title: Richard Minifie

texts:
 shared aircraft destroyed, eight and one shared out of control, and one captured. As a result of his gallantry while operating against hostile forces, particularly in the air battle of 13 March, <mask> was awarded a second Bar to his Distinguished Service Cross. The announcement and accompanying citation was published in the London Gazette on 17 April 1918, reading:

On 17 March 1918, <mask> took off in his Camel on a sortie. During the flight, he was forced to crash land in German-held territory near Houthulst Forest, Belgium. The exact circumstances of why he was forced to land are unknown, but it came as a result of either being shot down during a duel with Jasta 47's Friedrich Ehmann or <mask>'s machine suffering engine failure. He was subsequently captured by German forces at Roulers, and taken as a prisoner of war; he spent the remainder of the war at prison camps in Karlsruhe and Clausthal, Germany.Roderic Dallas later wrote to <mask>'s mother, informing her that <mask> had been taken as a prisoner of war. In the letter he described <mask> as "a brilliant pilot and air fighter", and stated that "his aerial victories were gained by clean, clever fighting and he was always so modest about his great achievements". On 1 April, the Royal Naval Air Service and Royal Flying Corps were combined to form the Royal Air Force, with personnel from the former services transferring to the new branch; <mask> was promoted to captain the same day. He was released from captivity following the Armistice with Germany in November 1918, returning to the United Kingdom on 13 December 1918. <mask> returned to Australia in May 1919, and was placed on the Royal Air Force's unemployed list on 1 November. Post-war career and later life
Back in Australia, <mask> took up his scholarship, studying mathematics and science at the University of Melbourne. However, he soon withdrew from the course, opting to join his father's flour milling

masks: Minifie Minifie Minifie Minifie Richard Minifie Minifie Minifie Minifie


title: Richard Minifie

type: original

texts:
 business, James Minifie & Co. Pty Ltd.In a ceremony at the Holy Trinity Church in Kew on 19 October 1921, <mask> married Nellie Frances Roberts; the couple would have four children. His father died the next year and, in collaboration with his brother James and his father's business partner, James Gatehouse, he continued to manage and run James Minifie & Co. Pty Ltd. Over the subsequent three decades, the trio were successful in furthering their business ventures, significantly expanding the company. On 17 June 1941, <mask> enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force for service in the Second World War, and was accepted as an officer with the Prahran Wing of the Air Training Corps. Promoted to flying officer and granted the acting rank of squadron leader on 23 August, he was appointed in commander of No. 1 Squadron of No. 1 Cadet Wing. Returning to the flour milling business after the war, he was appointed president of the Victorian Flour Millers' Association in 1948.The following year, <mask> was made managing director of James Minifie & Co. Pty Ltd and its associated companies, in addition to being selected as president of the Federal Council of Flour Millowners of Australia and the flour millowners' representative on the Australian Wheat Board. He relinquished these positions upon his retirement in 1966. <mask> died on 31 March 1969 and was cremated. He was survived by his wife, son and three daughters. Notes

References

1898 births
1969 deaths
Australian aviators
Australian people of English descent
Australian World War I flying aces
People educated at Melbourne Grammar School
People from Melbourne
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom)
Royal Air Force officers
Royal Air Force personnel of World War I
Royal Australian Air Force officers
Royal Australian Air Force personnel of World War II
Royal Naval Air Service aviators
Royal Navy officers of World War I
Australian flour millers

masks:
Minifie
Minifie
Minifie
Richard Minifie


title: Evelynne Mess Daily

texts:
<mask>ss <mask> (January 8, 1903 – January 9, 2003) was an American etcher, printmaker, painter, illustrator, and art educator from Indianapolis, Indiana, who founded the Indiana Society of Printmakers in 1934. Along with her first husband and fellow artist, <mask>, she was active in the Indianapolis and Brown County, Indiana, arts community. Awarded an honorary doctor of philosophy degree from Colorado State Christian College in 1973, and a recipient of a Sagamore of the Wabash award in 1987, she was also a past president of the Indiana Federation of Art Clubs and a former secretary of the Indiana Artists Club. Her work is represented in several permanent collections that included the Library of Congress, the Indianapolis Museum of Art, the Indiana State Museum, the Indiana State Library, the Indiana University Art Museum, the Richmond Art Museum, DePauw University, and the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Early life and education
<mask> was born on January 8, 1903, in Indianapolis, Indiana, to John A. and Anna B. Bernloehr. John Bernloehr, a jeweler of German ancestry, was a partner with his brother in an Indianapolis jewelry business. Anna Bernloehr was a homemaker of Swiss heritage whose family operated a local bakery.John and Anna Bernloehr enjoyed music and the arts. The Bernloehr family included six children (three girls and three boys), two of whom died in childhood. Bernloehr's surviving siblings were Lenora, Wilmer, and John. As a member of a musical family, she learned to play piano and several stringed instruments, including banjo, mandolin, and guitar, but she developed a strong interest in drawing at an early age and aspired to become an artist. Bernloehr attended Indianapolis's public schools. At the age of twelve she received a scholarship to join Indianapolis's John Herron Art Institute's Saturday-morning art classes for children. (The Herron Art Institute was a

masks:
Evelynne Bernloehr Me
Daily
George Joseph Mess
Evelynne Charlien Bernloehr


title: Evelynne Mess Daily

texts:
 forerunner to the Indianapolis Museum of Art.)Bernloehr continued to attend weekend classes at Herron through her high school years at Indianapolis's Arsenal Technical High School, where she studied with illustrator Frederick Polley. She also studied for a year at Indianapolis's Shortridge High School from 1920–21 before enrolling at Butler University, but left after a year to continue her studies at Herron. Bernloehr spent the next two years (1923–24) as a full-time student at Herron, where she studied under William Forsyth and Clifton Wheeler, and taught children's art classes in order to earn a teaching certificate in art. She also attended Wayman Adams School of Portrait Painting in New York, the Chicago Art Institute, and École des Beaux Arts. Marriage and family
Bernloehr met her first husband, George Joseph <mask>, while assisting with evening art classes at the Herron in 1925. Mess was a commercial artist and one of the students in William Forsyth's drawing class. Bernloehr and <mask> were married on April 28, 1925, at her family's home in Indianapolis.Following their marriage the couple set up an art studio in the living room of their home in suburban Broad Ripple. <mask> died in 1962, after suffering nearly two decades of ill health. The couple had no children. “Marriage is wonderful if the persons involved are truly partners, especially if they work together in a field they both love, as George and I did,” Evelynne said of her husband, George. “We shared everything we did in art and complemented each other.”

<mask> <mask> met her second husband, <mask>, a widower and Eli Lilly and Company retiree, in 1968. They were married the following year and resided in his Brown County, Indiana, home near Nashville. <mask> died in 1974.Career
After graduating from the Herron Institute of Art in 1924, Bernloehr took a job teaching art at Emmerich Manual High School in

masks:
Mess
Mess
George Mess
Evelynne
Mess
Edward Daily
Edward Daily


title: Evelynne Mess Daily

texts: Indianapolis, but decided not to renew her teaching contract the following year. In order to maintain her contacts in the Indianapolis arts community, she assisted with the evening art classes at Herron. After her marriage to <mask> in 1925 she worked on her art in their home studio. It was unusual, in that time, for a woman to continue her career after marriage, but <mask> Bernloehr Mess Daily loved her art too much to give it up. <mask> Bernloehr Mess Daily’s artistic interest always lied with etching, inspired by the newspaper drawings of Frederick Polley, who taught her art at Arsenal Technical High School. At the time, however, there were no course offerings in etching. Bernloehr taught herself the art, learning from the pages of the Encyclopedia Britannica.Along with her husband, George, and brother-in-law, <mask>, the trio founded the Circle Art Academy, a commercial art school in Indianapolis in 1927. Although the academy remained in operation until 1932, Evelynne only taught during its first year of operation. Afterwards, she focused fulltime on etching and printmaking. Seeking inspiration and additional art instruction, Evelynne and <mask> spent the summer of 1929 studying at the École des Beaux-Arts at Fontainebleau, France, where she was especially interested in training with an experienced graveur, Achile Ouvré. At the end of the summer the couple spent additional time traveling and sketching in France, Switzerland, and Italy, before their return to the United States in the fall. After the trip Mess resumed her work as an etcher and printmaker. During these early years she created etchings from many of the sketches she had made in Europe, although her preferred method was to draw designs directly onto copper plates and use fast-acting acids to score the freehand work.By 1932 she had introduced her husband, George, a trained painter, the medium of etching and taught

masks:
George Mess
Evelynne
Evelynne
Gordon Mess
George Mess


title: Evelynne Mess Daily

texts:
 him the basics of printmaking. While George remained heavily involved in directing and teaching at the Circle Art Academy during the day, Evelynne took over the tedious work of producing prints from his artwork. She also worked as a substitute teacher at Indianapolis schools and during the 1930s became active in several art-related clubs. Mess was a member of the Indiana Artists Club, the Indiana Federation of Art Clubs, and the art department of the Indianapolis Woman's Department Club, where she served for several years as chairwoman of its exhibits committee. In 1934 Mess founded the Indiana Society of Printmakers and also organized a print show for the Woman's Department Club. She also took on leadership roles
as a president of the Indiana Federation of Art Clubs and as secretary of the Indiana Artists Club. In addition, Mess became involved in the Hoosier Salon and the National Society of Arts and Letters, as well as the Brown County Art Gallery and the Brown County Art Guild.In 1937 the <mask> and George Mess moved to Chicago, Illinois, where he took a job supervising the reproduction of artwork for several magazines and she took classes at the Art Institute of Chicago. The couple returned to Indianapolis in 1940 after he was diagnosed with cancer. In addition to maintaining a home/art studio in Indianapolis, the Messes purchased a  farm outside of Nashville in Brown County, Indiana, in 1941. Their rustic weekend retreat was called Oxbow Acres. They also spent three months during the summer of 1944 teaching printing to students attending the Old Mill Art School, a summer school that their friends and fellow artists, Margaret and Wayman Elbridge Adams, had established on property in the Adirondack Mountains near Elizabethtown, New York. To supplement their household income, Evelynne taught at Ladywood School in Indianapolis in 1942–43 and worked as a substitute teacher


