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 opposition to Slovak independence, condemnation of the treatment of Sudeten Germans, such as the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia after World War II, and granting of general amnesty to all those imprisoned under the Communist era, were very controversial domestically. By the end of his presidency, he enjoyed greater popularity abroad than at home. <mask> continued his life as a public intellectual after his presidency, launching several initiatives including the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism, the VIZE 97 Foundation, and the Forum 2000 annual conference. <mask>'s political philosophy was one of anti-consumerism, humanitarianism, environmentalism, civil activism, and direct democracy.He supported the Czech Green Party from 2004 until his death. He received numerous accolades during his lifetime, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Gandhi Peace Prize, the Philadelphia Liberty Medal, the Order of Canada, the Four Freedoms Award, the Ambassador of Conscience Award, and the Hanno R. Ellenbogen Citizenship Award. The 2012–2013 academic year at the College of Europe was named in his honour. He is considered by some to be one of the most important intellectuals of the 20th century. The international airport in Prague was renamed to Václav Havel Airport Prague in 2012. Early life

<mask> was born in Prague on 5 October 1936 into a wealthy family celebrated in Czechoslovakia for its entrepreneurial and cultural accomplishments. His grandfather, Vácslav <mask>, a real estate developer, built a landmark entertainment complex on Prague's Wenceslas Square.His father, <mask> <mask>, was the real estate developer behind the suburban

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 Barrandov Terraces, located on the highest point of Prague—next door to which his uncle, Miloš <mask>, built one of the largest film studios in Europe. <mask>'s mother, Božena Vavrečková, also came from an influential family; her father was a Czechoslovak ambassador and a well-known journalist. In the early 1950s, because of his class background, <mask> entered into a four-year apprenticeship as a chemical laboratory assistant and simultaneously took evening classes at a gymnasium. He completed his secondary education in 1954. For political reasons, he was not accepted into any post-secondary school with a humanities program; therefore, he opted for studies at the Faculty of Economics of the Czech Technical University in Prague but dropped out after two years. On 9 July 1964, <mask> married Olga Šplíchalová. Early theatre career

The intellectual tradition of his family was essential for Havel's lifetime adherence to the humanitarian values of the Czech culture.After finishing his military service (1957–59), <mask> had to bring his intellectual ambitions in line with the given circumstances, especially with the restrictions imposed on him as a descendant of a bourgeois family. He found employment in Prague's theatre world as a stagehand at Prague's Theatre ABC – Divadlo ABC, and then at the Theatre on Balustrade – Divadlo Na zábradlí. Simultaneously, he was a student of dramatic arts by correspondence at the Theatre Faculty of the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague (DAMU). His first own full-length play performed in public, besides various vaudeville collaborations, was The Garden Party (1963). Presented in a series of Theatre of the Absurd, at the Theatre on

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 Balustrade, this play won him international acclaim. The play was soon followed by The Memorandum, one of his best known plays, and The Increased Difficulty of Concentration, all at the Theatre on Balustrade. In 1968, The Memorandum was also brought to The Public Theater in New York, which helped to establish <mask>'s reputation in the United States.The Public Theater continued to produce his plays in the following years. After 1968, <mask>'s plays were banned from the theatre world in his own country, and he was unable to leave Czechoslovakia to see any foreign performances of his works. Political dissident

During the first week of the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, <mask> assisted the resistance by providing an on-air narrative via Radio Free Czechoslovakia station (at Liberec). Following the suppression of the Prague Spring in 1968, he was banned from the theatre and became more politically active. He took a job at Krakonoš brewery in Trutnov, an experience he wrote about in his play Audience. This play, along with two other "Vaněk" plays (so-called because of the recurring character Ferdinand Vaněk, a stand in for Havel), became distributed in samizdat form across Czechoslovakia, and greatly added to <mask>'s reputation of being a leading dissident (several other Czech writers later wrote their own plays featuring Vaněk). This reputation was cemented with the publication of the Charter 77 manifesto, written partially in response to the imprisonment of members of the Czech psychedelic rock band The Plastic People of the Universe; Havel had attended their trial, which centered on the group's non-conformity in having long hair, using

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 obscenities in their music, and their overall involvement in the Prague underground movement.<mask> co-founded the Committee for the Defense of the Unjustly Prosecuted in 1979. His political activities resulted in multiple imprisonments by the authorities, and constant government surveillance and questioning by the secret police (Státní bezpečnost). His longest period in prison, from May 1979 to February 1983, is documented in letters to his wife that were later published as Letters to Olga. He was known for his essays, most particularly The Power of the Powerless (1978), in which he described a societal paradigm in which citizens were forced to "live within a lie" under the Communist regime. In describing his role as a dissident, <mask> wrote in 1979: "we never decided to become dissidents. We have been transformed into them, without quite knowing how, sometimes we have ended up in prison without precisely knowing how. We simply went ahead and did certain things that we felt we ought to do, and that seemed to us decent to do, nothing more nor less."Samuel Beckett's 1982 short play, Catastrophe, was dedicated to <mask> while he was held as a political prisoner in Czechoslovakia. Presidency

On 29 December 1989, while he was leader of the Civic Forum, <mask> became President of Czechoslovakia by a unanimous vote of the Federal Assembly. He had long insisted that he was not interested in politics and had argued that political change in the country should be induced through autonomous civic initiatives rather than through the official institutions. In 1990, soon after his election, <mask> was awarded the Prize For Freedom of the Liberal International. In 1990,


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texts: Czechoslovakia held its first free elections in 44 years, resulting in a sweeping victory for Civic Forum and its Slovak counterpart, Public Against Violence. Between them, they commanded strong majorities in both houses of the legislature, and tallied the highest popular vote share recorded for a free election in the country. <mask> retained his presidency.Despite increasing political tensions between the Czechs and the Slovaks in 1992, <mask> supported the retention of the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic prior to the dissolution of the country. <mask> sought re-election in 1992. Although no other candidate filed, when the vote came on 3 July, he failed to get a majority due to a lack of support from Slovak deputies. The largest Czech political party, the Civic Democratic Party, let it be known that it would not support any other candidate. After the Slovaks issued their Declaration of Independence, he resigned as president on 20 July, saying that he would not preside over the country's breakup. However, when the Czech Republic was created as one of two successor states, he stood for election as its first president on 26 January 1993, and won. Although he was nominally the new country's chief executive, the framers of the Constitution of the Czech Republic intended to vest most of the real power in the prime minister.However, owing to his prestige, he still commanded great moral authority, and the presidency acquired a greater role than the framers intended. For instance, largely due to his influence, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSCM), successor to the KSC's branch in the Czech Lands, was kept on the margins for most of his presidency.

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texts: <mask> suspected that the KSCM was still an unreformed Stalinist party. <mask>'s popularity abroad surpassed his popularity at home, and he was often the object of controversy and criticism. During his time in office, <mask> stated that the expulsion of the indigenous Sudeten German population after World War II was immoral, causing a great controversy at home. He also extended general amnesty as one of his first acts as president, in an attempt to lessen the pressure in overcrowded prisons as well as to release political prisoners and persons who may have been falsely imprisoned during the Communist era. Havel felt that many of the decisions by the previous regime's courts should not be trusted, and that most of those in prison had not received fair trials.However, critics claimed that this amnesty led to a significant increase in the crime rate: the total number of crimes doubled, as did the number of murders. Several of the worst crimes in the history of the Czech criminology were committed by criminals released in this amnesty. Within four years of the Velvet revolution (and following another two amnesties declared by Havel), criminality had more than tripled since 1989. According to <mask>'s memoir To the Castle and Back, most of those who were released had less than a year to serve before their sentences ended, but statistics contradict <mask>'s claims. In an interview with Karel Hvížďala (included in To the Castle and Back), <mask> expressed his feeling that it was his most important accomplishment as president to have contributed to the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. According to his statement the dissolution was very complicated. The infrastructure

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texts: created by the Warsaw Pact was part of the economies of all member states, and the Pact's dissolution necessitated restructuring that took many years to complete.Furthermore, it took time to dismantle the Warsaw Pact's institutions; for example, it took two years for Soviet troops to fully withdraw from Czechoslovakia. Following a legal dispute with his sister-in-law Dagmar Havlová (wife of his brother Ivan M<mask>), <mask> decided to sell his 50% stake in the Lucerna Palace on Wenceslas Square in Prague, built from 1907 to 1921 by his grandfather, also named <mask> <mask> (spelled Vácslav,) one of the multifunctional "palaces" in the center of the once booming pre-World War I Prague. In a transaction arranged by Marián Čalfa, <mask> sold the estate to <mask> Junek, a former Communist spy in France and head of the soon-to-be bankrupt conglomerate Chemapol Group, who later openly admitted that he bribed politicians of the Czech Social Democratic Party. His near friend was Ivan Medek, who become the chef of the president office. In January 1996, Olga Havlová, his wife of 32 years, died of cancer at 62. In December 1996, <mask> who had been a chain smoker for a long time, was diagnosed with lung cancer. The disease reappeared two years later.He quit smoking. In 1997, he remarried, to actress Dagmar Veškrnová. <mask> was among those influential politicians who contributed most to the transition of NATO from being an anti-Warsaw Pact alliance to its present form. Havel advocated vigorously for the inclusion of former-Warsaw Pact members, like the Czech Republic, into the Western alliance. <mask> was re-elected president in 1998. He had to undergo a colostomy in

