title: David Freud, Baron Freud

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 Housing Benefit, Jobseekers Allowance, etc. His central thesis was that spending on 'delivery' – such as schemes to get people back to work – would save money in the long run because there would be fewer people being paid money in the form of benefits. <mask> wrote:

In 2008, during the banking crisis that had begun the previous year, <mask> became a formal adviser to Work and Pensions Secretary James Purnell and <mask> was asked to "help implement nothing less than a revolution in the welfare state" after a "sea change in Labour's thinking about the benefits system".Some of his ideas were incorporated into a white paper published later that year. However, he came to the belief the Conservative Party was "more likely to implement his radical reforms" and announced that he would switch to working with the Conservatives. Purnell later resigned after Gordon Brown refused to cut welfare spending. On 27 June 2009, he was made a life peer after his name was put forward by the Conservative leadership. He then became a shadow minister in <mask>'s frontbench team. When the Cameron–Clegg coalition was formed in 2010, <mask> was made Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Welfare Reform at the Department for Work and Pensions. In 2012, he outlined some of his thoughts on welfare reform in an interview by saying: "People who are poorer should be prepared to take the biggest risks, they've got least to lose.We have, through our welfare system, created a system which has made them reluctant to take risks, so we need to turn that on its head and make the system predictable so that people will take those risks". In the same interview, he said his primary concerns were the "nooks and crannies" in

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title: David Freud, Baron Freud

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texts: the benefits system where people could sit for long periods without ongoing scrutiny. He claimed the people who did this were: "The incapacity benefits, the lone parents, the people who are self-employed for year after year but only earn hundreds of pounds or a few thousand pounds, the people waiting for their work capability assessment then not going to it - all kinds of areas where people are able to have a lifestyle off benefits and actually off conditionality". In 2012, he argued that many people were on benefits as a "lifestyle choice" rather than using it as a safety net. In 2013, he stated in a House of Lords speech, to much criticism, that the number of food banks were increasing because people want free food rather than growing poverty. In 2014, Labour MPs called for <mask>'s resignation after he was secretly recorded responding to a question posed at a fringe meeting of the Conservative Party conference. The question was whether some people with disabilities should work for a token sum in order to enjoy the non-financial advantages of engaging in the world of work, perhaps with their wages topped up by benefit payments.<mask>, thinking out loud, agreed that there was a small group of disabled people who were "not worth the full wage" and said he would go away and think about it. <mask> had to apologise. He said: "I was foolish to accept the premise of the question...I care passionately about disabled people...that is why through Universal Credit...we have increased overall spending on disabled households by £250 million, offered the most generous work allowance ever, and increased the disability addition to £360 per month". After the Conservatives won the general election

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title: David Freud, Baron Freud

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 in May 2015, <mask> was promoted to Minister of State at the DWP, where he was given an enhanced role in overseeing the expansion of the Universal Credit scheme. He stepped down from his government role at the end of December 2016. In February 2021, the House of Lords Commissioner for Standards ruled that <mask> had breached the code of conduct for peers by writing to judges to argue against the release of character references given in ex-Conservative MP Charlie Elphicke's trial for sexually assaulting two women. <mask> made a formal apology in the House of Lords.<mask> was regarded as the architect of the Universal Credit, which was legislated for in 2012. In 2021, he launched his book titled Clashing Agendas about the battles with the Treasury over the introduction of Universal Credit. Personal life
Along with the late Martin Gilbert, <mask> has acted as a long-term trustee of the Portland Trust, a not-for-profit London-based foundation set up to promote co-operation between Israel and Palestine through economic development. Between 2005 and 2008, he was its chief executive. <mask> is a president of Volunteering Matters, UK's volunteering charity founded in 1962. <mask> is President of the Freud Museum London. <mask> has appeared in the TV programme Time Team (series 13, episode 6) about the village of Eastry.Notes

References

External links
Rt Hon Lord <mask> – gov.uk
Lord <mask> – TheyWorkForYou

1950 births
Living people
People educated at Whitgift School
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
British chief executives
British Jews
British people of Austrian-Jewish descent
Conservative Party (UK) life peers
David
Jewish British politicians
Members of the Privy Council of the United

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title: Anna Seward

texts:
<mask> (12 December 174225 March 1809) was an English Romantic poet, often called the Swan of Lichfield. She benefited from her father's progressive views on female education. Life

Family life

<mask> was the elder of two surviving daughters of <mask> (1708–1790), a prebendary of Lichfield and Salisbury and an author, and his wife Elizabeth. Elizabeth later had three further children (John, Jane and Elizabeth), who all died in infancy, and two stillbirths. <mask> mourned their loss in her poem Eyam (1788). Born in 1742 at Eyam, a mining village in the Peak District of Derbyshire, where her father was Rector, she and her sister Sarah, some 16 months younger, passed nearly all their life in that small area of the Peak District of Derbyshire, and at Lichfield, a cathedral city in adjacent Staffordshire. In 1749, <mask>'s father was appointed a Canon-Residentiary at Lichfield Cathedral.The family moved there, where her father educated her at home. In 1754 they moved into the Bishop's Palace in Cathedral Close. When a family friend, Mrs Edward Sneyd, died in 1756, the Sewards took in one of her daughters, Honora Sneyd, who became an adopted foster sister to <mask>. Honora was nine years younger. <mask> described in a poem, The Anniversary (1769), how she and her sister first met Honora on returning from a walk. Sarah (known as Sally) died suddenly of typhus at the age of 19 in 1764. She was said to have an admirable character, though less talented than her sister.<mask> consoled herself with affection for Honora Sneyd, as she describes in Visions, written a few days after her sister's death. There she expresses a hope that Honora ("this transplanted flower") would replace her sister (referred to as Alinda) in her and her parents' affections. <mask> cared for her father in the last ten years of his life, after he had suffered a stroke. When he died in 1790, he left her financially independent with an income of £400 per annum. She continued to dwell at the Bishop's

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 Palace until she died in 1809. Anecdotes
<mask>, as a long-term friend of the Levett family of Lichfield, noted in her Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin (Erasmus) that three of the town's foremost citizens were thrown from their carriages and injured their knees in the same year. "No such misfortune," <mask> wrote, "was previously remembered in that city, nor has it recurred through all the years which since elapsed."Education and career
<mask> was a precocious, sensitive redhead, who showed a bent for learning from early childhood. <mask>, author of The Female Right to Literature (1748), held progressive views on female education. Encouraged by her father, <mask> was said to be able to recite works of Milton by the age of three. Her gift for writing was clear at the age of seven, when the family moved to Lichfield. The family home in the Bishop's Palace became the centre of a literary circle that included Erasmus Darwin, Samuel Johnson and James Boswell, where <mask> was encouraged to join in, as she later relates. <mask>'s (if not his wife's) attitudes to educating girls was progressive for the time, but not excessively so. He was a poet himself, yet tried to curb <mask>'s passion for poetry, although she chose the composition of it for her own studies.Among the subjects he taught were theology and numeracy, how to read and appreciate poetry, and how to write and recite it, although these deviated from the conventional drawing-room accomplishments of the time. The omissions were also notable, including languages and science, although the girls could pursue them alone if they felt inclined. Nor was <mask> unskilled in domestic matters. Among many literary figures <mask> conversed with was Sir Walter Scott, who later published her poetry posthumously. Also in her circle were the writers Thomas Day, Francis Noel Clarke Mundy, Sir Brooke Boothby and Willie Newton (the Peak Minstrel). She came to be seen as heading a coterie of regional poets, influenced by

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 writers such as Thomas Whalley, William Hayley, Robert Southey, Helen Maria Williams, Hannah More and the Ladies of Llangollen. She was also involved in the Lunar Society in Birmingham, which would sometimes meet at their home.Both Darwin and Day belonged. <mask> corresponded with other members such as Josiah Wedgwood and Richard Lovell Edgeworth. Between 1775 and 1781, <mask> was a guest and participant at a much-mocked salon held by <mask> at Batheaston, near Bath. However, it was there that <mask>'s talent was recognised. Her work appeared in the yearbook of poems from the gatherings, a debt that Seward acknowledged in "Poem to the Memory of Lady Miller" (1782). Relationships
Seward remained single, despite offers and friendships. She was outspoken about the institution of marriage, not unlike her heroine in Louisa, a position later echoed in the novels of her step-niece, Maria Edgeworth.She shunned marriage and sexual love as inferior to the equality and virtue of Aristotelian friendship. She had friends of both genders, although only seeking romantic relations with women. In 1985 Lillian Faderman suggested that her orientation was lesbian, but there is little known evidence of the erotic or sexual in her ties and the term relates more to 20th than to 18th-century concepts of identity. Since 1985, <mask> remains within the lesbian poetic canon, but Teresa Barnard argues against this, based more on examining her correspondence than on her poetry, while more recently Barrett has argued for it, based on other sources. Much of the literature on <mask>'s relations focuses on her childhood friend Honora Sneyd: sonnets reveal her passion for her when they were together and her despair when Sneyd married Richard Edgeworth. Compared with the correspondence, her sonnets display more intense emotion, such as Sonnet 10 ("Honora, shou'd that cruel time arrive"), which describes feelings of betrayal. When the Edgeworths moved to Ireland, despair turned to anger, as in

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 Sonnet 14 ("Ingratitude, how deadly is thy smart").Work