title: Evelynne Mess Daily

texts:
 for the Indianapolis Public Schools. During the 1950s and 1960s she also taught at the Indianapolis Art League.<mask>, who suffered from cancer for more than twenty years, died from the illness on June 24, 1962. Overwhelmed with grief, Mess spent her first year of  widowhood organizing a memorial exhibition of his art. In 1967 Mess realized a longtime dream to open a summer art school at Oxbow Acres, her retreat in Brown County, Indiana. Although the school emphasized printmaking, Mess and occasional guest instructors also offered instruction in painting, drawing, silk screening, and metal engraving, among other arts. The following year she met her second husband, Edward R<mask>, at a Brown County Art Gallery show. They married in 1969 and continued to reside in Brown County; however, after <mask>'s death in 1974, she returned to the home/art studio in Indianapolis that she had shared with her first husband, George. <mask> Mess <mask> closed her art school and sold Oxbow Acres in 1980.Mess <mask> exhibited her etchings and other art at national and international exhibitions held at the Indiana State Fair, the Indiana Artists Club, the Indiana Federation of Arts Clubs, the Hoosier Salon, the Herron Art Institute, the Indiana Society of Printmakers, the Brown County Art Association, the Society of American Etchers, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Cincinnati Art Museum, and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, among other venues. Later years
She suffered from ill health in her later years, undergoing an operation for retinal detachment. In addition, acid damage to her lungs forced her to give up printmaking for two decades. Despite these setbacks Mess <mask> continued to exhibit her artwork. Water Fantasy, her rendering of a mermaid, was displayed at the Cincinnati Art Museum in 1990. Death and legacy
<mask> Mess <mask> died in Indianapolis on January 9, 2003 at age

masks:
George Mess
. Daily
Daily
Evelynne
Daily
Daily
Daily
Evelynne
Daily


title: Evelynne Mess Daily

texts:
 100. Her remains are interred at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis.<mask> Mess Daily and her first husband, George Joseph <mask>, were well known in the Indianapolis and Brown County, Indiana, art communities. Mess Daily is best known as an etcher and printmaker, although she also worked a painter and illustrator. In addition to art, her major legacy was supporting the development and careers of other artists and printmakers, including her husband, and as the founder of the Indiana Society of Printmakers in 1934. Honors and tributes
 Awarded an honorary doctor of philosophy degree from Colorado State Christian College in 1973
 Recipient of a leadership award from the Indiana Federation of Art Clubs in 1978
 Named a Sagamore of the Wabash in 1987

Selected works
Mess Daily's artwork is represented in several permanent collections. These include the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; the Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis; the Indiana State Museum, Indianapolis; the Indiana University Art Museum, Bloomington; the Richmond Art Museum, Richmond, Indiana; the Art Museum of Greater Lafayette, Lafayette, Indiana; the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana; and the Indiana State Library, Indianapolis. At the Library of Congress:
 Adirondack Trail (1946)

At the Indianapolis Museum of Art:
 Old Montmartre, Paris (1929)
 Street Musicians in France (1929)
 Water Fantasy, Nymph (1931)
 Toadstools (1946)
 Barnyard Controversy (1949)
 Evelynne's Country Kitchen (1973)

Notes

References

External links
 <mask> Mess Daily artwork at the Indianapolis Museum of Art

1903 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American women artists
20th-century American printmakers
Herron School of Art and Design alumni
Artists from Indianapolis
American centenarians
Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery
Women centenarians
American women

masks: Evelynne Mess Evelynne


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
<mask> (1 May 189328 December 1936) was an Abkhaz communist leader. <mask> helped establish Bolshevik power in Abkhazia in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, and served as the head of Abkhazia after its conquest by the Bolshevik Red Army in 1921. While in power, <mask> saw that Abkhazia was initially given autonomy within the USSR as the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia. Though nominally a part of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic with a special status of "union republic," the Abkhaz SSR was effectively a separate republic, made possible by <mask>'s close relationship with Joseph Stalin. <mask> successfully opposed the extension of collectivization of Abkhazia, though in return <mask> was forced to accept a downgrade of Abkhazia's status to that of an autonomous republic within the Georgian SSR. Popular in Abkhazia due to his ability to resonate with the people, <mask> maintained a close relationship with Stalin, who would frequently holiday in Abkhazia during the 1920s and 1930s. This relationship saw <mask> become the rival of one of Stalin's other confidants, Lavrentiy Beria, who was in charge of the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, which included Georgia.During a visit to Beria in Tbilisi in December 1936, <mask> was poisoned, allowing Beria to consolidate his control over Abkhazia and all of Georgia and to discredit <mask> and his family as enemies of the state. Rehabilitated after the death of Stalin in 1953, <mask> is now revered as a national hero in Abkhazia. Early life

Youth and education
<mask> <mask> was born in the village of Lykhny, in what was then the Sukhum Okrug of

masks:
Nestor Apollonovich Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Nestor
Lakoba


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts: the Kutais Governorate in the Russian Empire (now Abkhazia) to a peasant family. He had two brothers, Vasily and Mikhail. His father Apollo died three months before his birth; Mikhail Bgazhba, who would serve as the First Secretary of Abkhazia, wrote that <mask> was shot for opposing the nobles and landowners in the region. <mask>'s mother remarried twice, but both husbands died. From ages 10 to 12 Lakoba attended a parish school in New Athos, followed by a further two years of schooling in Lykhny.He entered the Tiflis Seminary in 1905, but he was not interested in its religious syllabus. He read banned books and was frequently caught doing so by the school authorities. Physically unimpressive, he was nearly totally deaf, and used hearing aids throughout his life, though Leon Trotsky recalled it was still difficult to communicate with <mask>. This became a well-known feature of Lakoba, and he would be jokingly referred to as Adagua (the "Deaf One") by Joseph Stalin. In 1911 he was expelled from the seminary for revolutionary activity and moved to Batumi, then a major port for exporting oil from the Caucasus, where he taught privately and studied for the gymnasium exam. It was in Batum that <mask> first became acquainted with the Bolsheviks, working with them from the autumn of 1911 and officially joining them in September 1912. He became involved with disseminating propaganda amongst the workers and peasants in the city and throughout Adjara, the local region, and began to refine his ability to relate to the masses.Discovered by the police, he was forced to leave Batum in 1914, so moved to Grozny, another major oil-based

masks:
Apollo Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba
Lakoba


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
 city in the Caucasus, and continued his efforts to spread Bolshevik propaganda among the people. <mask> continued studying in Grozny, passing his examinations in 1915, and the following year enrolled in law at Kharkov University in what is now Ukraine, but the onset of the First World War and its subsequent effect on Abkhazia led him to quit his studies and return home after only a short time. Early Bolshevik activities
Back in Abkhazia, <mask> took up a position in the Gudauta region helping to build a railway to Russia, while continuing to spread Bolshevik propaganda to the workers. The 1917 February Revolution, which ended the Russian Empire, resulted in the status of Abkhazia becoming contested and unclear. A peasant assembly was created to govern the region, and <mask> was elected as a representative of Gudauta. Bgazhba wrote that his ability to mingle with the people of the region combined with his speaking abilities made him an ideal choice as representative. <mask>'s reputation was enhanced throughout Abkhazia by helping to establish "Kiaraz" ("Киараз"; "mutual support" in Abkhaz), a peasant brigade that would later help consolidate Bolshevik control.<mask> was the leading Bolshevik in Abkhazia when the Revolution began in 1917. Based in Gudauta in the north of Abkhazia, the Bolsheviks opposed the Mensheviks, who were centered on Sukhumi. On 16 February 1918 <mask> and Efrem Eshba, an Abkhaz Bolshevik, overthrew the Abkhaz People's Council (APC), which had provisionally controlled Abkhazia since November 1917. Aided by Russian sailors from warships docked at Sukhumi, the coup only lasted five days as the

masks: Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts: warships departed, removing the main support for the Bolsheviks, and the APC was able to regain control. <mask> joined Eshba in April, overthrowing the APC once again. They held power for forty-two days, before Georgian Democratic Republican forces and Abkhaz anti-Bolsheviks regained control over Abkhazia, which they regarded as an integral part of Georgia. Both <mask> and Eshba fled to Russia, and remained there until 1921.The APC retained control of Abkhazia, and negotiated with the Georgian government for a final status of Abkhazia; ultimately a resolution was not found before the Bolsheviks invaded in 1921. In the autumn of 1918, <mask> was ordered to return to Abkhazia, in order to attack the Mensheviks from their rear positions. He was captured by the Mensheviks during this time and imprisoned in Sukhumi, but released early in 1919 due to public opposition. That April he was offered the post of police commissioner of the Ochamchira District, which he accepted and used as a means to spread Bolshevik propaganda. When the Menshevik-backed central authorities became aware of this, <mask> again left Abkhazia, staying in Batumi for a few months. While there he was elected the deputy chairman of the Sukhumi district party committee. <mask> also led several operations near Batumi that hindered the ability of the White movement (opponents of the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War) in the Caucasus, further improving his image amongst the Bolshevik leadership.In 1921 <mask> married Sariya Dzhikh-Ogly. Born to a wealthy family in Batumi, her father was ethnically Adjaran while her mother was Abkhazian and originally from


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
 Ochamchira. They had met a couple years before when <mask> was hiding from the British occupation forces. The following year they had their only child, a son named Rauf. The family was close, with <mask> helping his wife get an education, and providing the same to Rauf as well. Sariya came to be regarded as an excellent hostess, and her sister-in-law Adile Abbas-Ogly wrote that she was well known in Moscow for this, and a key reason Stalin would take vacations in Abkhazia. Leader of Abkhazia

Establishment as leader
<mask> returned to Abkhazia in 1921, after it had been occupied by Bolshevik Russia, as part of its conquest of Georgia.Along with Eshba and Nikolai Akirtava, <mask> was one of the signatories on a telegram to Vladimir Lenin announcing the formation of the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia (SSR Abkhazia) which was initially allowed to exist as a full union republic. A Revolutionary Committee (Revkom), formed and led by Eshba and <mask> in preparation for the Bolshevik occupation, took control of Abkhazia. The Revkom resigned on 17 February 1922, and <mask> was unanimously elected the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, a body that was formed that day, thus effectively the head of Abkhazia. He would hold this post until 17 April 1930, when the council was abolished and replaced by a Presidium of the Central Executive Committee, though <mask> would retain the top position. Though held in high regard by his fellow revolutionaries, <mask> never held a significant role within the Communist Party and refused to attend any meetings, as the Abkhaz Party was simply a branch of the Georgian Party,

masks: Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
 instead using his patronage network to establish himself. <mask> in power