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 Innsbruck when his colon ruptured while he was on holiday in Austria. On 30 January 2003, <mask> signed The letter of the eight.<mask> left office after his second term as Czech president ended on 2 February 2003. <mask> Klaus, one of his greatest political adversaries, was elected his successor as president on 28 February 2003. Margaret Thatcher wrote of the two men in her foreign policy treatise Statecraft, reserving the greater respect for Havel. <mask>'s dedication to democracy and his steadfast opposition to communist ideology earned him admiration. Post-presidential career

Beginning in 1997, Havel hosted Forum 2000, an annual conference to "identify the key issues facing civilisation and to explore ways to prevent the escalation of conflicts that have religion, culture or ethnicity as their primary components". In 2005, the former president occupied the Kluge Chair for Modern Culture at the John W. Kluge Center of the United States Library of Congress, where he continued his research on human rights. In November and December 2006, <mask> spent eight weeks as a visiting artist in residence at Columbia University.The stay was sponsored by the Columbia Arts Initiative and featured "performances, and panels centr[ing] on his life and ideas", including a public "conversation" with former U.S. President Bill Clinton. Concurrently, the Untitled Theater Company No. 61 launched a Havel Festival, the first complete festival of his plays in various venues throughout New York City, including The Brick Theater and the Ohio Theatre, in celebration of his 70th birthday. <mask> was a member of the World Future Society and addressed the Society's members on 4 July 1994.

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texts: His speech was later printed in THE FUTURIST magazine (July 1995). Havel remained an admired individual by Czech citizens. In The Greatest Czech TV show (the Czech spin-off of the BBC 100 Greatest Britons show) in 2005, Havel received the third biggest amount of voices, so he was elected to be third greatest Czech when he was still alive.<mask>'s memoir of his experience as president, To the Castle and Back, was published in May 2007. The book mixes an interview in the style of Disturbing the Peace with actual memoranda he sent to his staff and modern diary entries and recollections. On 4 August 2007, <mask> met with members of the Belarus Free Theatre at his summer cottage in the Czech Republic in a show of his continuing support, which has been instrumental in the theatre's attaining international recognition and membership in the European Theatrical Convention. <mask> went on a hunger strike in 2007 to support Kurdish doctor and human rights activist Yekta Uzunoglu in his legal battle. A former president going on a hunger strike to support the legal battle of a foreigner in his country was a first in world history. <mask>'s first new play in almost two decades, Leaving, was published in November 2007, and was to have had its world premiere in June 2008 at the Prague theater Divadlo na Vinohradech, but the theater withdrew it in December as it felt it could not provide the technical support needed to mount the play. The play instead premiered on 22 May 2008 at the Archa Theatre to standing ovations.<mask> based the play on King Lear, by William Shakespeare, and on The Cherry Orchard, by Anton Chekhov; "Chancellor Vilém Rieger is the central character of


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texts: Leaving, who faces a crisis after being removed from political power." The play had its English language premiere at the Orange Tree Theatre in London and its American premiere at The Wilma Theater in Philadelphia. <mask> subsequently directed a film version of the play, which premiered in the Czech Republic on 22 March 2011. Other works included the short sketch Pět Tet, a modern sequel to Unveiling, and The Pig, or Václav <mask>'s Hunt for a Pig, which was premiered in Brno at Theatre Goose on a String and had its English language premiere at the 3LD Art & Technology Center in New York, in a production from Untitled Theater Company No. 61, in a production workshopped in the Ice Factory Festival in 2011 and later revived as a full production in 2014, becoming a New York Times Critic's Pick. In 2008, <mask> became a Member of the European Council on Tolerance and Reconciliation. He met U.S. President Barack Obama in private before Obama's departure after the end of the European Union (EU) and United States (US) summit in Prague in April 2009.<mask> was the chair of the Human Rights Foundation's International Council and a member of the international advisory council of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation. <mask> was a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which campaigns for democratic reformation of the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system. From the 1980s, <mask> supported the green politics movement, partly due to his friendship with the co-founder of the German Alliance '90/The Greens party Milan Horáček. From 2004 until his death,


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 he supported the Czech Green Party. Death

<mask> died on the morning of 18 December 2011, at age 75, at his country home in Hrádeček. A week before his death, he met with his longtime friend, the Dalai Lama, in Prague; Havel appeared in a wheelchair. Prime Minister Petr Nečas announced a three-day mourning period from 21 to 23 December, the date announced by President <mask> Klaus for the state funeral.The funeral Mass was held at Saint Vitus Cathedral, celebrated by the Archbishop of Prague Dominik Duka and <mask>'s old friend Bishop <mask> Malý. During the service, a 21 gun salute was fired in the former president's honour, and as per the family's request, a private ceremony followed at Prague's Strašnice Crematorium. <mask>'s ashes were placed in the family tomb in the Vinohrady Cemetery in Prague. On 23 December 2011, the Václav Havel Tribute Concert was held in Prague's Palác Lucerna. Reactions

Within hours <mask>'s death was met with numerous tributes, including from U.S. President Barack Obama, British Prime Minister David Cameron, German Chancellor Angela Merkel and former Polish President Lech Wałęsa. Merkel called Havel "a great European", while Wałęsa said he should have been given the Nobel Peace Prize. The Russian Embassy sent an official condolence on behalf of the President Dmitry Medvedev and Prime Minister Vladimir Putin.At news of his death, former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, a native of Czechoslovakia, said, "He was one of the great figures of the 20th Century", while Czech expatriate novelist Milan Kundera said, "Václav <mask>'s most important work is his own life." Communists took the opportunity to criticize <mask>.

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 Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia leader Vojtěch Filip stated that <mask> was a very controversial person and that his words often conflicted with his deeds. He criticized <mask> for having supported the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, repeating the charge that <mask> had called the event a "humanitarian bombing", although <mask> had expressly and emphatically denied ever using such a phrase. An online petition organized by one of the best-known Czech and Slovak film directors, Fero Fenič, calling on the government and the Parliament to rename Prague Ruzyně Airport to Václav Havel International Airport attracted—in a week after 20 December 2011—support of over 80,000 Czech Republic and foreign signatories. It was announced that the airport would be renamed the Václav Havel Airport Prague on 5 October 2012. Reviewing a new biography by Michael Žantovský, Yale historian Marci Shore summarized his challenges as president: "<mask>'s message, 'We are all responsible, we are all guilty,' was not popular.He enacted a general amnesty for all but the most serious criminals, apologized on behalf of Czechoslovakia for the post-World War II expulsion of the Sudeten Germans and resisted demands for a more draconian purge of secret police collaborators. These things were not popular either. And as the government undertook privatization and restitution, Havel confronted pyramid schemes, financial corruption and robber baron capitalism. He saw his country fall apart (if bloodlessly), becoming in 1993 the Czech Republic and Slovakia." Awards
<mask> was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1983. In 1986, <mask> received the Erasmus Prize, in 1989 the Friedenspreis des

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texts: Deutschen Buchhandels, and in 1990, he received the Gottlieb Duttweiler Prize for his outstanding contributions to the well-being of the wider community. In the same year he received the Freedom medal.In 1993, he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. On 4 July 1994, <mask> <mask> was awarded the Philadelphia Liberty Medal. In his acceptance speech, he said: "The idea of human rights and freedoms must be an integral part of any meaningful world order. Yet I think it must be anchored in a different place, and in a different way, than has been the case so far. If it is to be more than just a slogan mocked by half the world, it cannot be expressed in the language of departing era, and it must not be mere froth floating on the subsiding waters of faith in a purely scientific relationship to the world." <mask> was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1995. In 1997, <mask> received ex aequo the Prince of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities and the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.In 2001, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2002, he was the third recipient of the Hanno R. Ellenbogen Citizenship Award presented by the Prague Society for International Cooperation. In 2003, he was awarded the International Gandhi Peace Prize by the government of India for his outstanding contribution towards world peace and upholding human rights in most difficult situations through Gandhian means; he was the inaugural recipient of Amnesty International's Ambassador of Conscience Award for his work in promoting human rights; he received the US Presidential Medal of Freedom; and he was appointed as an honorary

