Qaeda, attempting to establish a terrorist training camp, and for running a website advocating global jihad. <mask> was in Britain throughout the relevant period. <mask> could not face the death penalty if extradited to the United States because the UK is a signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).On 15 November 2007, British courts gave permission for <mask>'s extradition to the US. <mask> appealed against this decision to the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). In the meantime, <mask> was kept in prison after the completion of his sentence. On 8 July 2010, the ECHR temporarily blocked <mask>'s extradition to the United States to face terrorism charges until the court was satisfied that he would not be treated inhumanely. The court based its judgement on ECHR, which applies to British law. It is an absolute prohibition for a signatory to the ECHR to remove anyone to a place where they would be subject to inhumane or degrading treatment. In past cases, the ECtHR has prevented the UK from deporting suspected foreign terrorists to places where they might be tortured.In <mask>'s case, this has been extended to refusing extradition to a country where he might be jailed for life, and where the prison regime is judged too harsh. The court said there should be further legal argument on whether life without parole would be a breach of human rights. The court asked for fresh submissions on whether Hamza, and other prisoners awaiting extradition, would face inhumane treatment

masks:
Hamza
Abu Hamza
Abu Hamza
Hamza
Hamza
Abu Hamza
Hamza
Hamza
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title: Abu Hamza al-Masri

texts: in the US if they were sent there to stand trial. On 24 September 2012, the court agreed Hamza could be extradited to the US to face terrorism charges. After considering all evidence, statements by officials at ADX Florence, the court held that "conditions at ADX would not amount to ill-treatment" and also stated that "not all inmates convicted of international terrorism were housed at ADX and, even if they were, sufficient procedural safeguards were in place, such as holding a hearing before deciding on such a transfer" and that "if the transfer process had been unsatisfactory, there was the possibility of bringing a claim to both the Federal Bureau of Prisons' administrative remedy programme and the US federal courts", referring to the  Administrative Remedy Program. On 26 September 2012, a High Court judge halted the extradition of Hamza to the US on terror charges after the cleric launched a last-ditch appeal. On 5 October 2012, the High Court granted the UK's government's request to extradite Hamza to the US.The removal process took place that same evening, when <mask> was taken from Long Lartin jail to RAF Mildenhall in Suffolk, where he was placed into the hands of the US Marshals. <mask> arrived in the US on the morning of 6 October 2012 to face eleven charges relating to hostage taking, conspiracy to establish a militant training camp and calling for holy war in Afghanistan. He appeared in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York on 6 October and was then taken into custody. He appeared in court again on 9 October and pleaded not guilty to eleven charges. On 14 April 2014, his trial opened with jury selection. His lawyer, Joshua Dratel, claimed <mask> cooperated with MI5 and the police to help interact with the British Muslim community. On 19 May 2014, he was found guilty of the terror charges.British Home Secretary Theresa May said that she was "pleased" that <mask> had "finally faced justice". On 9 January 2015, <mask> was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of

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Abu Hamza
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title: Abu Hamza al-Masri

texts:
 parole, and the entire sentence would be served at ADX Florence in Colorado. In U.S. confinement, his hook devices were confiscated and replaced with a prosthetic spork. In late August 2020, The Times reported that <mask> had filed a lawsuit against the US Attorney General William Barr over what he described as "inhumane and degrading" conditions at ADX Florence. <mask>'s complaints included solitary confinement, the removal of his prosthetic hooks despite his lack of forearms, sustaining rotten teeth from opening food packages, and encountering "religious stress" from eating kosher food. Books and booklets
He wrote the following books and booklets:
Be Aware of Takfir Np, nd. Ruling by Man Made Law, is it Major or Minor Kufr?Explaining the Words of ibn Abbas (Supporters of Shariah, 1996). Allah’s Governance on Earth. Np, 1999. See also