Uncontested as the leader of Abkhazia, <mask> had such control that it was jokingly referred to as 'Lakobistan'. Long a friend of several leading Bolsheviks, including Sergo Orjonikidze, Sergei Kirov, and Lev Kamenev, it was his relationship with Stalin that was most important to <mask>'s rise to power.Stalin was fond of <mask> as they had much in common with each other: both were from the Caucasus, both grew up fatherless (Stalin's father had moved away for work when Stalin was young), and they both attended the same seminary school. Stalin admired <mask>'s marksmanship, as well as his work during the Civil War. Familiar with Abkhazia from his revolutionary days, Stalin had a dacha built in the region and vacationed there throughout the 1920s. He would joke, "I am Koba, and you are Lakoba" ("Я Коба, а ты Лакоба" in Russian; Koba was one of Stalin's pseudonyms as a revolutionary). It was the role that <mask> played in Stalin's own rise to power that cemented his status as Stalin's close confidant. When Lenin died in January 1924, Leon Trotsky, who was Stalin's only serious rival for the leadership, was in Sukhumi for health reasons. <mask> ensured that Trotsky was isolated during the immediate aftermath of Lenin's death and funeral, an act which helped Stalin to consolidate his own power.Though the two possibly met during the Civil War, <mask> and Stalin became properly acquainted at the Thirteenth Party Congress in Moscow, held in May 1924. <mask> used his relationship with Stalin to benefit both himself and Abkhazia. Aware that the Abkhaz would

masks: Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts: be marginalized within the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (Georgian SSR), he sought to keep Abkhazia as a full union republic. He ultimately had to concede to Abkhazia's status of "treaty republic" within Georgia, a status that was never fully clarified. Abkhazia, as a part of the Georgian SSR, then joined the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (a union of the Georgian, Armenian, and Azerbaijanian SSRs) when it was founded in 1922. <mask> generally avoided going through Party channels, which would have meant dealing with reluctant officials in Georgia's capital Tbilisi, and instead used his connections to go directly to Moscow. He oversaw the implementation of korenizatsiya, a policy introduced across the Soviet Union throughout the 1920s that was meant to benefit ethnic minorities, though most of the ethnic Abkhaz promoted were <mask>'s close confidants.In recognition of his leadership, on 15 March 1935 Lakoba and Abkhazia were both awarded the Order of Lenin, though the ceremony was pushed back until the next year in order to coincide with the fifteenth anniversary of the establishment of the Bolsheviks in Abkhazia. In December 1935, whilst in Moscow, <mask> was given the Order of the Red Banner in recognition of his efforts during the Civil War. As a leader, <mask> proved to be very popular with the populace, which contrasted with other ethnic minority leaders across the Soviet Union, who were usually mistrusted by the locals and regarded as representatives of the state. He visited the villages of Abkhazia, and as Bgazhba wrote, "Lakoba wanted to be familiar with the living conditions of the

masks: Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
 peasants". In contrast to other Bolshevik leaders, <mask> was quiet and elegant and avoided shouting to make his point. He was especially known for his accessibility to the people: a 1924 report by the journalist Zinaida Rikhter said that:

Development of Abkhazia

A proponent of developing Abkhazia, <mask> oversaw massive industrialization policies like the establishment of a coal mining operation near the town of Tkvarcheli, though they did not have a large impact on the overall economic strength of the region. Other projects included building new roads and railways, the drainage of wetlands as a preventive measure against malaria, and increased forestry.Agriculture was also given prominence, particularly tobacco: by the 1930s Abkhazia supplied up to 52 percent of all tobacco exports from the USSR. Other agricultural products, including tea, wine, and citrus fruits—especially tangerines—were produced in large quantities, making Abkhazia one of the most prosperous regions in the entire Soviet Union, and considerably richer than Georgia. The export of these products turned the region into "an island of prosperity in a war-ravaged Caucasus". Education was also a major issue for Lakoba, who oversaw the construction of many new schools throughout Abkhazia: aided by the korenizatsiia policies that promoted local ethnic groups, many schools teaching in Abkhaz were opened in the 1920s, as well as schools in Georgian, Armenian, and Greek. Lakoba was determined to maintain ethnic harmony in Abkhazia, a demographically diverse region. The ethnic Abkhaz only constituted roughly 25–30% of the population during the 1920s and 1930s,

masks: Lakoba Lakoba


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts: which included significant numbers of Georgians, Russians, Armenians, and Greeks. Lakoba kept peace in Abkhazia by ignoring Marxian class theory and protecting former landowners and nobles.This led to a 1929 report that called for him to be removed from power. Stalin prevented this, but criticized <mask> for his mistake of "seeking support in all layers of the population" (which was contrary to Bolshevik policy). The implementation of collectivization across the Soviet Union, which began in 1928, proved to be a major issue for both Abkhazia and Lakoba. Traditional Abkhaz agricultural practice had seen farming conducted by individual households, though assistance from other families and friends was frequent. The historian Timothy Blauvelt has written that Lakoba tried to defer collectivization for the first two years by using a variety of excuses, such as "local conditions", "backwardness" of local agricultural methods, "primitive technology" and the lack of kulaks in Abkhazia, although Blauvelt believes that it was <mask>'s relationship with Stalin together with the remote location of Abkhazia that delayed collectivization. <mask>'s refusal to introduce the policy led to further disputes between him and the Abkhaz Party, which was stopped by Stalin, who rebuked the Party for "not taking into consideration the specific particularities of the Abkhazian situation, imposing sometimes the policy of mechanically transferring Russian forms of socialist construction onto Abkhazian soil". By January 1931 the Party had forced the issue, sending activists across Abkhazia to coerce peasants into collectives.There were large-scale

masks: Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
 protests in January and February against the changes. <mask> proved unable to fully stop collectivization, though he was able to reduce the severity of some of the most extreme measures, and stop mass deportations. The Abkhaz historian Stanislav <mask> has argued that once Stalin had firm control in Moscow he was no longer interested in leniency towards Lakoba or Abkhazia: in exchange for the relaxed introduction of collectivization, Lakoba had to acquiesce to Abkhazia losing its status as a "treaty republic." On 19 February 1931, Abkhazia was downgraded into an Autonomous Republic, the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, and so was placed more firmly under Georgian control. The move was unpopular in Abkhazia and saw large-scale public protests, the first in Abkhazia against the Soviet authorities. Rivalry with Beria

<mask> was also influential in the rise of Lavrentiy Beria. It was on <mask>'s suggestion that Stalin first met Beria, an ethnic Mingrelian who was born and raised in Abkhazia.Beria had served as the head of the Georgian secret police since 1926, and in November 1931 with <mask>'s support he was named the Second Secretary of Transcaucasia, as well as First Secretary of Georgia, and was promoted to First Secretary of Transcaucasia in October 1932. <mask> supported Beria's rise because he felt that as a young native of Abkhazia, Beria would be obedient to <mask>, whereas previous officials had not been. That Beria lacked any direct access to Stalin was also important, as it meant <mask> could maintain his individually strong relationship with Stalin. Blauvelt has suggested that <mask> wanted Beria


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts: in power to help quash accusations dating back to 1929 that maintained he was abusing his power: a report presented to the Central Committee in 1930 exonerated <mask>, due in the main to a lack of evidence and the intercession by Stalin. Beria's role as head of the Georgian secret police allowed him to heavily influence any future investigations. Once in this position, Beria began to undermine <mask> and to gain closer access to Stalin. <mask>, who grew to despise Beria, sought to discredit him.At one point <mask> told fellow Bolshevik Sergo Ordzhonikidze that Beria once said that Ordzhonikidze "would have shot all the Georgians in Georgia if it was not for [Beria]" when he led the invasion of Georgia in 1921, and discussed the rumour that Beria had worked as a double agent against the Bolsheviks in Azerbaijan in 1920. Historian Amy Knight suggests that another source of tension might have been the longstanding animosity between Mingrelians and Abkhazians. During the Second Five-Year Plan, which began in 1933, Beria had tried to initiate the settlement of large numbers of Mingrelians into Abkhazia, though it was ultimately blocked. The relationship between Beria and <mask> deteriorated as each tried to become closer to Stalin, and <mask> retained his close relationship. In 1933, Beria apparently staged an event to try and win the support of Stalin, who was staying at his dacha in Gagra, in the north of Abkhazia. On 23 September, Stalin went for a short boat ride on the Black Sea, which his dacha overlooked, using the Red Star, a small boat which was not equipped for the open waters. Stalin, Beria, Kliment Voroshilov and


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts: a few other passengers intended to go along the shore for a few hours.As they approached their destination for a picnic, near the town of Pitsunda, three rifle shots landed in the water near the boat, coming from either the lighthouse or a border post. None of the shots were close, though Beria later recounted that he covered Stalin's body with his own. Initially Stalin joked about the incident, though he later sent someone to investigate, and received a letter from the border guard who apparently took the shots, asking for forgiveness and explaining he thought it was a foreign vessel. Beria's own investigation blamed Lakoba for the policy to shoot at unknown ships, but the matter was dropped on the orders of Beria's superiors when rumours began to spread that the entire incident was staged to frame Lakoba. Another source of contention between Beria and Lakoba concerned the publication in 1934 of Stalin and Khashim (Сталин и Хашим in Russian). The book chronicled a period of Stalin's life as a revolutionary, when in 1901–1902 he hid with a villager named Khashim Smyrba near Batumi. This showed Stalin as someone who was close to the people, something that Stalin enjoyed hearing.Ostensibly written by <mask>, the book was praised by Stalin, who enjoyed the description of Khashim as "simple, naïve, but honest and devoted." In response, Beria began a project to chronicle Stalin's entire time as a revolutionary in the Caucasus. The finished work, On the Question of the History of the Bolshevik Organizations in the Transcaucasus (К вопросу об истории большевистских организаций в Закавказье) falsely enhanced and aggrandized


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
 Stalin's role in the region. When it was serialised in Pravda, Beria became well known across the entire Soviet Union. Beginning in 1935, Stalin made overtures to Lakoba to move to Moscow and replace Genrikh Yagoda as the head of the NKVD, the Soviet secret police. Lakoba turned down the offer in December 1935, content to stay in Abkhazia. This outright refusal of such an offer only led to trouble for Lakoba, as it caused Stalin's goodwill to begin to dissipate.After Stalin repeated his offer in August 1936, only to be turned down again, a new law was implemented, "On the Correct Typeface Names of Settlements". This forced toponyms across Abkhazia to change from Abkhaz or Russian language spelling rules to Georgian rules. The capital of Abkhazia, known in Russian as Sukhum, now officially became Sukhumi. Lakoba, who had refused to issue license plates in Abkhazia until they switched the location from "Georgia" to "Abkhazia," recognized that this was a deliberate move by Beria and Stalin to undermine him, and took caution. He began to lobby Stalin to transfer Abkhazia from Georgia into the nearby Krasnodar Krai within Russia, but was rebuffed each time. On <mask>'s final visit to Moscow and Stalin, he brought the topic up one final time, and complained about Beria. Death