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 Companion of the Order of Canada. In 2008 he was also awarded the Giuseppe Motta Medal for support for peace and democracy. As a former Czech President, <mask> was a member of the Club of Madrid. In 2009 he was awarded the Quadriga Award, but decided to return it in 2011 following the announcement of Vladimir Putin as one of the 2011 award recipients. <mask> also received multiple honorary doctorates from various universities such as the prestigious Institut d'études politiques de Paris in 2009, and was a Foreign Associate Member of the French Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques from October 1992 until his death.On 10 October 2011, <mask> was awarded by the Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili with the St. George Victory Order. In November 2014, he became only the fourth non-American honored with a bust in the U.S. Capitol. State honours and awards

Honours

Awards
 : Geuzenpenning (1995), Vlaardingen
 : Indira Gandhi Peace Prize (1993), New Delhi
 : Gandhi Peace Prize (08/2003), Dehli

Memorials

Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent
In April 2012, <mask>'s widow, Dagmar Havlová, authorized the creation of the Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent. The prize was created by the New York-based Human Rights Foundation and is awarded at the annual Oslo Freedom Forum. The prize "will celebrate those who engage in creative dissent, exhibiting courage and creativity to challenge injustice and live in truth." Václav Havel Library
The Václav Havel Library, located in Prague, is a charitable organization founded by Dagmar Havlová, Karel Schwarzenberg and Miloslav Petrusek on 26 July 2004. It maintains a collection of pictorial, audio and written materials


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 and other artefacts linked to Václav Havel.The institution gathers these materials for the purpose of digitisation, documentation and research and to promote his ideas. It organises lectures, holds conferences and social and cultural events that introduce the public to the work of Václav Havel and club discussion meetings on current social issues. It runs educational activities for second-level students. It is also involved in the issuing of publications. The library makes accessible Václav <mask>'s literary, philosophical and political writings, and provides a digital reading room for researchers and students in the Czech Republic and elsewhere. In May 2012, the library opened a branch in New York City named the Václav Havel Library Foundation. In 2014, the Václav Havel Library moved to larger premises at Ostrovni 13, in the centre of Prague.Václav Havel Building of the European Parliament
In July 2017, the European Parliament opened a new building on its official Strasbourg site. The building was named after <mask> Havel Memory in Zagreb
On 4 October 2016, the day before what would have been the 80th birthday of <mask> <mask>lav Havel Boulevard and memorial plaque in Kyiv
In November 2016, Václav Havel Boulevard was opened in Kyiv, Ukraine. The new name has replaced the one given during Soviet era when boulevard was named in honor of the Communist politician Jānis Lepse. In December, First Deputy Chairman Iryna Herashchenko along with Minister of Culture of Czech Republic Daniel Herman and Minister of Culture of Ukraine Yevhen Nyshchuk opened memorial plaque in honor of <mask> <mask>.Václav Havel Bench
The Václav Havel Bench (Havel's Place) is an artistic and

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 urban utility project, created by Czech architect and designer Bořek Šípek. It is composed of two wooden garden chairs connected by a round table, which has a hole inside. A linden, national tree of Czechia, is growing through this hole. These benches can be found in many Czech towns as well as in some foreign locations such as Washington, D.C., Dublin, Lisbon, and Barcelona. Sculptures and busts
On 19 November 2014, a bust of <mask>, created by Czech-American artist Lubomír Janečka, was unveiled at the U.S. Congress, commemorating the 25-year anniversary of the Velvet Revolution. <mask> is the fourth European ever to be honored by having a bust of himself in the U.S. Congress, after Winston Churchill, Raoul Wallenberg and Lajos Kossuth. Another sculpture of Havel is placed in a boardroom of Leinster House in Dublin, the historical seat of the Oireachtas, the Irish National Parliament.On 22 June 2017 a statue of <mask> <mask> created by Georgian sculptor Jumber Jikia was unveiled in Tbilisi, Georgia. The Václav Havel Library Foundation donated a bust of <mask> to Columbia University in New York City. This bust was unveiled on 27 September 2018 while Havel was being honored by former US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright. Online]
 Living in Truth (1986)
 Letters to Olga (Dopisy Olze) (1988)
 Disturbing the Peace (1991)
 Open Letters (1991)
 Summer Meditations (Letní přemítání) (1992/93)
 Towards a Civil Society (1994)
 The Art of the Impossible (1998)
 To the Castle and Back (2007)

Fiction books for children
 Pizh'duks

Films
 Odcházení, 2011

Music
 Havel was a major supporter of The Plastic People of the Universe, and close friend of its leader, Milan

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 Hlavsa, its manager, Ivan Martin Jirous, and its guitarist/vocalist, Paul Wilson (who later became Havel's English translator and biographer) and a great fan of the rock band The Velvet Underground, sharing mutual respect with the principal singer-songwriter Lou Reed, and was also a lifelong Frank Zappa fan. Havel was also a great supporter and fan of jazz and frequented such Prague clubs as Radost FX and the Reduta Jazz Club, where U.S. President Bill Clinton played the saxophone when Havel brought him there. Cultural references
<mask> <mask> has been portrayed, as himself or a character based on him, in a number of feature and television films:
 Czech Century is a 2013 historical television series chronicling Czech history from 1989. Havel is portrayed by Marek Daniel.Marek Daniel also portrayed <mask> in a satirical web series, Kancelář Blaník. Havel is a 2020 historical film about <mask>'s (Viktor Dvořák) life before 1989. The Prog-related Art-rock band, Toy Matinee, recorded a song about Havel, entitled "Remember My Name" from their 1990 eponymous album released by Reprise Records. See also
 Civil resistance
 Hrad (politics)
 List of peace activists
 Nonviolent resistance
 Mlýny, Czech comedy play
 Václav Havel Human Rights Prize

References

Primary sources
Works by Václav Havel
 Commentaries and Op-eds by Václav <mask> and in conjunction between Václav <mask> and other renowned world leaders for Project Syndicate. "Excerpts from The Power of the Powerless (1978)", by Václav <mask>. "Excerpts from the Original Electronic Text provided by Bob Moeller, of the University of California, Irvine." "The Need for Transcendence in the Postmodern World" (Speech

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 republished in THE FUTURIST magazine).Retrieved 19 December 2011
 . Czech.cz (Official website of the Czech Republic), 10 September 2007. Retrieved 21 December 2007. On personal responsibility, freedom and ecological problems. Two Messages <mask> <mask> on the Kundera affair, English, salon.eu.sk, October 2008

Media interviews with <mask> Havel
 After the Velvet, an Existential Revolution? dialogue between <mask> <mask> and Adam Michnik, English, salon.eu.sk, November 2008
 Warner, Margaret. "Online Focus: Newsmaker: Václav <mask>".The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. PBS, broadcast 16 May 1997. Retrieved 21 December 2007. (NewsHour transcript.) Biographies
 Keane, John. <mask> <mask>: A Political Tragedy in Six Acts. New York: Basic Books, 2000. . (A sample chapter [in HTML and PDF formats] is linked on the author's website, "Books" .)Kriseová, Eda. <mask> <mask>. Trans. Caleb Crain. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993. .
 Pontuso, James F<mask> <mask>: Civic Responsibility in the Postmodern Age. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. .
 Rocamora, Carol. Acts of Courage.New York: Smith & Kraus, 2004. .
 Symynkywicz, Jeffrey. Václav <mask> and the Velvet Revolution. Parsippany, New Jersey: Dillon Press, 1995. .
Williams, Kieran. <mask> <mask>. London: Reaktion Books, 2016. ISBN

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<mask> (born September 4, 1953) is a former U.S. Department of Defense official, businesswoman, social entrepreneur and nonprofit executive. Since 1996, she has been the president and CEO of the Commonwealth Club of California, America's largest and oldest public forum, founded in 1903. From 2010 to 2017 she led the acquisition, financing, design, entitlements and construction of the club's first headquarters building, at 110 The Embarcadero in San Francisco. The grand opening for the club's new building took place on September 12, 2017. The building received a 2016 California Heritage Council award for historic preservation. Early life and education
<mask> attended public schools in Lafayette, California, and began working in her family's real estate and land development office while a student at M. H. Stanley Middle School in 1965. She graduated from Acalanes High School in 1971, having completed life sciences courses including an invited human physiology course.She excelled in Spanish, receiving a medal for her proficiency from the National Society of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. She was the editor-in-chief of the school newspaper, The Blueprint. While a student, she served on the Lafayette School District's Drug Education Committee. She also co-founded, with her classmate Dr. Donald Goff, the Lafayette Youth Services Commission

<mask> holds a 1975 A.B. degree magna cum laude from Occidental College in Los Angeles, where her general studies track was science and human values, her major was interdisciplinary studies, she was a College Scholar and she was co-editor-in-chief of The Occidental Weekly, the campus newspaper. She also served on the College's Educational Policy and Curriculum Committee. <mask> holds a doctorate, an M.Phil.and an M.A. in political science, from Columbia University in New York, where she was a Presidents' Fellow, studied with the late Dr. Marshall D. Shulman, and served as research assistant to Dr. Zbigniew Brzezinski prior to his appointment as National Security Advisor to President Jimmy Carter. She was also research assistant to Dr. Gordon Adams. Her master's thesis was on the impact of US and Soviet policies in Iran and Iraq in the early 1970s on the two countries'