Poetry
<mask> began to write poetry early with encouragement from her father, a published poet, but against the wishes of her mother. When <mask> was 16, her father revised his position, fearing she might become a "learned lady". Later she was encouraged by Dr Erasmus Darwin, who set up a medical practice in Lichfield in 1756, although their relations with him included frequent conflicts. Her verses, which date from at least 1759, include elegies and sonnets, and a verse-novel, Louisa (1784), of which five editions were published. However, she did not publish her first poem until 1780, at the age of 38. <mask>'s many letters and other writings have been called "commonplace". Horace Walpole said she had "no imagination, no novelty", but she was praised by Mary Scott, who had written admiringly of her father's attitude to female education.Several poems, particularly Lichfield ones, concern her friend and adopted sister Honora Sneyd, in a tradition described as "female friendship poetry". <mask> struck a middle path in a period when women had to tread carefully. Her work could also be arch and teasing, as in her poem Portrait of Miss Levett, on a Lichfield beauty later married to Rev. Richard Levett. She contributed to Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson (1791), but was less than happy with Boswell's treatment of her material. Her work circulated widely. Authorship has been a continuing problem with assessing her work.She was known to suggest others had used her work as their own: "a charge of plagiarism must rest somewhere." Correspondence and biography
<mask> was a prodigious correspondent. Six vast volumes of her letters appeared posthumously in 1811, revealing broad knowledge of English literature and casting light on Midland literary culture in her day. Early on, in 1762–1768, she used an imaginary friend, Emma, to express her thoughts, writing 39 letters to her. She was seen variously as an authority on

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title: Anna Seward

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 English literature by contemporaries such as Walter Scott, Samuel Johnson and Robert Southey. She also wrote a biography: Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin (1804). Science
Keenly interested in botany, Seward associated closely with the Lichfield Botanical Society (despite the name, composed of only three men: Erasmus Darwin, Sir Brooke Boothby and John Jackson) and published anonymously in its name.She was encouraged by Darwin to reject a conservative backlash to the revelations of Carl Linnaeus's sexual system of plant classification. This was seen as unfitting for ladies' modesty. "I had heard it was not fit for the female eye. It can only be unfit for the perusal of such females as still believe the legend of their nursery that children are dug out of a parsley-bed; who have never been at church, or looked into a Bible, – and are totally ignorant that in the present state of the world, two sexes are necessary to the production of animals." This caution prevailed through most of the 19th century, typically from writers such as Richard Polwhele, in his poem The Unsex'd Females (1798), although she escaped his personal criticism, being considered to have a proper attitude. Selected works

Selected works include;

The Visions, an Elegy (1764)
The Anniversary (1769)
Lichfield, an elegy (May 1781)
Poem to the Memory of Lady Miller (1782)
Eyam. (August 1788)
Louisa, A Poetical Novel in Four Epistles (1784)
Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin (1804)
Original Sonnets on Various Subjects: And Odes Paraphrased from Horace (1799)
Sonnet 10.To Honora Sneyd. [Honora, shou'd that cruel time arrive]
Sonnet 14 [Ingratitude, how deadly is thy smart]

Legacy
After <mask>'s death, Sir Walter Scott edited her Poetical Works in three volumes (Edinburgh, 1810). To these he prefixed a memoir of the author and extracts from her correspondence. Scott's editing shows considerable censorship and he declined to edit the bulk of her letters, which later appeared in six volumes from


title: Anna Seward

texts:
 Archibald Constable as Letters of <mask>ward 1784–1807 (1811). Her reputation barely outlived her, but interest revived in the 21st century, after some dismissive views among early 20th-century critics. Later feminist scholars in particular have seen Seward as a valuable observer of gendered relations in late 18th-century society, playing a transitional role in its principles and emerging romanticism. Her stance on the political, cultural and literary issues of the time likewise reflects the social responses to such issues.Kairoff sees her as "one of the — in a literal sense — ultimate eighteenth-century poets". There is a plaque to <mask> (spelt Ann) in Lichfield Cathedral. The epitaph was written by her friend Walter Scott. <mask> appears as a character in the novel The Ladies by Doris Grumbach (1984). Archives
A collection of letters relating to <mask> can be found in the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham. Notes

References

Bibliography

 in

<mask>

Historical sources

Literary surveys

 In

<mask>

 (1941–1942)

Pearson, H. (ed.)(1936) The Swan of Lichfield. Being a Selection from the Correspondence of <mask>

Botany

Sexuality

Works by <mask>

Volume 1
Volume 2
Volume 3
Volume 4
Volume 5
Volume 6
 (1992–1993)

Volume 1
Volume 2
Volume 3

Reference materials

Further reading
Teresa Barnard: <mask> : a constructed life; a critical biography, Farnham [u.a.] : Ashgate, 2009,

External links

<mask> at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)

The poetical works of <mask>; with extracts from her literary correspondence, Volume 1
The poetical works of <mask>; with extracts from her literary correspondence. Volume 2
The poetical works of <mask>; with extracts from her literary correspondence, Volume 3
Portrait of <mask>, National Portrait Gallery

1742 births
1809 deaths
People from Lichfield
People from Eyam
English women poets
18th-century British women writers
18th-century English poets
18th-century English women
18th-century English

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title: Diezani Alison-Madueke

texts:
<mask>. Alison-Madueke (born 6 December 1960) is a Nigerian politician and the first female President of OPEC. She was elected at the 166th OPEC Ordinary meeting in Vienna on 27 November 2014. She became Nigeria's minister of transportation on 26 July 2007. She was moved to Mines and Steel Development in 2008, and in April 2010 was appointed Minister of Petroleum Resources. Early life and education
<mask>. Agama was born in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Her father was Chief Frederick Abiye Agama. She had her early education in Shell camp and attended Hussey Model School after the Nigerian civil war.In 1968, she enrolled in Township school, Port Harcourt and went on to Holy Rosary Government Girls Secondary School where she sat for her WASCE in 1975. She proceeded to Federal School of Arts and Sciences in Mubi, Gongola State(now                     Adamawa State
) for her A’ Levels and then moved to the United Kingdom in 1977 to study Architecture. While in the UK, she commenced studying Architecture in England but then moved to Howard University in the United States. She graduated from Howard with a bachelor's degree on 8 December 1992. In 2002, she attended Cambridge Judge Business School for her MBA degree. Diezani is a beneficiary of the Chevening scholarship. Career

Shell Nigeria
She returned to Nigeria in 1992 and joined Shell Petroleum Development Corporation working in the estates area of operations in the Lagos office of Shell as well as acting as an architectural consultant.She rose to the position of Head of Civil Infrastructures and then became Head of Corporate Issues and Crisis Management Unit in 1997. Upon completion of her MBA program at Cambridge, she was made Lead Joint Ventures Representation Adviser in 2004. Alison-Madueke was appointed as an Executive Director of Shell in 2006. She was the first woman ever to be appointed by Shell as an Executive Director in Nigeria. In government
Alison-Madueke has held three significant positions in the Nigerian federal

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Diezani K


title: Diezani Alison-Madueke

texts:
 government. She was appointed Transportation Minister in July 2007. On 23 December 2008, she became the Minister of Mines and Steel Development.When Vice-President; Goodluck Jonathan became acting President in February 2010, he dissolved the cabinet on 17 March 2010, and swore in a new cabinet on 6 April 2010 with Alison-Madueke as Minister for Petroleum Resources. Diezani left office on June 1, 2015, as part of the presidential transition to Jonathan's successor. She then went to work for the Commonwealth of Dominica as a Trade and Investment Commissioner. Minister of Petroleum Resources
As Minister of Petroleum Resources, Alison-Madueke pledged to transform Nigeria's oil and gas industry so that all Nigerians benefit. In April 2010, President Goodluck Jonathan signed the Nigerian Content Act, which aimed to increase the percentage of petroleum industry contracts awarded to indigenous Nigerian businesses – a reaction to the domination of the sector by foreign operators. One of the most controversial policies introduced under Alison-Madueke was the government's plan to remove state subsidies on fuel prices. Alison-Madueke supported the discontinuation of the subsidy "because it poses a huge financial burden on the government, disproportionately benefits the wealthy, [and] encourages inefficiency, corruption and diversion of scarce public resources away from investment in critical infrastructure."Allegations of corruption and financial misconduct

A PBS NewsHour segment quoted American and British officials saying that former Petroleum Minister <mask> Alison-Madueke might personally have organized a diversion of $6 billion (N1.2 trillion) from the Nigerian treasury. She has been charged with responsibility for $20 billion missing from the Petroleum agency. A former Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) governor, Sanusi, made the comment again during a PBS interview on 2 December 2015. Sanusi believes he was fired from the Central Bank of Nigeria because he went public with charges that $20


title: Diezani Alison-Madueke

texts: billion was missing from the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) under Alison-Madueke's management. Alison Madueke says Sanusi made the allegations to retaliate after she didn't help him to get appointed as the president of the African Development Bank (AfDB) and dismissed his allegation. She's been accused of awarding multi-billion Naira contracts without recourse to due process and of recklessly spending government funds. as well as wasting billions of naira inappropriately on private jets.In October 2009, the Senate of Nigeria indicted <mask> Alison-Madueke and recommended prosecution for the transfer of N1.2 billion naira into the private account of a toll company without due process and in breach of concession agreement. She has been officially charged to court by the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission of Nigeria for 'Money Laundering'. On 2 October 2015, Reuters reported that Alison-Madueke had been arrested by the UK's National Crime Agency (NCA) in London, along with four other people on suspicion of bribery and corruption offences. However, a spokesperson for the police denied having any knowledge of the incident. Her family and the Nigerian Government confirmed that she had been arrested in London, although the NCA declined to comment on the case. Also in Nigeria, her home in Asokoro, Abuja was raided and sealed by anti-corruption agents of the Nigerian Economic and Financial Crimes Commission, a few hours after her alleged arrest in London. On 28 August 2017, a Nigerian federal court seized 7.6 billion naira ($21 million) from bank accounts linked to Alison-Madueke.In 2017, the US Justice Department’s kleptocracy team seized  $145 million worth of assets that had been  purchased "for the benefit of" Ms. Alison-Madueke. Among the assets were a $50 million apartment in New York, properties in California, and an $80 million yacht; Galactica Star. As part of the Pandora Papers leak in 2021, Alison-Madueke was accused of accepting $17 million in gifts and


title: Fang Lizhi

texts:
<mask> (also Li-Zhi; February 12, 1936 – April 6, 2012) was a Chinese astrophysicist, vice-president of the University of Science and Technology of China, and activist whose liberal ideas inspired the pro-democracy student movement of 1986–87 and, finally, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Because of his activism, he was expelled from the Communist Party of China in January 1987. For his work, <mask> was a recipient of the Robert F Kennedy Human Rights Award in 1989, given each year to an individual whose courageous activism is at the heart of the human rights movement and in the spirit of Robert F. Kennedy's vision and legacy. He was elected an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1980, but it was revoked after 1989. Life and career in China
<mask> was born on 12 February 1936 in Beijing. His father worked on the railway. In 1948, a year before the People's Liberation Army took over the city, as a student of the Beijing No.4 High School, he joined an underground youth organization that was associated to Communist Party of China (CPC). One of his extracurricular activities was assembling radio receivers from used parts. In 1952, he enrolled in the Physics Department at Peking University, where he met his future wife, Li Shuxian (). Both <mask> and Li were among the top students in their class. He joined CPC upon graduation, worked the Institute of Modern Physics and became involved in China's secret atomic bomb program, while Li stayed at Peking University as a junior faculty. In 1957, during the Hundred Flowers Campaign, people were strongly encouraged by the CPC to openly express their opinions and criticisms. As party members, Li, <mask> and another person in the physics department planned to write a letter to the party to offer their suggestions on education.This letter was still unfinished by the time the Hundred Flowers Campaign abruptly came to an end and the Anti-Rightist Campaign started. The opinions and criticisms solicited during the earlier campaign were then interpreted as "attacks on the party", and those who expressed

