title: William Nordhaus

texts:
 2007, <mask>, who has done several studies on the economics of global warming, criticized the Stern Review for its use of a low discount rate:

In 2013, <mask> chaired a committee of the National Research Council that produced a report discounting the impact of fossil fuel subsidies on greenhouse gas emissions. In a January 2020 interview with Neue Zürcher Zeitung, <mask> claimed that achieving the 2°C goal of the Paris agreement was "impossible", stating that "even if we make the fastest possible turn towards zero emissions,  will continue to accumulate in the atmosphere, because we cannot simply shut down our economy".He asserted that he was not alone in making this assessment, claiming that half of the simulation arrived at the same conclusion. He also remarked that the two-degree target was set without reference to the costs of meeting the target. Honors

Scientific and engineering academies
Among many honors, he is a Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and an Elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He has been a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences since 1999. He was awarded the Daniel Patrick Moynihan Prize by the American Academy of Political and Social Science in 2020. American Economic Association
In 2004, <mask> was designated a Distinguished Fellow of the American Economic Association (AEA), along with George P. Shultz and <mask>. Brock. The accompanying AEA statement referred to his "knack for asking large questions about the measurement of economic growth and well-being, and addressing them with simple but creative insights," among them, his pioneering work on the political business cycle, ways of using national income accounts data to devise economic measures reflecting  better health, increases in leisure and life expectancy, and "constructing integrated economic and scientific models to determine the efficient path for coping with climate change".In 2013, <mask> became president-elect of the AEA, and

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William A
Nordhaus


title: William Nordhaus

type: original

texts:
 served as the association's president between 2014 and 2015. Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics
<mask> was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2018, which he shared with Paul Romer. In detailing its reasons for giving the prize to <mask>, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences specifically recognized his efforts to develop "an integrated assessment model, i.e. a quantitative model that describes the global interplay between the economy and the climate. His model integrates theories and empirical results from physics, chemistry and economics. <mask>' model is now widely spread and is used to simulate how the economy and the climate co-evolve." Many of the news outlets that reported on <mask>'s prize noted that he was in the advance wave of economists who embraced a carbon tax as a preferred method of carbon pricing.Some climate scientists and commentators were disappointed with the Nobel Prize going to <mask> due to his embrace of substantially lower carbon taxes per ton than most scientists, along with his past history of minimal carbon taxes. Evaluations

The Nobel Foundation described <mask>'s work as follows: "<mask>’s findings deal with interactions between society, the economy and climate change. In the mid-1990s, he created a quantitative model that describes the global interplay between the economy and the climate. <mask>’s model is used to examine the consequences of climate policy interventions, for example carbon taxes." Additionally, the Nobel Prize announcement commented that <mask> Barrage summarizes its impact, stating that the "body of work also represents science at its best: integrative across disciplines, visionary in scope yet incremental in progress, transparent, and producing knowledge for the benefit of humankind." Critics of Nordhaus's DICE model focus on several aspects.One of the most important, incorporating political and moral philosophy, is the use of discounting, with an early study by <mask>. Another branch, represented by Robert Pindyck, holds that integrated assessment models

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William Cline


title: William Nordhaus

texts:
 cannot capture the complexity of the climate-economy nexus. Nicholas Stern  argued that the damage function does not capture many of the most important risks to society. A particularly important critique, developed by Martin Weitzman, is that the economy-climate system may have "fat tails" and therefore inadequately deal with low probability, high consequence outcomes. Steve Keen, the heterodox economist, criticises the economics of climate change:
"economists made their own predictions of damages, using three spurious methods: assuming that about 90% of GDP will be unaffected by climate change, because it happens indoors; using the relationship between temperature and GDP today as a proxy for the impact of global warming over time; and using surveys that diluted extreme warnings from scientists with optimistic expectations from economists." Publications

References

Further reading

External links

 <mask> (Yale Home Page)
 The Question of Global Warming Nordhaus exchange with Freeman Dyson and others from The New York Review of Books
 Energy: Friend or Enemy? October 27, 2012 in The New York Review of Books

  including the Prize Lecture Climate Change: The Ultimate Challenge for Economics

Living people
1941 births
American Nobel laureates
American people of German-Jewish descent
21st-century American economists
Jewish American economists
Nobel laureates in Economics
Environmental economists
Climate economists
Energy economists
Economists from New Mexico
Yale University alumni
MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences alumni
Yale Sterling Professors
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Presidents of the American Economic Association
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
United States Council of Economic Advisers
Yale University faculty
Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
People from Albuquerque, New Mexico
Fellows of Clare Hall, Cambridge
Alumni of Clare Hall,


title: Yahya bey Dukagjini

texts:
<mask> (1498–1582; known in Turkish as Dukaginzâde Yahyâ bey or Taşlıcalı Yahyâ bey, and in Albanian as Jahja bej Dukagjini) was an Ottoman poet and military figure. He is one of the best-known diwan poets of the 16th century. He wrote in Ottoman Turkish. The Ottomans recruited Dukagjini through the devşirme system in his early youth. In addition to being a poet, he was an important Ottoman military figure during the expansion and apogee period of the empire, serving as a bölükbaşı (senior captain) and participating in the 1514 Battle of Chaldiran, the 1516–17 Ottoman–Mamluk War, the Baghdad expedition of 1535, and the Siege of Szigetvár in 1566. Because of an elegy that he wrote about Şehzade Mustafa, Suleiman the Magnificent's first-born son, he fell out of favor with the perpetrator of the murder, Grand Vizier, Rüstem Pasha, who exiled Dukagjini back to the Balkans, where he spent his last years. As a poet, <mask> is noted for his originality.Despite borrowing some themes from Persian literature, he told stories in his own manner, such as in his poem Yusuf ve Züleyha. His subsequent work, a diwan of poems and of a collection of five mesnevî, parts ways with the influence of Persian tradition. Life

Early life
<mask> was born in 1498 in Taşlıca (modern day Pljevlja in Montenegro), therefore sometimes he is named Taşlicali () although according to the Turkish poet Muallim Naci he did not use the title "Taşlicali". He was related to the other Ottoman poet

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title: Yahya bey Dukagjini

texts:
 Dukaginzade Ahmad Bey. The exact year of birth is unknown but is believed to be 1498. An Albanian by birth, according to Elsie descendant of the Catholic Dukagjini tribe which lays in a mountainous region close to the Accursed Mountains range, or Dukagjini noble family according to Houtsma, his life took a different path when he was recruited as an Ottoman devşirme. <mask> was enlisted to become a janissary, he was put in the corps of "Acemi oglan" where officers for janissaries and spahis were trained and received the rank of yayabashi (infantry officer) and bölükbaşı (senior captain).The Shihāb al-Dīn, the Katib (secretary) of the janissaries, recognized his skills and accredited him a lot of freedom, which he used to get access to an intellectual coterie composed of Kadri Efendy, Ibn Kemal, Nishandji Tadji-zade Dja'fer Çelebi, Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha, and İskender Çelebi. <mask> stayed aware of  his origin and referenced it in his verses. Nevertheless, for <mask> Bey, the cruel devşirme was his opportunity for rise to fame, considering that back then birth did not count much, whereas good luck and particularly tact with superiors mattered greatly. Rise as a soldier and poet
<mask> Bey is known to have taken part during his youth in the Battle of Chaldiran of 23 August 1514 led by Sultan Selim I, also in the Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–17, and in Baghdad's expedition of 1535 under Sultan Suleiman. He earned the respect of powerful key people (between others the

masks: Yahya Yahya Yahya Yahya


title: Yahya bey Dukagjini

texts:
 Sultan himself) because of his poetry. <mask> spent most of his early years in Ottoman campaigns, which inspired him. According to E. J. W. Gibb, he was inspired to write the "Yusuf and Züleyha" while in Palestine, on the road to Mecca.Egypt was also an inspiration for him, especially Cairo, which he called "the city of Joseph". <mask> was a bitter enemy of Khayali Mehmed Bey, another contemporary poet whom he had first met in 1536. He satirically attacked Khayali Mehmed Bey in his verses. <mask> wrote a qasida (a kind of panegyric) against him and presented it during the Persian campaign to the Sultan and Grand Vizier Rüstem Paşa, who was declared as "enemy of the poets". Rustem Pasha was so delighted with the level of contempt towards Khayali, that <mask> was made administrator of several foundations in Bursa and Istanbul. Exile and last years

In 1553, near Ereğli in Konya, Suleiman the Magnificent, whilst on a military campaign to Iran, and upon false information given to him from Grand Vizier Rüstem Pasha, had his first born, Şehzade (Prince) Mustafa executed. <mask> Bey wrote an elegy named Şehzade Mersiyesi (Prince's Dirge) upon the murder, which was well received by the public.But the mastermind behind the murder, Rüstem Pasha, was not happy at all about the poem. He had <mask> summoned and asked how he "dared to bewail one whom the Sultan had condemned". <mask> responded "we indeed condemned him with the Sultan, but we bewailed him with the people". The

masks: Yahya Yahya Yahya Yahya Yahya Yahya Yahya


title: Yahya bey Dukagjini

texts: Vizier wanted and did everything he could to get <mask> executed. The Sultan prohibited his execution but approved only to deprive him from his offices, which Rüstem Pasha did in the most offensive manner. As a member of the askeri class, apparently he could not be left to starve. In order to escape persecution, <mask> went to exile back in the Balkans, without forgetting to write a satirical lament on Rustem Pasha after his death.There are divergences on the location where he was sent. According to some sources, he took over a fief near Zvornik in today's Bosnia and lived pretty well afterwards receiving a 27,000 or 30,000 akçe annual income. Others point to Tamışvar, center of the Province of Temeşvar, where he for sure fought at a certain point. Though not young anymore, he took part together with his men at the siege of Szigetvar in 1565. There he wrote a qasida and presented it to Sultan Suleiman. After that, due to his age, he turned to Islamic Mysticism. While in exile in Bosnia, <mask> met in 1574–75 with Mustafa Âlî, a local and well known Ottoman historian and bureaucrat.The life-story of <mask> made an impression on Ali, who would later use it as a baseline when he referred to himself as "a poet too talented to be supported by jealous politicians and subsequently condemned to exile in the border provinces". <mask> sent his son, Adem Çelebi, to Ali with a draft of the most recent revision of his diwan for Ali to proofread, especially the Arabic

masks: Yahya Yahya Yahya Yahya Yahya


title: Yahya bey Dukagjini

texts:
 construction parts, although apparently there was no need for that. There is no wide consensus for <mask>'s year of death. Most of the sources pointing to 1582, while others say he may have died in 1575, 1573 (982 in IC), 1578-79 (986 in IC), or 1582 (990). Place of death also varies. Most sources indicate Loznica, Sanjak of Zvornik, some Timișoara in Romania, There are also claims that he was buried in Istanbul, while Bursalı Mehmet Tahir Bey and Muhamed Hadžijahić place also Loznica as place of death. Poetry
<mask>'s poetry is described by E.J.W.Gibb to be as interesting as his life was.Gibb praised Dukagjini as the one who won a position of real eminence, out of all non-Turks, Asiatics, and well as Europeans, who have essayed to write Turkish poetry. According to Gibb, there is nothing in Dukagjini's language to spot him as a non-Constantinopolitan by birth and education. Gibb added that there is sustained simplicity, vigor, and originality in Dukagjini's writings. According to Gibb, the originality shows for instance in his poem Yusuf ve Züleyha. The subject of the poem is borrowed from Persian literature, which was so popular during that time, that it was considered a universal theme, nevertheless, he rejects being a translator or paraphraser, but tells the story on a manner of his own. As he declares himself in the epilogue of Yusuf ve Züleyha:

