title: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

texts:
 with the other, he guided young and aspiring authors. With one hand, he ignited the light of literary enlightenment; and with the other, he blew away the smoke and ash of ignorance and ill conceived notions”

Sri Aurobindo wrote in his memory:
"The earlier <mask> was only a poet and stylist, the later <mask> was a seer and nation-builder"

After the Vishabriksha (The Poison Tree) was published in 1873, the magazine, Punch wrote:

"You ought to read the Poison Tree
of <mask> <mask>." His novel Anushilan-Tattva inspired Pramathanath Mitra to start Anushilan Samiti. Bankim Puraskar (Bankim Memorial Award) is the highest award given by the Government of West Bengal for contribution to Bengali fiction.See also
 List of Indian writers

References

Further reading
 Ujjal Kumar Majumdar: <mask> <mask>y: His Contribution to Indian Life and Culture. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 2000. .
 Walter Ruben: Indische Romane. Eine ideologische Untersuchung. Vol. 1: Einige Romane <mask> Chattopadhyays iund Ranbindranath Tagore. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1964. (German)
 Bhabatosh <mask>, Editor: <mask> <mask>: Essays in Perspective (Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi) 1994.External links

1838 births
1894 deaths
Presidency University, Kolkata alumni
Bengali writers
Bengali-language writers
Indian civil servants
Indian male novelists
Writers from Kolkata
People from North 24 Parganas district
University of Calcutta alumni
Writers of historical romances
Bengali people
Bengali Hindus
Indian historical novelists
19th-century Indian novelists
19th-century Indian male writers
Neo-Vedanta
Novelists from West Bengal
Poets from West Bengal
Journalists from West Bengal
19th-century Indian journalists
Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Hooghly Mohsin

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title: Richard Owen

type: original

texts: Sir <mask>  (20 July 1804 – 18 December 1892) was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and paleontologist. Despite being a controversial figure, <mask> is generally considered to have been an outstanding naturalist with a remarkable gift for interpreting fossils. <mask> produced a vast array of scientific work, but is probably best remembered today for coining the word Dinosauria (meaning "Terrible Reptile" or "Fearfully Great Reptile"). An outspoken critic of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, <mask> agreed with Darwin that evolution occurred, but thought it was more complex than outlined in Darwin's On the Origin of Species. <mask>'s approach to evolution can be seen as having anticipated the issues that have gained greater attention with the recent emergence of evolutionary developmental biology. <mask> was the first president of the Microscopical Society of London in 1839 and edited many issues of its journal – then known as The Microscopic Journal. <mask> also campaigned for the natural specimens in the British Museum to be given a new home.This resulted in the establishment, in 1881, of the now world-famous Natural History Museum in South Kensington, London. Bill Bryson argues that, "by making the Natural History Museum an institution for everyone, <mask> transformed our expectations of what museums are for". While he made several contributions to science and public learning, <mask> was a controversial figure among his contemporaries, such as Thomas Henry Huxley. His later career was tainted by controversies, many of which involved accusations that

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title: Richard Owen

texts:
 he took credit for other people's work. Biography
<mask> was born in Lancaster in 1804, one of six children of a West Indian Merchant named <mask> (1754–1809). His mother, Catherine Longworth (née Parrin), was descended from Huguenots and he was educated at Lancaster Royal Grammar School. In 1820, he was apprenticed to a local surgeon and apothecary and, in 1824, he proceeded as a medical student to the University of Edinburgh.He left the university in the following year and completed his medical course in St Bartholomew's Hospital, London, where he came under the influence of the eminent surgeon John Abernethy. In July 1835 <mask> married Caroline Amelia Clift in St Pancras by whom he had one son, <mask>. He outlived both wife and son. After his death, in 1892, he was survived by his three grandchildren and daughter-in-law <mask>, to whom he left much of his £33,000 fortune. Upon completing his education, he accepted the position of assistant to William Clift, conservator of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, on the suggestion of Abernethy. This occupation led him to abandon medical practice in favor of scientific research. He prepared a series of catalogues of the Hunterian Collection, in the Royal College of Surgeons and, in the course of this work, he acquired a knowledge of comparative anatomy that facilitated his researches on the remains of extinct animals.In 1836, <mask> was appointed Hunterian professor, in the Royal College of Surgeons and, in 1849, he succeeded Clift as conservator. He held the latter office until 1856, when he became superintendent of the natural

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title: Richard Owen

texts: history department of the British Museum. He then devoted much of his energies to a great scheme for a National Museum of Natural History, which eventually resulted in the removal of the natural history collections of the British Museum to a new building at South Kensington: the British Museum (Natural History) (now the Natural History Museum). He retained office until the completion of this work, in December 1883, when he was made a knight of the Order of the Bath. He lived quietly in retirement at Sheen Lodge, Richmond Park, until his death in 1892. His career was tainted by accusations that he failed to give credit to the work of others and even tried to appropriate it in his own name. This came to a head in 1846, when he was awarded the Royal Medal for a paper he had written on belemnites.<mask> had failed to acknowledge that the belemnite had been discovered by Chaning Pearce, an amateur biologist, four years earlier. As a result of the ensuing scandal, he was voted off the councils of the Zoological Society and the Royal Society. <mask> always tended to support orthodox men of science and the status quo. The royal family presented him with the cottage in Richmond Park and Robert Peel put him on the Civil List. In 1843, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1844 he became an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. When this Institute became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1851, he joined as foreign member.In 1845, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. He died at home on 15

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title: Richard Owen

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 December 1892 and is buried in the churchyard at St Andrew's Church, Ham near Richmond, Surrey. Work on invertebrates
While occupied with the cataloguing of the Hunterian collection, <mask> did not confine his attention to the preparations before him but also seized every opportunity to dissect fresh subjects. He was allowed to examine all animals that died in London Zoo's gardens and, when the Zoo began to publish scientific proceedings, in 1831, he was the most prolific contributor of anatomical papers. His first notable publication, however, was his Memoir on the Pearly Nautilus (London, 1832), which was soon recognized as a classic. Thenceforth, he continued to make important contributions to every department of comparative anatomy and zoology for a period of over fifty years. In the sponges, <mask> was the first to describe the now well-known Venus' Flower Basket or Euplectella (1841, 1857).Among Entozoa, his most noteworthy discovery was that of Trichina spiralis (1835), the parasite infesting the muscles of man in the disease now termed trichinosis (see also, however, Sir James Paget). Of Brachiopoda he made very special studies, which much advanced knowledge and settled the classification that has long been accepted. Among Mollusca, he described not only the pearly nautilus but also Spirula (1850) and other Cephalopoda, both living and extinct, and it was he who proposed the universally-accepted subdivision of this class into the two orders of Dibranchiata and Tetrabranchiata (1832). In 1852 <mask> named Protichnites – the oldest footprints found on land. Applying his knowledge

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 of anatomy, he correctly postulated that these Cambrian trackways were made by an extinct type of arthropod, and he did this more than 150 years before any fossils of the animal were found. <mask> envisioned a resemblance of the animal to the living arthropod Limulus, which was the subject of a special memoir he wrote in 1873. Fish, reptiles, birds, and naming of dinosaurs

<mask>'s technical descriptions of the Vertebrata were still more numerous and extensive than those of the invertebrate animals.His Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates (3 vols. London 1866–1868) was indeed the result of more personal research than any similar work since Georges Cuvier's Leçons d'anatomie comparée. He not only studied existing forms but also devoted great attention to the remains of extinct groups, and followed Cuvier, the pioneer of vertebrate paleontology. Early in his career, he made exhaustive studies of teeth of existing and extinct animals and published his profusely illustrated work on Odontography (1840–1845). He discovered and described the remarkably complex structure of the teeth of the extinct animals which he named Labyrinthodontia. Among his writings on fish, his memoir on the African lungfish, which he named Protopterus, laid the foundations for the recognition of the Dipnoi by Johannes Müller. He also later pointed out the serial connection between the teleostean and ganoid fishes, grouping them in one sub-class, the Teleostomi.Most of his work on reptiles related to the skeletons of extinct forms and his chief memoirs, on British specimens, were reprinted in a connected


title: Richard Owen

texts: series in his History of British Fossil Reptiles (4 vols. London 1849–1884). He published the first important general account of the great group of Mesozoic land-reptiles, and he coined the name Dinosauria from Greek δεινός (deinos) "terrible, powerful, wondrous" + σαύρος (sauros) "lizard". <mask> used 3 genera to define the dinosaurs: the carnivorous Megalosaurus, the herbivorous Iguanodon and armoured Hylaeosaurus''', specimens uncovered in southern England. He also first recognized the curious early Mesozoic synapsids, with affinities both to amphibians and mammals, which he termed Anomodontia (the mammal-like synapsids, Therapsida). Most of these were obtained from South Africa, beginning in 1845 (Dicynodon) and eventually furnished materials for his Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa, issued by the British Museum, in 1876. Among his writings on birds, his classical memoir on the kiwi (1840–1846), a long series of papers on the extinct Dinornithidae of New Zealand, other memoirs on Aptornis, the takahe, the dodo and the great auk, may be especially mentioned.His monograph on Archaeopteryx (1863), the long-tailed, toothed bird from the Bavarian lithographic stone, is also an epoch-making work. With Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins, <mask> helped create the first life-size sculptures depicting dinosaurs as he thought they might have appeared. Some models were initially created for the Great Exhibition of 1851, but 33 were eventually produced when the Crystal Palace was relocated to Sydenham, in South London. <mask> famously hosted a dinner for 21 prominent men of science


title: Richard Owen

texts:
 inside the hollow concrete Iguanodon on New Year's Eve 1853. However, in 1849, a few years before his death in 1852, Gideon Mantell had realised that Iguanodon, of which he was the discoverer, was not a heavy, pachyderm-like animal, as <mask> was proposing, but had slender forelimbs; his death left him unable to participate in the creation of the Crystal Palace dinosaur sculptures, and so <mask>'s vision of dinosaurs became that seen by the public. He had nearly two dozen lifesize sculptures of various prehistoric animals built out of concrete sculpted over a steel and brick framework; two Iguanodon, one standing and one resting on its belly, were included. Work on mammals