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texts: such opinions were labelled "rightist" and persecuted. Although no one knew about the unfinished letter, out of loyalty to the party, the three naive young people confessed about it, and Li also confessed to the party her doubts on the party. Li was expelled from the party, and was sentenced to hard labour at Zhaitang near Beijing. <mask> was not immediately expelled from the party, because he played a lesser role in writing the letter, and also because he had left Peking University, where the punishment was particularly severe. Still, he was removed from the nuclear program, and sent to do hard labour in Zanhuang, Hebei province from December 1957 to August 1958. Out of political pressure, Li and <mask> put their relationship on hold until early 1959, when <mask> was also expelled from the party.<mask> was reassigned to the faculty of the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) in August 1958, and in 1961 married Li, who remained a faculty of Peking University. In spite of his experience in the anti-Rightist campaign, he published an article in the Guangming Daily, encouraging the independent thinking of students. <mask> published his first research paper on nuclear physics in Acta Physica Sinica 17, p. 57 (1961) under the pseudonym Wang Yunran, since as a rightist he was not entitled to publish research papers. Later, on the recommendation of Qian Linzhao, he became an associated member of a research group led by Li Yinyuan at the Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Since Li's group was at a different institute, this arrangement took advantage of a loophole in management rules, allowing him to publish papers under his own name. In the late 1950s/early 1960s, <mask> conducted research in particle physics, solid state physics and laser physics. By 1965, he had published 13 research papers and was considered one of the most productive physics researchers in China.That year, as part of the effort of cleansing Peking of "undesirable elements", <mask> was to be removed from the faculty of USTC and sent to work in an electronics

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 factory in Liaoning province. Learning about this, vice president Yan Jici intervened on <mask>'s behalf; he pleaded the case to the party secretary of USTC at the time, Liu Da, who cancelled the cleansing order for <mask> and other faculty members of USTC. Academic activities were interrupted when the Cultural Revolution broke out in 1966. In 1969, along with other universities and research institutes, the USTC was ordered to be evacuated out of Beijing, ostensibly in anticipation of an impending Soviet Union invasion. USTC was moved to Hefei, the capital of Anhui Province, where it remains to this day. Upon arriving in Hefei in 1969, <mask>, along with other "problematic members" of the faculty, were sent to do hard labour for "re-education by the worker class" in a coal mine. <mask> secretly brought with him one physics book, the "Classical Theory of Fields" by Lev Landau and learned the theory of general relativity by reading this book in the evening.Later, in 1971, along with a number of other faculty members, he was assigned to do labour work in a brick factory, which produced the bricks for constructing the USTC university buildings. Research in astrophysics and cosmology
In 1972, the worst chaos of the Cultural Revolution was over and scientific research resumed. <mask> found an opportunity to read some recent astrophysics papers in western journals, and soon wrote his first paper on cosmology, "A Cosmological Solution in Scalar-tensor Theory with Mass and Blackbody Radiation", which was published on the journal Wu Li (Physics), Vol. 1, 163 (1972). This was the first modern cosmological research paper in mainland China. <mask> assembled a group of young faculty members of USTC around him to conduct astrophysics research. At the time, conducting research on relativity theory and cosmology in China was very risky politically, because these theories were considered to be "idealistic" theories in contradiction with the dialectical materialism theory, which is the official philosophy of the Communist Party.According to the dialectical materialism

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texts: philosophy, both time and space must be infinite, while the Big Bang theory allows the possibility of the finiteness of space and time. During the Cultural Revolution, campaigns were waged against Albert Einstein and the Theory of Relativity in Beijing and Shanghai. Once <mask> published his theory, some of the critics of the Theory of Relativity, especially a group based in Shanghai, prepared to attack <mask> politically. However, by this time the "leftist" line was declining in the Chinese academia. Professor Dai Wensai, the most well-known Chinese astronomer at the time and chair of the Astronomy Department of Nanjing University, also supported <mask>. Many of the members of the "Theory of Relativity Criticism Group" changed to study the theory and conduct research in it. Subsequently, <mask> was regarded as the father of cosmological research in China.<mask> published a large number of papers on astrophysics and cosmology. In the late 1970s, he and his group used the luminosity of selected radio quasars to measure the Hubble diagram, and with data available at the time, suggested that the universe may be closed (<mask> et al., Acta Astronomica Sinica 17, 134 (1977)). This work was noticed by researchers outside China; a Nature article noted that it obtained similar results to, but appeared earlier than, the paper by Davidsen et al., Nature 269, 203 (1977). <mask> also carried out research on topics including neutron stars, black holes, inflation and quantum cosmology. He soon gained international recognition, and as China began to open up in the late 1970s, he was invited to international conferences outside the country. In 1985, together with H. Sato of Kyoto University, Japan, <mask> won the first prize of the Gravity Research Foundation essay competition by proposing that the periodic distribution of quasars observed can be explained if the Universe is multiply-connected, i.e. has a non-trivial topology.He was elected as the youngest member of the Chinese Academy of Science in 1980. His membership was, however, revoked after the Tiananmen Square

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 protest of 1989. He helped promote international academic exchange in China. Together with Remo Ruffini, he organized the first major international scientific conference in China: the 3rd Marcel Grossmann meeting in 1982. During this meeting, Tsvi Piran and T.G. Horowitz became the first two Israeli scientists to enter the People's Republic of China; at the time, there were no diplomatic relations between China and Israel. He invited Stephen Hawking to visit China in 1985, and organized the International Astronomical Union conference IAU-124 on "Observational Cosmology" in Beijing in 1986.<mask> also trained many younger colleagues and students in the field of astrophysics and cosmology; he was considered an excellent teacher. <mask> and Li coauthored "Introduction to Mechanics", an introductory book on Newtonian mechanics and special theory of relativity. This book has been considered a classic by many teachers and students, although few students are aware of it in recent years. <mask> was also the first scientist in China to write popular accounts of contemporary astrophysical developments, such as cosmology and black holes. <mask>'s book, "Creation of the Universe" (Yuzhou de chuangsheng in Chinese) which was published in 1987, introduced basic cosmological ideas, and influenced a large number of physics and astronomy students growing up in the 1980s in China. Political activism
During the Anti-Rightist Campaign, <mask> was expelled from the Communist Party of China for his "reactionary activities", viz. publishing an article critical of the government's policies on science education.He was rehabilitated after the reform of China in late 1970s, and resumed his party membership. During this time, he held many academic positions, including the director of the astrophysics research group of USTC, and director of the science history research group, chief editor of the USTC academic journal, chair of the Chinese society of gravity and relativistic astrophysics. In 1984, <mask> was appointed as the vice president of the USTC under president Guan Weiyan.


title: Fang Lizhi

texts:
 <mask> was very active in this role; for example he helped to set up the telex service for USTC. He was very popular among the students. <mask> also begin to write essays for publication in popular magazines, and give lectures on a variety of topics in universities, though usually not in USTC. Many such essays and lectures expressed his liberal view on politics, reflections on history, and criticisms on CPC dogma.He also emphasized social responsibility of intellectuals. In late 1986, <mask>, together with Xu Liangying and Liu Binyan, wrote letters to a number of well-known "Rightists" from the 1957 Anti-Rightist campaign, suggesting a meeting in memory of that event. In December 1986, college students demonstrated in over a dozen Chinese cities in demanding greater economic and political freedoms. <mask> was against the student demonstration, believing it would be suppressed by the CPC; he tried to persuade the USTC students not to go off-campus. After two straight weeks of student demonstrations, believing that the student movement was a result of "bourgeois liberalization", Deng Xiaoping named three Communist Party members to be expelled: <mask>, Liu Binyan and Wang Ruowang. Deng directed then-CPC General Secretary Hu Yaobang to expel them from the Party, but Hu refused. Because of his refusal, Hu was dismissed from his position as General Secretary in January 1987, effectively ending his period of influence within the Chinese government.<mask> was again expelled from Communist Party of China in January 1987, and removed from his position as the vice president of the university. He was moved to Beijing as a research scientist at the Beijing Astronomical Observatory, now a part of the National Astronomical Observatory of China, and reunited with his wife, Li Shuxian, a professor at Peking University. He gained fame and notoriety after his essays were collected by the Communist Party of China and distributed to many of its regional offices, with the directive to its members to criticize the essays. 1989 democracy movement and exile
In February 1989,