 <mask>atada

References

External links

 ECtHR judgment in the case of <mask> and others v. UK
  (Takes a few moments to retrieve from archive.) 1958 births
Living people
21st-century criminals
Alleged al-Qaeda recruiters
Al-Qaeda propagandists
Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights
Egyptian amputees
Egyptian civil engineers
Egyptian emigrants to England
Egyptian imams
Egyptian Islamists
Egyptian people imprisoned abroad
Egyptian Sunni Muslims
European Court of Human Rights cases involving the United Kingdom
People extradited from the United Kingdom to the United States
People deported from the United Kingdom
Inmates of HM Prison Belmarsh
Islamic terrorism in England
People convicted of soliciting murder
People convicted of racial hatred offences
People from Alexandria
People imprisoned on charges of terrorism
People without hands
Egyptian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States federal government
Bosnian mujahideen
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
British amputees
British Islamists
Imams in the United Kingdom
Inmates of ADX Florence
British propagandists
Egyptian propagandists
20th-century

masks:
Abu Hamza
Hamza
Abu Q
Abu Hamza


title: Alessandro Codivilla

texts:
<mask> (b. Bologna, Italy, 21 March 1861; d. Bologna, Italy, 28 February 1912) was an Italian surgeon from Bologna, Head of the Surgical Department of the hospital of Castiglion Fiorentino. Life

First years and degree

He was born in Bologna on March 21, he belonged to a humble family, his father was a pawnbroker at the financial institution of Monte di Pietà. He was a very bright student, first of his class in high school, and had a particular attitude towards scientific subjects. <mask> obtained a degree in Medicine and surgery in 1886, and, right after that, became assistant to prof. Pietro Loreta, the man whose death shot down <mask>’s possibilities for a career in teaching. Despite this, he did not let himself get discouraged and started to work at various hospitals, as a matter of fact, like Corrado Tumiati said he had a tough apprenticeship in Castiglione Fiorentino, Città di Castello and Macerata, hospitals.«Immature of studies and experience, all alone, without the guidance of a teacher or the advice of a friend, begins the hospital career, but adversely from most he is not overwhelmed by the fatal neglect of small professional centers». Although the partial removal of the pancreas in cases of pancreatic cancer is usually associated with Allen Oldfather Whipple or the german Walther Kausch, the first documented operation of this kind was performed by <mask>. <mask> was also involved in the early development of skeletal traction.Subsequently, in the competition as chief surgeon of the hospital of Bergamo, his abilities allowed him to be among the first three chosen by the technical commission, even if at the end one of the other two was elected. However, he was hired at Imola, where he entered not by competition, but by direct call of some administrators who had noticed that the surgical center of Castiglione Fiorentino, where he had worked before, had become a point of reference even for patients from provinces further away, as those of Florence and Rome. He

masks:
Alessandro Codivilla
Codivilla
Codivilla
Codivilla
Codivilla


title: Alessandro Codivilla

texts:
 took up the job of chief surgeon in Imola on 1 January 1895 and  stayed there until 1898, in this place his fame reached its definitive consecration. In August 1895 he married Emilia Ferretti, of La Spezia: from the marriage were born three children, <mask> and Ernesto in Imola, and Mario in Bologna. Life in Bologna

After spending eight years in provincial hospitals, during which he devoted himself to brain surgery and to bowel surgery (a discipline that fascinated him a lot), in 1899 he was invited by the lawyer Giuseppe Bacchelli, at the time president of the Provincial Administration, to abandon general surgery to devote himself to orthopaedics and become the new director of the Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute. «To be true, this is the most dynamic period of his scientific life, during which he, who benefited from the advantages of a pedagogical orientation only for a short time, was forced to create by himself a method of clinical analysis and a surgical experience». For <mask>, leaving visceral surgery to devote himself to a discipline he knew so little about as orthopedics, was not easy.However, there were multiple reasons that led him to accept the post at Rizzoli: not only was Bologna his hometown, but there he had given some appreciated lessons in uro-genital surgery that made him more famous. Another reason, however, was the illness contracted at Imola by the firstborn of Codivilla, since the latter believed that the climate of San Michele in Bosco could somehow lead to the child’s recovery. This did not happen, and <mask> therefore found himself facing not only the premature death of his son, but also many contrasts in the field of work because there were those who could state publicly that "the post of Director of the Institute had been entrusted to a person not suitable to support the fate of the establishment". The M.D. Cesare Ghillini and his followers waged a real war against him, because they accused him of poor preparation in the field of orthopaedics.