And also in Kitab-ı Usul'''s epilogue:

Dukagjini's core work consists of a large diwan of poems and of a

masks: Yahyay Yahya


title: Yahya bey Dukagjini

texts:
 collection of five mesnevî poems of rhymed couplets. As mentioned above, they lack the influence of Persian traditions.They were put together in a Khamsa ("five poems"). The khamsa forms the most important section of <mask>'s work. The most popular of the poems is Shâh u gedâ (The King and the Beggar), his favorite and which he claimed to had finished in just one week, and Yusuf ve Züleyha (Yusuf and Züleyha), a romance on the pure love of two young people. Unlike the first two poems of the khamse, which are mostly lyrical, the last three consist of aphorisms on morality and rules of life. Kitab-ı Usul is divided into 10 "stations" (maqām-s),: each one of them attempts to inculcate moral qualities to the reader and is illustrated by anecdotes, to demonstrate the advantages of following certain right moral paths. The anecdotes are full of descriptions, historic and fictitious, and are derived from all kind of sources. The following couplets are used as a refrain at the end of introductory cantos in most of the "stations", and elsewhere throughout the work:

His Gül-i Şadberk (Rose of a Thousand Petals) is a poem which describes Prophet Muhammed's miracles, and was written probably at an old age and has a pure religious tone.Gülşen-i Envar is divided into 40 short sections called "discourses". The first two poems were published in diwan collections in Istanbul in 1867–1868. Like many other poets, <mask>'s work was inspired by the work of Sufi poet Mevlevî (also

masks: Yahya Yahya


title: Yahya bey Dukagjini

texts:
 known as Rumi, Mevlânâ, or Jalāl ad-Dīn, founder of Mevlevi Order). Mevlevi is referenced in a few places inside <mask>'s diwan and khamsa as well, where he is mentioned as "Mevlana", "Molla  Hünkar", or "Molla-i Rum". Mevlana is a leading character in three of the khamsas poems: Gencine-i Raz, Kitab-i Usul, and Gulşen-i Envar. The prominent work of Mevlana, Masnavi, contains a story about Prophet Suleiman, and a mosquito (Süleyman Peygamber'le Sivrisinek), which <mask> retold, without changing it. <mask> also wrote "Şehrengiz" (City Book), where he describes the cities of Edirne and Istanbul.Works
The following is a list of <mask> Dukajini's works:

Diwan, printed in Istanbul in 1977 (selections from his Collected Poems were published by Mehmet Çavuşoğlu in 1983). Khamsa (Five Poems):
Şah ü Geda - The King and the Beggar
Yusuf ve Züleyha - Yusuf and Züleyha
Gencine-i Raz - Treasure of Secret
Gülşen-i Envar - Rose Garden of the Lights
Kitab-ı Usul - Book of Procedures
Şehrengiz-i İstanbul (City Book of İstanbul), published by Mehmet Çavuşoğlu in Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Dergisi, 1969
Şehrengiz-i Edirne (City Book of Edirne)

Two additional poems are usually attributed to Dukagjini:
Nāz ü-Niyāz (Coyness and Yearning)
Sulaimān-nāme (Book of Sulaiman: this poem is of around 2,000 verses, but left unfinished)

Legacy
A brave soldier, Dukagjini is remembered as representative of a type which admirably combined the sword with the pen. His independence intertwined with

masks: Yahya Yahya Yahya Yahyay


title: Yahya bey Dukagjini

texts:
 frankness and courage was his most notable trait. <mask> Bey is considered today as one of the greatest Ottoman diwan poets of the time. In popular culture
<mask> bey Dukagjini is depicted in the Turkish TV series Muhteşem Yüzyıl (The Magnificent Century), performed by Serkan Altunorak. Notes and referencesNotesReferences'''

External links
En Hazin Mersiyenin Şairi: TAŞLICALI YAHYA BEY (in Turkish)

Divan poets of the Ottoman Empire
16th-century poets of the Ottoman Empire
Dukagjini family
1498 births
1582 deaths
15th-century people of the Ottoman Empire
15th-century Albanian people
16th-century Albanian people
Janissaries
Albanians of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Sufis
Devşirme
Male poets of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman people of the Ottoman–Persian


title: Per Magnusson

texts:
<mask> (born 30 May 1969) is a Swedish music producer and songwriter. His musical career took off in 1994 as one of the original team members of the now-legendary Cheiron Productions, meeting great international success working with Boyzone, Britney Spears, Westlife and the Backstreet Boys. Shortly after Cheiron decided to shut down its studios in 2000, <mask> together with David Kreuger formed A Side Productions, having continued to produce and write songs for major artists such as Il Divo, Céline Dion, Josh Groban, Shayne Ward and Paul Potts. To date the duo has co-written and / or produced six UK No. 1 singles:

If I Let You Go (Westlife)
Fool Again (Westlife)
My Love (Westlife)
Evergreen (Will Young)
Anyone of Us (Stupid Mistake) (Gareth Gates)
That's My Goal (Shayne Ward)

In April 2008 Leona Lewis became the first British female ever to open at No 1 on the Billboard 200. Her debut album Spirit includes the song "Footprints in the Sand", co-written by <mask> and Kreuger. Musical career

The early years
<mask> was born and raised in Tyresö on the outskirts of Stockholm.His interest in music was developed already while attending primary school, picking up the cello as his main instrument playing it for the next ten years. Over time, his commitment in pop & rock music became more and more predominantly. As a teenager, <mask> played both the guitar and keyboards in different local bands, but eventually decided to focus on producing, arranging and writing music. His first significant record appearance came in 1994 on the Swedish artist Jennifer Brown's album Giving You the Best. Besides taking part as a musician, <mask> produced the song "Take a Piece of My Heart"

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title: Per Magnusson

texts:
 which also was released as a single. About that time, <mask> coincidentally met with David Kreuger whom worked on the DJ scene in Stockholm. They started collaborating and have continued producing and writing songs as a team ever since.Denniz PoP & Cheiron Studios
Denniz PoP had by the early '90s become one of the most skillful and coveted DJs in the clubs of Stockholm. In 1993 he decided to start working with artists and founded Cheiron Productions together with Tom Talomaa. Its studios were located at Fridhemsplan in Stockholm, soon evolving into a great success. After playing one of their songs for PoP, <mask> and David were invited aboard as songwriters and producers. Successfully working with a wide range of artists for the next couple of years, the tandem's greatest prosperity that far came in 1998, co-writing and producing the song "Will Be Yours" for Boyzone's third consecutive UK No 1 album Where We Belong. By now Cheiron studios was one of the hottest in the world, each team member working with a different artist. But in August 1998 Cheiron shocked the music world sending out a press release that its leader Denniz PoP had died.He was only 35 years old. On top of the US charts with Britney
Just a couple of months earlier, Cheiron had started working on songs for the 16-year-old Britney Spears' debut album. <mask> and David produced Spear's second single "Sometimes" as well as her third, "(You Drive Me) Crazy", which they co-wrote with Max Martin and Jörgen Elofsson. Both singles became huge worldwide hits. The album ...Baby One More Time was released in the US in January 1999 and debuted at No 1 on the Billboard 200 where it spent six weeks straight.

masks: Per Per Per


title: Per Magnusson

texts:
 Together <mask> and David also worked with Britney on her second album Oops!…I Did It Again, co-writing and co-producing "What U See (Is What U Get)" and producing "Girl in the Mirror". The album came out in the US in May 2000 and equally as the first, it shot to No 1.First UK No 1s
<mask> and David's success on the UK Singles Chart soon followed. Westlife had approached Cheiron for material to their upcoming self-titled debut album and the duo co-wrote three songs which they also produced. "If I Let You Go" was released in August 1999 as Westlife's ever second single. It went straight to No 1 becoming <mask> and David's first top position in the UK. "Fool Again", which came out in March 2000 as the fifth single taken from the same album, became the duo's second in less than seven months. By the end of that same year, Westlife issued their follow-up album Coast to Coast. Five songs co-written and / or produced by the tandem had found their way onto the record."My Love" hit the UK record stores in October as the album's first single. It entered the charts at No 1. The close collaboration between Westlife and <mask> and David has continued ever since. The Backstreet Boys had in 1999 broken nearly every record in the book with their album Millennium. In 2000 the group turned to <mask> and David for help on their next, titled Black & Blue, which was released in November. Including the tandem's productions of "It's True" and "The Answer to Our Life", the record became another huge international success selling more than 12 million copies. These recordings turned out to be some of Cheiron's last before closing up.By the end of 2000, at the top of the industry, the

masks: Per Per Per Per Per


title: Per Magnusson

texts:
 studio's songwriters and producers decided to go separate ways. A Side Productions is formed
Shortly after the shutdown of Cheiron Studios, <mask> and David formed A Side Productions, their own production company. Located in the center of Stockholm, the duo soon embarked on several major projects including working on Westlife's upcoming third record World of Our Own. Together they co-wrote and produced four songs which all appear on the album. One of the songs was "Evergreen", that soon was about to enter Guinness World Records. Released in the UK in November 2001, the album instantly shot to No 1. In February 2002 Will Young became the first winner of Pop Idol, a new British reality talent show that was followed by spin offs all around the world, in the US named American Idol.Will Young's debut single was the double A-side "Anything is Possible" / "Evergreen", released in the UK on 25 February. The single instantaneously made it into the history books by becoming the Fastest Selling Debut Single for the First Day
as well as First Week. Co-written and co-produced by <mask> and David, "Evergreen" spent three consecutive weeks atop of the Top 40. More amazingly, in 2009 the single still holds the No 11th position on the UK Top 100 List of Best Selling Singles of all time. Pop Idol runner-up that season was Gareth Gates and just like Will Young he recorded "Evergreen", which was included on his first single. Released in March, Gareth Gates now knocked down his rival from the No 1, subsequently holding his position for four weeks straight. Gareth Gates' second success on the charts came only four months later, on 14 July, with his follow-up "Anyone of Us (Stupid