title: Fang Lizhi

texts: <mask> mobilized a number of well known intellectuals to write an open letter to Deng Xiaoping, requesting amnesty for the human right activist Wei Jingsheng who was then in prison. His wife, Li, was elected to become the people's representative of the Haidian District where Peking University is located. <mask> and his wife had exchanged ideas about Chinese politics with some students of Peking University, including Wang Dan and Liu Gang. Some of those students became student leaders during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, though <mask> and Li did not actively participate in the protest itself.On 5 June 1989, the day after the government began its repression of protesters, <mask> and Li, feeling unsafe, entered the U.S. embassy in Beijing, and were granted asylum. The Chinese government put <mask> and Li at the top of the "wanted" list of the people involved in the protest. During his time in the U.S. embassy, <mask> wrote an essay titled The Chinese Amnesia, criticizing the Chinese Communist Party's repression of human rights and the outside world's turning a blind eye to it. <mask>'s continued presence in the US Embassy following the protests became, according to U.S. Ambassador James Lilley, "a living symbol of our [US] conflict with China over human rights." <mask> and his wife remained in the US Embassy until 25 June 1990, when they were allowed by Chinese authorities to leave the embassy and board a U.S. Air Force C-135 transport plane to Britain. This resolution partly came about after confidential negotiations between Henry Kissinger, acting on behalf of US President George H.W.Bush, and China's paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. Other factors were a false confession by <mask>, an attempted intervention by US National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft, and an offer from the Japanese government to resume loans to the PRC in return for the resolution of "the Fang Lizhi problem." In 1989, he was a recipient of the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award. In 1991, he gave a conference on the issue of Tibet in New York, one of the first open

masks: Fang Fang Fang Fang Fang Fang Fang Fang Fang


title: Fang Lizhi

texts:
 dialogues between Chinese and Tibetans. He also was an advisor for the International Campaign for Tibet. Later life in the US
After some time at Cambridge University and Princeton, <mask> later moved to Tucson, Arizona, where he worked as Professor of Physics at the University of Arizona. In campus speeches, <mask> spoke on topics such as human rights and democracy as matters of social responsibility.He also served as a board member and co-chair of the New York-based organization Human Rights in China. <mask> continued to do research in astrophysics and cosmology. He published research papers even during his stay in the US Embassy in Beijing. His later research includes the study of non-Gaussianity in the cosmic microwave background anisotropy, Lyman alpha forest, application of wavelet in cosmology, turbulence in intergalactic medium, and the 21cm radiation during the Reionization. He continued to train students and younger scientists who visited him from China and was very active in research to the end of his life, publishing multiple research papers each year. Death

He died in his home in Tucson on April 6, 2012, aged 76, from undisclosed causes. He was buried at East Lawn Palms Mortuary & Cemetery on April 14.Further reading
Essays:
Memoir: , translated by Perry Link. See also
List of Chinese dissidents
Richard Baum

References

External links

Personal Homepage
Scientific Articles of Li-Zhi <mask> (<mask>hi) Since 1989
Collection of Articles by Li-Zhi <mask> (Fang Lizhi), maintained by his former students

1936 births
2012 deaths
Chinese dissidents
University of Arizona faculty
Chinese astrophysicists
Relativity theorists
Chinese emigrants to the United States
Chinese human rights activists
Chinese democracy activists
University of Science and Technology of China alumni
University of Science and Technology of China faculty
Writers from Beijing
People's Republic of China science writers
Educators from Beijing
Physicists from Beijing
Expelled members of the Chinese Communist Party
Victims of the Anti-Rightist Campaign
Robert F. Kennedy Human

masks:
Fang
Fang
Fang
Fang
Fang Liz
Fang


title: Morgan Chu

texts:
<mask> (born December 27, 1950), is an American intellectual property attorney. A high-school dropout, <mask> went on to earn advanced degrees from Harvard, Yale and UCLA. In 2007, UCLA awarded <mask> the UCLA Medal, the university's highest accolade for exceptional achievement, citing <mask>'s "groundbreaking approach to intellectual property" and honoring him as a founder of the Asian American Studies Center. <mask> was named The Outstanding Intellectual Property Lawyer in the United States in the first Chambers Award for Excellence, 2006. <mask> served as the co-managing partner of the firm Irell & Manella LLP from 1997–2003, and has been a member of its governing board, the Executive Committee, since 1985. In June 2009, Harvard alumni elected <mask> to a six-year term as a member of the Harvard Board of Overseers. Family

<mask>'s father, <mask>, left China in 1943 to study chemical engineering, earning a doctorate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and he later taught at Washington University in St. Louis and at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute.<mask>'s mother Ching Chen Li, also left China during World War II to study economics at MIT. His parents married in 1945 and began a family. <mask> is the youngest of three brothers. His oldest brother, <mask>, holds an M.D. and a Ph.D., and is a professor of biochemistry and medicine at Stanford University. The middle brother, <mask>, was a professor of physics at Stanford and later a professor of physics and molecular and cellular biology at University of California, Berkeley, and the director of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. <mask> was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1997 and was President Obama's Secretary of Energy from January 21, 2009, to April 22, 2013.Education
<mask> dropped out of high school and left home, but by age 25, he had five university degrees. Although he never received a high school diploma, he gained admittance to UCLA,

masks:
Morgan Chu
Chu
Chu
Chu
Chu
Chu
Chu
Morgan Chu
Ju Chin Chu
Chu
Chu
Gilbert Chu
Steven Chu
Steven Chu
Chu


title: Morgan Chu

texts:
 where he earned a B.A. (1971), M.A. (1972) and Ph.D. (1973). <mask> then received a Master of Studies in Law from Yale Law School (1974) and a Juris Doctor, magna cum laude, from Harvard Law School (1976)

Legal career

Following his law school graduation, <mask> served as a law clerk for Hon. Charles M. Merrill, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (1976–1977). In 1977, <mask> went to work as an associate at the Los Angeles law firm of Irell & Manella.<mask> was elevated to partner in 1982, and became the firm's co-managing partner in 1997, serving two terms until 2003. <mask> is known for his many high-profile trials involving technology including:
 In 2002, <mask> won a $500 million jury verdict for City of Hope against Genentech. Punitive damages were later reversed by the California Supreme Court, but the compensatory damages represent the largest judgment ever affirmed on appeal in California. The defendant ultimately paid a judgment of over $480 million including interest. <mask> won a $120 million jury verdict for Stac Electronics against Microsoft. The trial court entered a worldwide injunction against Microsoft's flagship product, the MS-DOS operating system, and then the case settled. <mask> was co-counsel for the plaintiff in Texas Instruments v. Samsung, which resulted in a settlement for the plaintiff of more than $1 billion.In 2006 in Immersion v. Sony, <mask> won a $82 million jury verdict and injunction that led to a final resolution of over $150 million being paid by Sony. In TiVo v. EchoStar, <mask> secured a $74 million jury verdict and permanent injunction, which were upheld on appeal. $105 million has been paid on the final judgment including post-verdict damages. In 2005 <mask> was recognized for one of the "Top Ten Defense Verdicts," for Ultratech Stepper Inc. v. ASML, in which the jury unanimously found plaintiff's patent invalid. <mask> successfully defended Candle Corporation in the

masks: Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu


title: Morgan Chu

texts:
 first trial in the U.S. involving a software patent. The jury unanimously found the plaintiff's patent invalid. <mask> successfully represented NantKwest, Inc. in the 2019 Supreme Court case Peter v. NantKwest, Inc. against the United States Patent and Trademark Office.The Supreme Court ruled unanimously in favor of his client, finding that the Patent Act did not require his client to pay the Patent and Trademark Office's attorney fees. <mask> won a $2.18 billion jury verdict in the Western District of Texas in 2021 in VLSI v. Intel Corp. This is the largest standing jury verdict in a patent case. Public service

When <mask> was still an undergraduate at UCLA, he co-founded UCLA's Asian American Studies Center. He has previously served on the Board of Governors of the University of California, Los Angeles Foundation. Mr. <mask> also has been an Adjunct Professor of Law at UCLA School of Law and has served as a judge pro tem. At Harvard Law School, <mask> was an editor of the Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, a leading legal journal founded to promote personal freedoms and human dignities.Since law school, <mask> has been a frequent lecturer and teacher. He participated in symposia at Harvard Law School and the Harvard Kennedy School of Government, and he was the Traphagen Distinguished Speaker at Harvard in 2003. <mask> served as an adjunct professor at UCLA Law School from 1978 to 1981. He has lectured or delivered papers at Stanford, U.C. Berkeley, Georgetown, Northwestern, California Institute of Technology, UCLA, University of Southern California, among other venues. <mask> was Founding Chair of U.S.C. Law School's Intellectual Property Law Institute (2004–06), and has served on its Executive Committee since 2004.<mask> serves on the Board and Executive Committee of Public Counsel, the largest pro bono public interest law firm in the world. In one of his pro bono cases, <mask> spent six years

masks: Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu Chu


title: Morgan Chu

texts:
 securing the reversal of a conviction of a death row inmate, the first reversal upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court of a conviction and death penalty in the 20 years since California had reinstated the death penalty. <mask> and his wife Helen have endowed student scholarships at Harvard and UCLA, as well as the Irell & Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences (IMGSBS) at City of Hope. In 2021, <mask> and his wife Helen donated $1 million to Public Counsel to establish the Helen & Morgan Chu Chief Executive Officer Distinguished Chair. Awards and honors
<mask> has received awards and honors as one of the top attorneys in the United States, as well as for his contributions to higher education and the community. They include:
 Honorary Doctorate, Irell & Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences
 UCLA Medal (June 2007)
 Top Intellectual Property Lawyer in the United States in the first Chambers Award for Excellence, 2006. Distinguished Advocate (2006).The Edward A. Heafey Jr. Center for Trial and Appellate Advocacy at Santa Clara University School of Law each year selects one outstanding trial or appellate lawyer to visit the law school as a "Distinguished Advocate." PACE-Setter Award (2004) from the Pacific Asian Consortium in Employment
 Learned Hand Award (2003) from the American Jewish Committee
 "Top Ten Trial Lawyers" in the nation from the National Law Journal
 "100 Most Influential Lawyers in America" from the National Law Journal
 At the age of 16, <mask> and six others participated in the Subway Challenge, setting the Guinness World Record for traveling through every New York City Subway station in the shortest time on one fare: 22 hours  minutes. References