<mask> was granted right of first refusal on any freshly dead animal at the London Zoo.His wife once arrived home to find the carcass of a newly deceased rhinoceros in her front hallway. With regard to living mammals, the more striking of <mask>'s contributions relate to the monotremes, marsupials and the anthropoid apes. He was also the first to recognize and name the two natural groups of typical Ungulate, the odd-toed (Perissodactyla) and the even-toed (Artiodactyla), while describing some fossil remains, in 1848. Most of his writings on mammals, however, deal with extinct forms, to which his attention seems to have been first directed by the remarkable fossils collected by Charles Darwin, in South America. Toxodon, from the pampas, was then described and gave the earliest clear evidence of an extinct generalized hoof animal, a pachyderm with affinities to the Rodentia, Edentata and herbivorous Cetacea. <mask>'s

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texts:
 interest in South American extinct mammals then led to the recognition of the giant armadillo, which he named Glyptodon (1839) and to classic memoirs on the giant ground-sloths, Mylodon (1842) and Megatherium (1860), besides other important contributions. <mask> also first described the false killer whale in 1863.At the same time, Sir Thomas Mitchell's discovery of fossil bones, in New South Wales, provided material for the first of <mask>'s long series of papers on the extinct mammals of Australia, which were eventually reprinted in book-form in 1877. He described Diprotodon (1838) and Thylacoleo (1859), and extinct species kangaroos and wombats of gigantic size. Most fossil material found in Australia and New Zealand was initially sent to England for expert examination, and with the assistance of the local collectors <mask> became the first authority on the palaeontology of the region. While occupied with so much material from abroad, <mask> was also busily collecting facts for an exhaustive work on similar fossils from the British Isles and, in 1844–1846, he published his History of British Fossil Mammals and Birds, which was followed by many later memoirs, notably his Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formations (Palaeont. Soc., 1871). One of his latest publications was a little work entitled Antiquity of Man as deduced from the Discovery of a Human Skeleton during Excavations of the Docks at Tilbury (London, 1884). <mask>, Darwin, and the theory of evolution

Following the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin had at his disposal a considerable collection of specimens and,


title: Richard Owen

texts: on 29 October 1836, he was introduced by Charles Lyell to <mask>, who agreed to work on fossil bones collected in South America.<mask>'s subsequent revelations, that the extinct giant creatures were rodents and sloths, showed that they were related to current species in the same locality, rather than being relatives of similarly sized creatures in Africa, as Darwin had originally thought. This was one of the many influences that led Darwin later to formulate his own ideas on the concept of natural selection. At this time, <mask> talked of his theories, influenced by Johannes Peter Müller, that living matter had an "organising energy", a life-force that directed the growth of tissues and also determined the lifespan of the individual and of the species. Darwin was reticent about his own thoughts, understandably, when, on 19 December 1838, as secretary of the Geological Society of London, he saw <mask> and his allies ridicule the Lamarckian 'heresy' of Darwin's old tutor, Robert Edmund Grant. In 1841, when the recently married Darwin was ill, <mask> was one of the few scientific friends to visit; however, <mask>'s opposition to any hint of transmutation made Darwin keep quiet about his hypothesis. Sometime during the 1840s <mask> came to the conclusion that species arise as the result of some sort of evolutionary process. He believed that there was a total of six possible mechanisms: parthenogenesis, prolonged development, premature birth, congenital malformations, Lamarckian atrophy, Lamarckian hypertrophy and transmutation, of which he thought transmutation was the least likely.The

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title: Richard Owen

texts: historian of science Evelleen <mask> has argued that <mask> was likely sympathetic to developmental theories of evolution, but backed away from publicly proclaiming them after the critical reaction that had greeted the anonymously published evolutionary book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844 (it was revealed only decades later that the book had been authored by publisher Robert Chambers). <mask> had been criticized for his own evolutionary remarks in his Nature of the Limbs in 1849. At the end of On the Nature of Limbs <mask> had suggested that humans ultimately evolved from fish as the result of natural laws, which resulted in his being criticized in the Manchester Spectator for denying that species such as humans were created by God. During the development of Darwin's theory, his investigation of barnacles showed, in 1849, how their segmentation related to other crustaceans, showing how they had diverged from their relatives. To both Darwin and <mask> such "homologies" in comparative anatomy were evidence of descent. <mask> demonstrated fossil evidence of an evolutionary sequence of horses, as supporting his idea of development from archetypes in "ordained continuous becoming" and, in 1854, gave a British Association talk on the impossibility of bestial apes, such as the recently discovered gorilla, standing erect and being transmuted into men, but <mask> did not rule out the possibility that humans had evolved from other extinct animals by evolutionary mechanisms other than transmutation. Working-class militants were trumpeting man's monkey origins.To crush these

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title: Richard Owen

texts: ideas, <mask>, as President-elect of the Royal Association, announced his authoritative anatomical studies of primate brains, claiming that the human brain had structures that apes brains did not, and that therefore humans were a separate sub-class, starting a dispute which was subsequently satirised as the Great Hippocampus Question. <mask>'s main argument was that humans have much larger brains for their body size than other mammals including the great apes. Darwin wrote that "I cannot swallow Man [being that] distinct from a Chimpanzee". The combative Thomas Henry Huxley used his March 1858 Royal Institution lecture to deny <mask>'s claim and affirmed that structurally, gorillas are as close to humans as they are to baboons. He believed that the "mental & moral faculties are essentially... the same kind in animals & ourselves". This was a clear denial of <mask>'s claim for human uniqueness, given at the same venue. On the publication of Darwin's theory, in On The Origin of Species, he sent a complimentary copy to <mask>, saying "it will seem 'an abomination.<mask> was the first to respond, courteously claiming that he had long believed that "existing influences" were responsible for the "ordained" birth of species. Darwin now had long talks with him and <mask> said that the book offered the best explanation "ever published of the manner of formation of species", although he still had the gravest doubts that transmutation would bestialize man. It appears that Darwin had assured <mask> that he was looking at everything as resulting from designed laws, which <mask> interpreted as

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title: Richard Owen

texts: showing a shared belief in "Creative Power". As head of the Natural History Collections at the British Museum, <mask> received numerous inquiries and complaints about the Origin. His own views remained unknown: when emphasising to a Parliamentary committee the need for a new Natural History museum, he pointed out that "The whole intellectual world this year has been excited by a book on the origin of species; and what is the consequence? Visitors come to the British Museum, and they say, 'Let us see all these varieties of pigeons: where is the tumbler, where is the pouter?' and I am obliged with shame to say, I can show you none of them" .... "As to showing you the varieties of those species, or of any of those phenomena that would aid one in getting at that mystery of mysteries, the origin of species, our space does not permit; but surely there ought to be a space somewhere, and, if not in the British Museum, where is it to be obtained?"However, Huxley's attacks were making their mark. In April 1860 the Edinburgh Review included <mask>'s anonymous review of the Origin. In it <mask> showed his anger at what he saw as Darwin's caricature of the creationist position, and his ignoring <mask>'s "axiom of the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of living things". As well as attacking Darwin's "disciples", Hooker and Huxley, for their "short-sighted adherence", he thought that the book symbolised the sort of "abuse of science... to which a neighbouring nation, some seventy years since, owed its temporary degradation" in a reference to the French Revolution. Darwin thought it

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texts: "Spiteful, extremely malignant, clever, and... damaging" and later commented that "The Londoners say he is mad with envy because my book is so talked about. It is painful to be hated in the intense degree with which <mask> hates me." During the reaction to Darwin's theory, Huxley's arguments with <mask> continued.<mask> tried to smear Huxley, by portraying him as an "advocate of man's origins from a transmuted ape" and one of his contributions to the Athenaeum was titled "Ape-Origin of Man as Tested by the Brain". In 1862 (and on other occasions) Huxley took the opportunity to arrange demonstrations of ape brain anatomy (e.g. at the BA meeting, where William Flower performed the dissection). Visual evidence of the supposedly missing structures (posterior cornu and hippocampus minor) was used, in effect, to indict <mask> for perjury. <mask> had argued that the absence of those structures in apes were connected with the lesser size to which the ape brains grew, but he then conceded that a poorly developed version might be construed as present without preventing him from arguing that brain size was still the major way of distinguishing apes and humans. Huxley's campaign ran over two years and was devastatingly successful at persuading the overall scientific community, with each "slaying" being followed by a recruiting drive for the Darwinian cause. The spite lingered.While <mask> had argued that humans were distinct from apes by virtue of having large brains, Huxley claimed that racial diversity blurred any such distinction. In his paper criticizing <mask>, Huxley directly states: "if we


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texts:
 place A, the European brain, B, the Bosjesman brain, and C, the orang brain, in a series, the differences between A and B, so far as they have been ascertained, are of the same nature as the chief of those between B and C". <mask> countered Huxley by saying the brains of all human races were really of similar size and intellectual ability, and that the fact that humans had brains that were twice the size of large apes like male gorillas, even though humans had much smaller bodies, made humans distinguishable. When Huxley joined the Zoological Society Council, in 1861, <mask> left and, in the following year, Huxley moved to stop <mask> from being elected to the Royal Society Council, accusing him "of wilful & deliberate falsehood". (See also Thomas Henry Huxley.) In January 1863, <mask> bought the Archaeopteryx fossil for the British Museum. It fulfilled Darwin's prediction that a proto-bird with unfused wing fingers would be found, although <mask> described it unequivocally as a bird.The feuding between <mask> and Darwin's supporters continued. In 1871, <mask> was found to be involved in a threat to end government funding of Joseph Dalton Hooker's botanical collection, at Kew, possibly trying to bring it under his British Museum. Darwin commented that "I used to be ashamed of hating him so much, but now I will carefully cherish my hatred & contempt to the last days of my life". Legacy

<mask>'s detailed memoirs and descriptions require laborious attention in reading, on account of their complex terminology and ambiguous modes of expression. The fact that very little of his terminology

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title: Richard Owen

texts: has found universal favour causes them to be more generally neglected than they otherwise would be. At the same time, it must be remembered that he was a pioneer in concise anatomical nomenclature and, so far at least as the vertebrate skeleton is concerned, his terms were based on a carefully reasoned philosophical scheme, which first clearly distinguished between the now-familiar phenomena of analogy and homology. <mask>'s theory of the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton (1848), subsequently illustrated also by his little work On the Nature of Limbs (1849), regarded the vertebrate frame as consisting of a series of fundamentally identical segments, each modified according to its position and functions.Much of it was fanciful and failed when tested by the facts of embryology, which <mask> systematically ignored, throughout his work. However, though an imperfect and distorted view of certain great truths, it possessed a distinct value at the time of its conception. To the discussion of the deeper problems of biological philosophy, he made scarcely any direct and definite contributions. His generalities rarely extended beyond strict comparative anatomy, the phenomena of adaptation to function and the facts of geographical or geological distribution. His lecture on virgin reproduction or parthenogenesis, however, published in 1849, contained the essence of the germ plasm theory, elaborated later by August Weismann and he made several vague statements concerning the geological succession of genera and species of animals and their possible derivation one from another. He