masks: Per Per


title: Per Magnusson

texts:
 Mistake)".The song, also co-written and produced by <mask> and David, spent three weeks at No 1. This was the duo's 5th top position in the UK. Il Divo brings opera to the pop charts
Already in 2001 Simon Cowell had come up with a new concept featuring four male singers interpreting romantic songs opera-style. Two years later, after numerous auditions across the globe, Il Divo was formed. The quartet's self-titled debut album was scheduled for release in the fall of 2004 and one of its first destinations was A Side Productions' studios for recordings. Including the productions of Ennio Morricone's "Nella Fantasia" and "Ti Amerò", which <mask> and David also had co-written exclusively for the group, the album Il Divo was released in the UK on 6 November. It instantly went to No 1
and remained in the Top 5 throughout the year.In the US the album was issued on April 19, 2005, rushing straight to No 4 on the Billboard 200. Only months later, Il Divo had reached No 1 in 12 countries, Top 5 in another 25
and sold more than 4 million copies. In 2005 Céline Dion started working on a new album, her first French compilation titled On Ne Changes Pas, including three new songs. <mask> and David co-wrote and produced "I Believe in You", a duet with Il Divo. Dion's album was released on 3 October and reached No 1 in Quebec, Belgium and France where it held the position for seven weeks straight subsequently spending an entire year on the chart. <mask> and David's duet "I Believe in You" was also included on Il Divo's follow-up album Ancora. Along with three more songs produced by the tandem, the quartet's record was released on 7 November 2005.It hit No 1 in the UK and Australia

masks: Per Per Per Per


title: Per Magnusson

texts:
 within one week. Released in the US on January 24, 2006,
Ancora entered the Billboard 200 at No 1 after selling more than 150,000 copies in its first week. Il Divo's third album, Siempre, also including four songs co-written and / or produced by <mask> and David, was released by the end of November 2006. Across their first three albums, Il Divo achieved 36 No 1's, selling more than 22 million records worldwide. The X Factor & Britain's Got Talent
The X Factor was devised in 2004 as a replacement for the massively successful Pop Idol, which in the UK had been put on indefinite hold. In the second season's final, aired on 17 December, 2005, Shayne Ward was crowned winner after performing the newly written song "That's My Goal". Produced by <mask> and David it was released as Ward's debut single only four days later, shooting straight to No 1.By selling an astonishing 310,000 copies in the first day, "That's My Goal" entered the Top 4 list of the Fastest Selling UK Singles of all time. On March 4, 2007, Paul Potts entered the stage in front of the skeptical looking jury of Britain's Got Talent. Ninety seconds later he made YouTube history with his rendition of Puccini's "Nessun Dorma". Potts had wowed the jury as well as the 2,000-strong audience which gave him a standing ovation. Still working as a mobile phone salesman in Wales, the unexpected tenor on June 17 won the whole show. Going straight into the music studios recording songs for his debut album, now with a full symphony orchestra backing him up in the world-famous AIR Studios in London, Potts recorded three songs produced by <mask> and David, "Nessun Dorma", "Con Te Partirò" and "Nella Fantasia". The album


title: Per Magnusson

texts:
 One Chance was released in the UK on 16 July.2007 and with first week sales exceeding 128,000 copies Potts shot straight to No 1
outselling the rest of his Top 10 rivals combined. The newly discovered tenor held the position for three consecutive weeks. Working with Katherine Jenkins and Leona <mask> and David were in 2007 involved in several other projects including working with Katherine Jenkins, the Welsh award-winning and best-selling classical crossover superstar. In 2004, at the age of 24, she became the fastest selling mezzo-soprano of all time with her debut album titled Première. By the end of 2005, as the first singer in musical history, Jenkins simultaneously held the number 1, 2 and 3 positions in the UK's Classical Chart with her three albums. Her fifth album, Rejoice including four songs produced by <mask> and David, was released on 19 November. 2007.It entered the UK's Album Chart at No 3. In 2006 more than 100,000 hopeful "artists to be" applied to the auditions for The X Factor season three, the previous season won by Shayne Ward. Leona Lewis was crowned winner on 16 December, soon breaking sales records with her first single. Decided however not to push the young singer's debut album release, Lewis instead went to the US signing a lucrative record deal with
Clive Davis, founder of Arista Records. Set for domestically release in late 2007 the album's recordings were coordinated in music studios around the US as well as in London. One of the songs was "Footprints in the Sand", written by <mask> and David together with Richard Page. The album, titled Spirit, reached the UK record stores on 12 November.With sales surpassing 375,000 copies in its

masks:
Lewis Per
Per
Per


title: Per Magnusson

texts:
 first week of release, Spirit is the fastest selling British debut album of all time. It spent seven weeks straight at No 1 on the Top 40. Released in the US almost five months later, on April 8, 2008, Spirit instantly shot to the top spot. This resulted in Leona Lewis becoming the first British female ever to debut at No 1 on the Billboard 200. Re-released in the UK almost exactly one year later, on 17 November, 2008, Lewis' Spirit The Deluxe Edition bounced back to the top of the charts to give <mask> and David a second consecutive No. 1, as the bestseller that previous week was Il Divo's The Promise including the tandem's production of "L'Alba Del Mondo". See also
The Official Website of A Side Productions
A Side Productions on MySpace
Interview, HitQuarters Aug 2009

References

1969 births
Living people
Swedish record producers
Swedish male


title: Juan Friede

texts:
<mask> (Wlava, Russian Empire, 17 February 1901 - Bogotá, Colombia, 28 June 1990) was a Ukrainian-Colombian historian of Jewish descent who is recognised as one of the most important writers about Colombian history, the Spanish conquests and a proponent of indigenism; the defense of the rights and descriptions of the oppression of indigenous people. <mask> went to Colombia in 1926 for business and his fascination for the country, its climate and culture made him emigrate. He became a Colombian citizen in 1930. During the 1940s, Friede made extensive studies about various indigenous peoples in the country. He was a professor at the newly founded Department of Social Sciences of the National University of Colombia and is considered one of the pioneers of the "New History" movement in Colombia, together with Jaime Jaramillo Uribe, Luis Eduardo Nieto Arteta and Luis Ospina Vásquez. His former house in San Agustín since 2006 bears the name Casa Museo Juan Friede. Biography

<mask> was born in a village called Wlava, indicated as Ukrainian or Polish, close to the border with Germany, part of the Russian Empire on February 17, 1901 in a Jewish family.Friede went to school in Moscow in the turbulent years of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The new regime drove the family to Germany and Friede studied Economical and Social Sciences at the Hochschule für Welthandel in Vienna, graduating in 1922. The environment of Vienna of the 1920s influenced Friede positively and he was a member of an anarcho-ecological society called Vanderfliegel. After his studies in Vienna, he continued his research at the newly founded London School of Economics. In 1923, Friede started working for the import-export firm J.

masks:
Juan Friede Alter
Juan Friede
Juan Friede Alter


title: Juan Friede

texts: Stern & Co. The firm sent Friede to Colombia in 1926. Friede arrived first in Cartagena and later in Buenaventura.He was so much impressed by the country, its climate, poverty and people, that he decided to emigrate. <mask> first settled in Manizales, working for J. Stern & Co in trading coffee, automobiles and other imports, a job offering him to travel through Colombia. On February 20, or March 3, 1930, Friede became a Colombian national. After a decline in the activities of J. Stern & Co., Friede worked for Caldas Motors, a subsidiary of Ford Motors from 1935 to 1941. In 1939, Friede moved from Manizales to Bogotá and in 1940 he opened the first art gallery in the Colombian capital. Two years later  Colombian muralist Pedro Nel Gómez held an exposition in Friede's art gallery. During the Holy Week of 1942, Friede made the first documentary about the important archaeological and UNESCO World Heritage Site San Agustín.This formed the onset of further studies of the indigenous people of Colombia between 1943 and 1946. He lived in San Agustín until the end of 1945. In 1944, Friede published his book El indio en la lucha por la tierra, where he described the continuous repression of the indigenous people of the department of Cauca. Friede is considered together with Jaime Jaramillo Uribe, Luis Eduardo Nieto Arteta and Luis Ospina Vásquez, one of the founders of "New History" in Colombia, after writing a voluminous work about the conquests and indigenous history in his 1955 publication Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de Colombia. In 1959 the Department of Social Sciences of the National University of Colombia was founded, where <mask> was one of the main professors. Between 1962 and

masks:
Juan Friede
Juan Friede


title: Juan Friede

texts:
 1990, Friede lived in Colombia and the United States. <mask> has published 682 works in Spanish and English.He spoke fluent Russian, German, French, English and Spanish. Research by <mask>e

Indigenous peoples of Colombia

Friede has published various books and articles about the indigenous peoples of Colombia, among others the Muisca, Andaquí, Arhuaco, Kofán and Quimbaya. Conquest

Many conquistadors as well as Spanish chroniclers in Colombia have been described in biographies by <mask>e. On Pedro de Aguado, whose birth date is uncertain, he wrote that De Aguado was baptised in Valdemoro on January 26, 1513. Friede published about Rodrigo de Bastidas and others in La conquista del territorio y el poblamiento. The abuse of the indigenous people by Pedro de Heredia was reported by Friede in Fuentes documentales para la historia del Nuevo Reino de Granada: desde la instalación de la Real Audiencia en Santafé. <mask> has published various works about the Spanish conquest of the Muisca and the foundation of Bogotá.He described the routes of the main conquistadors Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and Nikolaus Federmann towards the Bogotá savanna and Eastern Hills in Descubrimiento del Nuevo Reino de Granada y Fundación de Bogotá (1536–1539). In 1960, Friede published a review of Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada, an early publication about the conquest expeditions of the Spanish against the Muisca and Panche of uncertain authorship. Friede maintains the work has been written entirely by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the main conquistador of central-Colombia. History

Friede also published about the post-Spanish history of Colombia and Peru; the Battle of Boyacá in 1819, the Battle

masks:
Juan Friede
Juan Fried
Juan Fried
Juan Friede


title: Juan Friede

texts:
 of Ayacucho in 1824, the foundation of the Mint in Bogotá in the seventeenth century, the history of Pereira and Popayán, especially <mask> del Valle, and the Colombian painters Carlos Correa and Luis Alberto Acuña. <mask> Alter wrote a critical review of friar Pedro Simón, and together with Benjamin Keen he published a major biography of friar Bartolomé de las Casas in 1971. Works
This list is a selection. Books

Indigenous people
 1979 - Indígenas y represión en Colombia
 1974 - Los chibchas bajo la dominación española
 1973 - La explotación indígena en Colombia bajo el gobierno de las misiones el caso de los aruacos de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
 1963 - Los quimbayas bajo la dominación española : estudio documental 1539-1810
 1963 - Problemas sociales de los aruacos: tierras, gobierno, misiones
 1953 - Los andakí, 1538-1947: historia de la aculturación de una tribu selvática
 1952 - Los Kofán: una tribu de la alta Amazonia colombiana
 1944 - Comunidades indígenas del macizo colombiano
 1944 - El indio en lucha por la tierra: historia de los resguardos del macizo central colombiano.Editorial Universidad del Cauca, Popayán, 2020
 1943 - Los indios del alto Magdalena (vida, luchas y exterminio) 1609-1931