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 Kurdish populations, completed with support from the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, D.C., where she was a Humanitarian Policy Studies Fellow in the summer of 1976. After completing her coursework at Columbia at the end of 1976, <mask> worked as a resident consultant at the Rand Corporation in Santa Monica, California and then as Communications Director at the Arms Control Association in Washington, D.C., before returning to academia to complete her Ph.D. In 1980, Dr. Coit Blacker invited <mask> to become an Arms Control Fellow at Stanford University's Arms Control Program (later renamed the Center for International Security and Arms Control or CISAC). <mask> held a Hubert H. Humphrey Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship, from the US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, which supported the preparation of her Columbia University doctoral thesis while at CISAC, on the impact of US domestic politics on the non-ratification of the SALT II Treaty.She was one of four female fellows Blacker recruited, notable in the largely male international security and arms control field, including Condoleezza Rice, who later became National Security Advisor to President George W. Bush and Secretary of State; the late Janne Nolan, and Cynthia Roberts. <mask> and Rice lived together in a rented house in Palo Alto. Nolan began calling the group "the Fellowettes," a name that stuck and the group became life-long friends and colleagues. Career

<mask> has had a varied career, including research, journalism, education, business, management, scientific collaboration and research funding, philanthropy, public service at the local and national levels, defense and arms control policy, international arms negotiations, conflict resolution and real estate management and development. She has founded, served as President/CEO and chaired the board of a number of projects and organizations, including serving as the CEO of three organizations for a total of 39 years. Organizations she has founded, co-founded, of which she has chaired the board or served as President/CEO include the Lafayette Youth Services Commission, Global Outlook, Ploughshares Fund,  the World Forum of Silicon Valley, CRDF Global, the Guadalupe

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 River Park Conservancy and the Commonwealth Club of California

CISAC at Stanford
<mask>gli Institute, of which CISAC is a part, at Stanford for 22 years.She reflected on the early history of CISAC, the impact of its work and her distinguished colleagues including physicists Dr. Sidney Drell and Dr. Wolfgang Panofsky, Dr. Condoleezza Rice and the other "fellowettes," Dr. Blacker, China scholar Dr. John Lewis, Secretary of Defense Dr. William Perry and others at CISAC at its 25th anniversary commemoration in 2009. She also spoke about the impact of the Arms Control Program's founder, and CISAC's first co-director, Dr. John Lewis, at a conference commemorating his legacy, held at Stanford in January, 2018. Dismantling WMD in the former Soviet Union

<mask> served as deputy assistant secretary of defense, Special Coordinator for Cooperative Threat Reduction, and secretary of defense representative and deputy head to the safety, security and dismantlement talks, under Defense Secretaries Les Aspin and William Perry and Assistant Secretary Ashton Carter, in the Clinton Administration. Washington Post columnist Al Kamen joked in his In The Loop column that she had the longest title of any Clinton Administration appointee. She was responsible for negotiating the dismantlement and destruction of weapons of mass destruction in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan. With Ambassador James Goodby and other colleagues, she completed over fifty agreements with these countries for dismantling and disposal of their weapons of mass destruction, managing a $400 million annual budget. She received the Secretary of Defense Award for Outstanding Public Service in 1995.In May 2016, the 25th anniversary of the Nunn-Lugar legislation, Secretary of Defense Ash Carter presented <mask> and four other individuals with inaugural Nunn-Lugar Trailblazer Awards, at a ceremony at the Pentagon. Civilian Research and Development Foundation

In 1995, while at the Defense Department, <mask> responded to a request from the White House to fund a newly created organization, the Civilian Research and Development Foundation (CRDF Global), providing the initial $5 million for its budget from Defense Department funds, which was then matched

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 by philanthropist George Soros. Its creation, through the U.S. National Science Foundation, was mandated by the U.S. Congress, led by the late House Science and Technology Committee Chairman George Brown. The initial purpose was to provide employment in civilian scientific research to former Soviet WMD scientists who were unemployed or underemployed, and whose skills might be in demand by countries or groups seeking to obtain weapons of mass destruction. After leaving the U.S. government, <mask> served on, then chaired, the board of directors of the CRDF. She served on the board from 1996 to 2009, and chaired the board for ten years, from 1998 until 2008. During this time, the organization grew to raise and spend nearly $300 million in government and private funds, and expanded its operations worldwide.Currently, CRDF Global is a major funder for collaborative scientific research between American scientists and colleagues in other countries. It provides alternative employment for weapons scientists, promotes scientific collaboration on global health problems like HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, biosafety and biosecurity, helps emerging countries to develop science and technology based economies, and helps the U.S. to form scientific links in other countries. Ploughshares Fund

In 1982, <mask> become the first executive director of a start-up organisation, Ploughshares Fund, a public foundation initiated in San Francisco by philanthropist Sally Lilienthal, former Nixon Administration official Lewis H. Butler and others. Ploughshares Fund works directly and provides grants to individuals and institutions working to diminish the threats of nuclear war and nuclear proliferation. She served as executive director, 1982–1984, setting up initial grantmaking guidelines and procedures, helping to shape the funding priorities and process, and undertaking a number of special projects. During her tenure, Ploughshares funded a project between the US Natural Resources Defense Council and the Soviet Academy of Sciences to establish and collect data from seismic stations near the Soviet Semipalatinsk nuclear testing site, demonstrating that seismic monitoring of low-level nuclear tests was possible. Demonstrating the

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 verifiability of a low-threshold nuclear test ban enabled the United Nations to adopt the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1996.In the years since, she has served on both the board of directors and the advisory board of Ploughshares Fund. She is currently a member of the advisory board. Global Outlook

In 1985, <mask> founded the independent research institute Global Outlook, based in Palo Alto, California which focused on US-Soviet relations and international security in the nuclear age. She served as its president and CEO until 1993. Global Outlook undertook research, public policy advising and public education on issues including arms control treaty compliance and dispute resolution, the political psychology of the nuclear arms race, the sources and implications of "new thinking" about international relations under the Gorbachev leadership in the Soviet Union and verification of a chemical weapons treaty. Global Outlook also worked with new parliamentary leaders in the former Soviet countries to assist in their transition to civil society and civilian oversight of national security. Books authored by Global Outlook staff included Compliance and the Future of Arms Control by <mask>, Greg Dalton, Matthew State and Leo Sartori;  Minds at War by Steven Kull, and Burying Lenin by Steven Kull.Global Outlook's project on arms control compliance led to a 1987 hearing before the House Foreign Affairs Committee on the validity of cases the Reagan Administration was making that the Soviet Union was cheating on arms control agreements, at which <mask> and other Stanford and Global Outlook experts testified. Between 1991 and 1993, Global Outlook held six consultations among parliamentary leaders of the new Independent States and American national security and arms control experts, Members of Congress and Congressional staff members. Topics included the role of parliamentary committees in oversight of national security, non-proliferation of nuclear weapons and control of nuclear exports, the transition from defense economies to peacetime productivity, legislative oversight of the defense budget, war powers and legislative oversight and the arms trade in a transitional economy. The reports from the

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 late George Bunn, the late Dr. Alexander George, Michael Krepon, Dr. Robert Legvold, the late Dr. Wolfgang Panofsky, the late Dr. Marshall Shulman, Colette Shulman, Wayne Silby and the late Dr. Richard Smoke. Global Outlook closed in 1993, after <mask> and Blacker were appointed to positions in the Clinton Administration. Civil rights, equity and justice, conflict resolution

<mask> began her work on equity and justice by volunteering for Wilson Riles in his campaign for CA State Superintendent of Public Instruction, while in high school in 1970.Riles was the first African-American to win statewide elected office in California. In 1972, as a college freshman, she travelled to what was then Rhodesia, in Southern Africa, to study the attitudes of the white minority in Rhodesia to majority rule. She turned the interviews for her academic research into a four-part series of articles for The Occidental Weekly, arguing that the hardline and racist white attitudes she documented would lead to conflict and violence. The series, titled "The Country that Doesn't Exist," won a Los Angeles Press Club student journalism award, in 1974. In 1987, she co-founded the World Forum of Silicon Valley, based in San Jose, to host dialogue among various communities about global issues. <mask> served as the first board president until 1993, followed by Santa Clara County Municipal Court Judge Jerome Nadler. The organization was merged into the Commonwealth Club in 1997.<mask> has served as a mediator and in conflict resolution initiatives including a 1998 effort working, together with Stanford colleagues Alexander Dallin and Gail Lapidus and Ambassador James Goodby, with the national security advisors to the presidents of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia to build trust and hopefully to reduce hostility among the three countries. In 1997, as president of the Guadalupe River Park and Gardens Corporation in San Jose, she brought together environmental activists and public agencies at odds over environmental mitigation of a flood control project on the Guadalupe River, helping lead to a resolution of the issues and forward progress in the flood control project and creating the Guadalupe River Park. Beginning in 2020, <mask>