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 referred, especially, to the changes exhibited by the successive forerunners of the crocodiles (1884) and horses (1868) but it has never become clear how much of the modern doctrines of organic evolution he admitted. He contented himself with the bare remark that "the inductive demonstration of the nature and mode of operation of the laws governing life would henceforth be the great aim of the philosophical naturalist."He was the first director in Natural History Museum in London and his statue was in the main hall there until 2009, when it was replaced with a statue of Darwin. A bust of <mask> by Alfred Gilbert (1896) is held in the Hunterian Museum, London. There is a blue plaque in his honour at Lancaster Royal Grammar School. A species of Central American lizard, Diploglossus owenii, was named in his honor by French herpetologists André Marie Constant Duméril and Gabriel Bibron in 1839. The <mask> <mask> pub in central Lancaster is named in his honour. Conflicts with his peers
<mask> has been described by some as a malicious, dishonest and hateful individual. He has been described in one biography as being a "social experimenter with a penchant for sadism.Addicted to controversy and driven by arrogance and jealousy". Deborah Cadbury stated that <mask> possessed an "almost fanatical egoism with a callous delight in savaging his critics." An Oxford University professor once described <mask> as "a damned liar. He lied for God and for malice". Gideon Mantell claimed it was "a pity a man so talented should be so dastardly and envious". <mask> Freeman described him as "the most

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texts: distinguished vertebrate zoologist and palaeontologist ... but a most deceitful and odious man". Charles Darwin stated that "No one fact tells so strongly against <mask> ... as that he has never reared one pupil or follower."<mask> famously credited himself and Georges Cuvier with the discovery of the Iguanodon, completely excluding any credit for the original discoverer of the dinosaur, Gideon Mantell. This was not the first or last time <mask> would falsely claim a discovery as his own. It has also been suggested by some authors, including Bill Bryson in A Short History of Nearly Everything, that <mask> even used his influence in the Royal Society to ensure that many of Mantell's research papers were never published. <mask> was finally dismissed from the Royal Society's Zoological Council for plagiarism. When Mantell suffered an accident that left him permanently crippled, <mask> exploited the opportunity by renaming several dinosaurs which had already been named by Mantell, even having the audacity to claim credit for their discovery himself. When Mantell finally died in 1852, an obituary carrying no byline derided Mantell as little more than a mediocre scientist, who brought forth few notable contributions. The obituary's authorship was universally attributed to <mask> by every geologist.The president of the Geological Society claimed that it "bespeaks of the lamentable coldness of the heart of the writer". <mask> was subsequently denied the presidency of the society for his repeated and pointed antagonism towards Gideon Mantell. Even more extraordinary was the way <mask> ignored


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texts: the genuine scientific content of Mantell's work. For example, despite the paucity of finds Mantell had worked out that some dinosaurs were bipedal, including Iguanodon. This remarkable insight was totally ignored by <mask>, whose instructions for the Crystal Palace models by Waterhouse Hawkins portrayed Iguanodon as grossly overweight and quadrupedal. Mantell did not live to witness the discovery in 1878 of articulated skeletons in a Belgium coal-mine that showed Iguanodon was mostly bipedal (and in that stance could use its thumb for defence). <mask> made no comment or retraction; he never did on any errors he made.Moreover, since the earliest known dinosaurs were bipedal, Mantell's idea was indeed insightful. Despite originally starting out on good terms with Darwin, <mask> was highly critical of the Origin in large part because Darwin did not refer much to the previous scientific theories of evolution that had been proposed by people like Chambers and himself, and instead compared the theory of evolution by natural selection with the unscientific theory in the Bible. Another reason for his criticism of the Origin, some historians claim, was that <mask> felt upstaged by Darwin and supporters such as Huxley, and his judgment was clouded by jealousy. <mask> in Darwin's opinion was "Spiteful, extremely malignant, clever; the Londoners say he is mad with envy because my book is so talked about". "It is painful to be hated in the intense degree with which <mask> hates me". <mask> also resorted to the same subterfuge he used against Mantell, writing another anonymous article in the


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 Edinburgh Review in April 1860. In the article, <mask> was critical of Darwin for not offering many new observations, and heaped praise (in the third person) upon himself, while being careful not to associate any particular comment with his own name.<mask> did praise, however, the Origin's description of Darwin's work on insect behavior and pigeon breeding as Huxley, Thomas H., (1861), "On the Zoological Relations of Man with the Lower Animals", Natural History Review 1: 67–84. "real gems". <mask> was also a party to the threat to end government funding of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew botanical collection (see Attacks on Hooker and Kew), orchestrated by Acton Smee Ayrton:
"There is no doubt that rivalry resulted between the British Museum, where there was the very important Herbarium of the Department of Botany, and Kew. The rivalry at times became extremely personal, especially between Joseph Hooker and <mask>...  At the root was <mask>’s feeling that Kew should be subordinate to the British Museum (and to <mask>) and should not be allowed to develop as an independent scientific institution with the advantage of a great botanic garden." It has been suggested by some authors that the portrayal of <mask> as a vindictive and treacherous man was fostered and encouraged by his rivals (particularly Darwin, Hooker and Huxley) and may be somewhat undeserved. In the first part of his career he was regarded rightly as one of the great scientific figures of the age. In the second part of his career his reputation slipped.This was not due solely to his underhanded dealings with colleagues; it


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 was also due to serious errors of scientific judgement that were discovered and publicized. A fine example was his decision to classify man in a separate subclass of the Mammalia (see Man's place in nature). In this <mask> had no supporters at all. Also, his unwillingness to come off the fence concerning evolution became increasingly damaging to his reputation as time went on. <mask> continued working after his official retirement at the age of 79, but he never recovered the good opinions he had garnered in his younger days.Sir <mask>: the archetypal villain. Darwin.gruts.com. Retrieved on 17 September 2011.Bibliography
 Memoir on the Pearly Nautilus (1832)
 Odontography (1840–1845)
 Description of the Skeleton of an Extinct Gigantic Sloth (1842)
 On the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton (1848)
 History of British Fossil Reptiles (4 vols., 1849–1884)
 On the Nature of Limbs (1849)
 Palæontology or a Systematic Summary of Extinct Animals and Their Geological Relations (1860)
 Archaeopteryx (1863)
 Anatomy of Vertebrates (1866) Image from
Available at Google Books:
Volume I, Fishes and Reptiles
Volume II, Birds and Mammals
Volume III, Mammals
 Memoir of the Dodo (1866) Full book on Wiki commons
 Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formations (1871)
 Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa (1876)
 Antiquity of Man as deduced from the Discovery of a Human Skeleton during Excavations of the Docks at Tilbury (1884)

References

Further reading

  Amundson, Ron, (2007), The Changing Role of the Embryo in Evolutionary Thought: Roots of Evo-Devo. New

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title: Richard Owen

texts:
 York: Cambridge University of Press. Cosans, Christopher, (2009), <mask>'s Ape & Darwin's Bulldog: Beyond Darwinism and Creationism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Desmond, Adrian & Moore, James (1991). Darwin. London: Michael Joseph, the Penguin Group. .
Darwin, Francis, editor (1887).The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin: Including an Autobiographical Chapter (7th Edition). London: John Murray. Darwin, Francis & Seward, A. C., editors (1903). More letters of Charles Darwin: A record of his work in a series of hitherto unpublished letters. London: John Murray. Huxley, Thomas H., (1861),  "On the Zoological Relations of Man with the Lower Animals", Natural History Review  1: 67–84. <mask>, Evellen, (1987),  "A Question of Property Rights: <mask>'s Evolutionism Reassessed", British Journal for the History of Science, 20: 129–171.Rupke, Nicolaas, (1994), <mask>: Victorian Naturalist. New Haven: Yale University Press. Shindler, Karolyn. <mask>: the greatest scientist you've never heard of'', The Telegraph, 16 December 2010. (accessed 16 December 2010)

External links

1804 births
1892 deaths
English anatomists
English biologists
English palaeontologists
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital
Employees of the Natural History Museum, London
English people of French descent
Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society
Fellows of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Fullerian Professors of Physiology
Knights Commander of the

masks:
Owen
Richards
Richard Owen
Richard Owen
Richard Owen


title: Charles Alexandre Lesueur

texts:
<mask> (1 January 1778 in Le Havre – 12 December 1846 in Le Havre) was a French naturalist, artist, and explorer. He was a prolific natural-history collector, gathering many type specimens in Australia, Southeast Asia, and North America, and was also responsible for describing numerous species, including the spiny softshell turtle (Apalone spinifera), smooth softshell turtle (A. mutica), and common map turtle (Graptemys geographica). Both Mount <mask> and Lesueur National Park in Western Australia are named in his honor. Life
In 1801, Lesueur traveled to Australia as artist on the expedition of Nicolas Baudin. With François Péron, he took over the duties as naturalist after the death of the expedition's zoologist René Maugé. Together, they collected over 100,000 zoological specimens. In 1802, he made the only known sketches of the King Island emu in its natural habitat (the bird became extinct in 1822).Between May 1816 and early 1837, he lived and traveled widely in the United States, particularly in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri. He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1817. In 1833, he visited Vincennes, Indiana, where he sketched the first known drawing of Grouseland, the mansion of William Henry Harrison. The mansion is today a National Historic Landmark. From 1826 to 1837, Lesueur was based in New Harmony, Indiana, where he filled sketchbooks full of the finds discovered during the utopian adventure funded by his friend and former employer, American geologist

masks:
Charles Alexandre Lesueur
Lesueur


title: Charles Alexandre Lesueur

texts:
 died suddenly (12 December 1846) and was buried at Le Havre. In the 1900s, his work was finally published by the museum, totaling over 60 books, including reports of his zoological, geological, historical, and archaeological research, as well as studies of his life. Pictured here is the oil portrait by <mask> Peale of Lesueur. The original hangs in the reading room of the Ewell Sale Stewart Library in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Gallery

Eponyms
One species of frog, two species of lizards, and a species of jellyfish were named in honour of Lesueur (the last also honoring François Péron, also of the Baudin expedition):

Litoria lesueurii  – Lesueur's frog (Hylidae)
Amalosia lesueurii  – Lesueur's velvet gecko (Diplodactylidae)
Intellagama lesueurii  – eastern water dragon (Agamidae)
Phyllorhiza peronlesuerui  – a jellyfish (Mastigiidae)