Conquest
 1991 - Cristobal Colón y el encuentro de dos mundos
 1979 - El Adelantado don Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
 1974 - Biografía de Nicolás Federman, conquistador de Venezuela, 1506?-1542
 1970 - Rutas de Cartagena de Indias a Buenos Aires y sublevaciones de Pizarro, Castilla y Hernández Girón, 1540-1570
 1966 - Invasión del país de los chibchas, conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada y fundación de Santafé de Bogotá: revaluaciones y rectificaciones
 1965 - Historia extensa de

masks:
Juan
Juan Friede


title: Aditya Pancholi

texts:
<mask> is an Indian film actor, producer and playback singer who appears in Bollywood films. He started his career as a lead actor, though he was more successful in supporting roles and as an antagonist. He received a Filmfare nomination for the Best Performance in a Negative Role for Yes Boss (1997). <mask> began his career with television movies produced by Nari Hira and ventured into mainstream Bollywood cinema with Sasti Dulhan Mehnga Dulha (1986). <mask> first came into the limelight with an important role in Maha-Sangram (1990). He had the peak of his career between the late 1980s and early 1990s. He succeeded by playing the second lead; most of his leading roles were not box office successes.Acting career

1985–87: Television movies and serials
He was signed for a few television video films produced by Hiba, which was owned by Stardust magazine owner Nari Hira. <mask> made his acting debut with Shahadat in 1985. In 1986, he did the television films Sone Ka Pinjra, Siyahi, Kalank Ka Tika, Afshar Ki Saali and Maryam Ki Beti. Later that year, he ventured into mainstream Bollywood with Sasti Dulhan Mahenga Dulha. During this time, he adopted the stage name <mask> <mask>. In 1987, <mask> gave performances in two television movies: Abhishek and Khatarnaak Irade. In Abhishek, he portrayed a well-known businessman who used his father's wealth in enjoying leisure time and used a new costume to help depressed and troubled people.In Khatarnaak Irade, <mask> played the role of a womanising lifeguard who got himself into trouble while falling in love with a married woman played by Anju Mahendru. During 1995 he also starred in the TV series Mahashakti in DD Metro opposite Juhi Chawla. This series was to be released in 1989 as a

masks:
Aditya Pancholi
Pancholi
Pancholi
Pancholi
Aditya
Pancholi
Pancholi
Pancholi


title: Aditya Pancholi

texts:
 Vaada raha milan ka, but the film was released as a TV series on DD Metro. In 2014 he starred in the television film (My Father Godfather), which was to be released in theatres, but was released on the World Wide Web and television. 1988–96: Lead roles
<mask> had his first prominent Bollywood role with a supporting role in Feroz Khan's Dayavan (1988), opposite Vinod Khanna and Madhuri Dixit. He appeared in Dharamyudh with Sunil Dutt, Suresh Oberoi and Shatrughan Sinha. Later that year, he collaborated with K.C.Bokadia in Kab Tak Chup Rahungi, opposite Amala. This was his first lead role in Bollywood and established him as a lead actor in the industry. His next release that year was Qatil, in which he starred opposite Sangeeta Bijlani. <mask> portrayed a lawyer's son who resists the death penalty and imprisonment and proves himself guilty of the murder of a prostitute, but was trapped when a friend betrayed him by removing all of the evidence. In 1989, <mask> starred in the romance Mohabat Ka Paigham, opposite Meenakshi Sheshadri. He had a major role in Mukul S. Anand's multi-starrer action film Maha Sangram, which featured an ensemble cast of Vinod Khanna, Govinda and Madhuri Dixit. He also sang a few lines in the song "Dhak Dhak Dhak" with Alisha Chinai.He next starred in the comedy film Baap Numbri Beta Dus Numbri, which became one of the highest-grossing films of the year. He next starred opposite upcoming actress Madhuri Dixit in Sailaab. <mask> would close the year with a double-role in Zakhmi Zameen, opposite Jaya Prada. His second role as an antagonist was in the sports action thriller Awwal Number, opposite Dev Anand and Aamir Khan. His other releases included Taqdeer Ka Tamasha, Atishbaaz and Veeru Dada. <mask>

masks: Pancholi Pancholi Pancholi Pancholi Pancholi


title: Aditya Pancholi

texts: began 1991 with Naamcheen, opposite Ekta Sohini, in which he played an unemployed young man who steps into the underworld to make money and becomes one of the wealthiest people of his city; but loses his family and friends in the race for wealth and decides to kill the two rival gangsters to rehabilitate their goons and surrenders to the police. His next major release was Vishnu-Devaa that saw him pair with Sunny Deol, Neelam and Sangeeta Bijlani.The film was the seventeenth highest-grossing film of the year. He paired with Jeetendra to play one of the title roles in Shiv Ram. Later that year, he collaborated with director Mahesh Bhatt in Saathi, opposite Mohsin Khan and Varsha Usgaonkar. He followed with a supporting role in the multi-starrer Akayla, opposite Kiran Juneja. The film featured an ensemble cast of Amitabh Bachchan, Amrita Singh, Jackie Shroff and Meenakshi Sheshadri. It became the seventh-highest-grossing film of the year. His last release of the year was Jeevan Daata, opposite Chunky Pandey, Kimi Katkar and Sonu Walia.He started 1992 with the romance film Yaad Rakhegi Duniya, opposite debutant Rukhsar Rehman. <mask> portrayed a terminally ill man who falls in love with a girl, who herself suffers from a terminal illness. Also released in 1992 was the action movie Sahebzaade with Sanjay Dutt. His last release of the year was the multi-starrer action film Tahalka, opposite Dharmendra, Naseeruddin Shah. <mask> portrays an army officer and is paired with Ekta Sohini. The film emerged as the fifth-highest-grossing film of the year. <mask> turned producer for the first time in the 1993 romance action film Chor Aur Chaand and acted in the lead role opposite Pooja Bhatt.In the same year he starred in the action

masks: Pancholi Pancholi Pancholi


title: Aditya Pancholi

texts:
 film Muqabla opposite Govinda, Karishma Kapoor, Shakti Kapoor and Asrani. His next release was the action film Game, opposite Naseeruddin Shah, Rahul Roy and Sangeeta Bijlani. His only release of 1994 was Sanjay Gupta's multi-starrer action film Aatish: Feel the Fire, featuring an ensemble cast of Sanjay Dutt, Raveena Tandon, Karisma Kapoor and Atul Agnihotri. Aatish was one of the highest-grossing movies at the box office. He began 1995 with the lead role in the action film Surakshaa, in which he was paired with Sheeba with an ensemble cast of Sunil Shetty, Saif Ali Khan, Divya Dutta and Monica Bedi. In the same year he acted in the movies Ravan Raaj: A True Story and The Gambler and Ram Shastra with Jackie Shroff, Manisha Koirala and Anupam Kher. <mask> reunited with Shetty and Khan for another multi-starrer lead role in the 1996 action film Ek Tha Raja, with Neelam, Pratibha Sinha and Indrani Banerjee.Later that year, Pancholi collaborated with South Indian director T. Rama Rao in Jung, portraying a double-role opposite Mithun Chakraborty, Ajay Devgan, Rambha and Sujata Mehta. <mask> played an innocent train driver who is wrongly punished for a murder that was committed by a look-alike gangster, which was a box office success. His next release of the year was Khilona, opposite Ayub Khan and Monica Bedi. His other movies included Zordaar, Muqadama and Mafia. 1997–present: Supporting roles and antagonists
Pancholi switched to antagonistic and supporting roles as 1997 approached, starting with Aziz Mirza's romantic comedy Yes Boss, opposite Shah Rukh Khan and Juhi Chawla. Yes Boss was one of the highest-grossing movies of the year. He earned a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role.His

masks: Pancholi Pancholi


title: Aditya Pancholi

texts: next release was Hameshaa, opposite Saif Ali Khan and Kajol, with <mask> in a negative role. During 1998 and 1999 he appeared in the movies Devta, Zanjeer: The Chain (1998), Hafta Vasuli, Benaam, Aaya Toofan(1999). <mask> paired with Sanjay Dutt and Manisha Koirala to play the antagonist in Baaghi (2000). Later that year, he reunited with Sanjay Gupta to play a police inspector in Jung, opposite Sanjay Dutt, Jackie Shroff, Raveena Tandon and Shilpa Shetty. His last release of the year was Tarkieb, opposite Nana Patekar, Tabu and Shilpa Shetty. Long delayed movie Bhai no 1 with Farah (actress) his only release in 2001 Bhagwaat Ek Jung with Mithun Chakraborty. In 2002, <mask> had his next major release with a supporting role in Vipul Amrutlal Shah's heist thriller Aankhen, which featured an ensemble cast of Amitabh Bachchan, Akshay Kumar, Arjun Rampal, Sushmita Sen and Paresh Rawal.The film was one of the highest-grossing films of the year. His other releases of 2002 were Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani, Gautam Govinda and Yeh Dil Aashiqanaa. In 2003 he appeared in a patriotic movie Border Hindustan Ka, with Faisal Khan, Rajat Bedi, Akshaye Khanna and Sudesh Berry. He made a cameo appearance in Chalte Chalte. Pancholi collaborated with Sanjay Gupta for the fifth time in the 2004 action thriller Musafir, playing the main antagonist opposite Anil Kapoor, Sameera Reddy, Mahesh Manjrekar, Koena Mitra, Shakti Kapoor and Sanjay Dutt. The movie received negative reviews, but Pancholi received positive reviews for his performance, with Taran Adarsh labelling his performance "first-rate". Pancholi had a comeback as the antagonist in Chandan Arora's low-budget action film Striker (2010).Pancholi restricted himself to antagonist and


title: Aditya Pancholi

texts:
 character roles, with films such as Rush (2012), Hridayanath (2012), Mumbai Mirror (2013), Race 2 (2013), Jai Ho (2014), Dishkiyaoon (2014), Hero (2015) and Bajirao Mastani (2015). Controversies
In 2016, after a decade-long trial, a local metropolitan court in Mumbai found <mask> <mask> guilty of assaulting a business associate in a fit of rage in 2005, and sentenced him to a one-year imprisonment with a fine of Rs. 20,000/- (US$300). <mask> has appealed against the judgment in a higher court. In 2019, actress Kangana Ranaut, who had previously been in a relationship with him, filed a police complaint claiming that <mask> had drugged, raped, assaulted and blackmailed her for sex repeatedly over a prolonged period starting in 2003. She repeated these claims in an interview to "Aap ki Adalat" on India TV and cited an incident of assault which had occurred in public. Eyewitnesses to the incident say that Pancholi stopped the rickshaw in which Ranaut was travelling, compelled her to get out of the vehicle and slapped her face.<mask> stated in his defence that the accusations was false and as despicable as her entire relationship with him. He said that in fact, Ranaut had exploited him both financially and emotionally in a calculated manner and used his influence to secure a foothold for herself as an actress. The trial is yet to begin. <mask> <mask> had earlier been accused of raping his ex-girlfriend Pooja Bedi's 15-year-old maid during the time when he and Pooja were dating - he was later found guilty. Awards and nominations