As <mask> was popular in Abkhazia and well-liked by Stalin, it was difficult for Beria to have him removed.Instead, on 26 December 1936 Beria summoned <mask> to the Party headquarters in Tbilisi, ostensibly to explain his recent interactions with Stalin. Beria had <mask> over for dinner the next day, where he was served fried trout, a favorite of


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts: <mask>'s and a glass of poisoned wine. They attended the opera after the dinner, watching the play Mzetchabuki (; "Sun-boy" in Georgian). During the performance <mask> showed the first signs of his poisoning and returned to his hotel room, where he died early the next morning. Officially, <mask> was said to have died of a heart attack, though a previous medical examination in Moscow had showed he had arteriosclerosis (thickening of the arteries), cardiosclerosis (thickening of the heart), and erysipelas (skin inflammation) in the left auricle that had led to his hearing loss. His body was returned to Sukhumi, though notably all the internal organs (which could have helped identify the cause of death), were removed. Knight suggests that Stalin must have authorised <mask>'s murder, as Beria would not have dared to kill someone as prominent as <mask> without his leader's approval.It is notable that though telegrams of condolence came from various leading officials throughout the Soviet Union, Stalin himself did not send one, and did not attempt to look into what role, if any, Beria may have played in <mask>'s death. <mask> was accused of "nationalist deviationism", of having helped Trotsky, and of trying to kill both Stalin and Beria. Despite the immediate denunciations, <mask> was laid in state in Sukhumi for two days, and was given an elaborate state funeral on 31 December, which 13,000 people attended, though not Beria (though he did help take the coffin back to Sukhumi). The first female Abkhazian aviator Meri Avidzba circled her aircraft overhead as part of the funeral. Initially buried in the Sukhumi Botanical Garden,


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
 <mask>'s body was moved the first night to St. Michael's Cemetery in Sukhumi, where it stayed for several years before being returned to its original place. According to Nikita Khrushchev's memoirs, Beria had <mask>'s body exhumed and burned on the pretext that an "enemy of the people" did not deserve burial in Abkhazia; this may possibly have been done to hide evidence of poisoning. Aftermath

In the months that followed <mask>'s death, members of his family were implicated on charges against the state.His two brothers were arrested on 9 April 1937, and his mother and Sariya were arrested on 23 August of that year. A trial of thirteen members of <mask>'s family was conducted between 30 October and 3 November 1937 in Sukhumi, with charges including counter-revolutionary activities, subversion and sabotage, espionage, terrorism, and insurgent organization in Abkhazia. Nine of the defendants, including <mask>'s two brothers, were shot on the night of 4 November. Rauf, <mask>'s 15-year-old son, tried to speak to Beria, who visited Sukhumi to view the start of the trial. He was promptly arrested as well. Sariya was taken to Tbilisi and tortured in order to extract a statement implicating <mask>, but refused, even after Rauf was tortured in front of her. Sariya would die in prison in Tbilisi on 16 May 1939.Rauf was sent to a labour camp, and was eventually shot in a Sukhumi prison on 28 July 1941. With <mask> dead, Beria effectively took control of Abkhazia and implemented a policy of "Georgification". Abkhaz officials were purged, ostensibly on charges of trying to assassinate Stalin. The policy's greatest impact involved


title: Nestor Lakoba

texts:
 the settlement of thousands of ethnic Mingrelian farmers across Abkhazia, which displaced the ethnic Abkhaz and reduced their overall proportion of the population within the region. Beria abandoned <mask>'s policy of striving for ethnic harmony. Favouring his fellow Mingrelians, he succeeded in fulfilling the aims of a project first begun in 1933 at the start of the Soviet Union's Second five-year plan, to populate Abkhazia with ethnic Mingrelians who would ideally serve as a counter-balance to the Abkhaz. Legacy
During the remainder of the Stalinist era, <mask> was seen as an "enemy of the people", and he was only rehabilitated in 1953.A statue was built in his honour in the Sukhumi Botanical Gardens in 1959, and he was subsequently honoured in Abkhazia. In 1965 Mikhail Bgazhba, the First Secretary of the Abkhaz Communist Party from 1958 until 1965, wrote a short biography of <mask>, largely rehabilitating him. In Abkhazia, he is revered as a hero, and associated with its first major success of culture and development. A museum dedicated to the life of <mask> was established in Sukhumi, though it burnt down during the 1992–1993 war in Abkhazia. Plans to rebuild a new museum were announced by the de facto Abkhaz government in 2016. After his death, <mask>'s collected papers were initially buried to keep them from being destroyed. They were retrieved several years later by his brother-in-law, the only member of his family to survive.The papers were first brought to Batumi, Georgia. Starting in the 1980s they were slowly returned to Abkhazia, with many eventually given to Princeton and Stanford Universities.

masks: Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba Lakoba


title: Franklin A. Hart

texts:
<mask> (September 16, 1894 – June 22, 1967) was a four-star general in the United States Marine Corps who served more than thirty-seven years. His varied and colorful career included service during the two World Wars, sea duty aboard several ships of the Navy, and tours in Haiti, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. During World War II, General <mask> was awarded the Navy Cross while commanding the 24th Marines in the assault and capture of Roi-Namur Island, Kwajalein Atoll, and was awarded the Legion of Merit while leading the regiment in the battles for Saipan and Tinian in the Marianas Islands. As assistant division commander, Fourth Marine Division, during the assault at Iwo Jima, he was awarded the Bronze Star. His citation for the Navy Cross reads in part, "Landing when the assault troops had advanced only one hundred yards from the beach, Colonel <mask> fearlessly led his combat team against heavy enemy resistance in a crushing attack toward its first objective." "After repelling numerous counter attacks during the night, he skillfully reorganized his depleted units and affected a coordinated assault the next morning, rapidly overcoming all remaining opposition, and exterminating a large force of determined and fanatical Japanese." "By his valiant performance of duty and outstanding leadership throughout this perilous assignment, Colonel <mask> inspired all with whom he served."Biography
<mask><mask> was born on 16 September 1894 in Cuthbert, Georgia, and is a native resident of Eufaula, Alabama. He attended Alabama Polytechnic Institute (now Auburn University), graduating in the class of 1915. He participated in sports at Auburn — he was a member of the varsity football

masks:
Franklin Augustus Hart
Hart
Hart
Hart
Franklin A
. Hart


title: Franklin A. Hart

texts:
 team, varsity track team, and varsity soccer team from 1911 to 1914. On April 6, 1917, he was appointed a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps, and four months later was appointed to the rank of first lieutenant. After completing a course of instruction at the Marine Officers School, Norfolk, Virginia, he was ordered to sea duty as commanding officer of the Marine detachment aboard the . He was promoted to the rank of captain in October 1917. World War I
In September 1918, <mask> was transferred from sea duty, and in October 1918, he sailed for France as commanding officer, Company "B", Machine Gun Battalion, Fifth Brigade.He returned to the United States in July 1919, and was assigned to the Marine Barracks, Quantico, Virginia. Between World Wars
Two months later, he was again ordered to foreign shore duty, this time to the Dominican Republic, where he was assigned duty with the Guardia Nacional Dominicans, as district commander of Santo Domingo (then Ciudad Trujillo). He returned to the United States in 1921, and in December of that year was assigned as commanding officer, 77th Machine Gun Company, 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines, at Marine Barracks, Quantico, Virginia. In October 1922, he was transferred to the Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., where he served as adjutant and other related duties. In October 1923, he was assigned to the Army Infantry School, Fort Benning, Georgia, as a student. Graduating in May of the following year, he was ordered to the Marine Barracks, Philadelphia, where he became an instructor at the Marine Corps Basic School. His second tour of sea duty came in June 1926, when he took command of the Marine detachment aboard the .In January


title: Franklin A. Hart

texts: 1927, he assumed command of the detachment aboard the USS Rochester (CA-1), and the following month, was assigned similar duties aboard the . The detachment served ashore with a landing force in Nicaragua for the next five months. From June 1927, until July of the following year, <mask> again commanded the Marine detachment aboard the USS Rochester. During the latter six months of this tour, he again served ashore in Nicaragua until August 1928, when he returned to the United States. From 1928 to 1930, <mask> was stationed successively at the Marine Barracks, Norfolk, as executive officer, and the Marine Barracks, Quantico. At the latter post, he served as an instructor at the Company Officers Course, Marine Corps Schools. He returned to foreign shore duty in August 1930, and joined the Constabulary Detachment, Garde d'Haiti, Gonsaieves, Haiti, where he served as a company commander and district commander.In May 1933, he was named assistant chief of staff, Garde d'Haiti, Headquarters, Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Returning to the United States in July 1934, he was assigned to the Senior Course, Marine Corps Schools, Quantico, as a student. He was promoted to the rank of major as of 29 May 1934, and successfully completed the Senior Course in May 1935. In June 1935, he reported to duty at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C., where he performed duties in the War Plans Section, Division of Operations and Training. He was appointed a lieutenant colonel, in July 1936, and in October 1937, he became officer in charge, War Plans Section. <mask>'s next assignment was to the Army War College, Washington, D.C. Graduating in June 1939, he was ordered to the Marine Corps Base, San Diego,

masks: Hart Hart Hart


title: Franklin A. Hart

texts:
 California, where he became chief of the planning section. In July 1940, he was named commanding officer, 1st Battalion 8th Marines, 2nd Marine Division.World War II

He went to England in June 1941, where he was attached to the American Embassy in London as Assistant Naval Attaché. In September of the same year, he assumed duties as Special Naval Observer and additional duty on the staff of the Chief, Combined Operations (British) as an instructor in amphibious warfare, and was appointed to the rank of colonel in December 1941. In July 1942, <mask> participated in the Dieppe Operation, for which he was specially commended for outstanding conduct by Lord Louis Mountbatten, Chief of Combined Operations. He remained in England until October 1942, when he returned to the United States to become a member of the Staff of the Commander-in-chief, U.S. Fleet, Navy Department, Washington, D.C., as Chief, Future Plans Section. In June 1943, Colonel <mask> was ordered to the 4th Marine Division where he assumed command of the 24th Marine Regiment. During the following year he led the regiment in the attack on Roi-Namur, Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands, where he was awarded the Navy Cross, and the assault on Saipan and Tinian and the Marianas Islands, where he was awarded the Legion of Merit. Appointed a brigadier general in August 1944, he served as assistant division commander of the 4th Marine Division, until late 1945, and in this capacity participated in the Battle of Iwo Jima, where he was awarded the Bronze Star.Final posts