1950 births
Living people
American people of Chinese descent
California lawyers
Harvard Law School alumni
Members of the Harvard Board of Overseers
Place of birth missing (living people)
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Yale University

masks: Chu Chu Chu Chu


title: Taslim Olawale Elias

texts:
<mask> (11 November 1914 – 14 August 1991) was a Nigerian jurist. He was Attorney-General and Chief Justice of Nigeria and a judge and President of the International Court of Justice. He was a scholar who modernised and extensively revised the laws of Nigeria. Youth and studies

<mask> was born into the traditional aristocracy of Lagos, then the capital of Nigeria, on 11 November 1914. He received his secondary education at the Church Missionary Society Grammar School and Igbobi College in Lagos. He married Ganiat Yetunde Fowosere, and the couple would have five children together (three sons, two daughters). After passing the Cambridge School Certificate examination, he worked as an assistant in the Government Audit Department.In 1935 he joined the Nigerian Railway and served in the Chief Accountant's Office for nine years. While working at the Nigerian Railway, <mask> became an external student of London University, and later he passed the intermediate examinations for the B.A. and LL.B degrees. He left Nigeria for the United Kingdom in 1944 and was admitted to University College London. As this was during World War II, with London the target of frequent bomb attacks, he spent some time at Cambridge's Trinity College. He graduated with a B.A. the year he entered University College London and two years later received the LL.B.In 1947 he was called to the bar at the Inner Temple, where he was a Yarborough Anderson Scholar, and in the same year received his LL.M degree. He continued his graduate education and became the first African to earn a PhD in law from the University of London in 1949. In 1951 <mask> was awarded a UNESCO Fellowship to undertake research into the legal, economic, and social problems of Africa. Later that year he had his first academic appointment, the Simon Senior Research Fellow at Manchester

masks:
Taslim Olawale Elias
Elias
Elias
Elias


title: Taslim Olawale Elias

texts:
 University. There he was an instructor in law and social anthropology. It was also in 1951 that he published his first book, Nigerian Land Law and Custom. Professional life
<mask> moved from Manchester to Oxford in 1954 when he became the Oppenheimer Research Fellow at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, Nuffield College and Queen Elizabeth House.He continued his research into Nigerian law and published Groundwork of Nigerian Law in the same year. In 1956 he was a visiting professor of political science at the University of Delhi. He was instrumental in organizing courses in government, law, and social anthropology and in establishing the African Studies Department. <mask> also lectured at the universities of Aligarh, Allahabad, Bombay, and Calcutta. In that year he also published two books, Makers of Nigerian Law and The Nature of African Customary Law. He returned to London in 1957 and was appointed a Governor of the School of Oriental and African Studies. As the constitutional and legal adviser to the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (which later became the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens), he participated in the 1958 Nigerian Constitutional Conference in London.He was one of the architects of Nigeria's independence constitution

In 1960 <mask> was invited to become Nigeria's Attorney-General and Minister of Justice. He served in this capacity through the whole of the first republic. Although later dismissed after the coup d'état in January 1966, he was reinstated in November of that year. In addition to contributing to Nigerian and African law, <mask> had long been active in the field of international law. He was a member of the United Nations International Law Commission from 1961 to 1975, he served as General Rapporteur from 1965 to 1966 and was its chairman in 1970. He was the leader of the

masks: Elias Elias Elias Elias


title: Taslim Olawale Elias

texts: Nigerian delegations to the conference held to consider the Draft Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States in 1963 and to the Special Committee on the Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in 1964. He was a member of the United Nations Committee of Experts, which drafted the constitution of the Congo, 1961–1962.He also helped to draft the charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and its Protocol of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration. <mask> also represented the OAU and Nigeria before the International Court of Justice in the proceedings concerning the status of Namibia. He was elected as an associate member of the Institut de droit international in 1969. He was Chairman of the Committee of the Whole at the Vienna Conference on the Law of Treaties (1968–1969). In 1966 <mask> was appointed Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Law at the University of Lagos. Four years earlier he had received the LL.D. degree from the University of London for his work on African law and British colonial law.(He would go on to receive a total of 17 honorary doctorate degrees from various universities around the world). He was one of the inaugural recipients of the Nigerian National Merit Award in 1979. Several of his works on various legal subjects were standard reading in Africa in law schools of the former British colonies. Later in 1966, <mask> was re-appointed as Nigeria's Attorney-General and Commissioner for Justice (a position he held while remaining Dean and Professor at the University of Lagos), until 1972, when he became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nigeria. He was ousted from this position by a military regime that took power in Nigeria at the end of July 1975. A few months later (in October 1975), he

masks: Elias Elias Elias


title: Taslim Olawale Elias

texts:
 was elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council of the United Nations to the International Court of Justice at The Hague. In 1979, he was elected Vice-President by his colleagues on that Court.In 1981, after the death of Sir Humphrey Waldock, the President of the Court, he took over as Acting President. In 1982, the members of the Court elected him President of the Court. He thus became the first African jurist to hold that honour. Five years later, <mask> was also appointed to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. Death
<mask> died on 14 August 1991, in Lagos, Nigeria. The names of his five children are Gbolahan, Olusoji, Olufemi, Yeside and Olufolake <mask>. See also
 United Nations Security Council Resolution 708

References

1914 births
Lawyers from Lagos
Chief Justices of Nigeria
International Court of Justice judges
Igbobi College alumni
Academics of SOAS University of London
University of Lagos faculty
Alumni of University College London
Academics of the Victoria University of Manchester
Supreme Court of Nigeria justices
Presidents of the International Court of Justice
1991 deaths
CMS Grammar School, Lagos alumni
Nigerian Muslims
20th-century Nigerian lawyers
Attorneys General of Nigeria
People of colonial Nigeria
Educators from Lagos
Recipients of the Nigerian National Order of Merit Award
Nigerian judges of United Nations courts and


title: Ion Cojar

texts:
<mask> (January 9, 1931 - October 18, 2009) was a Romanian acting teacher, researcher and theatre director. He is the founder of a unique method that revolutionised the Romanian school of acting. <mask> as acting teacher

<mask> changed the old way of understanding acting in Romania, when the actor was taught how to play theatre, to act, to fake, imitate or mimic life, emotions or characters, with a new one that demands actors, directors and teachers to create the circumstances in which the truth of life can occur, and the actor to go onstage or during filming through authentic psychologically-realistic processes that cannot be anticipated or consciously controlled, at the end of which they would be actually changed as a person, so that the audiences may be able to follow the lifelike processes, to understand and believe what they see and hear, to empathise with the actors. <mask> argued that in order to have an authentic performance, the actor's psycho-emotional processes, along with their speech, body movements and physiological changes, which are the results of those processes, must not be anticipated, because this way they would be anchored in preconceived ideas and would not be new and authentic, and also must not be consciously controlled, because we cannot observe our own processes as they are taking place without interrupting them. In everyday life we never know what is going to happen or how we are going to behave or what we are going to say when we interact with someone. We just try to change something in that person in order to achieve our goal. In the same way, the actor, in a certain life situation and with a certain psychology that were previously assumed, aims to actually change something in their partner in order to achieve their goal (their character's goal that they previously assumed), without anticipating any obstacles, by venturing into the unknown and allowing themself the freedom to make mistakes.This way, everything that will happen to them in the

masks:
Ion Cojar
Ion Cojar
Ion Cojar
Ion Cojar


title: Ion Cojar

texts: process, from emotions to body movements to speech, will come organically, without being consciously controlled or anticipated, and this way they will be authentic, just like in everyday life, and thus the audiences will understand and believe what they'll see and hear and will empathize with the actor. <mask> also argued that we can know for sure that the actor is not faking or acting, but is going through an authentic process when we see instant, organic changes in the color and texture of their face, like when blood instantly floods its vessels in important moments, because these changes are almost impossible to fake. As a professor and researcher at The National University of Theatre and Film from Bucharest, guided by the principle "follow the process, not the success", <mask> worked with his students in order for them to develop a specific psycho-emotional mechanism that, along with the use of a specific acting method, would allow them to easily transform conventions in life truth (conventions like fictional and imaginary life situations, given plot and lines, a character's personality and goal etc. ), unlike the old acting school when students were taught how to play theatre. <mask> always said that "the art of the actor has nothing in common with theatre", a statement that became his trademark. The professional actors who were trained via <mask>'s pedagogical method tend to use in their creative processes an acting method derived from the previous one. One of his former students, Luminita Gheorghiu, won the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress with her performance in The Death of Mr. Lazarescu (2005).Professor Mircea Gheorghiu, another former student of <mask>, is considered to be the main continuator of his teaching method in the art of the actor. Adrian Țofei, a former student of Mircea Gheorgiu and ardent follower of <mask>'s method, won the Special Jury Prize for Best Actor at the 2016 Nashville Film Festival for his performance in

masks:
Ion Cojar
Ion Cojar
Ion Cojar
Cojar
Ion Cojar
Cojar


title: Ion Cojar

texts:
 Be My Cat: A Film for Anne. In parallel with the development of his method, <mask> supported an educational system in which the students are not taught or modeled by the teachers, but in which the environment is that of laboratory experimentation and self-knowledge, of despecialization and deliverance from preconceptions acquired in family, school and society, an environment in which the student is able to become aware of and to use their full native creative potential that makes them unique. In theory, <mask> gathered all his research and discoveries in his book entitled "O poetică a artei actorului" ("Poetics of the actor's art"). <mask> as theatre director

As a theatre director, <mask> also argued that the audiences, in order to fully empathise with what they see and hear, must not have any clue or the impression that they're witnessing a theatre show, but a genuine life event. He aimed to make theatre shows that paradoxically don't look like shows at all, where the audiences would find no elements whatsoever to indicate that they are witnessing a theatre show and not an actual life event. See also
 Stanislavski's system
 Method acting
 Constantin Stanislavski
 Lee Strasberg
 Sanford Meisner
 Ivana Chubbuck