References

External links

Male actors from Mumbai
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Indian male film actors
Living people
Gujarati people
20th-century Indian male actors
21st-century Indian male

masks: Aditya Pancholi Pancholi Pancholi Pancholi Aditya Pancholi


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
<mask> (1840–1911) was the foremost residential architect in Amherst and Northampton, Massachusetts, in the last two decades of the 19th century. He designed more than 35 sizable houses in those two towns and several in nearby communities. His early house designs, mostly in the Queen Anne style, centered on Amherst. From 1893 to 1897 <mask> was in partnership with Lewis D. Bayley, and their firm, Putnam & Bayley, operated from an office in Northampton. The focus of the firm’s residential work shifted to Northampton and tended toward the Classical Revival and Colonial Revival styles. The firm undertook several commercial buildings, notably the Masonic Block in Northampton, the most expensive building yet to have been constructed in the downtown area. The firm’s work encompassed civic structures as well.<mask> or his firm also designed three public libraries in towns around the Pioneer Valley. Following the dissolution of the firm, <mask> continued his architectural practice in Northampton, though at a slower pace, until his death on April 16, 1911. He designed a number of school buildings and renovated still other schools in towns throughout Hampshire County, Massachusetts. Early Years and Schooling
Roswell Field <mask> was born in Leverett, Massachusetts, on 20 May 1840, the son of a farmer, <mask>, and his wife, <mask> (Bangs) <mask>. He was apparently named after <mask> <mask> (1767–1842), a magistrate and trial justice for Franklin County, Massachusetts, who represented the town of Leverett in the

masks:
Roswell Field Putnam
Putnam
Putnam
Putnam
Putnam
Timothy Putnam
Sarah Field
Putnam
Roswell
Field


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 state legislature for many years. <mask> took care of <mask> <mask> and his wife, Sarah Graves <mask>, in their later years; when he died in 1842, <mask> bequeathed his property to Timothy and his household goods and a thousand dollars to <mask>. In 1844, possibly on the strength of this inheritance, <mask> acquired a farm on Long Plain in Leverett, near the junction with Depot Road, together with a Greek Revival farmhouse for himself, his wife, and his four-year-old son.In 1852 he built a schoolhouse on the northwest corner of his property, which still stands at 159 Long Plain Road, although the <mask>s’ house at #153 was destroyed by fire. <mask> would have been twelve at the time of the schoolhouse construction, and this project may have sparked his interest in becoming an architect. <mask> <mask> initially attended not this school (which met in a private home across the road before the schoolhouse was built), but rather Leverett’s Center School, the “Little Red Schoolhouse” near the town center. As he grew older, he attended the Amherst Academy, a private school in Amherst, and then the Powers Institute in Bernardston, Massachusetts, which had opened in 1855. Although <mask> appears to have had no formal education beyond high school, the Daily Hampshire Gazette, 18 October 1893, p. 2, reported that “he has always been a close student and probably has the finest library outside of New York City.”

Professional Training and Early Work

<mask> would have completed his studies at the Powers Institute

masks:
Timothy Putnam
Roswell
Field
Field
Field
Sarah Putnam
Timothy Putnam
Putnam
Roswell
Roswell
Field Putnam
Putnam
Roswell


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 around 1856 to 1858. He registered (as a farmer) for the Civil War draft in 1863, but there is no indication that he served; his registry entry bears the notation, “very near-sighted.”   Little is known of his life’s course between the end of school and the early 1880s. He is identified as a farmer in the 1855 state census.No occupation is given in the 1860 U.S. Census, which shows him living with his parents in Leverett. He is still recorded living with them in the 1870 and 1880 U.S. Census; in 1870 he styled himself an architect, and in 1880, a carpenter. <mask>’s earliest architectural venture may have been a store in Leverett that he designed for Payson Field in 1867, on the west side of the tracks just north of the railroad station, which had been built on Long Plain in 1865. This store functioned until the 1890s, when it was moved to a site on the east side of Shutesbury Road, just north of Mountain Brook, for use as a residence. <mask> as Carpenter

According to his obituaries, <mask> learned the carpentry trade in Amherst and trained as an architect in Worcester, Massachusetts, under James Fuller. He may also have trained under an architect in Boston, although his name does not appear in Boston city directories. The sequence and timing of these ventures is not clear.He is listed (in Leverett) under “Carpenters and Builders” in the Massachusetts Register and Business Directory of 1874. Among the carpenters and builders active in Amherst in the 1870s were Chauncey Lessey and John Beston, Jr.

masks: Roswell Putnam Roswell


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 <mask> later designed houses on behalf of both their widows, as well as one for carpenter James White, indicating possible personal connections that may relate to his training in carpentry. There was no standardized training, examination, or license required in Massachusetts to become a carpenter or architect at the time. One learned on the job, through apprenticeship—formal or informal. <mask>’s Training as Architect

It was probably in the latter half of the 1870s that <mask> undertook training for the architectural profession. The customary path to becoming an architect in the U.S. in this period was to spend time as an apprentice in an architectural office, learning at the elbow of an established practitioner. Formal courses in architecture were not instituted until later in the century.The distinction between builder and architect was not always clear cut, but from the records that survive from 1883 onward, it appears that once <mask> established himself as “architect” in Amherst, he employed others as builders, contractors, or specialized craftsmen and did not pick up a hammer himself. According to the Daily Hampshire Gazette, <mask> learned architecture from James E. Fuller of Worcester, Massachusetts. Born in 1836, Fuller had already been a master-builder and a contractor in Athol, Massachusetts, though he was only 29 when he came to Worcester. In 1866 Fuller formed a partnership with Stephen C. Earle in Worcester, and the firm later opened an office in Boston as well. The partnership lasted 10

masks: Putnam Putnam Putnam Putnam Putnam


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 years. “Though it is impossible to distinguish exactly the separate contributions of Earle and Fuller to their partnership, it appears that Earle was the designer, Fuller the builder,” according to Curtis Dahl, whose monograph on Earle is the most complete study of the architect. Dahl further posits that the Boston office was opened only to be able to attract inexpensive draftsmen, but that the heart of the firm’s work was in Worcester.The firm’s bread-and-butter work was designing stone churches in a Richardsonian Romanesque/Gothic idiom, although they did residential and commercial buildings as well. After Fuller parted from Earle, he partnered in 1878 with Ward P. Delano to form the firm Fuller & Delano, which for more than two decades was one of the most successful firms in Worcester. The latter firm’s practice seems to have been geared toward institutional buildings (schools, hospitals, libraries and firehouses), with relatively few residential commissions. Buildings in Amherst 1883-1893

On 9 May 1882 <mask> <mask> married Sarah P. Scott, a native of Hawley, Massachusetts, a schoolteacher who had been a boarder at his parents’ home, where <mask> was living. She was about 13 years his junior. A year later, the couple had a son whom they named Karl Scott <mask>. Sarah died in June 1884.At about this time, <mask>, still residing with his parents in Leverett, seems to have established himself as a professional architect and begun taking commissions in Amherst. He designed a house for B. H. Williams in

masks: Roswell Putnam Roswell Putnam Putnam


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 1883 (no longer extant; photo in the Jones Library Special Collections, Amherst). Two documents preserved at the Jones Library, executed in September and December 1884, are agreements with John Beston, Jr., a contractor, to build homes in Amherst according to plans drawn up by R. F<mask>, Architect. One of these, at 24 North Prospect Street, was contracted for by the estate of Mrs. C. W. Lessey and completed in 1885; the other, at 22 Seelye Street, was contracted for by George S. Kendrick. <mask>’s practice in the 1880s and early 1890s was primarily in Amherst, designing inventive Queen Anne cross-gabled houses, many in the Shingle Style, for the town’s merchants and faculty members. The John C. Hammond house, at 222 Elm Street in Northampton (1891–94), is considered by many the apogee of his work in this style. Although he was the initial unanimous choice of the committee formed to recommend an architect for Amherst’s Town Hall, he did not win the commission.He did, however, design the North Amherst Library, which opened in 1893. Putnam & Bayley, 1893-1897

In 1893 <mask> <mask> formed a partnership with Lewis D. Bayley, an architect from Louisville, Kentucky. The firm Putnam & Bayley opened an office at 160 Main Street, Northampton, in the Columbian Building. “The people of this vicinity who contemplate building will not find it necessary to send away for their architectural work,” the local paper crowed, “as we now have a firm of architects here that are second to none in the country as to experience

masks:
. Putnam
Putnam
Roswell
Putnam


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts: and ability.” The article continues, “Although having been located here but three months they have over $75,000 worth of buildings in course of erection.” In 1896 the firm’s offices were moved into Northampton’s Lambie Block. Its houses, mostly in Northampton, became more Classical/Colonial Revival in style and symmetrical in design as the decade rolled on, but they still retained many Queen Anne features. <mask> <mask> was married for a second time in 1895, to Mrs. <mask> of Springfield, a 52-year-old widow from Leverett with three adult sons. <mask>’s son Karl would have been twelve at the time, presumably still living at home.<mask> <mask> built a new house for the family at 19 Columbus Avenue in Northampton. Forming a firm led to a dramatic increase in the number of jobs undertaken, as well as to broadening the scope of work beyond what <mask> had done on his own. In addition to pursuing residential work, the firm undertook several commercial building projects—repairs to the McCallum Block and rebuilding of the Lambie Block in Northampton,  and construction of a brick block at Maple and Cottage Streets in Easthampton, Massachusetts. They designed a new plumbing scheme for the Northampton City Hall, an addition to the Nonotuck Silk Company in Florence (a suburb of Northampton), a school in Easthampton, and the Meekins Library in Williamsburg, as well as projects in Buckland and South Deerfield, all towns in Western Massachusetts. Putnam & Bayley’s most significant undertaking was the Masonic Block at