He returned to the United States in September 1945, and assumed duties as director, Division of Reserve, Headquarters, Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. In January

masks: Hart Hart


title: Franklin A. Hart

texts:
 1946, he became director, Division of Public Information and in July, director of personnel. In October 1946, he went to the Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina, as commanding general of the Post. Appointed a major general in December 1946, the general remained at that post until assigned duties as commanding general of the Second Marine Division, with additional duties as commanding general, Marine Barracks, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina on 31 January 1948. He was named commandant of the Marine Corps Schools at Quantico, Virginia, in July 1950, and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general in February of the following year. He became commanding general, Fleet Marine Force, Pacific, in January 1952. He retired in August 1954 after 37 years of Marine Corps service and was advanced to the rank of general.General <mask> died on June 22, 1967, at the U.S. Naval Hospital, Bethesda, Maryland, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Awards and decorations
<mask>'s awards include:

Notes

References

1894 births
1967 deaths
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War I
Auburn Tigers football players
Players of American football from Alabama
Auburn Tigers men's soccer players
Auburn Tigers men's track and field athletes
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Marine Corps generals
United States Marine Corps World War II generals
People from Cuthbert, Georgia
People from Eufaula, Alabama
American football fullbacks
Association footballers not categorized by position
American military personnel of the Banana Wars
Association football players not categorized by

masks:
Franklin Hart
Hart


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts: <mask> ap <mask> (often anglicised to "Griffith"; c. 1132 – 28 April 1197) was the ruler of the kingdom of Deheubarth in south Wales from 1155 to 1197. Today, he is commonly known as The Lord <mask>, in Welsh Yr Arglwydd <mask>, although this title may have not been used in his lifetime. He usually used the title "Proprietary Prince of Deheubarth" or "Prince of South Wales", but two documents have been discovered in which he uses the title "Prince of Wales" or "Prince of the Welsh". <mask> was one of the most successful and powerful Welsh princes, and, after the death of Owain Gwynedd of Gwynedd in 1170, the dominant power in Wales. <mask>'s grandfather, <mask> ap Tewdwr, was king of Deheubarth, and was killed at Brecon in 1093 by Bernard de Neufmarché. Following his death, most of Deheubarth was taken over by the Normans. <mask>'s father, Gruffydd ap <mask>, eventually was able to become ruler of a small portion, and more territory was won back by <mask>'s older brothers after Gruffydd's death.<mask> became ruler of Deheubarth in 1155. He was forced to submit to King Henry II of England in 1158. Henry invaded Deheubarth in 1163, stripped <mask> of all his lands and took him prisoner. A few weeks later he was released and given back a small part of his holdings. <mask> made an alliance with Owain Gwynedd and, after the failure of another invasion of Wales by Henry in 1165, was able to win back most of his lands. In 1171 <mask> made peace with King Henry and was confirmed in

masks:
Rhys
Gruffyddp Gruffudd
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys
Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 possession of his recent conquests as well as being named Justiciar of South Wales. He maintained good relations with King Henry until the latter's death in 1189.Following Henry's death <mask> revolted against Richard I and attacked the Norman lordships surrounding his territory, capturing a number of castles. In his later years <mask> had trouble keeping control of his sons, particularly Maelgwn and Gruffydd, who maintained a feud with each other. <mask> launched his last campaign against the Normans in 1196 and captured a number of castles. The following year he died unexpectedly and was buried in St Davids Cathedral. Genealogy and early life

<mask> was the fourth son of Gruffydd ap <mask>, ruler of part of Deheubarth, by his wife Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd, daughter of Gruffudd ap Cynan, king of Gwynedd. His next older brother was Maredudd ap Gruffydd, and there were older brothers, Morgan and Maelgwn, who were killed in battle with their mother in 1136. He also had two older half-brothers, Anarawd and Cadell, from his father's first marriage.<mask> married Gwenllian ferch Madog, daughter of Madog ap Maredudd, the last Prince of all Powys. His grandfather, <mask> ap Tewdwr, had been king of all Deheubarth until his death in 1093. <mask> Tewdwr was killed in Brycheiniog, and most of his kingdom was taken over by Norman lords. <mask> ap <mask> was forced to flee to Ireland. He later returned to Deheubarth and ruled a portion of the kingdom, but was forced to flee to Ireland again

masks: Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhysp Gruffydd Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts: in 1127. When <mask> was born in 1132, his father held only the commote of Caeo in Cantref Mawr. The death of King Henry I of England, and the ensuing Anarchy arising from the rival claims of Stephen and Matilda to the English throne, gave the Welsh the opportunity to rise against the Normans.A revolt spread through south Wales in 1136, and <mask> ap <mask>, aided by his two eldest sons, Anarawd and Cadell, defeated the Normans in a battle near Loughor, killing over five hundred. After driving Walter de Clifford out of Cantref Bychan, Gruffydd set off to Gwynedd to enlist the help of his father-in-law, Gruffudd ap Cynan. In the absence of her husband, Gwenllian led an army against the Norman lordship of Cydweli (Kidwelly), taking along her two oldest sons, Morgan and Maelgwn. She was defeated and killed by an army commanded by Maurice de Londres of Oystermouth Castle. Morgan was also killed and Maelgwn captured. Gruffydd formed an alliance with Gwynedd, and later in 1136 the sons of Gruffudd ap Cynan, Owain Gwynedd and Cadwaladr ap <mask>, led an army to Ceredigion. Their combined forces won a decisive victory over the Normans at the Battle of Crug Mawr.Ceredigion was reclaimed from the Normans, but was annexed by Gwynedd as the senior partner in the alliance. Gruffydd ap <mask> continued his campaign against the Normans in 1137, but died later that year. The leadership of the family now passed to <mask>'s half-brother Anarawd ap Gruffydd. In 1143, when <mask> was eleven, Anarawd

masks: Rhys Gruffydd Rhys Gruffydd Rhys Rhys Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 was murdered, a death arranged for by Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd, brother of Owain Gwynedd, king of Gwynedd. Owain punished Cadwaladr by depriving him of his lands in Ceredigion. First battles (1146–1155)

Anarawd's brother, Cadell ap <mask>, took over as head of the family. Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Pembroke, rebuilt Carmarthen castle in 1145 then began a campaign to reclaim Ceredigion.He built a castle in the commote of Mabudryd, but Cadell, aided by Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd who held Ceredigion for Gwynedd, destroyed it in 1146. <mask> appears in the annals for the first time in 1146, fighting alongside his brothers Cadell and Maredudd in the capture by assault of Llansteffan Castle. This was followed by the capture of Wiston in 1147, Carmarthen in 1150 and Loughor in 1151. In 1151 Cadell was attacked while out hunting by a group of Norman and Flemish knights from Tenby, and left for dead. He survived, but suffered injuries which left him unable to play an active role, and in 1153 he left on a pilgrimage to Rome. Maredudd became ruler of Deheubarth and continued a campaign, begun in 1150, aimed at recovering Ceredigion, which had been held by Gwynedd since 1136. Maredudd and <mask> were able to drive Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd from Ceredigion by 1153.The same year <mask> is recorded as an independent commander for the first time, leading an army to capture the Norman castle of St Clears. Maredudd and <mask> also destroyed the castles at Tenby and Aberafan that year. Maredudd died in 1155

masks: Gruffydd Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 at the age of twenty-five and left <mask> as ruler of Deheubarth. Around this time he married Gwenllian ferch Madog, daughter of Madog ap Maredudd, prince of Powys. Early reign

Loss of territory (1155–1163)

Shortly after becoming ruler of Deheubarth, <mask> heard rumours that Owain Gwynedd was planning to invade Ceredigion in order to reclaim it for Gwynedd. <mask> responded by building a castle at Aberdyfi in 1156. The threatened invasion did not take place, and Turvey claims that Owain's intention may have been to test the resolve of the new ruler.King Stephen had died in October 1154, bringing to an end the long dispute with the Empress Matilda which had helped Anarawd, Cadell and Maredudd to extend their rule in Deheubarth. With disunity within the realm no longer a problem, the new king of England, Henry II, soon turned his attention to Wales. He began with an invasion of Gwynedd in 1157. This invasion was not entirely successful, but Owain Gwynedd was induced to seek terms and to give up some territory in the north-east of Wales. The following year, Henry prepared an invasion of Deheubarth. <mask> made plans to resist, but was persuaded by his council to meet the king to discuss peace terms. The terms were much harsher than those offered to Owain: <mask> was stripped of all his possessions apart from Cantref Mawr, though he was promised one other cantref.The other territories were returned to their Norman lords. Among the Normans who returned to their holdings was Walter

masks: Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts: de Clifford, who reclaimed Cantref Bychan, then invaded <mask>'s lands in Cantref Mawr. An appeal to the king produced no response, and <mask> resorted to arms, first capturing Clifford's castle at Llandovery then seizing Ceredigion. King Henry responded by preparing another invasion, and <mask> submitted without resistance. He was obliged to give hostages, probably including his son Hywel. The king was absent in France in 1159, and <mask> took the opportunity to attack Dyfed and then to lay siege to Carmarthen, which was saved by a relief force led by Earl Reginald of Cornwall. <mask> retreated to Cantref Mawr, where an army led by five earls, the Earls of Cornwall, Gloucester, Hertford, Pembroke and Salisbury, marched against him.The earls were assisted by Cadwaladr, brother of Owain Gwynedd, and Owain's sons, Hywel and Cynan. However they were forced to withdraw and a truce was arranged. In 1162, <mask> again attempted to recover some of his lost lands, and captured Llandovery castle. The following year Henry II returned to England after an absence of four years and prepared for another invasion of Deheubarth. <mask> met the king to discuss terms and was obliged to give more hostages, including another son, Maredudd. He was then seized and taken to England as a prisoner. Henry appears to have been uncertain what to do with <mask>, but after a few weeks decided to free him and allow him to rule Cantref Mawr.<mask> was summoned to appear before Henry at Woodstock to do homage

masks: Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 together with Owain Gwynedd and Malcolm IV of Scotland. Welsh uprising (1164–1170)
In 1164 all the Welsh princes united in an uprising. Warren suggests that when <mask> and Owain were obliged to do homage to Henry in 1163 they were forced to accept a status of dependent vassalage instead of their previous client status, and that this led to the revolt. <mask> had other reasons for rebellion, for he had returned to Deheubarth from England to find that the neighbouring Norman lords were threatening Cantref Mawr. His nephew, Einion ab Anarawd, who was the captain of his bodyguard, had been murdered at the instigation of Roger de Clare, Earl of Hertford. The murderer had been given the protection of the Clares in Ceredigion. <mask> first appealed to the king to intercede; when this failed, he invaded Ceredigion and recaptured all of it apart from the town and castle of Cardigan.The Welsh revolt led to another invasion of Wales by King Henry in 1165. Henry attacked Gwynedd first, but instead of following the usual invasion route along the north coast he attacked from the south, following a route over the Berwyn hills. He was met by the united forces of the Welsh princes, led by Owain Gwynedd and including <mask>. According to Brut y Tywysogion:

Torrential rain forced Henry's army to retreat in disorder without fighting a major battle, and Henry vented his spleen on the hostages, having <mask>'s son Maredudd blinded. <mask>'s other son, Hywel, was not among the victims. <mask>

masks: Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 returned to Deheubarth where he captured and burned Cardigan Castle. He allowed the garrison to depart, but held the castellan, Robert Fitz-Stephen, as a prisoner.Shortly afterwards <mask> captured Cilgerran castle. In 1167 he joined Owain Gwynedd in an attack on Owain Cyfeiliog of southern Powys, and spent three weeks helping Owain besiege the Norman castle of Rhuddlan. In 1168 he attacked the Normans at Builth, destroying its castle. <mask> benefited from the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 and 1170, which was largely led by the Cambro-Norman lords of south Wales. In 1167 the King of Leinster, Diarmait Mac Murchada, who had been driven out of his kingdom, had asked <mask> to release Robert Fitz-Stephen from captivity to take part in an expedition to Ireland. <mask> did not oblige at the time, but released him the following year and in 1169 Fitz-Stephen led the vanguard of a Norman army which landed in Wexford. The leader of the Norman forces, Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, known as "Strongbow", followed in 1170.According to Warren:

The departure of the Norman lords enabled <mask> to strengthen his position, and the death of Owain Gwynedd in late 1170 left him as the acknowledged leader of the Welsh princes. Later reign

Peace with King Henry (1171–1188)
In 1171 King Henry II arrived in England from France, on his way to Ireland. Henry wished to ensure that Richard de Clare, who had married Diarmait's daughter and become heir to Leinster, did not establish an


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 independent Norman kingdom in Ireland. His decision to try a different approach in his dealings with the Welsh was influenced by the events in Ireland, although Warren suggests that "it seems likely that Henry began rethinking his attitude to the Welsh soon after the débâcle of 1165". Henry now wished to make peace with <mask>, who came to Newnham to meet him. <mask> was to pay a tribute of 300 horses and 4,000 head of cattle, but was confirmed in possession of all the lands he had taken from Norman lords, including the Clares. They met again in October that year at Pembroke as Henry waited to cross to Ireland.<mask> had collected 86 of the 300 horses, but Henry agreed to take only 36 of them and remitted the remainder of the tribute until after his return from Ireland. <mask>'s son, Hywel, who had been held as a hostage for many years, was returned to him. Henry and <mask> met once more at Laugharne as Henry returned from Ireland in 1172, and shortly afterwards Henry appointed <mask> "justice on his behalf in all Deheubarth". According to A. D. Carr:

The agreement between Henry and <mask> was to last until Henry's death in 1189. When Henry's sons rebelled against him in 1173 <mask> sent his son Hywel Sais to Normandy to aid the king, then in 1174 personally led an army to Tutbury in Staffordshire to assist at the siege of the stronghold of the rebel Earl William de Ferrers. When <mask> returned to Wales after the fall of Tutbury, he left a thousand men with the king for service


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts: in Normandy. King Henry held a council at Gloucester in 1175 which was attended by a large gathering of Welsh princes, led by <mask>.It appears to have concluded with the swearing of a mutual assistance pact for the preservation of peace and order in Wales. In 1177 <mask>, Dafydd ab Owain, who had emerged as the main power in Gwynedd, and Cadwallon ap Madog from Rhwng Gwy a Hafren swore fealty and liege homage to Henry at a council held at Oxford.At this council the king gave Meirionnydd, part of the kingdom of Gwynedd, to <mask>. <mask> built a number of stone castles, starting with Cardigan castle, which was the earliest recorded native-built stone castle in Wales. He also built Carreg Cennen castle near Llandeilo, a castle set in a spectacular position on a mountain top. He held a festival of poetry and song at his court at Cardigan over Christmas 1176. This is generally regarded as the first recorded Eisteddfod. The festival was announced a year in advance throughout Wales and in England, Scotland, Ireland and possibly France.Two chairs were awarded as prizes, one for the best poem and the other for the best musical performance. J. E. Caerwyn Williams suggests that this event may be an adaptation of the similar French puys. R.R. Davies suggests that the texts of Welsh law, traditionally codified by Hywel Dda at Whitland, were first assembled in book form under the aegis of <mask>. <mask> founded two religious houses during this period. Talley Abbey was the first

masks: Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 Premonstratensian abbey in Wales, while Llanllyr was a Cistercian nunnery, only the second nunnery to be founded in Wales and the first to prosper. He became the patron of the abbeys of Whitland and Strata Florida and made large grants to both houses.Giraldus Cambrensis, who was related to <mask>, gives an account of his meetings with <mask> in 1188 when Giraldus accompanied Archbishop Baldwin around Wales to raise men for the Third Crusade. Some Welsh clerics were not happy about this visit, but <mask> was enthusiastic and gave the Archbishop a great deal of assistance. Giraldus says that <mask> decided to go on crusade himself and spent several weeks making preparations, but was eventually persuaded to change his mind by his wife Gwenllian, "by female artifices". Final campaigns (1189–1196)
Henry II died in 1189 and was succeeded by Richard I. <mask> considered that he was no longer bound by the agreement with King Henry and attacked the Norman lordships surrounding his territory. He ravaged Pembroke, Haverfordwest and Gower, and captured the castles of St. Clear's, Laugharne and Llansteffan. Richard's brother, Prince John (later King John), came to Wales in September and tried to make peace. He persuaded <mask> to raise the siege of Carmarthen and accompany him to Oxford to meet Richard.<mask> arrived at Oxford to discover that Richard was not prepared to travel there to meet him, and hostilities continued. In his later years <mask> had trouble keeping control of his sons,

masks: Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys Rhys


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts: particularly Maelgwn and Gruffydd. In 1189 Gruffydd persuaded <mask> to imprison Maelgwn, and he was given into Gruffydd's keeping at Dinefwr. Gruffydd handed him over to his father-in-law, William de Braose. Gruffydd is also said to have persuaded his father to annex the lordship of Cemais and its chief castle of Nevern, held by William FitzMartin, in 1191. This action was criticised by Giraldus Cambrensis, who describes Gruffydd as "a cunning and artful man". William FitzMartin was married to <mask>'s daughter Angharad, and, according to Giraldus, <mask> "had solemnly sworn, by the most precious relics, that his indemnity and security should be faithfully maintained".<mask> had also annexed the Norman lordships of Cydweli and Carnwyllion in 1190. In 1192 <mask> secured Maelgwn's release, but by now Maelgwn and Gruffydd were bitter enemies. In 1194 <mask> was defeated in battle by Maelgwn and Hywel, who imprisoned him in Nevern castle, though Hywel later released his father without Maelgwn's consent. Giraldus suggests that <mask>'s incarceration in Nevern castle was divine vengeance for the dispossession of William FitzMartin. In 1195 two other sons, <mask>g and Maredudd, seized Llanymddyfri and Dinefwr, and <mask> responded by imprisoning them. <mask> launched his last campaign against the Normans in 1196. He captured a number of castles, including Carmarthen, Colwyn, Radnor and Painscastle, and defeated an army led by Roger de Mortimer and Hugh de Say near Radnor, with forty

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title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 knights among the dead.This was <mask>' last battle. William de Braose offered terms, and Painscastle was returned to him. Death and aftermath (1197)

<mask> died on 28 April 1197, unexpectedly, and was buried in St Davids Cathedral. The chronicler of Brut y Tywysogion records for 1197:

<mask> died excommunicate, having quarreled with the Bishop of St Davids, Peter de Leia, over the theft of some of the bishop's horses some years previously. Before he could be buried in the cathedral, the bishop had his corpse scourged in posthumous penance. <mask> had nominated his eldest legitimate son, Gruffydd ap <mask>, as his successor, and soon after his father's death Gruffydd met the Justiciar, Archbishop Hubert Walter, on the border and was confirmed as heir. Maelgwn, the eldest son but illegitimate, refused to accept this and was given military assistance by Gwenwynwyn ab Owain of Powys.Maelgwn took the town and castle of Aberystwyth and captured Gruffydd, whom he handed over to the custody of Gwenwynwyn. Gwenwynwyn later handed him over to the king, who imprisoned him at Corfe Castle. Character and historical assessment
Giraldus Cambrensis frequently mentions <mask> in his writings and describes him as "a man of excellent wit and quick in repartee". Gerald tells the story of a banquet at Hereford in 1186 where <mask> sat between two members of the Clare family. What could have been a tense affair, since <mask> had seized lands in Ceredigion previously held by the Clare family, passed


title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 off with an exchange of courteous compliments, followed by some good-natured banter between <mask> and Gerald about their family connections. <mask> gave Gerald and Archbishop Baldwin a great deal of assistance when they visited Wales to raise troops for the crusade in 1188, and Gerald several times refers to his "kindness" and says that <mask> accompanied them all the way from Cardigan to the northern border of Ceredigion "with a liberality peculiarly praiseworthy in so illustrious a prince". Another contemporary writer also wrote of <mask> if Roger Turvey is correct in stating that <mask>'s piece Of the King Appollonides deals with <mask> under a pseudonym.<mask> was less favourably disposed toward <mask>, describing him as "This king I have seen and know, and hate", but goes on to say "I would not have my hatred blacken his worth; it is not my wish ever to suppress any man's excellence through envy". He tells the following story about Apollonides/<mask>:

Davies provides the following assessment of <mask>:

Davies also notes two flaws in <mask>'s achievement. One was the personal nature of his accord with Henry II, which meant that it did not survive Henry's death. The other was his inability to control his sons and to force the other sons to accept Gruffydd as his successor. Children

<mask> had at least nine sons and eight daughters. Confusingly, three of the sons were named Maredudd and two of the daughters were named Gwenllian. Gruffydd ap <mask> (died 1201) was the eldest