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 initiated and coordinates an Equity and Justice Task Force at the Commonwealth Club. Trusteeships, Professional Committees, Advisory Boards

<mask> has served as a trustee, chair of the board, president of the board, director and advisory board member of some two dozen organizations nationally and locally in the Bay Area. These include the boards of directors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists in Chicago and Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility in Palo Alto, California. She served as Board President of the Guadalupe River Park Conservancy, and served on the board of directors of Los Gatos Community Hospital, now El Camino Hospital. She has been a trustee of Occidental College in Los Angeles since 2006, and served as vice chair of its executive committee.She has chaired the board's academic affairs committee and co-chaired the board's Student Life and Enrollment Management Committee. She served as a trustee and on the executive committee of Dominican University of California, in San Rafael, California. In addition to serving for over two decades on the international advisory board of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies at Stanford University, she serves on the advisory board of the Harriman Institute at Columbia University and the advisory board of the Center for Nonproliferation Studies at the Middlebury Institute of International Studies in Monterey, CA. She has served on the Science, Arms Control and International Security Committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and on the selection committee for the Science and Technology Policy Fellows program. <mask> was for seven years a board director and treasurer of the Compton Foundation, where she oversaw the management of $120 million in assets. She has been a member of or chaired committees funding grants, fellowships and scholarships for the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation of Chicago, the Truman Scholarships (the national memorial to President Truman), the University of California system, the Council on Foreign Relations in New York and a number of other organizations. She is an advisor for
Miracle Messages, which helps volunteers use videos and social media to reunite


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 homeless individuals with their family members and friends.She is also on the national advisory board of Voice of the People, a Washington, D.C., polling organization. She is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, the Silicon Valley Capital Club and the Lafayette United Methodist Church. Teaching, editing, writing, Congressional testimony

<mask> has team-taught an arms control course at Stanford University, as well as guest-lectured at various colleges and universities. As communications director for the Arms Control Association, in Washington, D.C., from 1978 to 1980, she was editor of the magazine, Arms Control Today. She oversees The Commonwealth magazine at the Commonwealth Club, and oversaw publication of Each a Mighty Voice:  A Century of Speeches from The Commonwealth Club of California, Heyday Books, 2004. <mask> is the author or editor of a number of books and articles. Her first policy report was Power Politics:  The Nuclear Industry and Nuclear Exports, with Dr. Gordon Adams, published by the Council on Economic Priorities in 1978, followed by Soviet Nuclear Energy:  Domestic and International Policies, published in 1979 by the Rand Corporation.This was followed by the textbook Blacker and <mask>, International Arms Control Issues and Agreements, Stanford University Press, 1984 and <mask>, et al. Compliance and the Future of Arms Control, Ballinger, 1988. She has published articles in journals in her field such as International Security, the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Arms Control Today and Science Magazine, and contributed chapters to many edited volumes on international security and foreign policy. <mask>'s chapters in jointly authored books with other scholars have sometimes been based on her lectures or speeches. For example, in 1993, she spoke at the Arab and Israeli-attended Ginosar Conference in Tel Aviv on possible application of treaty verification measures developed in East–West arms control to Middle East security agreements. This presentation was later published in the book, Confidence Building and Verification:  Prospects in the Middle East, edited by Shai Feldman. Beginning with a widely reprinted article about Zbigniew Brzezinski in the Washington Post in


title: Gloria Duffy

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 August 1976, "The Man Behind Carter's Foreign Policy," <mask> has written for many newspapers including the New York Times, the Los Angeles Times and the Chicago Tribune.She was a columnist for the "Christian Science Monitor" in 1980–82, and for Pacific News Service in the 1980s. She writes a regular column, Insight, for The Commonwealth magazine, as well as periodic op-ed pieces for the San Francisco Chronicle, San Jose Mercury News, on Medium and for other online and print publications. She periodically writes, speaks, holds public forums and works with public officials on issues of protecting elders from financial and other abuse. She is working to establish more stringent local rules of court for probate in California counties that do not currently require attorneys to justify their fees as benefitting a protected person or their estate. The current laxity in rules is leading to significant financial abuse of protected people, their families and their estates. She currently serves on the Attorney Fee Review Team for the Spectrum Institute, which is reviewing flaws and abuses in California's probate system, to make recommendations for reform to the governor and state legislature. <mask> testified in 1987 before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, on arms control treaty compliance, and in 1994 before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, on the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program.<mask> speaks and writes frequently about ethics, collaboration, consensus-based decision-making and cooperation. Her lectures on these topics include "Getting Things Done" at the Commonwealth Club, her 2017 speech at the Chautauqua Institution, and her sermon, "The Power of Civility" at Lafayette United Methodist Church

Honors and awards

<mask> is a recipient of the Janet Gray Hayes Award, presented annually to an outstanding woman leader in honor of San Jose's first woman mayor; a Character Award from the Silicon Valley Monterey Bay Boy Scout Council; A Woman of Achievement Award for Public Service from the San Jose Mercury News and the Women's Foundation, and a Human Relations Award from Santa Clara County. In 2019, she received a Good Neighbor Award from Miracle Messages. She has been recognized over

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 many years as a leader in business and management by the San Francisco Business Times, the Silicon Valley Business Journal and the Alameda County Commission on the Status of Women. In 2019, she was selected by the San Francisco Business Times as the most admired non-profit CEO in the Bay Area. <mask> was the 2020 recipient of the Alumni Seal Award as Occidental College's Alum of the Year. <mask> received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of San Francisco, in 2006.<mask> has held a high-level security clearance from the US government since 1977. As board chair, <mask> held the facility clearance for classified research at the Civilian R&D Foundation. Personal life and business activities

She is married to Rod Diridon, Sr., former chair of the Santa Clara County board of supervisors and a leader in transportation policy and the development of public transportation systems regionally, nationally and internationally. The Amtrak and Caltrain Station in San Jose is named the Diridon Station, after Rod Diridon. They have two children and four grandchildren. Rod Diridon Jr. served two terms on the Santa Clara City Council, and is currently senior manager of state and local government affairs/West for Apple Computer. In 2022, <mask> marks 57 years of responsibilities as an employee, owner and managing partner in her family real estate business.She has also been a limited partner in a dozen non-family real estate projects. In the mid-2000s, she was a partner in the McCloud Book Gallery, an independent bookstore and art gallery in Siskiyou County, California. The Book Gallery was founded to create business and employment in McCloud as an alternative to the proposed building of a large water-bottling plant that would have negatively impacted the streams and groundwater at the top of the CA watershed. <mask> played competitive basketball in high school and tennis in high school and college; and currently swims, hikes, bicycles, skis, kayaks and practices yoga. She has summited Mt. Shasta in California (14,179 ft) and Mt. Chirripo in Costa Rica (12,533 ft).References

External links

1953 births
Living people
People from Lafayette, California
Occidental College alumni
Columbia University

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title: Arthur Penrhyn Stanley

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<mask>,  (13 December 1815 – 18 July 1881), known as <mask>, was an English Anglican priest and ecclesiastical historian. He was Dean of Westminster from 1864 to 1881. His position was that of a Broad Churchman and he was the author of a number of works on Church History. He was a co-founder of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Life and times
<mask> was born in Alderley Edge in Cheshire, where his father <mask>, later Bishop of Norwich, was then rector. A brother was <mask> and his sister <mask>. The middle-name 'Penrhyn' suggests Welsh lineage.Early life
He was educated at Rugby School under Thomas Arnold, and in 1834 went up to Balliol College, Oxford. He is generally considered to be the source for the character of <mask> in Thomas Hughes's well-known book Tom Brown's Schooldays which is based on Rugby. After winning the Ireland scholarship and Newdigate prize for an English poem (The Gypsies), he was in 1839 elected a Fellow of University College, and in the same year took holy orders. In 1840 he travelled in Greece and Italy, and on his return settled at Oxford, where for ten years he was tutor of his college and an influential element in university life. His relationship with his pupils was close and affectionate, and the charm of his character won him friends on all sides. His literary reputation was early established by his Life of Arnold, published in 1844. In 1845 he was appointed select preacher, and published in 1847 a volume of Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age, which not only laid the foundation of his fame as a preacher, but also marked his future position as a theologian.In university politics, which at that time wore mainly the form of theological