masks:
Roswell
Putnam
Anna Field
Roswell
Roswell
Putnam
Putnam


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 25 Main Street in Northampton, which opened in 1898. A profile of the firm in the Daily Hampshire Gazette supplement of 30 November 1895 lists 18 clients in Northampton and vicinity for whom it had done work in the past two years, “besides about 25 residences in Springfield, Amherst, Gilbertville, Holyoke, Enfield, Hatfield, Newton, Medford, Mass., Chicago, Ill., Louisville, Ky., and Hot Springs, Ark.”  The non-Massachusetts projects on this list were likely undertakings begun by Bayley and completed after the firm was formed. There is no indication that <mask> <mask> ever worked outside Massachusetts, whereas Bayley had quite a peripatetic career.<mask>’s Work After the Firm’s Dissolution (1897-1911)
As the Masonic Building was nearing completion, the partnership ended. A heated exchange of letters in the Daily Hampshire Gazette about which of the partners deserved credit for the Masonic Building probably reflects the conflict that caused the rift. Bayley moved on to Hartford, Connecticut, while <mask> continued to build in both Amherst and Northampton. He also designed the Shutesbury library, given to the town by M.N. Spear, and worked on new buildings and improvements for schools in Amherst, Easthampton, Leeds and Northampton. <mask>’s son, Karl Scott <mask> (1883–1965), also became an architect, earning a B.S. degree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1910 and interning in the New York office of Edward Tilton.He is listed as a draftsman in his father’s office in the City Directory of Northampton

masks: Roswell Putnam Putnam Putnam Roswell Putnam


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 in 1910. The firm was called R. Putnam & Son beginning in 1911. <mask> taught architecture at Smith College from 1930 onward, and his papers are in Smith’s archives. Although he and the firms to which he belonged designed many private houses, college buildings, and institutional structures in Northampton, Amherst and surrounding towns, <mask>’s papers reveal no buildings on which father and son collaborated. <mask> <mask> died on 16 April 1911, less than a year after his son’s graduation. <mask>’s earliest buildings in Northampton appear to date from 1911. <mask>’s obituary states that “Mr.<mask> was of a quiet and retiring nature, but a man pleasant to meet, ever ready to converse with anyone on business connected with his profession in which he took a great pride. He was conscientious in the work he did and as a citizen was interested in whatever was for the good of the community, but never desired to hold any public office. He belonged to the various Masonic orders, which included the Northampton commandery of Knights Templar.”

Chronology of Buildings  (all are in Massachusetts towns)

The most comprehensive compilation of photographs of <mask>'s buildings is Suzannah J. Fabing, <mask> Field <mask> (1840–1911):  Versatile Architect for the Pioneer Valley (Amherst, MA:  Privately published, 2020), copies of which can be found at the main public library in each of the towns in which <mask> or his firm designed a building. Many of the buildings listed below are described, with photographs, in the

masks:
Karl Putnam
Karl Putnam
Roswell
Putnam
Karl Putnam
Roswell
Putnam
Putnam
Roswell
Putnam
Putnam


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 Massachusetts Historical Commission's database, online at http://mhc-macris.net. The MHC numbers are included in parentheses in the listings below. Note that not all these records identify <mask> as the architect. Other frequently cited sources include the newspapers Amherst Bulletin, Amherst, Massachusetts; Daily Hampshire Gazette, Northampton, Massachusetts; and Springfield Republican, Springfield, Massachusetts.Springfield Republican archives, on microfilm, may be searched for a fee at The Republican - MassLive.comIts year-end surveys of new construction in the region establish date, owner, and cost but ordinarily do not identify the architect. By R.F<mask>, 1867-1892
 1867		Depot Road, Leverett	   	Store for Payson Field (moved 1890; no longer extant)
 1883 17 North Prospect St., Amherst	Home of B.H. Williams (destroyed 1950)
 1884/5 24 North Prospect St., Amherst	House for the Lessey Estate (Mary Robison) (AMH.223)
1884/5 22 Seelye St., Amherst Home of George S. Kendrick
 1885	    320 North Pleasant St., Amherst	Home of James White. c. 1885 87 North Pleasant St., Amherst	Home of William Kellogg. (AMH.242). 1885/6 90 Spring St., Amherst	        “The Dell,” home of Mabel and David P. Todd.Rufus Underwood (NTH.596)
 1894		50 Phillips Pl., Northampton			Home of J.W. Reid (NTH.2080)
 1894		Round Hill, Northampton			Recitation hall, Clarke Institution
 1894		63 Dryads’ Green, Northampton				Home of Adeline Moffat (NTH.567). 1895		12 Bedford Terrace, Northampton		Home of Chas. N. Fitts/Mrs. R.A. Depew

masks:
Putnam
. Putnam


title: Roswell Field Putnam

texts:
 (NTH.690)
 1895	   155 South St., Northampton			Home of Martha A. Strong (NTH.2190)
 1895		 34 Harrison, Northampton			Home of Caroline Thompson (NTH.539)
 1895		 53 Harrison, Northampton			Home of Edwin B.  and Mary Emerson (NTH.529)
 1895		210 Main St., Northampton			Plumbing, City Hall (NTH.790)
1895		Florence (296 Nonotuck St.?) Nonotuck Silk Co. addition (NTH.233)
1895		150 Main St., Northampton			Repairs to McCallum Block (NTH.2291)
1895		1-5 State St., Buckland				Reconstruction of Odd Fellows Hall (BUC.153)
1895/6	76-88 Main St., Northampton		Lambie Block (NTH.2414)
1895/6	19 Columbus Ave., Northampton		Home of Roswell F. <mask> (NTH.1047)
1895/7	2 Williams St., Williamsburg			Meekins Library (WLM.19)
1895/7 7 Chapel St., Easthampton Maple Street School  (EAH.347)
1896 23 Dryads' Green, Northampton Renovations, home of George W. Cable (NTH.576)
1896 12 East St., Northampton Home of John H. Maloney (NTH.Spear Library (SHU.9)
 1902		84-88 Main St., Northampton		Clarke Block reconstruction (destroyed)
 1902-03 75 Harrison Ave., Northampton		Home of Charles W. Spear (attributed) (NTH.530)
 1903	  	32 Gray St., Amherst				Second house for William T. Chapin (moved from N. Pleasant St., 2000)(AMH.193)
 1903		45 Elm St., Northampton			Addition to Burnham house
 1904	   170 South St., Northampton			Home of Frank Clapp (attributed) (NTH.1046)
 1905		Fair St., Northampton				Hall for Three-County Agricultural Society (no longer extant)
 1906		Leeds						Improvements, school-houses
 1906		Bridge St.,


title: Elizabeth Brumfiel

texts:
<mask><mask> (born <mask>; March 10, 1945 – January 1, 2012) was an American archaeologist who taught at Northwestern University and Albion College. She had been a president of the American Anthropological Association. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Chicago, Illinois and attended Evanston Township High School. She participated as a Peace Corps volunteer in La Paz, Bolivia in 1966–1967. She got her B.A. and Ph.D. degrees in anthropology from the University of Michigan in 1965 and 1976 respectively and in 1969 got her M.A. in the same field from the University of California, Los Angeles.Career
Brumfiel was a Peace Corps volunteer from 1966 to 1967 and until 1968 served as research assistant at the Center for Population Planning, University of Michigan. From 1970 to 1977, she served as lecturer at the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Eastern Michigan University and between 1971 and 1972, was a teaching fellow at the Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan. She then relocated to Albion, Michigan, where she became an assistant professor at the Department of Anthropology and Sociology of Albion College and after serving as a chair of the department was promoted to assistant professor, serving as such from 1985 to 1989. Brumfiel was promoted to professor in 1989 at the same department of the same institution, and in 1996 became John S. Ludington, Endowed Professor. Research
Brumfiel's publications focused on gender, political economy, and the relationship between these areas of scholarship. She also worked to show how archaeology, as an

masks:
Elizabeth M
. Brumfiel
Elizabeth Stern
Brumfiel


title: Elizabeth Brumfiel

texts:
 Cholula, and Xaltocan. In Settlement and Subsistence in Early Civilizations: Essays reflecting the contributions of Jeffrey R. Parsons, R.E. Blanton and M.H. Parsons, eds, pp. 63–88. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.20.2005. "Materiality, Feasts, and Figured Worlds in Aztec Mexico". In Rethinking Materiality, E. DeMarrais, C. Gosden, and C. Renfrew, eds., pp. 225–237. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. 2005. References

External links
"In Memoriam: <mask>l 1945–2012."Anthropology Report. N.p., 5 January 2012. 6 Mar 2012. "In Memoriam: <mask>l." Living Anthropologically. Jason Antrosio, 2 January 2012. 6 Mar 2012.1945 births
2012 deaths
American anthropologists
American women anthropologists
American women archaeologists
20th-century American archaeologists
21st-century American archaeologists
21st-century American writers
21st-century American women writers
University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
Albion College faculty
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American writers
American expatriates in Mexico
Deaths from cancer in Illinois
American women

masks:
Elizabeth Brumfie
Elizabeth Brumfie


title: Bruno Gustavo da Silva

texts:
<mask> (born 16 March 1990) is an Brazilian mixed martial artist who competes in the Flyweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. Mixed martial arts career

Early career
Starting his career in 2011, <mask> racked up a 7–2–1 record in his native Brazil before trying out for The Ultimate Fighter: Brazil 4 in late 2014. TUF Brazil 4
In the preliminary bout for the season, <mask> faced <mask>. <mask> won the fight via first-round technical knockout due to a jaw injury Sedório suffered. In the quarterfinals <mask> faced Dileno Lopes. <mask> lost the bout via first-round submission and was eliminated from the tournament. Post-TUF career
After the season <mask> moved to Arizona in 2015 in order to train at Fight Ready MMA.He competed mostly in United States, racking up 3–1–1 with his most memorable fights being winning the World Fighting Federation Flyweight title and also a draw against fellow future UFC fighter, Casey Kenney at LFA 11. Ultimate Fighting Championship
<mask> was scheduled to face Khalid Taha on September 7, 2019 at UFC 242. However, on August 21, it was reported that the bout was moved to UFC 243. He lost the fight via submission in round three. On December 23, 2019 Taha received a one year USADA suspension for tested positive for  furosemide (diuretics} in an in-competition urine sample provided on October

masks:
Bruno Gustavo Aparecido da Silva
Silva
Silva
Gustavo Sedório
Silva
Silva
Silva
Silva
Silva


title: Bruno Gustavo da Silva

texts: 6, 2019 where Taha took a medicine for reducing inflammation and swelling in his eyes which contained furosemide. The fight was overturned to a no contest. <mask> was scheduled to face <mask>ji in a flyweight bout at UFC Fight Night: Lee vs. Oliveira on March 14, 2020.However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, <mask> was forced to withdraw from the event as he would not travel to prepare for the fight and was replaced by promotional newcomer David Dvořák. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. <mask> was scheduled to face Tagir Ulanbekov on September 12, 2020 at UFC Fight Night: Waterson vs. Hill. However, due to travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, the pairing was rescheduled and took place four weeks later at UFC Fight Night: Moraes vs. Sandhagen. He lost the fight by unanimous decision. <mask> faced JP Buys on March 20, 2021 at UFC on ESPN 21. After knocking Buys down multiple times during the bout, <mask> won the bout via technical knockout in the second round.This win earned him the Performance of the Night award. <mask> signed a new, four-fight deal with the organization. <mask>, replacing Denys <mask>, faced Victor Rodriguez on May 22, 2021 at UFC Fight Night: Font vs. Garbrandt. He won the fight via knockout a minute into the first round. This win earned him the Performance of the Night

masks:
Silva
Su Mudaer
Mudaerji
Silva
Silva
da Silva
Silva
Silva
Bondar


title: Shaura

texts:
<mask>, formerly known as Juka (ジュカ), is a Japanese visual kei metal singer who first became known in 2002 when he was recruited by Mana for his project Moi dix Mois. In late 2006 he joined HIZAKI's solo project, HIZAKI grace project. He then started a solo career before pausing all musical activities at the end of 2007. He returned in 2009, after changing his stage name to <mask>, as part of the duo XOVER. After his last band VII-Sense disbanded on mid-2012, in 2012, August he officially wrote on his blog that his music career is finished and there was no reason for him to get back on stage, now he took up fishing. Activities