References

Bibliography
 <mask>, <mask> - O poetică a artei actorului (Poetics of the actor's art) - Bucharest, Unitext, 1996 / Bucharest, Paideia, 1998
 Cojar, Ion - Inițiere în arta actorului (Initiation in the actor's art), series of articles published in Teatrul (Theatre) magazine, Bucharest, 1983-1984
 Tofei, Adrian - Ion Cojar's Acting Method
 http://www.mediafax.ro/cultura-media/doliu-in-lumea-teatrului-5008432/

 http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/arta-actorului-daca-nu.html

External links

1931 births
2009 deaths
Drama teachers
Acting theorists
Romanian educators
Romanian theatre directors
Romanian acting coaches
Romanian scientists
20th-century Romanian educators
21st-century Romanian educators
Neurological disease deaths in Romania
Deaths from Parkinson's

masks:
Ion Cojar
Ion Cojar
Ion Cojar
Ion Cojar
Cojar
Ion


title: Konstantin Päts

texts: <mask> (;  – 18 January 1956) was the most influential politician of interwar Estonia, and served five times as the country's head of government. He was one of the first Estonians to become active in politics and started an almost 40-year political rivalry with Jaan Tõnisson, first through journalism with his newspaper Teataja, later through politics. He was condemned to death during the 1905 Revolution, but managed to flee first to Switzerland, then to Finland, where he continued his literary work. He returned to Estonia, but had to spend time in prison in 1910–1911. In 1917, <mask> headed the provincial government of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia, but was forced to go underground after the October Revolution. On 19 February 1918, <mask> became one of the three members of the Estonian Salvation Committee that issued the Estonian Declaration of Independence on 24 February. <mask> headed the Estonian Provisional Government (1918–1919), although he was imprisoned during the second half of the German Occupation.In the provisional government, <mask> also served as Minister of Internal Affairs (1918) and Minister of War (1918–1919) that left him organizing Estonian troops for the War of Independence. During the 1920s and early 1930s, <mask> led the most right-wing party of the major political parties of the time – the conservative Farmers' Assemblies that eventually merged with the Union of Settlers and Smallholders in 1932. <mask> was the speaker of the Riigikogu (1922–1923) and served five times as State Elder, a post equivalent to that of president in Estonia's radically parliamentarian system (1921–1922, 1923–1924, 1931–1932, 1932–1933, and 1933–1934). During his last term as State Elder, he

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Konstantin Päts
Päts
Päts
Konstantin Päts
Päts
Päts
Päts


title: Konstantin Päts

texts:
 organized a self-coup to neutralise the right-wing populist Vaps Movement. He was supported by the army and the parliament. During the authoritarian regime ("Era of Silence"), many reforms were made and the economy grew, while he prolonged the return of constitutional order. Largely supported by General Johan Laidoner, Commander of the Estonian Defence Forces, <mask> ruled as Prime Minister in duties of the State Elder (1934–1937) and President-Regent (1937–1938) until a new constitution was adopted in 1938, after which <mask> became the first President of Estonia.During his presidency, the Soviet Union occupied Estonia in 1940. As President, he was forced to sign decrees for over a month, until he was finally arrested and deported to the Soviet Union, where he died in 1956. Family

The Päts family originates from Holstre near Viljandi in the Governorate of Livonia. The family name "Päts" means a "loaf" in Estonian and is thought to derive from their ancestors from the beginning of the 18th century, who distributed free bread from their mill during a famine. The mill was initially named the Päts Mill; and "Päts" (originally "Paets") was later adopted as an official surname. The father of <mask>, Jakob (Jaagup<mask> (1842–1909), was a housebuilder from Heimtali, near Viljandi. <mask>'s mother, <mask> (née Tumanova; 1847–1914), was an orphan who had been raised as a native Russian-speaker reportedly by the Razumovsky family, where her adoptive father at one time was the mayor of Valga.It has also been claimed that she grew up with the Krüdener family, where the adoptive father, Baron Krüdener, was her uncle; however, it is more likely that she served the Krüdener family later as a governess. Jakob and

masks:
Päts
Päts
Konstantin
) Päts
Konstantin
Olga Päts


title: Konstantin Päts

texts:
 Olga met while they were both in the service of the Krüdener family. <mask> had an older brother, Nikolai (1871–1940), three younger brothers – Paul (1876–1881), Voldemar (1878–1958), and Peeter (1880–1942) – and a younger sister, Marianne (1888–1947). Since their mother Olga was raised in a wealthy Russian family, their father Jakob converted from Lutheranism to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. The children were all brought up in strong Orthodox traditions and were said to have a realistic mindset, just like their parents. The family initially lived in Viljandi. Jakob was among the peasant activists during the Estonian national awakening, who pleaded to Emperor Alexander II against the oppression by Baltic German nobility in 1865.After this, he came into conflict with the local nobility and was forced to move to Tahkuranna, near Pärnu, in 1873. As <mask>'s father was unable to find a job in Tahkuranna, the family moved to a rental apartment in Pärnu in 1882. Three years later, Jakob bought himself some land in Raeküla near Pärnu, where they initially lived in the roadside Petlema Tavern but built a new house after the tavern burned down. Jakob divided his land into smaller lots and built half a dozen new houses on the site, which eventually grew into a borough and later a district of Pärnu. Early life
<mask> was born on  near Tahkuranna. According to locals, he was born in a barn of a roadside farm, since his mother could not reach a doctor in time. He was baptized in the Tahkuranna Orthodox Church.<mask> started his education in the Orthodox parish school of Tahkuranna. In Pärnu, <mask> attended the Russian language Orthodox parish school. Later, he attended the Riga Clerical Seminar in 1887–1892, but

masks:
Konstantin
Konstantin
Konstantin Päts
Konstantin
Konstantin


title: Konstantin Päts

texts:
 after deciding not to become a priest, he left for the high school in Pärnu. From 1894 to 1898, he attended the Faculty of Law of Tartu University, from which he graduated as a cand. jur. After graduation, <mask> served in the Russian 96th Infantry Regiment of Omsk in Pskov and was promoted an ensign. After rejecting an academic career in Tartu, he moved to Tallinn in 1900, to start a political career.Career

Journalism
In Tallinn, <mask> started his career as an assistant at the advocacy of Jaan Poska, but the job was not satisfactory for Päts. In Tartu, Jaan Tõnisson had already founded his nationalist newspaper Postimees in 1891; <mask> was planning to found his own in Tallinn. The first inspiration came from writers Eduard Vilde and Anton Hansen, who could not get a licence from the Ministry of Internal Affairs because of their social democratic views. Instead, they used the help of Päts as an unknown lawyer with an affiliation in the Orthodox Church. Päts was considered by the authorities to establish a newspaper that was loyal to the Empire and would "unite all Orthodox Estonians"; however, in reality his newspaper had a radical political content. The first issue of the Teataja ("The Gazette") came out on , starting a rivalry not only between Postimees and Teataja, but also between Jaan Tõnisson and <mask> for the leading national figures. Instead of the ideological and nationalist Postimees, Teataja emphasized the importance of economic activity.The work was made difficult by strong government censorship. Early political career
<mask>'s first political goal was to take power in the towns, where Baltic Germans still controlled the municipal governments. <mask> served as a municipal adviser in

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texts: Tallinn from 1904; and together with Jaan Poska, he organized an electoral block between Estonians and liberal Russians, which managed to win at the 1904 Tallinn municipal elections. <mask> became a member of the city council; and in April 1905, he became the deputy mayor, chairing the city council. His active work at the town government left him little time for his newspaper. A group of revolutionaries, led by Hans Pöögelmann, had taken control in Teataja'''s staff and published anti-government articles and called people for a revolution. During the 1905 Revolution, <mask> was already an activist on self-government reform, where he supported national autonomy in the Baltic governorates.In the escalation of the revolution, his newspaper was closed and its staff members arrested. <mask> found out about this in advance and managed to escape to Switzerland, only to find out that he had been condemned to death in the Russian Empire. In 1906, he moved to Helsinki, Finland, where he continued his literary and journalist career. Much of his work was published anonymously in Estonia. He also advised local municipalities on land reform questions. In 1908, <mask> moved to Ollila, which was located at the Russian border near Saint Petersburg. There he became one of the editors for the Estonian newspaper Peterburi Teataja ("The St Petersburg Gazette"), although he still resided in Finland.In Ollila, he was reunited with his family, with whom he had parted when he escaped to Switzerland in 1905. After his wife had gotten seriously ill, <mask> found out that he was no longer condemned to death in the Russian Empire. He moved back to Estonia in 1909, to face only minor charges. From February 1910, he served time in

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 Kresty Prison in Saint Petersburg, while his wife died of tuberculosis in Switzerland, where <mask> had sent her for treatment. During his imprisonment, he was able to study foreign languages and write articles, to be published in newspapers. Päts was released on 25 March 1911. The governor of the Governorate of Estonia complained about Päts's activity in Estonia in 1905 and pleaded for the government not to let him return.He was banned from living in the Governorates of Estonia and Livonia for six years. However, strong connections with Jaan Poska helped him return to Estonia, where he founded another newspaper, Tallinna Teataja ("The Tallinn Gazette"). From February 1916, <mask> served as an officer in Tallinn. In July 1917, he was elected as Chairman of the Supreme Committee of Estonian Soldiers, where he actively worked to form Estonian units in the Imperial Army. During the war, he also organized the cooperation between Estonians and liberal Baltic German estate owners. Autonomy and German occupation

In 1917, when German forces were advancing on Estonia, <mask> was able to avoid the mobilization. Since the control after the February Revolution was in the hands of the Russian Provisional Government, Estonians were pursuing for an autonomy within the Russian Empire.In local debates on whether to form one or two autonomous governorates in Estonia, <mask>, who supported a single autonomous governorate, took yet another victory from Jaan Tõnisson, who supported two autonomous governorates. After Estonian mass protests in Petrograd, the provisional government formed the autonomous Governorate of Estonia on . The Estonian Provincial Assembly (Maapäev) was elected; <mask> joined and became one of the