Published works

 Le Sueur, C. A. 1817. Descriptions of six new Species of the genus Firola, observed by Messrs.Le Sueur and Péron in the Mediterranean Sea, in the months of March and April, 1809. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1, 3–8. Le Sueur, C. A. 1817. Characters of a new genus, and descriptions of three new species upon which it is formed; discovered in the Atlantic ocean, in the months of March and April, 1816. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1(3), 37–41. (Read April 15, 1817) (BHL link)
 Le Sueur, C. A.1817. Descriptions of three new species of the genus Raja. Journal of the


title: Charles Alexandre Lesueur

texts:
 species of the genus Actinia; illustrated by figures. Part 1. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1(6), 149–154. (Read October 21, 1817) (BHL link)
 Le Sueur, C. A.1817. Observations on several species of the genus Actinia; illustrated by figures. Part 2. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1(6), 169–189. (Read October 21, 1817) (BHL link)
 Le Sueur, C. A. 1818. Descriptions of several new species of North American fishes.Part 1. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1, 222–235. (Read March 3, 1818) (BHL link)
 Le Sueur, C. A. 1818. Observations on a new genus of fossil shells. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1, 310–313. (Read June 30, 1818) (BHL link)
 Le Sueur, C. A.1818. Descriptions of several new species of North American fishes. Part 2. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1, 359–365. (Read March 3, 1818) (BHL link)
 Le Sueur, C. A. 1818. Description of several new species of the genus Esox, of North America.Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1, 413–417. (Read March 3, 1818) (BHL link)
 Le Sueur, C. A. 1823. Descriptions of several new species of Ascidia. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 3, 2–8. (Read March 25, 1822)

See also
 :Category:Taxa named by <mask> Lesueur
 European and American voyages of scientific exploration

References

Further reading
 Josephine Mirabella Elliott and Jane Thompson Johansen, <mask> Lesueur:

masks:
Charles Alexandre
Charles Alexandre


title: Charles Alexandre Lesueur

texts:
 Premier Naturalist and Artist, New Harmony, Indiana, 1999. Claus Nissen: Die zoologische Buchillustration.Ihre Bibliographie und Geschichte. Vol. I: Bibliographie. Anton Hiersemann, Verlag 1969. Page 252. R. W. G. Vail, The American Sketchbooks of <mask> Lesueur, 1816–1837, American Antiquarian Society, 1938. Waldo G. Leland, The Lesueur Collection of American Sketches in the Museum of Natural History at Havre, Seine-Inferieure, Journal of American History 10(1): 53–64, June 1923.Accessed at: https://doi.org/10.2307/1888689. Cédric Crémière et Gabrielle Baglione, Lesueur, Peintre voyageur, Un trésor oublié, coll. Très Grande Bibliothèque Thalassa, Éditions de Conti, Paris, 2009 ()
 Muséum d'Histoire naturelle du Havre, Lesueur, peintre voyageur http://www.museum-lehavre.fr/fr/collections/ca-lesueur/lesueur-peintre-voyageur
 John R. Dolan, <mask> Lesueur in Philadelphia: His remarkable contributions to natural history and scientific illustration. Arts and Scoences Vol 4 n3 (2020) http://www.openscience.fr/IMG/pdf/iste_artsci20v4n3_6.pdf

External links

 <mask> Lesueur (1778–1846) naturalist, artist
 Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, Le Havre (Lesueur, peintre voyageur)
 Fishes Described and Drawn by C. A. Lesueur
 Graptemys geographica Lesueur (Map turtle, first described by Lesueur)
 Maclurites magnus Lesueur
 Alex the explorer, the hero of a new graphic novel
 Baudin's voyage – State Library (South Australia)
 Historic New Harmony (Indiana)
 L'expédition Baudin en Australie – Université de La

masks:
Charles Alexandre
Charles Alexandre
Charles Alexandre


title: Charles Alexandre Lesueur

texts:
 Rochelle
 Charles A Lesueur Papers – Purdue University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections (Indiana, USA). Works of art on paper, including pencil, pastel, charcoal and watercolor sketches by artist and naturalist <mask> Lesueur, Virginia Dupalais, and Lucy Sistare [Say]. 1778 births
1846 deaths
People from Le Havre
French naturalists
Shark Bay
People from New Harmony,


title: Lee Gi-kwang

texts:
<mask> (; born March 30, 1990), known professionally as Gikwang or Kikwang, is a South Korean singer, songwriter and actor. He originally debuted as solo singer with the stage name AJ (Ace Junior), releasing his first mini album First Episode: A New Hero on April 4, 2009. In October 2009, he debuted as the main dancer, visual and a lead vocalist of boy group BEAST, which was renamed Highlight in February 2017. He began his acting career with a supporting role in the popular television sitcom High Kick Through the Roof (2009–10) and had supporting roles in dramas My Princess (2011), Me Too, Flower! (2011), Mrs. Cop (2015), Monster (2016), Circle (2017), and Lovely Horribly (2018),  He also became an MC for various shows such as Hot Brothers and Inkigayo. Early life and career
<mask> was born on March 30, 1990 in Naju, South Korea. Gi-kwang found interest in hip hop and had particular liking to many classic hip hop acts.At first he was backed by his family to pursue a musical career but eventually he passed an audition and became a trainee. He was trained under JYP Entertainment for four years before being eliminated. He was asked by the former president of Cube Entertainment to join the agency without auditioning, making him the company's first trainee. He was known as the solo singer AJ or Ace Junior when he debuted and released a mini-album First Episode: A New Hero on April 4, 2009. He made his debut on April 2, 2009 on Mnet M!Countdown, and dubbed by Korean media as the next Rain. However he met controversies when

masks:
Lee Gi kwang
Lee Gi kwang


title: Lee Gi-kwang

texts:
 Popularity Award from the 2010 MBC Entertainment Awards.Gi-kwang, together with IU, were selected to be new MCs of Inkigayo in replacement of CNBlue's Jung Yonghwa from March 20, 2011. The two were paired with the existing MCs, 2AM's Jo Kwon, and f(x)'s Sulli. He was also chosen as the leading man in A Pink's music video, "I Don't Know" Sunny Hill's music video for "Midnight Circus". In July, Gi-kwang was featured on Brave Brothers' song "Break Up" alongside Electroboyz, as a part of Brave Brother's sixth project album on July 12, 2011. Also in 2011, Gi-kwang was cast in the romantic comedy drama My Princess starring Song Seung-hun and Kim Tae-hee; and played <mask>-ah's patrol partner in the drama Me Too, Flower!. Gi-kwang won the Best New Actor award at the SBS Drama Awards for his performance in My Princess. On February 8, 2012 Gi-kwang appeared in Ailee's debut music video, "Heaven".Gi-kwang also hosted  SBS K-Pop Super Concert in America on November 10 alongside Tiffany Hwang and Jung Yong-hwa and Melon Music Awards with Infinite's Woohyun, Moon Hee-jun, and Danny Ahn. In 2013, Gi-kwang had a role as a terminally ill patient with leukemia on KBS Drama Special My Friend is Still Alive. In 2014, he starred in the mobile drama 20's (Twenty Years Old). In 2015, Gi-kwang was cast in SBS's drama Mrs. Cop as the youngest detective on the team. He next starred as the younger version of Kang Ji-hwan's character in the 2016 MBC drama Monster, and the web drama Momin's Room. 2017–present: Return to solo music career
In


title: Lee Gi-kwang

texts:
 September 2017, Gi-kwang returned as a soloist with his first mini album One. The lead single was a future R&B single titled "What You Like".Gi-kwang reportedly participated in 6 out of 8 tracks on the album. He held his first solo concert <mask>wang Mini Live 2018 One in January 2018. Also in 2017, Gi-kwang was cast in tvN's science fiction drama Circle. In 2018, Gi-kwang was cast in KBS' horror romance drama Lovely Horribly. On April 18, 2019, Gi-kwang began his mandatory military service as a conscripted police officer. He was discharged on November 18, 2020. Discography

Extended plays

Singles

As lead artist

As featured artist

Collaborations

Music videos

Songwriting credits

Filmography

Film

Television series

Television shows

Web shows

Concerts

Korean tours

 LEEGIKWANG Mini LIVE 2018 <ONE> - Blue Square I Market Hall, Seoul (January 27–28, 2018)

 LEEGIKWANG LIVE 2019 [I] - Blue Square I Market Hall, Seoul (March 23-24, 2019)

Japan tours

 LEEGIKWANG Mini LIVE 2018 <ONE> in Japan - Mynavi BLITZ Akasaka, Tokyo (July 22, 2018)

 LEEGIKWANG LIVE 2019 [I] in Japan - Toyosu PIT by Team Smile, Tokyo (13 April, 2019)

Taiwan tours
 LEEGIKWANG LIVE 2019 [I] in Taiwan - Taiwan TICC Hall, Taipei (30 March, 2019)

Awards and nominations

References

External links

Highlight (band) members
1990 births
Cube Entertainment artists
K-pop singers
Living people
South Korean male singers
South Korean pop singers
South Korean male television actors
South Korean male film actors
South Korean dance musicians
South


title: Francis William Newman

texts:
<mask> (27 June 1805 – 4 October 1897) was an English classical scholar and moral philosopher, prolific miscellaneous writer and activist for vegetarianism and other causes. He was the younger brother of <mask>. Thomas Carlyle in his life of John Sterling called him a "man of fine attainments, of the sharpest-cutting and most restlessly advancing intellect and of the mildest pious enthusiasm." George Eliot called him "our blessed St. <mask>" and his soul "a blessed yea". Early life
He was born in London, the third son of <mask>, a banker, and his wife Jemima Fourdrinier, sister of Henry Fourdrinier. With his brother John Henry, he was educated at Ealing School. He matriculated at Worcester College, Oxford in 1822, where he obtained a double first class and graduated B.A.in 1826. He was elected fellow of Balliol College in the same year. During his undergraduate days, his father's bank having failed, he was able to complete his degree by relying on financial support from his older brother John Henry. Early in his student period, however, lodging as he did with his brother, he disagreed enough on established religion to feel, at least as he expressed it in a late autobiographical work, that there was a breach in their relationship. He never graduated M.A., normally at Oxford a pure formality, since he shortly acquired religious scruples about signing as required the 39 Articles. In 1827 <mask> went to Delgany, co. Wicklow, where for a year he tutored the sons of Edward Pennefather, There he fell under the influence of Pennefather's brother-in-law, the Rev John Nelson Darby, one of the nascent group of Plymouth Brethren, who he describes in Phases of Faith as "the Irish Clergyman". Conscientious scruples respecting the ceremony of infant baptism then led him to resign his fellowship in 1830.Missionary
<mask> then took another position, in the family of Henry Parnell, 4th Baronet Parnell.