Moi dix Mois
In 2002, Juka was recruited to join Mana's project, Moi dix Mois. Like his band colleague Kazuno he was a newcomer to the Japanese music scene.While Juka was in Moi dix Mois, they produced three singles, two albums and two live DVDs as well as countless live concerts with the band, even in Germany and France. Juka left Moi dix Mois right after the Invite to Immorality Tour Final concert on April 30, 2005. The official reason given for his departure was musical differences. As a result of lacking a vocalist, Mana's fellow band members Kazuno and Tohru also decided to leave the band soon after. From there, Moi dix Mois had to be formed completely anew. On March 20, 2013, he made an appearance as part of the encore of the final show of Moi dix Moi's Le Dixieme Anniversaire Live 2012-2013 tour performing a short set as part of a reunited original line up of the group followed by a second encore where they were joined on stage by the group's current members for a performance of the title track of the Pageant single. HIZAKI grace project
At the end of 2006, guitarist HIZAKI recruited Juka as vocalist for solo

masks: Shaura Shaura


title: Shaura

texts:
 HIZAKI and Jasmine You support the three on guitar and bass. According to Kamijo, the show is supposed to be a theatrical show combined with music and illumination effects. While Juka and Jasmine You represent the dark side, Kamijo and HIZAKI form their opposite as the light side. Between them stands Kaya personifying beauty. A certain focus is cast on the tragic love story of Juka and Jasmine You.When the three vocalists performed a new specifically created song at the end of the show, the song found so much approval of the audience, that they decided after a second Node of Scherzo show in May 2007 to record this song on a CD. It was finally released on October 31, 2007. The buyers of all Halloween releases by the labels Reverie and Sherow Artist Society, which were "Carmilla" (by Kaya), "Saint Croix" (by Juka), Lyrical Sympathy (by Versailles) and the "Node of Scherzo" single, were given the possibility to obtain a special live clip DVD by sending all the coupons found on the obi slips wrapped around the CD case and five 80 Yen stamps to the label by December 12, 2007. The DVD contained a 5 minutes live clip accompanied with the Node of Scherzo song. Further performances of the song could be seen during the national tour "Nihon Tanbi Kakumei". XOVER
XOVER was a duo formed in 2009 with Kouichi (Everlasting-K, ex:Laputa), and marked Juka's return to music after changing his stage-name to <mask>. XOVER released one mini-album titled XGATE on July 22, 2009.They then released an album called Aureola on October 21. But after releasing a live DVD in November 2009, XOVER disbanded. VII-Sense
Seventh Sense was intended to be a new band by Juka and fellow ex:Moi dix Mois member Kazuno. However, due to Juka withdrawing himself from the music


title: Shaura

texts:
 scene, this band was canceled and the Omnibus album that Seventh Sense would have been featured on now features Juka's song "Suimenka" instead. Juka would release a "best of" album on February 6, 2008, called Seventh Sense. In 2010 Seventh Sense was finally formed, stylized as VII-Sense. Their first release was the single "Black Bird" on March 24.The other members included guitarists Erina (ex:Dio - Distraught Overlord) and RayX, Kaz on guitar and piano, bassist Masato (ex:support for XOVER) and Mikage on drums (ex:Hizaki Grace Project, Kisaki Project). In May 2012, the band disbanded. On August 28, <mask> wrote on personal blog that he would not return to the music scene. The entry was deleted and <mask> instead wrote that he wanted to make new band. However, this entry was also deleted. Discography
Earlier activities:
see: Moi dix Mois
see: HIZAKI grace project

Solo as Juka
 "Aravesque" (March 28, 2007)
 Luxurious (June 13, 2007)
 "Suimenka" (水面華, October 5, 2007, sold only at concert at Omotesando Fab)
 "Saint Croix" (October 31, 2007)
 Ura Kizoku "Nihon Tanbi Kakumei" Tour Documentary DVD (裏貴族"日本耽美革命"ツアードキュメンタリーDVD, December 2007)
 Seventh Sense (February 6, 2008, compilation album)

XOVER
 XGATE (July 22, 2009)
 Aureola (October 21, 2009)

VII-Sense
 "Black Bird" (March 24, 2010)
 "Sexual Desire" (June 22, 2010, freely distributed at concerts only)
 "Cell Division" (July 28, 2010)
 The Reminiscence of War (April 20, 2011)

External links
 Official blog
 Juka Official webpage

 VII-Sense Official MySpace
 XOVER Official MySpace

References

Visual kei musicians
Japanese heavy metal singers
Japanese male rock singers
Musicians from Yamaguchi Prefecture
1981 births
Living people
21st-century Japanese singers
21st-century Japanese


title: Richard II of England

texts: <mask> (6 January 1367 – c. 14 February 1400), also known as <mask> of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. He was the son of Edward, Prince of Wales (known to posterity as the Black Prince), and Joan, Countess of Kent. <mask>'s father died in 1376, leaving <mask> as heir apparent to his grandfather, King <mask>. Upon the death of <mask>, the 10-year-old <mask> succeeded to the throne. During <mask>'s first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of regency councils, influenced by <mask>'s uncles John of Gaunt and Thomas of Woodstock. England then faced various problems, most notably the Hundred Years' War. A major challenge of the reign was the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, and the young king played a central part in the successful suppression of this crisis.Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years' War. A firm believer in the royal prerogative, <mask> restrained the power of the aristocracy and relied on a private retinue for military protection instead. In contrast to his grandfather, <mask> cultivated a refined atmosphere centred on art and culture at court, in which the king was an elevated figure. The king's dependence on a small number of courtiers caused discontent among the influential, and in 1387 control of government was taken over by a group of aristocrats known as the Lords Appellant. By 1389 <mask> had regained control, and for the next eight years governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. In 1397, he took his revenge on the Appellants, many of whom were executed or exiled. The next two years have been

masks:
Richard II
Richard
Richard
Richard
Edward III
Edward III
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard


title: Richard II of England

texts:
 described by historians as <mask>'s "tyranny".In 1399, after <mask> Gaunt died, the king disinherited Gaunt's son, Henry Bolingbroke, who had previously been exiled. Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Meeting little resistance, he deposed <mask> and had himself crowned king. <mask> is thought to have been starved to death in captivity, although questions remain regarding his final fate. <mask>'s posthumous reputation has been shaped to a large extent by William Shakespeare, whose play Richard II portrayed <mask>'s misrule and his deposition as responsible for the 15th-century Wars of the Roses. Modern historians do not accept this interpretation, while not exonerating <mask> from responsibility for his own deposition. While probably not insane, as many historians of the 19th and 20th centuries believed, he may have had a personality disorder, particularly manifesting itself towards the end of his reign.Most authorities agree that his policies were not unrealistic or even entirely unprecedented, but that the way in which he carried them out was unacceptable to the political establishment, leading to his downfall. Early life

<mask> of Bordeaux was the younger son of Edward, Prince of Wales, and Joan, Countess of Kent. Edward, eldest son of Edward III and heir apparent to the throne of England, had distinguished himself as a military commander in the early phases of the Hundred Years' War, particularly in the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. After further military adventures, however, he contracted dysentery in Spain in 1370. He never fully recovered and had to return to England the next

masks:
Richard
John of
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard


title: Richard II of England

texts: year. <mask> was born at the Archbishop's Palace of Bordeaux, in the English principality of Aquitaine, on 6 January 1367. According to contemporary sources, three kings, "the King of Castile, the King of Navarre and the King of Portugal", were present at his birth.This anecdote, and the fact that his birth fell on the feast of Epiphany, was later used in the religious imagery of the Wilton Diptych, where <mask> is one of three kings paying homage to the Virgin and Child. His elder brother, Edward of Angoulême, died near his sixth birthday in 1371. The Prince of Wales finally succumbed to his long illness in June 1376. The Commons in the English Parliament genuinely feared that <mask>'s uncle, John of Gaunt, would usurp the throne. For this reason, <mask> was quickly invested with the princedom of Wales and his father's other titles. On 21 June the next year, <mask>'s grandfather King <mask>, who was for some years frail and decrepit, died after a 50-year reign. This resulted in the 10-year-old <mask> succeeding to the throne.He was crowned on 16 July 1377 at Westminster Abbey. Again, fears of <mask> Gaunt's ambitions influenced political decisions, and a regency led by the king's uncles was avoided. Instead, the king was nominally to exercise kingship with the help of a series of "continual councils", from which Gaunt was excluded. Gaunt, together with his younger brother Thomas of Woodstock, Earl of Buckingham, still held great informal influence over the business of government, but the king's councillors and friends, particularly Sir Simon de Burley and Robert de Vere, 9th Earl of Oxford, increasingly gained control of royal

masks:
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Edward III
Richard
John of


title: Richard II of England

texts:
 affairs. In a matter of three years, these councillors earned the mistrust of the Commons to the point that the councils were discontinued in 1380. Contributing to discontent was an increasingly heavy burden of taxation levied through three poll taxes between 1377 and 1381 that were spent on unsuccessful military expeditions on the continent. By 1381, there was a deep-felt resentment against the governing classes in the lower levels of English society.Early reign