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title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 legitimate son and was nominated by <mask> as his successor.He married Maud de Braose, the daughter of William de Braose. Maelgwn ap <mask> (died 1231), who was the eldest son but illegitimate. <mask>g (died 1233) married a daughter of the Earl of Clare. Hywel ap <mask> (died 1231)
 Maredudd ap <mask> (died 1239)
 Another Maredudd (died 1227) became Archdeacon of Cardigan. <mask>'s daughter Gwenllian ferch <mask> married Rhodri ab Owain, prince of the western part of Gwynedd. Another Gwenllian (circa 1178 – 1236) married Ednyfed Fychan, seneschal of Gwynedd under Llywelyn the Great, and through her, <mask> became an ancestor of the Tudor dynasty. Through the Tudors inter-marrying with the House of Stuart <mask> is an ancestor to the current ruling house of the United Kingdom and also an ancestor of several ruling houses in Europe.When Henry Tudor landed in Pembrokeshire, Wales in 1485 to make a bid for the throne, his descent from <mask> was one of the factors which enabled him to attract Welsh support (Henry flew a (Welsh) dragon banner at the battle of Bosworth Field). Angharad ferch <mask> married William FitzMartin, lord of Cemais. Other daughters married the Welsh rulers of Gwrtheyrnion and Elfael. Notes

References

Primary sources
Giraldus Cambrensis. 1908. The Itinerary through Wales; Description of Wales. Edited and translated by R. C. Hoare.Everyman's Library. .
Giraldus Cambrensis. 1861–91. Giraldi Cambrensis: opera ed. J. S. Brewer. (Rolls Series). 8 vols. Longman,

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title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 Green, Longman & Roberts.Jones, T., ed. 1941. Brut y Tywysogion: Peniarth MS. 20. University of Wales Press. Pryce, H., ed. 2005. The Acts of Welsh rulers 1120–1283.University of Wales Press. . Secondary sources
Carr, A. D. 1995. Medieval Wales. Macmillan. .
Cowley, F. G. 1977. The monastic order in South Wales 1066–1349 University of Wales Press. .
Davies, R. R. 1987. Conquest, coexistence and change: Wales 1063–1415 Clarendon Press, University of Wales Press. .
Jones, F. 1969. God bless the Prince of Wales: four essays for investiture year Carmarthenshire Community Council (Local History Committee). .
Lloyd, J. E. 1911.A history of Wales from the earliest times to the Edwardian conquest. Longmans, Green & Co.
Maund, K. 2006. The Welsh kings: warriors, warlords and princes. Tempus. .
Moore, D. 2005. The Welsh wars of independence: c. 410-c.1415. Tempus. .
Pryce, H. 2004. "<mask> Gruffudd (1131/2–1197)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.Accessed 22 January 2013. Rees, D. 1985. The son of prophecy: Henry Tudor's road to Bosworth. Black Raven Press. .
Rees, S. 1992. Dyfed (A guide to ancient and historic Wales series). HMSO. .
Siddons, M. P. 1993. The Development of Welsh Heraldry, vol.2. National Library of Wales. .
Tout, T. F., revised Pryce, H. 2004. "Gruffudd ap <mask> (d. 1137)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Accessed 22 January 2013. Turvey, R. 1997, The <mask>: Prince of Deheubarth. Gomer. .
Warren, W. L. 1973 Henry II.Eyre Methuen.

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title: Rhys ap Gruffydd

texts:
 .
Williams, J. E. C. 1976. "Aberteifi, 1176". Taliesin 32, pp. 30–35. External links
The last campaign of <mask> ap Gruffydd, from www.castlewales.com
Places and artifacts associated with <mask> ap Gruffudd from Gathering the Jewels

1130s births
1197 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Burials at St Davids Cathedral
Rhys
Monarchs of Deheubarth
Welsh princes
12th-century Welsh monarchs
Welsh people of Irish

masks: Rhys Rhys


title: Gertrude Weil

texts:
<mask> (11 December 1879 – 3 May 1971) was an American social activist involved in a wide range of progressive/leftist and often controversial causes, including women's suffrage, labor reform and civil rights. Biography

Early life
Weil was born on December 11, 1879 to Henry and <mask> (née Rosenthal), German Jews living in the rapidly developing town of Goldsboro, North Carolina. <mask>'s father, Henry, migrated from Hamburg, Germany in 1860, when he was fourteen years old, following his brother, <mask>, who would later fight in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. Weil was raised in Goldsboro, North Carolina, in a home located at 200 Chestnut Street, which is now on the National Register of Historic Places. Being a wealthy household, the Weil family employed domestic staff, including both white and black employees. In 1883, only 17 years after the formation of North Carolina's first Jewish congregation, <mask>'s parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles helped to form Goldsboro's Congregation Oheb Sholom. Education

Early education
Weil grew up attending public schools within her community of Goldsboro.Weil's parents supplemented her education by having her attend Sabbath School, German School, and Hebrew School. Horace Mann School (1895–1897)
When Weil was 16, during 1895, she was sent to New York City to attend the Horace Mann School. During this time at the Horace Mann School Weil began writing letters home to her family, or as she titled them, her "dear ones" relaying her experiences in New York. During her time at Horace Mann School, Weil was introduced to Margaret Stanton Lawrence, daughter of Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Margaret Stanton Lawrence was Weil's physical education teacher. Lawrence was an early influence on Weil, with Weil commenting after hearing Lawrence speak "Oh! You'll see

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Mina Weil
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Herman Weil
Gertrude


title: Gertrude Weil

texts:
 Decisions Committee. Weil was also involved in New Deal relief efforts when she was appointed as a Director of Federal Public Relief Work. Influenced by her work as a social worker in North Carolina's impoverished communities, Weil supported the idea of a social welfare program. She also supported birth control as a solution to eliminate poverty. Weil also spent a great deal of time fighting for labor reform in North Carolina.In 1930, <mask> was a leading participant in a group of progressive citizens who issued a manifesto in support of collective bargaining and free speech; nearly one-third of the manifesto's 439 signatories were women. In 1931, the women's Legislative Council finally won shorter hours for women workers, the prohibition of night work, and other industrial reforms. Civil rights
Weil grew up in the post-reconstruction era South. <mask>'s hometown of Goldsboro, North Carolina, had been the location of a Civil War battle due to its proximity to a railroad junction. The Battle of Goldsboro Bridge occurred on December 17, 1862 and concluded with a Union victory and an estimated 220 casualties. Throughout the 1920s Weil financially supported African Americans involved in education and supported interracial efforts. Weil first immersed herself in civil rights work in 1930.Weil's dedication to social justice and equality led her to, in 1930 travel to Atlanta to attend the Anti-Lynching Conference for Southern White Women. This conference sparked the creation of the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching, which Weil also joined. Weil and her fellow activists in these groups challenged the idea that white southern women needed to be protected from black men through frequent lynchings. In 1932 Weil who was appointed by the Governor of North Carolina to serve on the North

masks: Weil Weil


title: Gertrude Weil

texts:
 Carolina Commission on Interracial Cooperation, a commission that sought to improve race relations, served the commission and its successor commission for the next 25 years. Involved in the Commission, Weil sought to improve legal, economic, political, and educational equality for black Americans. Over the next 30 years, Weil continued her involvement in civil rights, which included her organization, in 1963, of the Bi-Racial Council in her home, her opposition to segregation and her donation of money for a pool for local African Americans after the local pool was closed to them. On March 14, 1965, Weil described segregation as "separate but by no means equal," illustrating her long dedication to civil rights.Religion
The Jewish religion and traditions Weil learned in her childhood influenced her social activism in her later life. Weil was involved in teaching Sunday School, conducting adult Bible studies, and working with the Temple Sisterhood. Weil's travels put her into contact with other Jewish women who strengthened Weil's progressive opinion. One such friend was her cousin, Rosa Kaufman, who had been influenced by Pauline Steinem, whose granddaughter Gloria would become a feminist leader. Weil, influenced by her mother's beliefs, joined the Daughters of Zion in 1912. The founder of Daughters of Zion, Henrietta Szold, an American Zionist, was a friend of Weil's mother, and Szold's involvement with social work resounded with Weil's social progressivism. The Daughters of Zion would later change their name to Hadassah: The Women's Zionist Organization of America, and Weil would serve as president of her local and regional group for the organization.Weil's aunt, <mask>, helped found the North Carolina Association of Jewish Women in 1921. Weil would serve three terms as president of the Association,


title: Gertrude Weil

texts:
 beginning in 1924, and serve as board member for the rest of her life. <mask>'s goal was to unite Jewish women in North Carolina, regardless of background welcoming both orthodox and reform members. Weil's work with the North Carolina Association of Jewish Women took her to small towns across North Carolina, forming relationships with women across the state. Following the success of the American Women's Suffrage movement, the women in the North Carolina Association of Jewish Women called for equal congregation membership, which was given in Greensboro at the Temple Emanuel in 1923 and at the Oheb Sholom in 1924. Weil also  sat on the board of the North Carolina Home for the Jewish Aged, worked for the National Federation of Temple Sisterhoods, and helped to raise money for numerous Jewish charities. In the 1930s and 1940s, she and her mother devoted much time and effort to rescuing Jewish refugees from persecution in Europe.In the late 1960s, Weil wrote an essay in which she criticized those who believed religious individuals should confine themselves to ""matters" of religion, that is theology, church creed, church attendance, the prospect of heaven or hell"and she continued with her own belief that, "In my definition, religion includes the whole of life: one's beliefs, one's attitudes to society, one's behavior ." Within the same essay, Weil demonstrated her opinion that Judaism called for morality in all areas of an individual's life, stating, "My religion demands the same honesty, fairness, reliability, in all one's relations." Weil's emphasis on moral and ethical behavior being a part of her religious identity was prominent throughout her life with her social service. Relationships
Despite her having suitors, Weil never received any formal marriage proposals and never married. Weil maintained strong


title: Gertrude Weil

texts:
 close relationships with her college friends and built relationships with the women she was closest to through her work. Later life
Weil continued her commitment to social service. In 1968, she had already served ten years on the county library board and continued her service.Weil also financially supported philanthropist efforts within her community. She donated several thousand dollars to the Herman Weil Memorial Fund and the Medical School at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Legacy
In 1964 Weil received a medal from Smith College, the medal was reserved for distinguished alumni and Weil was chosen for her work in public service. The public library in Goldsboro contains the "<mask> Auditorium," named after Weil. According to the Jewish Women's Archive, Weil was: "Inspired by Jewish teachings that 'justice, mercy, [and] goodness were not to be held in a vacuum, but practiced in our daily lives,' Weil stood courageously at the forefront of a wide range of progressive and often controversial causes, including women's suffrage, labor reform and civil rights. She worked tirelessly to extend political, economic and social opportunities to those long denied them." Death
<mask> died on May 30, 1971, in her hometown of Goldsboro North Carolina at the age of 91.Her burial place is located at the Willow Dale Cemetery in Goldsboro in the Jewish section. References

External links
 Women of Valor exhibit on <mask> at the Jewish Women's Archive
 Heather Geisberg Pennington, Biography of <mask>, Jewish Women Encyclopedia