masks:
Francis William Newman
John Henry Newman
Francis
John Newman
Newman
Newman


title: Francis William Newman

texts:
 An obituary of Edward Cronin, a Catholic convert widowed in 1829, suggests a Bible study group as origin of the sequel. <mask> had recently been rejected by Maria Rosina Giberne, whom he had been courting for seven years, and had been helping his brother with parish work at Littlemore. Shortly, in September 1830, <mask> left Ireland with a party bound for Baghdad. They intended to join the independent faith mission of Anthony Norris Groves, who was working there with John Kitto and Karl Gottlieb Pfander. The party included John Vesey Parnell, who was its financial backer with John Gifford Bellett, Edward Cronin, and others. The journey, guided by the early views of Darby, ended badly.<mask>'s letters written home during the period of his mission were collected and published in 1856. There are other accounts, by the Brethren historian <mask> Neatby, and by Henry Groves, son of Anthony Norris Groves. In 1833 <mask> returned to England, via Tehran, with Kitto, arriving in June. He intended to find additional support for the mission: but rumours of unsoundness in his views on the doctrine of eternal punishment had preceded him. Academic
Finding himself looked upon with suspicion by erstwhile evangelical colleagues, including Darby, <mask> gave up on his vocation of missionary. He became classical tutor at the non-sectarian Bristol College, which existed 1831–1841 at Park Row, Bristol. <mask> in 1840 became classics professor at Manchester New College, the dissenters' college lately returned from York, at the time linked to London University.In 1846 he moved to become a professor of Latin at University College, London, where he remained until 1869. Works
<mask> studied mathematics and oriental languages, but wrote little until 1847. He is credited with the Weierstrass definition of the gamma function (1848, in reciprocal form). Linguistic
As listed in the Dictionary of National Biography. A

masks:
Newman
Newman
Newman
William Blair
Newman
Newman
Newman
Newman


title: Francis William Newman

texts:
 Crusades; or the Duty of the Church to the World, Nottingham, 1886
Hebrew Jesus: His true Creed, Nottingham, 1895

Posthumous was

Mature Thought on Christianity, 1897, edited by George Jacob Holyoake.Social and political
As listed in the Dictionary of National Biography. A State Church not Defensible, 1845; 1848
On Separating … Church from State, 1846
Appeal to the Middle Classes on … Reforms, 1848
On … Our National Debt, 1849
Lectures on Political Economy, 1851
The Ethics of War, 1860
English Institutions and their … Reforms, 1865
The Permissive Bill, Manchester, 1865
The Cure of the great Social Evil, 1869; first part reprinted as On the State Provision for Vice, 1871; second part reprinted, 1889
Europe of the near Future, 1871
Lecture on Women's Suffrage, Bristol [1869]
Essays on Diet, 1883
The Land as National Property [1886]
The Corruption now called Neo-Malthusianism, 1889; 1890
The Vaccination Question, 5th edit. 1895

Other

Physiological Arguments in Favor of Vegetarianism. The Herald of Health, 1875. Contributions chiefly to the Early History of <mask> (1891), considered deficient in fraternal feeling. Death
After his retirement from University College, <mask> continued to live for some years in London, subsequently removing to Clifton, and eventually to Weston-super-Mare, where he died in 1897. He had been blind for five years before his death, but retained his faculties to the last.In his old age, he returned to the Church of England. <mask>'s funeral address was given by John Temperley Grey. It contained the comment that he was "a saint in the very thick of life's battle." Views
<mask> once described himself as "anti-everything". Wilfrid Meynell commented that <mask> was as a "deist, vegetarian, anti-vaccinationist, to whom a monastery is even as a madhouse." Literary critic Lionel Trilling described <mask> as a "militant vegetarian, an intransigent anti-vivisectionist,

masks:
Cardinal Newman
Newman
Newman
Newman
Newman
Newman


title: Francis William Newman

texts:
 an enthusiastic anti-vaccinationist." "The perfection of the soul, he said, lay in its becoming woman.He believed in woman's right to vote, to educate herself and to ride astride". He sought to make life rational in all things, including clothing. He wore an alpaca tailcoat in summer, three coats in winter (the outer one green), and in bad weather, he wore a rug with a hole cut for his head. When it was muddy, he wore trousers edged with six inches of leather. Christian and secularist belief
As a young man, <mask> was a fervent evangelical, associating with Walter Mayers and Thomas Byrth. At Oxford he was acquainted with radical Calvinist evangelicals, such as the circle around John Hill (1786–1855) of St Edmund Hall. In 1827 he encountered Benjamin Wills Newton of Exeter College, a future Plymouth Brethren founder, and Joseph Charles Philpot of his own college, who was his predecessor in the Pennefeather household in Dublin, much impressed by Darby.<mask> returned from Baghdad in 1833 a deist. He remained throughout life a believer in a theism, which has been described as "versatile". He had a believer's baptism in 1836 at Broadmead Chapel. He often attended both Unitarian and Baptist religious services, but was agnostic on many aspects of Christian doctrine. In London of the 1840s <mask> associated with the radical group comprising also <mask> Ashurst, <mask> Linton, <mask>, James Stansfeld, Peter Alfred Taylor, mixing Unitarians and freethinkers. Harriet Martineau wrote to <mask> Fox in 1849 about the "religious state of the world", saying "I am in the midst of the <mask> set of friends", mentioning also Bonamy Price's praise for <mask>. The liberal theological movement to which <mask> belonged was hailed by George Jacob Holyoake, founder of British secularism.It equally received heavy criticism. The Anglican Clerical Journal, edited by Henry Burgess, wrote in 1854 of the "openly

masks:
Newman
Newman
Newman
William Henry
William James
William Shaen
William Johnson
F Newman
Newman
Newman


title: Francis William Newman

texts:
 destructive volumes" of <mask> and Theodore Parker. In that year, <mask> published Catholic Union: Essays Towards a Church of the Future, as the Organization of Philanthropy. Journalism and controversy
<mask> wrote, anonymously, a favorable review of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation for the first issue in 1845 of the Prospective Review, a journal edited by James Martineau, John Hamilton Thom and two other Unitarian ministers in the north of England. The content is considered to reflect the influence on <mask> at this time of Baden Powell, in the area of science and religion. With Martineau and others such as James Anthony Froude and Edward Lombe, he was one of the unorthodox but "respectable" backers when John Chapman took over the radical Westminster Review in 1851. The embattled <mask> was a figure of controversy, particularly with Henry Rogers and his The Eclipse of Faith, or, A Visit to a Religious Sceptic of 1852, to which <mask> replied.He was supported in the Westminster Review by a sympathetic article of 1858, "F. W<mask> and his Evangelical Critics", by Wathen Mark Wilks Call, that classed him as an "honest doubter". Considering the reception of ten books by <mask> from the 1850s, Call (writing anonymously) concluded that many of his opponents "failed in candour, courtesy, generosity, and conscientiousness." <mask> himself published in the Westminster Review the provocative "Religious Weaknesses of Protestantism" in 1859. Circulation dropped, but Edward Henry Stanley stepped up with financial support. One of those offended was Henry Bristow Wilson, who thought it anti-Christian. He was one of the seven authors of Essays and Reviews (1860), which argued for a different version of liberal theology; among the other authors, Baden Powell was clearly influenced by <mask>'s views, while there is evidence that Mark Pattison took Phases of Faith to heart. Returning to the

masks:
Newman
Newman
Newman
Newman
Newman
Newman
. Newman
Newman
Newman
Newman


title: Francis William Newman

texts:
 topic at book length, <mask> published The Religious Weakness of Protestantism in 1866.He was slow to drop the sola scriptura doctrine of Darby. Over time he developed arguments against it, under the headings of Bibliolatry and bigotry. He went on to contribute 11 articles in the early 1870s to Fraser's Magazine, edited by Froude. Social purity movement
<mask> was both a supporter of a radical individualism and opponent of a centralised state; and an ethicist who opposed free love, and was concerned with urban libertinism and prostitution. In 1869 he became involved in the opposition to the Contagious Diseases Acts. In 1873 he stood his ground, while chairing a meeting against the Acts in Weston-super-Mare, confronting disruptive protesters. In his lectures of the 1850s on political economy, <mask> had commented on the "population doctrine" of Thomas Malthus.While he did not contest it in the abstract, in his view, the practical applications of the doctrine had been "deplorably and perniciously false." An opponent of birth control, <mask> put a case that sexual excess was a danger to women's health. The Moral Reform Union, launched in 1881 and commended by The Englishwoman's Review, published <mask>'s book 1889 book The Corruption Now Called Neo-Malthusianism. Vegetarianism

<mask> joined the Vegetarian Society in 1868, and was President of the Society from 1873 to 1883. He was opposed to the dogmatic ideas of raw foodism and objected to the disuse of flavourings and salt. He commented that "the number of dogmatic prohibitions against everything that makes food palatable will soon ruin our society if not firmly resisted." In 1877, <mask> criticized a raw food book of Gustav Schlickeysen.He made an associate membership possible for people who were not completely vegetarian, such as those who ate chicken or fish. From 1875 to 1896, membership for the Vegetarian Society was 2,159 and

masks: Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman


title: Francis William Newman

texts:
 associate membership 1,785. <mask> did not like the term "vegetarian" because it implied someone who ate only vegetables. Instead, he preferred the Greek term "anti-creophagite" or "anti-creophagist" (anti-flesh eater). This idea was not supported by other members of the Society, as few people knew what the term meant. He used the phrase "V E M" diet (vegetables, eggs, milk). <mask> consumed dairy and eggs.In 1884, a hostile review of his book Essays on Diet commented that he "is no vegetarian himself in the strict acceptation of the word, for he takes milk, eggs, butter, and cheese." <mask> believed that abstinence from meat, fish and fowl should be the only thing the Vegetarian Society advocates. Some members believed that <mask> was not strict enough. However, under <mask>'s Presidency the Society flourished as income, associates and membership numbers increased. In the 1890s, <mask> converted to a pescetarian diet, and consumed white fish. Vaccination
<mask> was an anti-vaccinationist and supported the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League. He carried over arguments, against following the advice of a "medical clique", that he had used against the Contagious Diseases Acts.In 1869, an article in The Lancet journal criticized <mask> for holding this opinion and tried to convince him to withdraw his support for the League. One of <mask>'s opponents in the vaccination controversy was Henry Alleyne Nicholson (Harry), whom he had tutored, and the son of his good friend John Nicholson. He declined to answer Henry's pamphlet. Land reform
The Land as National Property: With Special View to the Scheme of Reclaiming it for the Nation Proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace (1886)