Peasants' Revolt

Whereas the poll tax of 1381 was the spark of the Peasants' Revolt, the root of the conflict lay in tensions between peasants and landowners precipitated by the economic and demographic consequences of the Black Death and subsequent outbreaks of the plague. The rebellion started in Kent and Essex in late May, and on 12 June, bands of peasants gathered at Blackheath near London under the leaders Wat Tyler, John Ball, and Jack Straw. John of Gaunt's Savoy Palace was burnt down. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Sudbury, who was also Lord Chancellor, and Lord High Treasurer Robert Hales were both killed by the rebels, who were demanding the complete abolition of serfdom. The king, sheltered within the Tower of London with his councillors, agreed that the Crown did not have the forces to disperse the rebels and that the only feasible option was to negotiate. It is unclear how much <mask>, who was still only fourteen years old, was involved in these deliberations, although historians have suggested that he was among the proponents of negotiations. The king set out by the River Thames on 13 June, but the large number of people thronging the banks at


title: Richard II of England

texts:
 Greenwich made it impossible for him to land, forcing him to return to the Tower.The next day, Friday, 14 June, he set out by horse and met the rebels at Mile End. He agreed to the rebels' demands, but this move only emboldened them; they continued their looting and killings. <mask> met Wat Tyler again the next day at Smithfield and reiterated that the demands would be met, but the rebel leader was not convinced of the king's sincerity. The king's men grew restive, an altercation broke out, and William Walworth, the Lord Mayor of London, pulled Tyler down from his horse and killed him. The situation became tense once the rebels realised what had happened, but the king acted with calm resolve and, saying "I am your captain, follow me! ", he led the mob away from the scene. Walworth meanwhile gathered a force to surround the peasant army, but the king granted clemency and allowed the rebels to disperse and return to their homes.The king soon revoked the charters of freedom and pardon that he had granted, and as disturbances continued in other parts of the country, he personally went into Essex to suppress the rebellion. On 28 June at Billericay, he defeated the last rebels in a small skirmish and effectively ended the Peasants' Revolt. Despite his young age, <mask> had shown great courage and determination in his handling of the rebellion. It is likely, though, that the events impressed upon him the dangers of disobedience and threats to royal authority, and helped shape the absolutist attitudes to kingship that would later prove fatal to his reign. Coming of age

It is only with the Peasants' Revolt that <mask> starts to emerge

masks: Richard Richard Richard


title: Richard II of England

texts: clearly in the annals. One of his first significant acts after the rebellion was to marry Anne of Bohemia, daughter of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, on 20 January 1382. It had diplomatic significance; in the division of Europe caused by the Western Schism, Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire were seen as potential allies against France in the ongoing Hundred Years' War.Nonetheless, the marriage was not popular in England. Despite great sums of money awarded to the Empire, the political alliance never resulted in any military victories. Furthermore, the marriage was childless. Anne died from plague in 1394, greatly mourned by her husband. Michael de la Pole had been instrumental in the marriage negotiations; he had the king's confidence and gradually became more involved at court and in government as <mask> came of age. De la Pole came from an upstart merchant family. When <mask> made him chancellor in 1383, and created him Earl of Suffolk two years later, this antagonised the more established nobility.Another member of the close circle around the king was Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, who in this period emerged as the king's favourite. <mask>'s close friendship to de Vere was also disagreeable to the political establishment. This displeasure was exacerbated by the earl's elevation to the new title of Duke of Ireland in 1386. The chronicler Thomas Walsingham suggested the relationship between the king and de Vere was of a homosexual nature, due to a resentment Walsingham had toward the king. Tensions came to a head over the approach to the war in France. While the court party preferred negotiations, Gaunt and Buckingham urged a


title: Richard II of England

texts:
 large-scale campaign to protect English possessions. Instead, a so-called crusade led by Henry le Despenser, Bishop of Norwich, was dispatched, which failed miserably.Faced with this setback on the continent, <mask> turned his attention instead towards France's ally, the Kingdom of Scotland. In 1385, the king himself led a punitive expedition to the north, but the effort came to nothing, and the army had to return without ever engaging the Scots in battle. Meanwhile, only an uprising in Ghent prevented a French invasion of southern England. The relationship between <mask> and his uncle <mask> Gaunt deteriorated further with military failure, and Gaunt left England to pursue his claim to the throne of Castile in 1386 amid rumours of a plot against his person. With Gaunt gone, the unofficial leadership of the growing dissent against the king and his courtiers passed to Buckinghamwho had by now been created Duke of Gloucesterand <mask>, 4th Earl of Arundel. First crisis of 1386–88

The threat of a French invasion did not subside, but instead grew stronger into 1386. At the parliament of October that year, Michael de la Polein his capacity of chancellorrequested taxation of an unprecedented level for the defence of the realm.Rather than consenting, the parliament responded by refusing to consider any request until the chancellor was removed. The parliament (later known as the Wonderful Parliament) was presumably working with the support of Gloucester and Arundel. The king famously responded that he would not dismiss as much as a scullion from his kitchen at parliament's request. Only when threatened with deposition was <mask> forced

masks:
Richard
Richard
John of
Richard Fitzalan
Richard


title: Richard II of England

texts: to give in and let de la Pole go. A commission was set up to review and control royal finances for a year. <mask> was deeply perturbed by this affront to his royal prerogative, and from February to November 1387 went on a "gyration" (tour) of the country to muster support for his cause. By installing de Vere as Justice of Chester, he began the work of creating a loyal military power base in Cheshire.He also secured a legal ruling from Chief Justice Robert Tresilian that parliament's conduct had been unlawful and treasonable. On his return to London, the king was confronted by Gloucester, Arundel and Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick, who brought an appeal of treason against de la Pole, de Vere, Tresilian, and two other loyalists: the mayor of London, Nicholas Brembre, and Alexander Neville, the Archbishop of York. <mask> stalled the negotiations to gain time, as he was expecting de Vere to arrive from Cheshire with military reinforcements. The three peers then joined forces with Gaunt's son Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby, and Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottinghamthe group known to history as the Lords Appellant. On 20 December 1387 they intercepted de Vere at Radcot Bridge, where he and his forces were routed and he was obliged to flee the country. <mask> now had no choice but to comply with the appellants' demands; Brembre and Tresilian were condemned and executed, while de Vere and de la Polewho had by now also left the countrywere sentenced to death in absentia at the Merciless Parliament in February 1388. The proceedings went further, and a number of <mask>'s chamber knights were also executed, among these

masks: Richard Richard Richard Richard


title: Richard II of England

texts:
 Burley.The appellants had now succeeded completely in breaking up the circle of favourites around the king. Later reign

A fragile peace

<mask> gradually re-established royal authority in the months after the deliberations of the Merciless Parliament. The aggressive foreign policy of the Lords Appellant failed when their efforts to build a wide, anti-French coalition came to nothing, and the north of England fell victim to a Scottish incursion. <mask> was now over twenty-one years old and could with confidence claim the right to govern in his own name. Furthermore, John of Gaunt returned to England in 1389 and settled his differences with the king, after which the old statesman acted as a moderating influence on English politics. <mask> assumed full control of the government on 3 May 1389, claiming that the difficulties of the past years had been due solely to bad councillors. He outlined a foreign policy that reversed the actions of the appellants by seeking peace and reconciliation with France, and promised to lessen the burden of taxation on the people significantly.<mask> ruled peacefully for the next eight years, having reconciled with his former adversaries. Still, later events would show that he had not forgotten the indignities he perceived. In particular, the execution of his former teacher Sir Simon de Burley was an insult not easily forgotten. With national stability secured, <mask> began negotiating a permanent peace with France. A proposal put forward in 1393 would have greatly expanded the territory of Aquitaine possessed by the English Crown. However, the plan failed because it included a requirement that the

masks: Richard Richard Richard Richard Richard


title: Richard II of England

texts:
 English king pay homage to the King of Francea condition that proved unacceptable to the English public. Instead, in 1396, a truce was agreed to, which was to last 28 years.As part of the truce, <mask> agreed to marry Isabella, daughter of Charles VI of France, when she came of age. There were some misgivings about the betrothal, in particular because the princess was then only six years old, and thus would not be able to produce an heir to the throne of England for many years. Although <mask> sought peace with France, he took a different approach to the situation in Ireland. The English lordships in Ireland were in danger of being overrun by the Gaelic Irish kingdoms, and the Anglo-Irish lords were pleading for the king to intervene. In the autumn of 1394, <mask> left for Ireland, where he remained until May 1395. His army of more than 8,000 men was the largest force brought to the island during the late Middle Ages. The invasion was a success, and a number of Irish chieftains submitted to English overlordship.It was one of the most successful achievements of <mask>'s reign, and strengthened his support at home, although the consolidation of the English position in Ireland proved to be short-lived. Second crisis of 1397–99
The period that historians refer to as the "tyranny" of <mask> began towards the end of the 1390s. The king had Gloucester, Arundel and Warwick arrested in July 1397. The timing of these arrests and <mask>'s motivation are not entirely clear. Although one chronicle suggested that a plot was being planned against the king, there is no evidence that this was the case. It is more likely that <mask> had simply

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title: Richard II of England

texts: come to feel strong enough to safely retaliate against these three men for their role in events of 1386–88 and eliminate them as threats to his power. Arundel was the first of the three to be brought to trial, at the parliament of September 1397.After a heated quarrel with the king, he was condemned and executed. Gloucester was being held prisoner by the Earl of Nottingham at Calais while awaiting his trial. As the time for the trial drew near, Nottingham brought news that Gloucester was dead. It is thought likely that the king had ordered him to be killed to avoid the disgrace of executing a prince of the blood. Warwick was also condemned to death, but his life was spared and his sentence reduced to life imprisonment. Arundel's brother Thomas Arundel, the Archbishop of Canterbury, was exiled for life. <mask> then took his persecution of adversaries to the localities.While recruiting retainers for himself in various counties, he prosecuted local men who had been loyal to the appellants. The fines levied on these men brought great revenues to the crown, although contemporary chroniclers raised questions about the legality of the proceedings. These actions were made possible primarily through the collusion of John of Gaunt, but with the support of a large group of other magnates, many of whom were rewarded with new titles, who were disparagingly referred to as <mask>'s "duketti". These included the former Appellants Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby, who was made Duke of Hereford, and Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham, who was created Duke of Norfolk. Also among them were John and Thomas Holland, the king's half-brother and

masks: Richard Richard


title: Richard II of England

texts: nephew, who were promoted from earls of Huntingdon and Kent to dukes of Exeter and Surrey respectively; the king's cousin Edward of Norwich, Earl of Rutland, who received Gloucester's French title of Duke of Aumale; Gaunt's son John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, who was made Marquess of Somerset and Marquess of Dorset; John Montacute, 3rd Earl of Salisbury; and Lord Thomas le Despenser, who became Earl of Gloucester. With the forfeited lands of the convicted appellants, the king could reward these men with lands suited to their new ranks. A threat to <mask>'s authority still existed, however, in the form of the House of Lancaster, represented by John of Gaunt and his son Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford.The House of Lancaster not only possessed greater wealth than any other family in England, they were of royal descent and, as such, likely candidates to succeed the childless <mask>. Discord broke out in the inner circles of court in December 1397, when Bolingbroke and Mowbray became embroiled in a quarrel. According to Bolingbroke, Mowbray had claimed that the two, as former Lords Appellant, were next in line for royal retribution. Mowbray vehemently denied these charges, as such a claim would have amounted to treason. A parliamentary committee decided that the two should settle the matter by battle, but at the last moment <mask> exiled the two dukes instead: Mowbray for life, Bolingbroke for ten years. On 3 February 1399, John of Gaunt died. Rather than allowing Bolingbroke to succeed, <mask> extended the term of his exile to life and expropriated his properties.The king felt safe from Bolingbroke, who was residing in