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 controversy, he was a strong advocate of comprehension and toleration. Controversies
As an undergraduate he had sympathised with Arnold in resenting the agitation led by the High Church Party in 1836 against the appointment of R. D. Hampden to the Regius professorship of divinity. During the long controversy which followed the publication in 1841 of Tract 90 and which ended in the withdrawal of John Henry Newman from the Church of England, he used all his influence to protect from formal condemnation the leaders and tenets of the "Tractarian" party. In 1847 he resisted the movement set on foot at Oxford against Hampden's appointment to the bishopric of Hereford. Finally, in 1850, in an article published in the Edinburgh Review in defence of the Gorham judgment he asserted two principles which he maintained to the end of his life—first, "that the so-called supremacy of the Crown in religious matters was in reality nothing else than the supremacy of law, and, secondly, that the Church of England, by the very condition of its being, was not High or Low, but Broad, and had always included and been meant to include, opposite and contradictory opinions on points even more important than those at present under discussion." University reform

It was not only in theoretical but in academic matters that his sympathies were on the liberal side. He was greatly interested in university reform and acted as secretary to the royal commission appointed in 1850.Of the important changes in administration and education which were ultimately carried out, <mask>, who took the principal share in drafting the report printed in 1852, was a strenuous advocate. These changes included the transference of


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 the initiative in university legislation from the sole authority of the heads of houses to an elected and representative body, the opening of college fellowships and scholarships to competition by the removal of local and other restrictions, the non-enforcement at matriculation of subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles, and various steps for increasing the usefulness and influence of the professorship. Before the report was issued, <mask> was appointed to a canonry in Canterbury Cathedral. During his residence there he published his Memoir of his father (1851), and completed his Commentary on the Epistles to the Corinthians (1855). In the winter and spring of 1852–1853 he made a tour in Egypt and the Holy Land, the result of which was his well-known volume on Sinai and Palestine (1856). In 1857 he travelled in Russia, and collected much of the materials for his Lectures on the Eastern Orthodox Church (1861). The book of these lectures, "History of the Eastern Church", contained an argument for the Apostolic claims of the Church of Abyssinia.His Memorials of Canterbury (1855), displayed the full maturity of his power of dealing with historical events and characters. He was also examining chaplain to Bishop A. C. Tait, his former tutor. Chair of ecclesiastical history
At the close of 1856 <mask> was appointed Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History at Oxford, a post which, with the attached canonry at Christ Church, he held till 1863. He began his treatment of the subject with "the first dawn of the history of the church," the call of Abraham; and published the first two volumes of his History of the Jewish Church in 1863 and 1865. From 1860 to 1864 academic and clerical

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 circles were agitated by the storm which followed the publication of Essays and Reviews, a volume to which two of his most valued friends, Benjamin Jowett and Frederick Temple, had been contributors. <mask>'s part in this controversy may be studied in the second and third of his Essays on Church and State (1870). The result of his action was to alienate the leaders of the High Church party, who had endeavoured to procure the formal condemnation of the views advanced in Essays and Reviews.In 1863 he published a Letter to the Bishop of London, advocating a relaxation of the terms of clerical subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles and the Book of Common Prayer. An act amending the Act of Uniformity, and carrying out in some degree <mask>'s proposals, was passed in the year 1865. In 1862, <mask>, at Queen Victoria's wish, accompanied the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) on a tour in Egypt and Palestine. The following year the Queen appointed him Deputy Clerk of the Closet. In June 1863 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society as The Author of – Life of Doctor Arnold – Historical Memorials of Canterbury – Syria and Palestine in connexion with their History – Lectures on the Eastern Churches – and Lectures on the Jewish Churches The collected Works of <mask> take up 32 bound volumes. Dean of Westminster

<mask> was a candidate to succeed as Archbishop of Dublin following the death of Richard Whately in October 1863, but was rejected by the Church of Ireland. Richard Chenevix Trench, the Dean of Westminster, was appointed instead, and towards the close of 1863 <mask> was appointed by the Crown to the newly vacated deanery.In December he married Lady Augusta Bruce, sister of

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 windows (destroyed 1939–45) in the chapter-house of the abbey, one of them a gift from Queen Victoria, were a tribute to his memory from friends of every class in England and America.A description of his funeral service, on 25 July, is given in a footnote to Historical memorials of Westminster Abbey: "<mask> <mask> (author of this volume) ... was followed by the Prince of Wales, as representative of the Sovereign, by other members of the Royal Family, by representatives of the three Estates of the Realm, of the Cabinet Ministers, the literature, arts, science, and religion of the country, and by a large concourse of the working-men of Westminster—the majority mourning for one who had been their personal friend. The coffin was covered with memorials and expressions of regret from high and low in England, Scotland, France, Germany, and America, and from the members of the Armenian Church. He rests in the same grave with his beloved wife, in the Abbey which he loved so dearly, which he cherished as 'the likeness of the whole English Constitution,' for the care and illustration of which he laboured unceasingly, and with which his name will always be associated." <mask>, <mask>hyn (1815–1881). Historical memorials of Westminster Abbey ; with illustrations, London : John Murray, 1886. Legacy

<mask> was the leading liberal theologian of his time in England. His writings reveal his special views, aims and aspirations.He regarded the age in which he lived as a period of transition, to be followed either by an "eclipse of faith" or by a "revival of Christianity in a wider aspect," a "catholic, comprehensive, all-embracing Christianity" that "might yet overcome the world". He believed

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texts: that the Christian Church had not yet presented "its final or its most perfect aspect to the world"; that "the belief of each successive age of Christendom had as a matter of fact varied enormously from the belief of its predecessor"; that "all confessions and similar documents are, if taken as final expressions of absolute truth, misleading"; and that "there still remained, behind all the controversies of the past, a higher Christianity which neither assailants nor defenders had fully exhausted." "The first duty of a modern theologian" he held to be "to study the Bible, not for the sake of making or defending systems out of it, but for the sake of discovering what it actually contains." To this study he looked for the best hope of such a progressive development of Christian theology as should avert the danger arising from "the apparently increasing divergence between the intelligence and the faith of our time." He enforced the duty "of placing in the background whatever was accidental, temporary or secondary, and of bringing into due prominence what was primary and essential." In the former group <mask> would have placed all questions connected with Episcopal or Presbyterian orders, or that deal only with the outward forms or ceremonies of religion, or with the authorship or age of the books of the Old Testament. The foremost and highest place, that of the "essential and supernatural" elements of religion, he reserved for its moral and spiritual truths, "its chief evidence and chief essence," the truths to be drawn from the teaching and from the life of Christ, "in whose character he did not hesitate to recognise ?the greatest of all miracles."He insisted on the essential points


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 of union between various denominations of Christians. He was an advocate of the connection between Church and State. By this he understood: (1) "the recognition and support on the part of the state of the religious expression of the faith of the community," and (2) "that this religious expression of the faith of the community on the most sacred and most vital of all its interests should be controlled and guided by the whole community through the supremacy of law." At the same time he was in favour of making the creed of the Church as wide as possible—"not narrower than that which is even now the test of its membership, the Apostles' Creed"—and of throwing down all barriers which could be wisely dispensed with to admission to its ministry. As an immediate step he even advocated the admission under due restrictions of English Nonconformists and Scottish Presbyterians, to preach in Anglican pulpits. The subjects to which he looked as, the most essential of all—the universality of the divine love, the supreme importance of the moral and spiritual elements of religion, the supremacy of conscience, the sense of the central citadel of Christianity as being contained in the character, the history, the spirit of its divine Founder—have impressed themselves more and more on the teaching and the preaching in the Church. According to William Archer, <mask> was "incapable of distinguishing one tune from another" and "took off his hat when the band played 'Rule, Britannia,' under the impression that it was 'God Save the Queen.'"Works
 Life of Doctor Arnold (1844)
 Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age (1847)
 Memoir of his father (1851)
 Commentary on the Epistles to the Corinthians (1855)


title: Arthur Penrhyn Stanley

texts:
 Historical Memorials of Canterbury (1855)
 Sinai and Palestine in Connexion with their History. 1856. 2nd ed. London: John Murray, 1875. History of the Eastern Church (1861)
 History of the Jewish Church (3 vols, 1863, 1865, 1870)
 Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey. London: John Murray, 1870. (Philadelphia, PA, 1899).Essays on Church and State (1870)
 The Church of Scotland (1870)
 Addresses and Sermons preached in America (1870)
 Essays Chiefly on Questions of Church and State from 1850 to 1870 (1870)
 Christian Institutions: Essays on Ecclesiastical Subjects (1881)
The collected The Works of <mask>hyn <mask> take up 32 bound volumes. References

Further reading
 Bolitho, Hector & Baillie, A. V. (1930) A Victorian Dean: a Memoir of <mask>
 Cross, F. L. (ed.) (1957) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford U. P.; p. 1280
 Prothero, R. E. & Bradley, G. G. (1893) The Life and Correspondence of <mask>hyn <mask>. 2 vols. Witheridge, John.(2013) Excellent <mask>: The Life of <mask> of Westminster. Wilby: Michael Russell Publishing Ltd. . External links