<mask> was quoted by James Platt as stating that "the ownership of land is a monstrous despotism". During the 1870s, <mask> supported Matthew Vincent's scheme for acquiring land to provide smallholdings for agricultural

masks: Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman Newman


title: Francis William Newman

texts:
 labourers. Legacy

<mask> is listed on the south face of The Reformers' Memorial in Kensal Green Cemetery in London. Karl Marx quoted from <mask>'s "Lectures on Political Economy", given at Bedford College in Capital, Volume III, p. 595.<mask> was married twice, firstly on 23 December 1835 to Maria Kennaway (died 1876). She was the second daughter of Sir John Kennaway, 1st Baronet, and a Plymouth Sister. They had met at Escot House in 1834. <mask>'s mother Jemima was at the end of her life — she died in spring 1836 — but welcomed Maria to the <mask> family home. John Henry <mask> found that unacceptable. By 1840 the brothers were more reconciled, at least in correspondence. Maria's sister Frances married Edward Cronin in 1838.The couple had no children. Under the will of John Sterling (died 1844), <mask> became guardian of his orphaned son Edward Conyngham Sterling. Edward (Teddy) went to live with the <mask>s in Manchester; for a while his younger brother, John Barton Sterling was there also − their sisters went to their uncle Anthony Coningham Sterling. Edward Sterling was an artist, and married in 1868 Bertha Stone, a suffragist, daughter of Frank Stone. Born in 1831 on Munro Plantation, St Vincent, he died in 1877. He had a house built in Sheffield Terrace, London, in 1876, by Alfred Waterhouse. Secondly, <mask> married <mask> on 3 December 1878.References

Further reading

External links

 <mask> <mask> at the International Vegetarian Union

Attribution

1805 births
1897 deaths
19th-century English philosophers
19th-century English writers
Academics of University College London
British anti-vaccination activists
Anti-vivisectionists
Blind people from England
British Plymouth Brethren
English classical scholars
English evangelicals
English male non-fiction writers
Moral philosophers
People associated with the Vegetarian Society
Translators of Homer
Vegetarianism

masks:
Newman
Newman
Family Newman
Francis
Newman
Newman
Francis
Newman
Newman
Eleanor Williams
Francis William
Newman


title: Don Cohan

texts:
<mask> (February 24, 1930 in New York City  – 20 October 2018) is one of the leading yachtsmen in the U.S. He was the first Jew to compete at the highest levels of world yachting competitions and at the time of his active career, the only Jew to win an Olympic medal in yachting. He won a bronze medal at the 1972 Munich Olympics. Years later, he twice defeated Hodgkin's disease. He came back to win a U.S. sailing championship at the age of 72. Biography
<mask> graduated from Amherst College (cum laude; 1951). There, he was a member of Beta Theta Pi.He then attended Harvard Law School. He practiced as an attorney, before going into business in real estate. He became President of Donesco Company, a real estate development firm. Sailing

<mask> began sailing in 1967 at age 37. He was on the U.S. team at the World Championships in 1969, 1970, and 1971. <mask> then won the 1972 Olympic trials, becoming the first Jew to be a member of the U.S. Olympic Team in sailing. In the 1972 Munich Summer Olympics, he was set to compete when the Munich Massacre resulted in the killing by terrorists of 11 Israeli athletes.All Jewish athletes were warned to leave, and two Israelis slated to compete in sailing were instructed to return home immediately. They handed <mask> their satin, blue and white triangular flag, emblazoned with "Sports Federation of Israel. XXth Olympiad Munich 1972," and said:  "You're representing us now. Go win a medal for us." Competing at the age of 42, he came from far back on the final day and earned a bronze medal as helmsman in the mixed three-person  Dragon class, named Caprice. He earned the medal within just five years from when he

masks:
Donald Smith Cohan
Cohan
Cohan
Cohan
Cohan


title: Don Cohan

texts:
 began sailing, and was the first Jew to win an Olympic medal in sailing. <mask> wrote:  "The last act of [expletives deleted] [U.S. Olympic Committee head and International Olympic Committee president] Avery Brundage was to hang an Olympic medal around my neck."Brundage had been a Nazi sympathizer. He was notorious, among other things, for having pressured to have the only two Jews on the U.S. track team at the 1936 Berlin Olympics, sprinters Marty Glickman and Sam Stoller, removed at the very last moment on the morning of their 400-meter relay race, so as not to embarrass Hitler and the Nazis with a Jewish victory. Brundage later publicly praised the Nazi regime at a Madison Square rally. <mask> has also been U.S. champion, European champion, German champion, and Australian champion. In 1984, he put his legal skills to good use. He charged Robbie Haines, one of the competitors in the Olympic yachting Soling trials, with having left too early (or "barged") at the start of the race, in Long Beach, California. Ed Baird, a fellow competitor, said that Cohan "destroyed Haines in the protest room", but that "We're all still pretty close".Haines was disqualified for the race. In the end, however, Haines qualified for the 1984 Olympics, where he won a gold medal. Hodgkin's disease
Nineteen years after winning his Olympic medal, in 1991, he was diagnosed with Hodgkin's disease of the lymph glands and nodes, and was found to have the most severe type (4B). He was not expected to survive. He said to himself, "<mask>, you may be very good in your line of business, but you know nothing about this one", and assembled a team around himself that he could

masks: Cohan Cohan Don


title: Don Cohan

texts:
 rely on in his fight against the cancer. Cohan looked for excellent doctors who would allow him to undergo therapy usually considered too grueling for someone his age. He interviewed doctors, engaged a psychiatrist to help him deal with grief and fear, and told his wife she would be his deputy in the struggle.He went through aggressive chemotherapy and radiation therapy, suffered through fatigue, nausea, night sweats, swelling, and pain, and made it through the cancer successfully. Then, though only one percent of patients get Hodgkin's disease a second time—he found himself in that category. Again, he was not expected to survive. Again, he underwent aggressive chemotherapy and radiation therapy. And again, he defeated the cancer. Sailing, post-Hodgkins

In 2002, at the age of 72, he won the U.S. Soling Championship. He also finished 5th in the world championship.Taking a step back to ruminate on sailing competitively at his age, Cohan remarked: "I'm aware that I'm on the downwind side of the hill, and the reawakened goal of being a competitive sailor has caused me to stir up banked fires and rejuvenate neglected physical abilities." He was inducted into the Philadelphia Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 2005. In 2010, he was still sailing competitively. Philanthropy
<mask> has served as President of Jewish Employment and Vocational Service (JEVS) Human Services, as a member of the Directors Leadership Council of the University of Pennsylvania Abramson Cancer Center, and as a member of the Board of Directors of The Philadelphia Orchestra. In 1986 he made a gift of a dormitory to Amherst College; it was named the Cohan Dormitory in his honor in


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

texts:
<mask>  (,  ; December 15, 1912 – June 3, 1974) was a Soviet chess player, chess writer, and checkers player. Though he never attained the title of Grandmaster, he was a renowned tactician and created several brilliant games. Biographer Alex Pishkin compares him to Chigorin, Réti and Spielmann. Early life
<mask> was born in Aktubinsk, Russian Empire, in what is now Aktobe, Kazakhstan, in a Tatar family. His parents were “worked to death” when he was still very young, rendering him (and his two siblings) an orphan. <mask> was then sent to live with his uncle, in a small town on the banks of the Volga river. From 1918-1923, the Russian Civil War devastated the region, particularly with the introduction of the Prodrazvyorstka policy, a system whereby peasant’s foodgrain was confiscated at nominal prices, as per fixed quotas.The ensuing famine killed over 2 million children. But <mask> endured, thanks in large part to his poet brother –   – who secured him a place at a Kazan orphanage. <mask> later regarded this orphanage as paradise, his only prior happy memory being "the time he got to eat fish soup on the banks of the Volga." In Kazan, <mask> was well-fed for the first time in his life, learnt the Tatar language, and was initiated into Islam. During this time, <mask> developed a keen interest in history, literature and mathematics. Three years later, Nadzhmi brought <mask> into his own home, also at Kazan. Here, <mask> was thoroughly engaged in the Kazan “Palace of Pioneers,” which marked the beginning of his chess career.<mask> had a natural talent for both chess and checkers, games he had learned by watching others play; and was quickly invited to join the Kazan Chess Club. At 15, he played in Kazan's Tournament of Pioneers, winning all 15 games. He also learnt to play checkers at this time. During the same month, he won Kazan's checkers semi-final and placed second in the finals. In the same year, he placed sixth in the Russian Checkers

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Rashid Gibiatovich Nezhmetdinov
Nezhmetdinov
Nezhmetdinov
Nezhmetdinov
Nezhmetdinov
Nezhmetdinov
Nezhmetdinov
Nezhmetdinov
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Nezhmetdinov


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

texts:
 Championship. Later, when he gave up checkers for chess, Nezhmetdinov commented, somewhat dismissively, that all checkers contests can be reduced to rook endgames. It was around this time that Nadzhmi, now a poorly paid newspaper editor, could no longer afford Nezhmetdinov’s upkeep.<mask> then joined the Communist Party and moved to Ukraine, in the hopes of making his own way in the world. In Odessa, his Communist Party membership gave him good standing – and he worked as a stoker in a steel mill. He got to spend all his free time playing at the Odessa Chess Club

Initial Years (1933-1946)