1879 births
1971 deaths
American people of German-Jewish descent
American suffragists
People from Goldsboro, North Carolina
American women's rights activists
American civil rights activists
Horace Mann School alumni
Smith College alumni
American Zionists
Activists from North

masks:
Gertrude Weil
Gertrude Weil
Gertrude Weil
Gertrude Weil


title: Shneur Zalman of Liadi

texts:
<mask> of Liadi (, September 4, 1745 – December 15, 1812 O.S. / 18 Elul 5505 – 24 Tevet 5573), was an influential rabbi and the founder and first Rebbe of Chabad, a branch of Hasidic Judaism, then based in Liadi in the Russian Empire. He was the author of many works, and is best known for Shulchan Aruch HaRav, Tanya, and his Siddur Torah Or compiled according to the Nusach Ari. Zalman is a Yiddish variant of Solomon and Shneur (or Shne'or) is a Yiddish composite of the two Hebrew words "shnei ohr" (שני אור "two lights"). <mask> of Liady is also known as "<mask>alman Baruchovitch," Baruchovitch being the Russian patronymic from his father Baruch, and by a variety of other titles and acronyms including "Baal HaTanya VeHaShulchan Aruch'" (Author of the Tanya and the Shulchan Aruch), "Alter Rebbe" (Yiddish for ″Old Rabbi″), "Admor HaZaken" (Hebrew for ″Our Master, Our Teacher, and Our Old Rabbi″), "Rabbenu HaZaken" (Hebrew for ″Our Old Rabbi″), "Rabbenu HaGadol" (Hebrew for ″Our Great Rabbi″)", "RaShaZ" ( for Rabbi <mask>), "GRaZ" ( for Ga'on Rabbi Zalman), and "HaRav" (The Rabbi, par excellence). Biography

Early life
Shneur Zalman was born in 1745 in the small town of Liozna, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (present-day Belarus). He was the son of Baruch, who was a paternal descendant of the mystic and philosopher Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel.According to Meir Perels of Prague, the Maharal was the great-great-grandson of Judah Leib the Elder who was said to have descended paternally from Hai

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title: Shneur Zalman of Liadi

texts: Gaon and therefore also from the Davidic dynasty, however several modern historians such as Otto Muneles and Shlomo Engard have questioned this claim. Shneur <mask> was a prominent (and the youngest) disciple of Dov Ber of Mezeritch, the "Great Maggid", who was in turn the successor of the founder of Hasidic Judaism, Yisrael ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov. He displayed extraordinary talent while still a child. By the time he was eight years old, he wrote an all-inclusive commentary on the Torah based on the works of Rashi, Nahmanides and Abraham ibn Ezra. Until the age of 12, he studied under Issachar Ber in Lyubavichi (Lubavitch); he distinguished himself as a Talmudist, such that his teacher sent him back home, informing his father that the boy could continue his studies without the aid of a teacher. At the age of 12, he delivered a discourse concerning the complicated laws of Kiddush Hachodesh, to which the people of the town granted him the title "Rav". At age 15 he married Sterna Segal, the daughter of Yehuda Leib Segal, a wealthy resident of Vitebsk, and he was then able to devote himself entirely to study.During these years, <mask> <mask> was introduced to mathematics, geometry, and astronomy by two learned brothers, refugees from Bohemia, who had settled in Liozna. One of them was also a scholar of the Kabbalah. Thus, besides mastering rabbinic literature, he also acquired a fair knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and Kabbalah. He became an adept in Isaac Luria's

masks: Zalman Shneur Zalman


title: Shneur Zalman of Liadi

texts:
 system of Kabbalah, and in 1764 he became a disciple of Dov Ber of Mezeritch. In 1767, at the age of 22, he was appointed maggid of Liozna, a position he held until 1801. Parents
According to the Chabad Hasidic tradition, Shneur <mask>'s father, Baruch, was a laborer who preferred to earn a living as a gardener rather than accept a post as a community rabbi or as a preacher (magid). In this tradition, Baruch was one of the disciples of Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov, however, he only occasionally joined his teacher on his legendary travels.This tradition is used to justify why Hasidic records do not refer to Baruch as with a rabbinic title, claiming that Baruch was averse to any public acknowledgment of his status. Misnagdim

In the course of the Hasidic movement's establishment, opponents (Misnagdim) arose among the local Jewish community. Disagreements between Hasidim and their opponents included debates concerning knives used by butchers for shechita, and the phrasing of prayers, among others. <mask> <mask> and a fellow Hasidic leader, Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk (or, according to the tradition in the Soloveitchik family, Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev), attempted to persuade the leader of Lithuanian Jewry, the Vilna Gaon, of the legitimacy of Hasidic practices. However, the Gaon refused to meet with them. Children and succession
<mask> <mask>'s sons were: Dov Ber Schneuri who eventually succeeded him, Chaim Avraham, and Moshe. <mask> <mask>'s daughters were named Freida, Devorah Leah and

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title: Shneur Zalman of Liadi

texts:
 Rochel.Other families have lore telling that they are also descendants, but they are undocumented in existing family records. Dov Ber <mask>i

Dovber Schneuri succeeded his father as Rebbe of the Chabad movement. At the age of 39, while studying in the city of Kremenchug, <mask> <mask> died. <mask>i then moved to the small border-town of Lubavichi, from which the movement would take its name. His accession was disputed by one of his father's prime students, Aharon HaLevi of Strashelye, however the majority of Shneur <mask>'s followers stayed with Schneuri, and moved to Lubavichi. Thus Chabad had now split into two branches, each taking the name of their location to differentiate themselves from each other. He established a Yeshivah in Lubavitch, which attracted gifted young scholars.His nephew/son-in-law, Menachem Mendel of Lubavitch, headed the Yeshivah, and later became his successor. Thus, while Schneuri succeeded his father as Rebbe of the Chabad movement, a senior disciple of his father, Aharon HaLevi of Strashelye, a popular and respected figure, differed with him on a number of issues and led a breakaway movement. Strashelye

When Schneur <mask> died, many of his followers flocked to one of his top students, Aharon HaLevi of Strashelye. He had been Shneur <mask>'s closest disciple for over thirty years. While many more became followers of Dovber <mask>, the Strashelye school of Chassidic thought was the subject of many of Dovber's discourses. Aharon HaLevi emphasized the

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title: Shneur Zalman of Liadi

texts:
 importance of basic emotions in divine service (especially the service of prayer). Dovber <mask> did not reject the role of emotion in prayer, but emphasized that if the emotion in prayer is to be genuine, it can only be a result of contemplation and understanding (hisbonenus) of the explanations of Chassidus, which in turn will lead to an attainment of "bittul" (self-nullification before the Divine).In his work entitled Kuntres Hispa'alus ("Tract on Ecstasy"), Dovber <mask> argues that only through ridding oneself of what he considered disingenuous emotions could one attain the ultimate level in Chassidic worship (that is, bittul). Moshe Schneersohn

Moshe Schneersohn (born c. 1784 - died, before 1853) was the youngest son of <mask> Zalman. According to scholars he converted to Christianity and died in a St. Petersburg asylum. Chabad sources say that his conversion and related documents were faked by the Church, but Belarusian State archives in Minsk uncovered by historian Shaul Stampfer support the conversion. Lithuania
During the latter portion of Dovber's life, his students dispersed over Europe, and after Dovber's death, <mask> <mask> became the leader of Hasidism in Lithuania, along with his senior colleague Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk. When Menachem Mendel died (in 1788), <mask> <mask> was recognized as leader of the Chassidim in Lithuania. At the time Lithuania was the center of the misnagdim (opponents of Hasidism), and <mask> <mask> faced much opposition.In 1774 he and Menachem

masks: Shneuri Shneuri Shneur Shneur Zalman Shneur Zalman Shneur Zalman


title: Shneur Zalman of Liadi

texts:
 Mendel of Vitebsk traveled to Vilna in an attempt to create a dialogue with the Vilna Gaon who led the Misnagdim and had issued a ban (cherem) against the Hasidim, but the Gaon refused to see them (see Vilna Gaon: Antagonism to Hasidism and Hasidim and Mitnagdim). Undaunted by this antagonism, he succeeded in creating a large network of Hasidic centers. He also joined opposition to Napoleon's advance on Russia by recruiting his disciples to the Czar's army. He was also active in canvassing financial support for the Jewish settlements in the Land of Israel, then under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Philosophy: Chabad

See Hasidic philosophy

As a Talmudist, Shneur <mask> endeavored to place Kabbalah and Hasidism on a rational basis. In his seminal work, Tanya, he defines his approach as "" ("mind ruling over the heart/emotions"). He chose the name "Chabad" for this philosophy—the Hebrew acronym for the intellectual attributes (sefirot) Chochma ("wisdom"), Bina ("understanding"), and Da'at ("knowledge”).According to Shneur <mask>, a man is neither a static nor a passive entity. He is a dynamic being who must work to develop his potential talent and perfect himself. Both in his works and in his sermons he "indicated an intelligent and not a blind faith", and assumed an intellectual accessibility of the mystical teachings of the Kabbalah. This intellectual basis differentiates Chabad from other forms of Hasidism - in this context referred to as "Chagas"—the "emotional" attributes

masks: Zalman Zalman


title: Shneur Zalman of Liadi

texts:
 (sefirot) of Chesed ("kindness"), Gevurah ("power"), and Tiferes ("beauty"). As Shneur <mask> Shem Tov, founder of the whole Hasidic movement, Habad tradition identifies them symbolically with the 2 Great Luminaries of the 4th day of Creation (Genesis 1:16: "And God made the two great luminaries: the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night". In Rabbinic esoteric midrash, the sun and moon were originally created equal ("2 Great Lights"), the moon only later losing its light ("the lesser"). Accordingly, as the "2 Great Luminaries" of Hasidism, the Baal Shem Tov corresponds to the sun, Shneur Zalman to the moon before it was diminished.The Baal Shem Tov revealed infinite divine faith, Shneur Zalman drew the faith of Hasidic thought down into intellectual grasp. In Likkutei Sichos talks, the 7th Rebbe equates the Hasidic Rebbes followed in Chabad with different Sephirot divine manifestations: the Baal Shem Tov with Keter infinite faith, <mask> Zalman with Chokhmah wisdom, the 2nd Chabad Rebbe with Binah understanding, etc. Opposition to Napoleon and support for the Tsar

During the French invasion of Russia, while many Polish Hasidic leaders supported Napoleon or remained quiet about their support, Shneur Zalman openly and vigorously supported the Tsar. While fleeing from the advancing French army he wrote a letter explaining his opposition to Napoleon to a friend, Moshe Meizeles:

Some argue that Shneur <mask>'s opposition stemmed from Napoleon's attempts to

masks: Zalmanal Shneur Zalman