 Westminster Abbey tomb

 <mask>, <mask>hyn (1815–1881). Historical memorials of Westminster Abbey ; with illustrations, London : John Murray, 1886. Full text available from the Internet Archive Digital Library  Catalogue record, full text available from HathiTrust Digital Library

1815 births
1881 deaths
People from Alderley Edge
19th-century English Anglican priests
People educated at Rugby School
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Fellows of University College, Oxford
Deans of Westminster
Rectors of the University of St Andrews
Regius Professors of Ecclesiastical History
Fellows of the Royal Society
Burials

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title: Audie Murphy

texts: <mask> (20 June 1925 – 28 May 1971) was an American soldier, actor, songwriter, and rancher. He was one of the most decorated American combat soldiers of World War II. He received every military combat award for valor available from the U.S. Army, as well as French and Belgian awards for heroism. <mask> received the Medal of Honor for valor that he demonstrated at the age of 19 for single-handedly holding off a company of German soldiers for an hour at the Colmar Pocket in France in January 1945, then leading a successful counterattack while wounded and out of ammunition. <mask> was born into a large family of sharecroppers in Hunt County, Texas. His father abandoned them, and his mother died when he was a teenager. <mask> left school in fifth grade to pick cotton and find other work to help support his family; his skill with a hunting rifle helped feed his family.After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, <mask>'s older sister helped him to falsify documentation about his birthdate in order to meet the minimum age requirement for enlisting in the military. Turned down initially for being underweight by the Army, Navy and the Marine Corps, he eventually was able to enlist in the Army. He first saw action in the 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily; then in 1944 he participated in the Battle of Anzio, the liberation of Rome, and the invasion of southern France. <mask> fought at Montélimar and led his men on a successful assault at L'Omet quarry near Cleurie in north-eastern France in October. After the war, <mask> embarked on a 21-year acting career. He played himself in the 1955 autobiographical film To Hell and Back, based on his 1949 memoirs of the same name, but most of his roles were in

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 westerns. He made guest appearances on celebrity television shows and starred in the series Whispering Smith.<mask> was a fairly accomplished songwriter. He bred quarter horses in California and Arizona, and became a regular participant in horse racing. Suffering from what would today be described as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), <mask> slept with a loaded handgun under his pillow. He looked for solace in addictive sleeping pills. In his last few years, he was plagued by money problems but refused offers to appear in alcohol and cigarette commercials because he did not want to set a bad example. <mask> died in a plane crash in Virginia in 1971, which was shortly before his 46th birthday. He was interred with military honors at Arlington National Cemetery, where his grave is one of the most visited.Early life
<mask> <mask> was born on 20 June 1925, in Kingston, a small rural community in Hunt County in northeastern Texas. He was the seventh of twelve children born to Emmett <mask> (1887–1976) and his wife Josie Bell <mask> (née Killian; 1891–1941). The <mask>s were sharecroppers of Irish descent. As a child, <mask> was a loner with mood swings and an explosive temper. He grew up in northeastern Texas around the towns of Farmersville, Greenville, and Celeste, where he attended elementary school. His father drifted in and out of the family's life and eventually deserted them. <mask> dropped out of school in fifth grade and got a job picking cotton for a dollar a day () to help support his family; he also became skilled with a rifle, hunting small game to help feed them.After his mother died of endocarditis and pneumonia in 1941, he worked at a radio repair shop and at a

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 combination general store, garage and gas station in Greenville. Hunt County authorities placed his three youngest siblings in Boles Children's Home, a Christian orphanage in Quinlan. After the war, he bought a house in Farmersville for his eldest sister Corinne and her husband, Poland Burns. His other siblings briefly shared the home. The loss of his mother stayed with <mask> throughout his life. He later stated:

World War II service

<mask> had always wanted to be a soldier. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, he tried to enlist, but the Army, Navy and Marine Corps all turned him down for being underweight and underage.After his sister provided an affidavit that falsified his birth date by a year, he was accepted by the U.S. Army on 30 June 1942. After basic training at Camp Wolters,  he was sent to Fort Meade for advanced infantry training. During basic training, he earned the Marksman Badge with Rifle Component Bar and Expert Badge with Bayonet Component Bar. Mediterranean Theater

<mask> was shipped to Casablanca in French Morocco on 20 February 1943. He was assigned to Company B, 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division, which trained under the command of Major General Lucian Truscott. He participated as a platoon messenger with his division at Arzew in Algeria in rigorous training for the Allied assault landings in Sicily. He was promoted to private first class on 7 May and corporal on 15 July.When the 3rd Infantry landed at Licata, Sicily, on 10 July, <mask> was a division runner. On a scouting patrol, he killed two fleeing Italian officers near Canicattì. Sidelined with illness for a week when Company B arrived in Palermo on 20

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texts: July, he rejoined them when they were assigned to a hillside location protecting a machine-gun emplacement, while the rest of the 3rd Infantry Division fought at San Fratello en route to the Allied capture of the transit port of Messina. <mask> participated in the September 1943 mainland Salerno landing at Battipaglia. While on a scouting party along the Volturno River, he and two other soldiers were ambushed; German machine gun fire killed one soldier. <mask> and the other survivor responded by killing five Germans with hand grenades and machine gun fire. While taking part in the October Allied assault on the Volturno Line, near Mignano Monte Lungo Hill 193, he and his company repelled an attack by seven German soldiers, killing three and taking four prisoner.<mask> was promoted to sergeant on 13 December. In January 1944, <mask> was promoted to staff sergeant. He was hospitalized in Naples with malaria on 21 January and was unable to participate in the initial landing at the Anzio beachhead. He returned on 29 January and participated in the First Battle of Cisterna, and was made a platoon sergeant in Company B following the battle. He returned with the 3rd Division to Anzio, where they remained four months. Taking shelter from the weather in an abandoned farmhouse on 2 March, <mask> and his platoon killed the crew of a passing German tank. He then crawled out alone close enough to destroy the tank with rifle grenades, for which he received the Bronze Star with "V" device.<mask> continued to make scouting patrols to take German prisoners before being hospitalized for a week on 13 March with a second bout of malaria. Sixty-one infantry officers and enlisted men of Company B, 15th

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 Infantry, including <mask>, were awarded the Combat Infantryman Badge on 8 May. <mask> was awarded a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Bronze Star. American forces liberated Rome on 4 June, and <mask> remained bivouacked in Rome with his platoon throughout July. European Theater
During the first wave of the Allied invasion of southern France, <mask> received the Distinguished Service Cross for action taken on 15 August 1944. After landing on Yellow Beach near Ramatuelle, <mask>'s platoon was making its way through a vineyard when the men were attacked by German soldiers. He retrieved a machine gun that had been detached from the squad and returned fire at the German soldiers, killing two and wounding one.Two Germans exited a house about  away and appeared to surrender; when <mask>'s best friend responded, they shot and killed him. <mask> advanced alone on the house under direct fire. He killed six, wounded two and took 11 prisoner. <mask> was with the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment during the 27–28 August offensive at Montélimar that secured the area from the Germans. Along with the other soldiers who took part in the action, he received the Presidential Unit Citation. <mask>'s first Purple Heart was for a heel wound received in a mortar shell blast on 15 September 1944 in northeastern France. His first Silver Star came after he killed four and wounded three at a German machine gun position on 2 October at L'Omet quarry in the Cleurie valley.Three days later, <mask> crawled alone towards the Germans at L'Omet, carrying an SCR-536 radio and directing his men for an hour while the Germans fired directly at him. When his men finally took the hill, 15 Germans had been killed and 35

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texts: wounded. <mask>'s actions earned him a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Silver Star. He was awarded a battlefield commission to second lieutenant on 14 October, which elevated him to platoon leader. While en route to Brouvelieures on 26 October, the 3rd Platoon of Company B was attacked by a German sniper group. <mask> captured two before being shot in the hip by a sniper; he returned fire and shot the sniper between the eyes. At the 3rd General Hospital at Aix-en-Provence, the removal of gangrene from the wound caused partial loss of his hip muscle and kept him out of combat until January.<mask> received his first Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Purple Heart for this injury. The Colmar Pocket,  in the Vosges Mountains, had been held by German troops since November 1944. On 14 January 1945, <mask> rejoined his platoon, which had been moved to the Colmar area in December. He moved with the 3rd Division on 24 January to the town of Holtzwihr, where they faced a strong German counterattack. He was wounded in both legs, for which he received a second Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Purple Heart. As the company awaited reinforcements on 26 January, he was made commander of Company B. The Germans scored a direct hit on an M10 tank destroyer, setting it alight, forcing the crew to abandon it.<mask> ordered his men to retreat to positions in the woods, remaining alone at his post, shooting his M1 carbine and directing artillery fire via his field radio while the Germans aimed fire directly at his position. <mask> mounted the abandoned, burning tank destroyer and began firing its .50 caliber machine gun at the advancing Germans, killing a squad crawling through a ditch towards him. For an