In 1933, <mask>, now the Odessa Chess and Checkers Champion, and a Category I chess player, returned to Kazan. He secured employment with the Standards Bureau, taught at the local Pedagogical Institute and ran an informal chess circle. Over the next two years, <mask> was primarily concerned with checkers and earned himself the title of Master at the game. This was no small feat considering checkers was taken very seriously in the USSR at the time, and frequently reported in chess magazines. However, it was only after receiving (by his own admission)  a “thrashing” from “stronger Category I Chess Players” like Anatoly Ufimtsev and Pyotr Dubinin in 1936, that <mask> began to take chess seriously.He fell ill and was hospitalized for many months immediately thereafter. However, in his characteristically optimistic fashion, <mask> seized this opportunity to study endgames; typically by solving puzzles without a board. And, in his very next tournament, he won win 9 out of 10 games in his very next Category I tournament in 1939, and earn himself the Candidate Master title. After graduating in 1940, he was called to military service the following year and here his chess development took a major setback. He was deployed in Baikala, 5000 kilometers away, on the border of Mongolia. While <mask> still competed in district level tournaments, even securing wins

masks: Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

texts:
 against players like Victor Baturinsky and Konstantin Klaman, these appearances were very rare. The war eventually created a five-and half-year period in which <mask> did not participate in any tournament.There was a silver lining though – <mask> was actually quite lucky. He always seemed to arrive or leave before an apocalyptic battle. He arrived in Baikala right after the Red Army had fought a brutal battle with Japan’s Kwantung Army. He was then sent to Berlin immediately after the Soviets had stormed it. <mask> successfully avoided every major combat zone in a war that killed over 11 million Soviet soldiers. Glory Years (1946-1958)
And in Berlin, from 1946, <mask> was able to resume his long-interrupted chess career and devoted himself entirely to it. In 1946, he won Championship of the Berlin Military District, winning 14 out of 15 games, and finishing ahead of future Ukrainian Champion, Isaac Lipnitsky.Later that year, <mask>, then 34 years old, returned to civilian life and his primary occupation was to serve as the captain of the DSO Spartak chess team. In 1947, <mask> finished in shared second place at the All-Union Candidate Master tournament at Yaroslavl. This marked the beginning of a tumultuous friendship between Nezhmetdinov, Vitaly Tarasov (the winner), Ratmir Kholmov (shared second). With this performance, <mask> had also earned his second Master norm. He now had the right to play an examination game for the title of Soviet Master. Georgy Lisitsin was appointed as Nezhmetdinov’s examiner. However, after studying Lisitsin’s games for many months, <mask> received a telegram from the Soviet Chess Federation, merely days before his match, stating that his examiner would be Vladas Mikenas.Mikenas was a far more formidable opponent. In his renewed preparations, <mask> came across an Article written by Mikenas on the Alekhine’s Defense, in Shakhmaty v SSSR, a popular chess magazine of the day. Mikenas claimed it was his preferred

masks: Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

texts: response to 1. e4 (<mask>’s favorite first move). This must have been particularly intimidating considering Mikenas had only recently beaten the legendary Alexander Alekhine at the 1937 tournament in Kemeri, Latvia, with the black pieces no less. Nevertheless, the fearless <mask> still played 1. e4 in their first game and, even entered the “Hunt Variation” of the Alekhine Defense; Mikenas’ favorite. He crushed Mikenas in 17 moves. He beat Mikenas again, in the same variation, in Game 11.However, the Game was drawn 7-7 and <mask> did not gain the coveted Master title, because the examiner got draw odds. However, <mask> was not discouraged and this result only reinforced his belief that the title was within his grasp. However, this optimism must have led to a very few frustrating years for Nezhmetdinov, especially considering how brutally frank he was about his own performance. His next breakthrough came in 1950, when he earned the right to play at the prestigious RSFSR Championship at Nizhny Novgorod (this Championship was limited to the Russian Federation and thereby second to the USSR Championship). The competition was fierce, with Masters like Isaac Boleslavsky (the tournament's favorite), among many others. <mask> drew his game with Boleslavsky and went on to become the 10th Champion of the Russian Federation. He was finally a Soviet Master.He returned to Kazan, where a hero’s welcome awaited him. He went on to win the RSFSR Championship again, in 1951 at Yaroslavl. But his other tournament performances were relatively underwhelming. For instance, at the Baku International in 1964, Nezhmetdinov could only secure 4 points in 12 rounds; a performance he said owed to his underestimation of his opponents. He finished in third place, behind Vladimir Antoshin and Vladimir Bagirov. It is worth noting that around this time, <mask>, Vitaly and Ratmir had become boisterous drinking buddies. As the story goes, in Baku, they treated their hotel rooms


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

texts: like they were rockstars.<mask> is said to have hurled crockery out the window, and eventually gotten into an argument with Ratmir. Vitaly tried to defuse the situation, but to no avail. By this time, the commotion had caught the attention of GM Alexander Kotov, an observer on behalf of the Soviet Sports Committee. He reported all the three Masters to the Sports Committee. Ratmir and Vitaly received the worst of it (the reason for this is unclear, but some say it is because <mask> was the only Communist Party member among them), with each receiving a one-year ban from tournaments and having governments stipends suspended. <mask> retained his stipend, and was banned for a shorter period of time . This marked a turning point in <mask>’s life and he turned a new leaf.He gave up the “party all night” lifestyle, and married Tamara Ivanovna (little is known about her apart from the fact that she is the mother of Nezhmetdinov’s children). It was also around this time that Nezhmetdinov wrote the first ever chess book in the Tatar language. <mask>’s next major tournament was the 1953 RSFSR Championship at Saratov, which he won. And in 1954, <mask> finally managed to play on the grand stage, the 21st USSR Championship at Kiev – the holy grail of Soviet Chess. This proved to be <mask>’s toughest competition so far as it included other masters like Tigran Petrosian and Efim Geller, who were already ranked amongst the best players in the world. <mask> finished the tournament in shared 7th place, but, finishing with 4½ wins in 7 matches against grandmasters, was a great achievement in itself. With the death of Stalin in 1953, <mask> was finally able to play chess internationally.Nikita Khrushchev adopted a far less repressive regime, pertinently, removing most travel restrictions for sportsmen. It was also around this time that the Russian Sports Committee came under fire from the international press for only ever sending their “strongest Grandmasters”


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

texts:
 abroad. The idea was for Russia to send four of their “mere Masters” to the 1954 international tournament at Bucharest. <mask> was chosen along with Semyon Furman, Viktor Korchnoi and his old friend, Ratmir Kholmov. Prior to leaving for the tournament, the four masters were summoned to Moscow, where they underwent rigorous training under Isaac Bolevslavsky and David Bronstein. 1954 International Tournament at Bucharest

This was the first time <mask> had left the USSR, and the first time he faced top level players outside of the Soviet Union. Despite all the pressures, his performance was exemplary as indicated below:

 Lost to IM Luděk Pachman

 Won against IM Miroslav Filip

 Won against IM Robert Wade

 Won against IM Bogdan Sliwa

 Won against GM Gideon Ståhlberg

 Won against GM Enrico Paoli

<mask> and Korchnoi were both leading until the last round when Korchnoi overtook him and went on to win the tournament.Despite <mask> finishing in second place, this performance earned him the title of International Master. Later Years (1958-1961)

<mask>’s next tournament was the 1958 USSR Team Championship at Vilnius, where he served as the captain of his team – RSFSR. They finished in third place, among the nine teams at the competition. By now it was 1959, and a 46-year-old <mask> was finally feeling the effects of age, only accentuated by his former, hard-living lifestyle. He noted in his autobiography that he was the oldest participant at the opening ceremony of the 1959 USSR Championship in Tbilisi. But his legendary win against Bronstein with the white pieces must have offered him some consolation. In 1961, he finished second at the Chigorin Memorial Tournament at Rostov on Don, behind only Mark Taimanov.In the same year, <mask> would then try to win the prestigious RSFSR Championship at Omsk for a record sixth time. Here, things got off to a rocky start, and <mask> finally found himself in a group of five, tied for second place, behind

masks: Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

texts:
 Lev Polugaevsky. A clear second had to be chosen since the top two players would get a chance to play in the next USSR Championship. <mask> triumphed, winning the tie-break and finishing ahead of Vladimir Antoshin and Anatoly Lein. And with that, <mask> qualified to participate at the 29th USSR Championship in Baku later the same year. Unfortunately in that tournament, <mask> only finished in 19th place; but won many notable games. Final Years (1961-1974)

The next decade marked a particularly uninteresting period of <mask>’s life.In 1961, he competed in his fifth USSR championship at Kharkov. The competition was diluted as over 120 players were invited, in a bid to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of the October Revolution. <mask> still only finished in 27th place, a position he shared with 14 other players. His next tournament, almost 12 years later, was the 1973 Latvian Open at Daugavpils. However he fell ill during the tournament, and was unable to finish his last game. He finished in third place. In his last few years, he coached the Kazan Chess team at the Old City Chess Club and regularly gave simultaneous exhibitions in his hometown.He was said to be an approachable and joyful man, who was always ready to discuss anything under the sun; especially chess. <mask> passed on in the summer of 1974. Developments in his Checkers career

In 1949, the Russian Checkers Semifinals were held in Kazan. Nezhmetdinov attended as a spectator, but when one of the participants failed to show up, Nezhmetdinov agreed to substitute for him even though he had not played checkers for 15 years. He won every game, qualifying him for the finals, which were to be held immediately after a chess tournament in which he was also participating. He won the tournament and immediately thereafter placed second in the Russian Checkers Championship. Chess career

Playing style
<mask> was a fierce, imaginative, attacking player who beat many of the best players in the

masks: Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov Nezhmetdinov


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

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 world.Known for his committal, aggressive, forward moving playing style, he was occasionally referred by the nickname, "No Reverse Gear" <mask>. Russian Championship
Nezhmetdinov got the historical record of five wins of the Russian Chess Championship, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1957 and 1958.