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texts: leading figures of the Estonian Country People's Union, which took 13 of the 55 seats. Left- and right-wing politicians gained an equal number of seats in the Provincial Assembly, which made it difficult to appoint a speaker for the assembly. Jaan Tõnisson of the centre-right nominated the candidacy of <mask>, who, however, lost by only one vote to the almost unknown Artur Vallner. At first, <mask> chose not to join any of the parliamentary groups, but eventually joined the most right-wing Democratic group. <mask> replaced Jaan Raamot as chairman of the provincial government on .During the October Revolution, Bolsheviks took control in Estonia and the Provincial Assembly was disbanded. After failing to give over official documents, <mask> was arrested three times, until he finally went underground. Since the Bolshevik rule in Estonia was relatively weak, the Council of Elders of the Maapäev declared on  that the assembly was the only legally elected and constituted authority in Estonia. Since even the Council of Elders was too big to work underground, the three-membered Estonian Salvation Committee was formed on 19 February 1918; and <mask> became one of its members. Soviet Russian forces evacuating, the Salvation Committee wanted to use the interregnum and declare Estonia's independence. On 21 February 1918, a delegation with Päts was sent to Haapsalu, which was chosen to be the site of the initial declaration, but they were forced to head back to Tallinn, since the German forces had captured Haapsalu on the very same day. Attempts to reach Tartu before the German occupation had also failed.When the Soviet Russian forces had finally evacuated from Tallinn and the German forces were advancing, the

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 Salvation Committee issued the Estonian Declaration of Independence on 24 February 1918 (the declaration had also been delivered to Pärnu, where it was proclaimed on 23 February). Instantly, the Estonian Provisional Government was formed; and <mask> became the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, the Minister of Internal Affairs, and the Minister of Commerce and Industry. The position of Minister of Commerce and Industry probably remained vacant in reality. On 25 February 1918, the German forces captured Tallinn. <mask> was arrested on 16 June 1918. He was sent to several prison camps in Latvia, until he was finally placed in a camp in Grodno, Poland. He was released at the end of the war on 17 November 1918.After the Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers Jüri Vilms mysteriously died in Finland, Jaan Poska led the underground republic. After Germany surrendered, <mask>'s 2nd cabinet of the provisional government took office on 12 November 1918, making <mask> the Prime Minister of the provisional government and the Minister of Internal Affairs. After <mask> arrived in Tallinn and the Maapäev had gathered, <mask>'s 3rd cabinet of the provisional government was formed on 27 November 1918, with <mask> as Prime Minister of the provisional government and also the Minister of War, leaving it up to him to organize national defence. However, due to his multiple portfolios in the government, much of the work in the Ministry of War was delegated to higher officers. War of Independence

Päts founded the Estonian Defence League to provide defence against the advancing Red Army. On 28 November 1918, Soviet Russian forces captured Narva, which resulted in the Estonian War of Independence. During a government

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 meeting, <mask> banged his fist on the table and refused to compromise with the communists.This persuaded other government members to start a war against Soviet Russia. In January 1919, Estonians forced the Bolsheviks to retreat; and by 24 February 1919, the entire Estonian territory was under the control of the provisional government. In his speech at the 1919 Independence Day parade, he said: "We have to secure our economy so we could become less dependent on our allies. In order to avoid bankruptcy, we have to found our state on agriculture." This became the basis for the Estonian economy for the next 20 years. In April 1919, the Estonian Constituent Assembly was elected, but the Estonian Country People's Union won only 8 of the 120 seats, leaving the majority to centre-left parties. On 9 May 1919, Otto August Strandman took over as the first Prime Minister.In the summer of 1919, Päts opposed going into war with the Baltic German Landeswehr, but as he was in opposition, the government decided to start the Landeswehr War, which ended in the Estonian-Latvian victory. After the war had ended on 2 February 1920, the majority left-wing Constituent Assembly adopted the radical land reform law and the first constitution, which brought down a very proportional parliament, short government cabinets, and no separate and stable head of state. Democratic republic
In September 1919, Päts formed a new political party, the agrarian-conservative Farmers' Assemblies, which was based on the Country People's Union. In 1920 elections, the party won 21 seats in the 100-member Riigikogu and from 25 January 1921 to 21 November 1922, <mask> was the State Elder and led the first constitutional government cabinet. It was a

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texts: centre-right coalition with three centrist parties. The cabinet fell soon after the centre-left Estonian Labour Party left the coalition because of Päts's right-wing policies and criticism of corruption within the Bank of Estonia. After stepping down as head of government, <mask> served as President (speaker) of the Riigikogu from 20 November 1922 to 7 June 1923.In 1923 elections, Farmers' Assemblies took 23 seats. On 2 August 1923, <mask> became State Elder for the second time. A similar centre-right coalition with three centrist parties lasted again until the Estonian Labour Party left the coalition, forcing <mask> to step down on 26 March 1924. Otto August Strandman had openly criticized <mask> for his role in corruption within the Bank of Estonia and economic policies that depended on trade with Russia. <mask> kept away from office politics for seven years. Support for his party didn't decline. From 15 December 1925 to 9 December 1927, Jaan Teemant of the Farmers' Assemblies was the State Elder.In 1926 elections, Farmers' Assemblies took again 23 seats and Jaan Teemant continued as State Elder. Already in 1927, Päts criticized members of the Riigikogu, saying that they have been causing the instability of government coalitions, rather than ideological differences. At the 6th Congress of Farmers' Assemblies in 1929, the party was in opposition to August Rei's leftist government and <mask>, among others, demanded changes in the constitution, a smaller parliament, a separate presidential office and fight against corruption. In 1929 elections, Farmers' Assemblies took 24 seats and <mask> served his third term as State Elder from 12 February 1931 to 19 February 1932. It was an ideologically wide

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texts: coalition with the Estonian Socialist Workers' Party and the centre-right Estonian People's Party. On 26 January 1932, Farmers' Assemblies and the left wing-agrarian Settlers' Party merged to form the Union of Settlers and Smallholders, only to be followed by the formation of the National Centre Party by four centrist parties. <mask>'s cabinet resigned, making Jaan Teemant the new State Elder.In 1932 elections the newly formed Union of Settlers and Smallholders won 42 seats in Riigikogu and one of the party's leaders, Karl August Einbund, became the State Elder. On 3 October 1932, the coalition between the Union of Settlers and Smallholders and National Centre Party broke up, with the latter wanting to devalue the Estonian kroon during the Great Depression. <mask> himself was one of the key opponents of devaluation. A month-long government crisis started. Since there were only three major parties in the Riigikogu, the third being the Estonian Socialist Workers' Party, no functioning coalition could be found until special authority was given to <mask> to form a grand coalition between all three major parties. His cabinet took office on 1 November 1932. On 25 November 1932, <mask>'s government was given more powers by the disunited Riigikogu to deal with the economic crisis.His government was forced to resign on 18 May 1933, after the National Centre Party, still favouring devaluation, left the coalition and the Union of Settlers and Smallholders had lost many of its members to the reactivated Settlers' party. The succeeding Tõnisson's National Centre Party cabinet devalued the Estonian kroon by 35% on 27 June 1933. Although the devaluation proved to be successful and had a good impact to the economy

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texts: later under his own rule, <mask> never recognized his mistake by opposing the devaluation. Lack of government stability led to several new constitution proposals, but only the third proposal by the right-wing populist Vaps Movement was accepted in a referendum on 14 and 16 October 1933. <mask> was elected on 21 October 1933 to head the non-aligned transitional government to the second constitution. Until 24 January 1934, he served as State Elder, but after the new constitution came into force, he became Prime Minister. The new constitution was a drift from democracy, giving a lot of power to the head of state (still named "State Elder") and leaving the Riigikogu only an advisory role.Both <mask> and his recent predecessor Jaan Tõnisson tried to control the Vaps Movement that was seen by democratic parties as a local National Socialist party that had to be kept away from power. In August 1933, State Elder Jaan Tõnisson had declared a state of emergency and temporary censorship, that was lifted only when <mask>'s transitional government took office. The weak government response only gained support for the Vaps Movement and in early January 1934, the movement won municipal elections in several urban municipalities. On 27 February 1934, <mask> himself imposed a law, prohibiting members of the military to take part in politics. This action forced several thousand members of the army to secede from the Vaps Movement. <mask> was one of the candidates in the presidential elections that were supposed to be held in April 1934, but the Vaps Movement candidate Andres Larka and even lieutenant general Johan Laidoner were both thought to be more popular candidates than Päts. The campaign was accompanied by threats

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 by the Vaps Movement to take power and rumours of a forthcoming coup.In early March 1934, <mask>'s political opponent Jaan Tõnisson compared the Vaps Movement with the Nazis in Germany and advised the government to take necessary action against the movement. <mask> then carried out a self-coup on 12 March 1934. He was supported by general Johan Laidoner and the army. Era of Silence

A state of emergency was declared and the Vaps Movement was disbanded, with about 400 members arrested, including the presidential candidate Andres Larka. Johan Laidoner was appointed Commander in Chief of the Armies. Speaking in the Riigikogu on 15 March, <mask> stated that the Estonian people are "blinded by the propaganda of the Vaps Movement and ill-minded because of it, and the power could therefore not be in the hands of the people". On 15–16 March 1934, the Riigikogu approved of <mask>'s actions in hopes of saving Estonian democracy.Päts postponed the presidential elections for the duration of the emergency, expressing concern about "emotions being too high because of anti-government agitation by the Vaps Movement". In August 1934, Päts appointed Karl August Einbund as Minister of Internal Affairs, making him the third leading figure of the era next to Päts and Laidoner. In September, the Agitation and Propaganda Department was created, in October, all parliamentary work was stopped after the opposition criticized the political restrictions and in December, censorship was introduced. In February 1935 the Patriotic League (Isamaaliit) was formed to replace political parties, while all other political organizations were disbanded in March. Päts thought that political organizations should unite the society, not