masks: Alessandro Codivilla Codivilla


title: Alessandro Codivilla

texts: Mikulicz, Nicoladoni and Wolff. In 1901 he became a member of the D.O.G. (Deutsche Orthopädische Gesellschaft), or the German Orthopaedic Society, which was founded in that year and gave the possibility to only two foreigners to join, Codivilla was one of these two. In 1902 the first meeting was held, and Codivilla praised Pietro Panzeri, the former director of the Rizzoli Institute, who had recently passed away. In fact, shortly afterwards, the Institute and Codivilla were mentioned in what is considered the first treatise on orthopedic surgery by the German Albert Hoffa. In that same period, he organized a competition in Bologna, for the best work of innovation in the field of orthopaedics, also open to foreigners, with the intent of:«Making Rizzoli a training ground for international competitions meant refreshing its name with those who had forgotten it and making its existence known to those who still ignored it».Many participated in the competition, the participants were 14 of which five between Italian, English, French and American authors and nine of German authors, to demonstrate how the names of Codivilla and Rizzoli were now more than known to experts in the medical and orthopaedic fields. The winner of the competition was the German Oscar Vulpius, awarded on 3 December 1905.And as Putti himself put it, that period was really important for <mask> both to establish himself in the personal sphere and as the director of Rizzoli:«Who can fail to remember him (<mask>) at the Presidency of that memorable Congress in Bologna, which he so expertly organized and which gave distinguished foreign guests the measure of the great development achieved in Italy by our specialty?».In the meantime he was also appointed as a qualified university teacher in surgical clinic in 1899 at the University of Turin, later obtaining the post as teacher of orthopaedic clinic at the University of Bologna for the academic year 1900-1901. The following year (1902) he also obtained the chair

masks: Codivilla Codivilla


title: Alessandro Codivilla

texts:
 of orthopaedics, he was confirmed the teaching assignment until 1903-1904, when he was appointed extraordinary professor in orthopaedics. In 1907 the chair was put up for a competition, and since <mask>li Institute, maintaining, however, the title of clinical consultant. His participation in congresses and meetings during this period was intense, and as a founding member of the Italian Orthopaedic Society he convened in 1906 the III Congress in Milan and in 1907 the IV Congress in Bologna. He was president of the Società medico-chirurgica of Bologna between 1903 and 1904 and president of the Società italiana di terapia fisica in 1906. From 1902 he became director of the Orthopaedic Archive, the oldest Italian journal of the specialty.He was an official speaker at numerous national and international congresses, as at the 1st Congress of the International Society of Surgery in Brussels in 1905, at the 6th Italian Paediatric Congress in 1907, at the 16th International Congress of Medicine in Budapest in 1909, at the 22nd meeting of the Italian Society of Surgery in Rome in 1910. In May 1910 he attended the International Congress of Medicine in Buenos Aires, took an active part in meetings and scientific discussions and worked in several clinics in the city. Last years and death
He continued his activity intensely until the autumn of 1911, when his physical condition rapidly began to decline, due to an illness that had begun to manifest itself clearly since 1907. <mask>, who had always had at heart the fate of Rizzoli rather than his own health, was tormented by the fear that the Rizzoli institute could regress and that orthopedics, cultivated with such dedication, could be changed in the future and take a different course from that which he himself advocated, and that is why he took under his wing the one who became his pupil Vittorio Putti. <mask> died in Bologna on 28 February 1912 at the age of 51, and after his death, Putti was elected president of Rizzoli, and he

masks: Codivillazo Codivilla Codivilla