International Master title
FIDE awarded him the International Master title for his second-place finish behind Viktor Korchnoi at Bucharest 1954, the only time he was able to compete outside of the Soviet Union. The elusive grandmaster title
There are few schools of thought on why Nezhmetdinov never became a grandmaster. The first, believes that Nezhmetdinov was obsessed with attack, and played for tactics and complications, even when there was none. Accordingly, they believe it was his ineptitude for defence that led to him never receiving the title. Grandmaster Yuri Averbakh, a strong positional and endgame player, suggested this in his interview by Dirk Jan ten Geuzendam in The Day Kasparov Quit:

Others believe he was discriminated against because he was a Muslim (tatar) and therefore given fewer chances to go abroad. Korchnoi remembered Nezhmetdinov:
I played my first tournament after my marriage in Sochi.This was the Russian SFSR championship, and it was won by <mask>, one of the strongest Soviet masters. For some reason, he was very rarely allowed to go abroad, and obviously, he never became a grandmaster because of that. As a consequence of living behind the “iron curtain” for many decades, he only left the USSR a total of three times. Another popular explanation was the one advanced by Marat Khasanov:

 Let us also consider the other Soviet Players who became GMs around the time <mask> should have (emphasis added) become one. 1954 - No player. 1955 - One player, Boris Spassky. He won the youth world chess championship and qualified for the Interzonal, where he got his grandmaster's norm.Boris was very lucky. The world championship in Antwerp ended

masks: Rashid Nezhmetdinov Rashid


title: Rashid Nezhmetdinov

texts:
 on 8th August, and the Interzonal, which, luckily, was held in Gothenburg, began in a week - on 15th August. And Spassky got there in time, which, considering the Soviet bureaucracy of the time, was quite a feat. 1956 - One player, Viktor Korchnoi, by accumulated results. 1957 - One player, Mikhail Tal. He won the Soviet championship that year. In 1958 and 1959, no Soviet players became grandmasters.Therefore, in six years, from 1954 to 1959, only three Soviet players became grandmasters: Spassky, Tal and Korchnoi. How was <mask> supposed to become a grandmaster if he never played in a tournament with grandmaster norms? However, even without the title, Nezhmetdinov had a prolific chess career, and a lifetime positive score against World Champions – an achievement that is usually exclusive to former world champions. But, perhaps the most humbling explanantion is the one we got from Nezhmetdinov himself:

 I came to chess too late, as a 17-year-old man with no theoretical knowledge, whereas all the champions — Botvinnik, Smyslov, Spassky, Petrosian and Tal received training from the age of seven or eight….Yes, I could play some games with brilliance, and win prizes for beauty, but I was never able to achieve the holistic skills necessary for Grandmaster level”

Results against world champions
Nezhmetdinov won a number of games against world champions such as Mikhail Tal, against whom he had a lifetime positive score, and Boris Spassky. He also had success against other world-class grandmasters such as David Bronstein, Lev Polugaevsky, and Efim Geller. He achieved a positive score in the 20 games he contested against World Champions. But in addition to his aforementioned dismal score against Averbakh, he could not win against excellent defenders like Tigran Petrosian (+0-3=2) and Korchnoi(+0-3=3).Memorial
Kazan Chess school is currently named after <mask>. <mask> is buried in the Arskoe Cemetery, in Kazan, Tatarstan Republic, Russia (memorial

masks:
Nezhmetdinov
Rashid Nezhmetdinov
Rashid Nezhmetdinov


title: Clement of Ohrid

texts:
<mask> of Ohrid (Bulgarian, Serbian and Macedonian: Свети Климент Охридски, ; ; ;  – 916) was one of the first medieval Bulgarian saints, scholar, writer and enlightener of the Slavs. He was one of the most prominent disciples of Saints Cyril and Methodius and is often associated with the creation of the Glagolitic and Cyrillic scripts, especially their popularisation among Christianised Slavs. He was the founder of the Ohrid Literary School and is regarded as a patron of education and language by some Slavic people. He is considered to be the first bishop of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, one of the Seven Apostles of Bulgarian Orthodox Church and one of the premier saints of modern Bulgaria. The mission of Saint <mask> was the crucial factor which transformed the Slavs in Macedonia into Bulgarians. Saint <mask> is also the patron saint of North Macedonia, the city of Ohrid and the Macedonian Orthodox Church. Life

The exact date of his birth is unknown.Most probably, he joined Methodius as a young man following him later to the monastery on Mysian Olympus. According to his hagiography by Theophylact of Ohrid, <mask> knew the life of Methodius like no other. That is why most scholars think he was born in the Byzantine Empire in the territory where Methodius served during his political career, i.e. that he was a Slav from Southern Macedonia. This gives rise to some researchers to indicate the area of Thessaloniki as the possible place of birth of <mask>. According to others, the area of Southern Macedonia, including the northern approach to Thessaloniki, where he maybe was born, was then part of the First Bulgarian Empire. Most of Macedonia became part of Bulgaria between 830 and 840, i.e when <mask> was born.The Short Life of St. <mask> by Theophylact of Ohrid testifies to his Slavic origin, calling him "the first bishop in the Bulgarian language," while

masks:
Saint Clement
Clement
Clement
Clement
Clement
Clement
Clement


title: Clement of Ohrid

texts: The Ohrid Legend written by Demetrios Chomatenos describes him as one of the European Moesians, commonly known as Bulgarians. Because of that, some scholars label him a Bulgarian Slav, while Dimitri Obolensky calls <mask> a Slav inhabitant of the Kingdom of Bulgaria. A fringe view on his origin postulates that <mask> was born in Great Moravia. This view is based on the lexicographical analysis of <mask>'s works. <mask> participated in the mission of Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia. In 867 or 868 he became a priest in Rome, ordained along with two other disciples of Cyril and Methodius, Saint Gorazd and Saint Naum, by bishops Formosus and Gauderic. After the death of Cyril, <mask> accompanied Methodius on his journey from Rome to Pannonia and Great Moravia.After the death of Methodius himself in 885, <mask> headed the struggle against the German clergy in Great Moravia along with Gorazd. After spending some time in jail, he was expelled from Great Moravia and in 885 or 886 reached Belgrade, then in the borders of Bulgaria together with Naum of Preslav, Angelarius and possibly Gorazd (according to other sources, Gorazd was already dead by that time). Thereafter, the four of them were sent to the Bulgarian capital of Pliska where they were commissioned by Boris I of Bulgaria to instruct the future clergy of the state in the Old Slavonic language. After the adoption of Christianity in 865, religious ceremonies in Bulgaria were conducted in Greek by clergy sent from the Byzantine Empire. Fearing growing Byzantine influence and weakening of the state, Boris viewed the adoption of the Old Slavonic language as a way to preserve the political independence and stability of Bulgaria. With a view thereto, Boris made arrangements for the establishment of two literary academies where theology was to be taught in the Slavonic language. The first of the schools was

masks: Clement Clement Clement Clement Clement Clement


title: Clement of Ohrid

texts:
 to be founded in the capital, Pliska, and the second in the region of Kutmichevitsa.According to his hagiography by Theophylact of Ohrid, while Naum stayed in Pliska working on the foundation of the Pliska Literary School, <mask> was commissioned by Boris I to organise the teaching of theology to future clergymen in Old Church Slavonic in the southwestern part of the Bulgarian Empire, in the region then known as Kutmichevitsa. For a period of seven years (between 886 and 893) <mask> taught some 3,500 disciples in the Slavonic language and the Glagolitic alphabet. At that time, <mask> translated Christian literature into Old Church Slavonic, and in this way, he and his co-workers laid the foundations of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. In 893 he was ordained archbishop of Drembica, Velika (bishopric). Upon his death in 916 he was buried in his monastery, Saint Panteleimon, in Ohrid. Soon after he was canonized as a saint by the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. The development of Old Church Slavonic literacy had the effect of preventing the assimilation of the South Slavs into neighbouring Byzantine culture, which promoted the formation of a distinct Bulgarian identity in the Empire.During the first quarter of the 10th century, the ethnonym “Bulgarians” was adopted by the Slavic tribes in most of Macedonia, while their names were abandoned. <mask>'s life's work played a significant role in this transformation. Legacy

Saint <mask> of Ohrid was one of the most prolific and important writers in Old Church Slavonic. He is credited with the Panonic Hagiography of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. <mask> also translated the Flower Triode containing church songs sung from Easter to Pentecost and is believed to be the author of the Holy Service and the Life of St. <mask> of Rome, as well as of the oldest service dedicated to St. Cyril and St. Methodius. The invention of

masks: Clement Clement Clement Clement Clement Clement Clement


title: Clement of Ohrid

texts:
 the Cyrillic alphabet is also usually ascribed to him although the alphabet is most likely to have been developed at the Preslav Literary School at the beginning of the 10th century (see Cyrillic script). Medieval frescoes of Saint <mask> exist throughout the modern-day territories of North Macedonia, Serbia and northern Greece, with the vast majority being located in North Macedonia.The Church of St. Clement of Ohrid is located in Skopje and is the largest cathedral of the Macedonian Orthodox Church. The first modern Bulgarian university, Sofia University, was named after <mask> upon its foundation in 1888. The Macedonian National and University Library, founded on November 23, 1944, also bears his name. The University in Bitola, established in 1979, is named after <mask>, as well as the Bulgarian scientific base, St. Kliment Ohridski on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica. In November 2008, the Macedonian Orthodox Church donated part of <mask>'s relics to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as a sign of good will. In May 2018 was announced that in the ruins of a Ravna Monastery, near the village of Ravna in Provadiya Municipality, the signature of Saint <mask> was identified on a stone plate with a large amount of graffiti on it. The signature is dated as of April 24, 889.The finding gives reason to assume that the disciples of Saints Cyril and Methodius were settled there at one stage, after being expelled from the Great Moravia and their reception in Bulgaria. See also
 Chernorizets Hrabar

References

External links

9th-century births
916 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
9th-century Bulgarian people
10th-century Bulgarian people
Medieval Bulgarian saints
Creators of writing systems
Medieval Bulgarian writers
Bulgarian male writers
10th-century Christian saints
Medieval Ohrid
Saints of medieval Macedonia
People from

masks: Clement Clement Clement Clement Clement


title: Seth Rogen

texts:
<mask> (; born April 15, 1982) is a Canadian actor, comedian, and filmmaker. Originally a stand-up comedian in Vancouver, he moved to Los Angeles for a part in Judd Apatow's series Freaks and Geeks, and then got a part on the sitcom Undeclared, which also hired him as a writer. After landing his job as a staff writer on the final season of Da Ali G Show, Apatow guided <mask> toward a film career. As a staff writer, he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Series. His first movie appearance was a minor role in Donnie Darko (2001). <mask> was cast in a supporting role and credited as a co-producer in Apatow's directorial debut, The 40-Year-Old Virgin. Universal Pictures subsequently cast him as the lead in Apatow's films Knocked Up and Funny People.<mask> co-starred as Steve Wozniak in Universal's Steve Jobs biopic in 2015. In 2016, he developed the AMC television series Preacher with his writing partner Evan Goldberg and Sam Catlin. He also serves as a writer, executive producer, and director, with Goldberg. <mask> and Goldberg co-wrote the films Superbad, Pineapple Express, The Green Hornet, This Is the End, and directed both This Is the End and The Interview, all of which <mask> starred in. He has also done voice work for the films Shrek the Third, Horton Hears a Who!, the Kung Fu Panda trilogy, The Spiderwick Chronicles, Monsters vs. Aliens, Paul, Sausage Party, the 2019 version of The Lion King, and the forthcoming Mario film. Early life
<mask> <mask> was born on April 15, 1982, in Vancouver, British Columbia to a Jewish family of Ukrainian and Russian origin. His mother, Sandy Belogus, is a social worker, and

masks:
Seth Aaron Rogen
Rogen
Rogen
Rogen
Rogen
Rogen
Seth Aaron
Rogen