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texts: fragment it. The initial state of emergency was declared for six months in March 1934, but after September 1934, Päts extended it for a year in a total of six times.XX sajandi kroonika, I osa. Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus.Tallinn, 2002. P. 406.XX sajandi kroonika, I osa. Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus. Tallinn, 2002. P. 434XX sajandi kroonika, I osa. Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus. Tallinn, 2002.P. 465. As Päts believed that a nation should be organized not by political views into parties, but by vocation into respective chambers, a series of state corporative institutions were introduced, based on corporatism in Fascist Italy. Päts had promoted the idea of corporate chambers already in 1918, but the idea did not gain support from strong left-wing parties at the time. <mask> was the main proponent of the formation of the chambers and the first two were founded while his government cabinets were in office in 1924 and 1931. Fifteen more chambers were established between 1934 and 1936, bringing the total number to 17. On 7 December 1935, a coup d'état attempt (the "Estonia plot", named after the Estonia Theatre) by the Vaps Movement was exposed. More than 750 people were arrested throughout the state, crushing the movement conclusively.Leaders of the movement were eventually given punishments as hard as 20 years of forced labour, they were pardoned in December 1937. Meanwhile, Jaan Tõnisson had criticized Päts's inability to bring the new constitution into effect. In July 1935, Tõnisson was ousted from the Postimees board. In October 1936, four former State Elders, Juhan Kukk, Ants Piip, Jaan Teemant and Jaan Tõnisson, sent a joint letter to <mask>, demanding civil freedoms and restoration of democratic

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texts: <mask>'s draft. A bicameral parliament was to be elected and the president was to be elected by the parliament, not by the people. On 3 September 1937, a 120-day period of transition began, during which <mask> ruled as President-Regent. On 1 January 1938, the new constitution came into force and the 1938 parliamentary elections were held.Opposition candidates were allowed to take part, however they were given little or no attention in the media. <mask>'s supporters in the National Front for the Implementation of the Constitution won 64 of the 80 seats in the lower chamber, the Riigivolikogu. The president, who was yet to be elected, was also able to directly appoint into office 10 of the 40 members of the higher chamber, Riiginõukogu. On 23 April 1938, <mask> was nominated a presidential candidate by both chambers of the Riigikogu and also the Assembly of Municipal Representatives. Jaan Tõnisson was the only opposition candidate in the lower chamber Riigivolikogu. Of its 80 members, 65 voted for <mask> and 14 for Tõnisson. There were no opposition candidates in the upper chamber Riiginõukogu and in the Assembly of Municipal Representatives.In there, <mask> received 36 from a total of 40 and 113 from a total of 120 votes, respectively. In accordance with the Constitution, since both the two chambers of the Riigikogu and the Assembly of Municipal Representatives had nominated the same candidate, the presidential elections were canceled. The collective electoral body convened on 24 April 1938 and voted with 219 in favor of the candidate and 19 ballots were left empty. From a total of 240 votes, the 219 were more than the necessary 3/5 majority or 144 votes. In the same evening, <mask> gave the

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 accept the ultimatum and a full Soviet invasion followed on 17 June 1940. <mask> was allowed to stay in office, but on 21 June was forced to appoint the Soviet puppet Johannes Vares as prime minister. Now effectively a puppet himself, for an entire month Päts signed about 200 decrees for the new pro-Soviet regime.Among other things, he signed a decree to change the electoral law, allowing the new regime to organize snap elections. This law was illegal, since the upper house of the Riigikogu had been dissolved and never reconvened. The new elections were only for the lower chamber, the Riigivolikogu, with voters being presented with a single list of Communists and fellow travellers. On Victory Day of 23 June 1940, Päts declared: "the greatest thing we have accomplished is the creation of the Estonian state. To her we have given our strongest love, our loyalty, our work, and our life." From 29 June 1940, Päts remained under permanent house arrest. Even in early July, Päts declared to the German ambassador that he did not believe Estonia would be Sovietized.On 21 July 1940, the Estonian SSR was proclaimed and it is claimed that only then Päts realized the essence of the Soviet occupation. Deportation and imprisonment
On the same day, Päts sent his son Viktor to visit the United States Legation in Tallinn and appeal for protection and asylum in the United States for himself and his family. The Acting Secretary of State Sumner Welles did allow the entire Päts family to be granted diplomatic visas already on the next day. Many Soviet-era and even sources claim that Päts resigned on 21 July 1940. Other sources however claim that he resigned on 22 July and the resignation was approved on 23 July, making


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texts: <mask> the president of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic for two days. Whatever the case, Vares took over the president's powers as "Prime Minister in duties of the President," thus giving legal sanction to the final stages of Estonia's annexation by the Soviet Union. Either the American visas came too late or the Päts family remained under house arrest, but on 30 July 1940, together with his son Viktor and Viktor's wife Helgi-Alice and sons Matti and Henn, <mask> was deported to Ufa, Bashkir ASSR, where they arrived on 9 August.There they lived under surveillance in a large apartment for a year. In Ufa, Päts wrote his memoirs of his time in office and pleaded that his grandsons, their mother, and nanny would be sent to either Switzerland or Italy, since his grandson Henn was already in a bad health. After receiving no answer, he pleaded for them to be sent back to Estonia. In his naivety, he pleaded to be exchanged with Ernst Thälmann, former leader of the Communist Party of Germany, who was imprisoned in Germany. After that, <mask> remained quiet, while his son Viktor was certain that Nazi Germany would invade the Soviet Union and that he would soon be living abroad. The family "randomly" met an Estonian couple, both NKVD agents, in an Ufa market on 29 May 1941. They received an invitation to the family's home the next day.After the visit, it was reported that both <mask> and Viktor demonstrated particular viciousness against Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov, sympathized with Germany and announced, that they were impatiently waiting for a German assault on the Soviet Union. On 26 June 1941, they were arrested and imprisoned in Ufa, the children were sent to an orphanage. <mask> was

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 interrogated for hours, but did not take the blame. Even in March, 1942, he believed that the Western powers would pressure the Soviet Union to send him abroad. Eventually, <mask> and his son were sent to Butyrka prison in Moscow and Helgi-Alice to Gulag prison camps in Siberia. In Butyrka prison, Johan Laidoner was prisoner No. 11, Konstantin Päts No.12 and Viktor No. 13.XX sajandi kroonika, II osa. Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus. Tallinn, 2004. P. 62. On 24 March 1943, <mask> was sent to forced treatment in psychoneurotic hospitals first in Kazan, then in Chistopol in Tatar ASSR. His forced psychiatric hospitalization was justified by his "persistent claiming of being the President of Estonia".On 29 April 1952, <mask> was found guilty according to § 58-14 and § 58-10 of the Penal Code, which meant counter-revolutionary sabotage and anti-Soviet and counter-revolutionary propaganda and agitation. Forced treatment was ended in 1954 and <mask> was sent to a psychoneurology hospital in Jämejala, Estonia. Recognition by the locals and too much attention resulted in him being sent to Burashevo psychiatric hospital in Kalinin Oblast (now Tver Oblast), where he eventually died on 18 January 1956. Economic and cultural activities
<mask> actively participated in economic activities. In periods between 1919 and 1933, he was chairman of the insurance company "Estonian Lloyd". From 1925 to 1929, <mask> was chairman of the council of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry and continued as its honorary councillor from 1935. He also served as the chairman of the board of the Harju Bank and chairman of the Tallinn Exchange Committee.<mask> was among the founders of Estonian Sports Association Kalev in 1901 and also its


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 first deputy chairman. <mask> was the chairman of Estonian-Finnish-Hungarian Association from 1925 to 1936 and continued as honorary chairman from 1936. From 1927 to 1937, he was the chairman of the "Fenno-Ugria" foundation. Päts received honorary doctorates from Tartu University in 1928, Tallinn Technical University and Andhra University (in India) in 1938, along with honorary membership of the Learned Estonian Society in 1938 and the Estonian Academy of Sciences in 1939. In 1938, he became honorary member of the Estonian Naturalists' Society (Loodusuurijate Selts) and the Estonian Institute of Natural Resources (Loodusvarade Instituut). He was also named honorary alumnus of the fraternal student corps Fraternitas Estica and honorary citizen of Tallinn, Narva, Pärnu and Tartu and Tahkuranna Parish. Foreign relations

In 1918, Päts made a proposal for an Estonian-Finnish personal union.However, Finnish leaders weren't so eager about the union and the idea was rejected. <mask> still bore the idea in his mind, as testified by his so-called "political testament", written in July 1940. In 1922, during his first term as State Elder, he made the first Estonian state visit, to Finland. He also made unofficial visits to Finland in 1931, 1935 and 1937. President of Finland, Pehr Evind Svinhufvud visited Estonia twice during <mask>'s authoritarian rule, in 1934 and in 1936. In 1933, <mask> also made a state visit to Latvia and the Baltic Entente between Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania was signed in 1934 during his authoritarian regime. This agreement was another attempt to draw Finland closer to Estonia, but saw no results.During the 1930s, Estonian and Polish officials made several state visits to both

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 countries. In late 1930s, the Soviet Union excited interest for the Baltic states, causing Estonia to move closer to Germany in its foreign policy. This change was marked by appointing the ambassador to Germany, Friedrich Karl Akel, as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1936. On 3 December 1938, Estonia declared its neutrality. Criticism

 Economic activities
Several aspects of <mask>'s career are still under critical public debate and various theories have been created, although many of them have also seen broad criticism. In 1920–1922 Estonia had stronger relations with Soviet Russia than other European countries. The Russian embassy in Tallinn was at the center of Russian gold sale to the West, which constituted about 4% of global gold sales in that period.Estonia and the Bank of Estonia received about 2/3 of the at least 30 million gold rubles transaction fees. The transactions were kept in secret and mostly only the Director of the Bank of Estonia in 1920–1921 and Minister of Finance in 1921–1922, Georg Westel, and the State Elder in 1921–1922, <mask>, knew of these transactions. Even more, it was the Harju Bank that belonged among others to Päts and Westel that transacted many of the gold sales. <mask>, Westel and other big businessmen, mostly members of Päts's Farmers' Unions party, have thus been accused to use this transaction money for their own good. It has also been claimed that the Bank of Estonia gave out several loans to enterprises that were related to Päts's activities and almost all other loans were given to enterprises related to the members of the bank's own council and other top-level politicians. Having big loans was also the reason why <mask>, Westel and other top-level politicians