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 hour, <mask> stood on the flaming tank destroyer returning German fire from foot soldiers and advancing tanks, killing or wounding 50 Germans. He sustained a leg wound during his stand, and stopped only after he ran out of ammunition. <mask> rejoined his men, disregarding his own injury, and led them back to repel the Germans. He insisted on remaining with his men while his wounds were treated. For his actions that day, he was awarded the Medal of Honor.The 3rd Infantry Division was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for its actions at the Colmar Pocket, giving <mask> a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for the emblem. On 16 February, <mask> was promoted to first lieutenant and was awarded the Legion of Merit for his service from 22 January 1944 to 18 February 1945. He was moved from the front lines to Regimental Headquarters and made a liaison officer. Decorations

The United States additionally honored <mask>'s war contributions with the American Campaign Medal, the European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with arrowhead device and 9 campaign stars, the World War II Victory Medal, and the Army of Occupation Medal with Germany Clasp. France recognized his service with the French Legion of Honor – Grade of Chevalier, the French Croix de guerre with Silver Star, the French Croix de guerre with Palm, the French Liberation Medal and the French Fourragère in Colors of the Croix de guerre, which was authorized for all members of the 3rd Infantry Division who fought in France during World War II. Belgium awarded <mask> the Belgian Croix de guerre with 1940 Palm. Brigadier General Ralph B. Lovett and Lieutenant Colonel Hallet D. Edson recommended <mask> for the Medal of Honor.Near Salzburg,

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 Austria on 2 June 1945, Lieutenant General A.M. Patch presented <mask> with the Medal of Honor and Legion of Merit for his actions at Holtzwihr. When asked after the war why he had seized the machine gun and taken on an entire company of German infantry, he replied, "They were killing my friends." <mask> received every U.S. military combat award for valor available from the U.S. Army for his World War II service. Postwar military service
Inquiries were made through official channels about the prospect of <mask> attending West Point upon his return to the United States, but he never enrolled. According to author Don Graham, <mask> suggested the idea and then dropped it, possibly when he realized the extent of academic preparation needed to pass the entrance exam. <mask> was one of several military personnel who received orders on 8 June 1945 to report to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas, for temporary duty and reassignment. Upon arrival on 13 June, he was one of four assigned to Fort Sam Houston Army Ground & Services Redistribution Station and sent home for 30 days of recuperation, with permission to travel anywhere within the United States during that period.While on leave, <mask> was feted with parades, banquets, and speeches. He received a belated Good Conduct Medal on 21 August. He was discharged with the rank of first lieutenant at a 50 percent disability classification on 21 September and transferred to the Officers' Reserve Corps. Post-traumatic stress

Since his military service, <mask> had been plagued with insomnia and bouts of depression, and he slept with a loaded pistol under his pillow. A post-service medical examination on 17 June 1947 revealed symptoms of


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 headaches, vomiting, and nightmares about the war. His medical records indicated that he took sleeping pills to help prevent nightmares. During the mid-1960s, he recognized his dependence on the sedative Placidyl, and locked himself alone in a hotel room for a week to successfully break the addiction.Post-traumatic stress levels exacerbated his innate moodiness, and surfaced in episodes that friends and professional colleagues found alarming. His first wife, Dixie Wanda Hendrix, claimed he once held her at gunpoint. She witnessed her husband being guilt-ridden and tearful over newsreel footage of German war orphans. <mask> briefly found a creative stress outlet in writing poetry after his Army discharge. His poem "The Crosses Grow on Anzio" appeared in his book To Hell and Back, but was attributed to the fictitious character Kerrigan. To draw attention to the problems of returning Korean War and Vietnam War veterans, <mask> spoke out candidly about his own problems with posttraumatic stress disorder. It was known during <mask>'s lifetime as "battle fatigue" and "shell shock", terminology that dated back to World War I.He called on the government to give increased consideration and study to the emotional impact of combat experiences, and to extend health care benefits to war veterans. As a result of legislation introduced by U.S. Congressman Olin Teague five months after <mask>'s death in 1971, the Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital in San Antonio, now a part of the South Texas Veterans Health Care System, was dedicated in 1973. Texas Army National Guard

At the end of World War II, the 36th Infantry Division reverted to state control as part of the Texas Army National Guard, and


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 <mask>'s friends, Major General H. Miller Ainsworth and Brigadier General Carl L. Phinney, were the 36th's commander and deputy commander respectively. After 25 June 1950 commencement of the Korean War, <mask> began a second military career and was commissioned as a captain in the 36th Infantry Division of the Texas Army National Guard. He drilled new recruits in the summer training camps, and granted the Guard permission to use his name and image in recruiting materials. Although he wanted to join the fighting and juggled training activities with his film career, the 36th Infantry Division was never sent to Korea.At his request, he transferred to inactive status on 1 October 1951 because of his film commitments with MGM Studios, and returned to active status in 1955. <mask> was promoted to the rank of major by the Texas Army National Guard in 1956 and returned to inactive status in 1957. In 1969, his official separation from the Guard transferred him to the United States Army Reserve. He remained with the USAR until his transfer to the Retired Reserve in 1969. Film career

During an acting career spanning from 1948 to 1969, <mask> made more than 40 feature films and one television series. When actor and producer James Cagney saw the 16 July 1945 issue of Life magazine depicting <mask> as the "most decorated soldier", he brought him to Hollywood. Cagney and his brother William signed him as a contract player for their production company and gave him training in acting, voice and dance.They never cast <mask> in a movie and a personal disagreement ended the association in 1947. <mask> later worked with acting coach Estelle Harman, and honed his diction by reciting dialogue from William


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texts: Shakespeare and William Saroyan. <mask> moved into Terry Hunt's Athletic Club in Hollywood where he lived until 1948. Hollywood writer David "Spec" McClure befriended <mask>, collaborating with him on <mask>'s 1949 book To Hell and Back. McClure used his connections to get a $500 () bit part in Texas, Brooklyn & Heaven (1948) for <mask>. The agent of Wanda Hendrix, whom <mask> had been dating since 1946, got him a bit part in the Alan Ladd film Beyond Glory directed by John Farrow earlier that same year. His 1949 film Bad Boy gave him his first leading role.The film's financial backers refused to bankroll the project unless <mask> was given the lead; thus, Allied Artists put aside their reservations about using an inexperienced actor and gave him the starring role. Universal Studios signed <mask> to a seven-year studio contract at $2,500 a week (). His first film for them was as Billy the Kid in The Kid from Texas in 1950. He wrapped up that year making Sierra starring Wanda Hendrix, who by that time had become his wife, and Kansas Raiders as outlaw Jesse James. Universal lent him to MGM in 1951 at a salary of $25,000 to play the lead of The Youth in The Red Badge of Courage, directed by John Huston. <mask> and Huston worked together again in the 1960 film The Unforgiven. The only film <mask> made in 1952 was The Duel at Silver Creek with director Don Siegel.<mask> worked with Siegel one more time in 1958 for The Gun Runners. In 1953, he starred in Frederick de Cordova's Column South, and played Jim Harvey in Nathan Juran's Tumbleweed, an adaptation of the Kenneth Perkins novel Three Were Renegades. Director Nathan Juran also directed Gunsmoke and Drums Across the River. George


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texts: Marshall directed <mask> in the 1954 Destry, a remake of Destry Rides Again, based on a character created by author Max Brand. Although <mask> was initially reluctant to appear as himself in To Hell and Back, the 1955 adaptation of his book directed by Jesse Hibbs, he eventually agreed; it became the biggest hit in the history of Universal Studios at the time. To help publicize the release of the film, he made guest appearances on television shows such as What's My Line?, Toast of the Town, and Colgate Comedy Hour. The Hibbs-<mask> team proved so successful in To Hell and Back that the two worked together on five subsequent films.The partnership resulted in <mask> appearing as John Phillip Clum in the 1956 western Walk the Proud Land, and the non-westerns Joe Butterfly and World in My Corner. They worked together for the last time in the 1958 western Ride a Crooked Trail. Joseph L. Mankiewicz hired <mask> to play the titular role in the 1958 film The Quiet American. <mask> formed a partnership with Harry Joe Brown to make three films, starting with The Guns of Fort Petticoat (1957). The partnership fell into disagreement over the remaining two projects, and Brown filed suit against <mask>. In 1957 <mask> was cast as The Utica Kid along with James Stewart and Dan Duryea in the western Night Passage. <mask> was featured in three westerns in 1959: he starred opposite Sandra Dee in The Wild and the Innocent, collaborated as an uncredited co-producer with Walter Mirisch on the black and white Cast a Long Shadow, and performed as a hired killer in No Name on the Bullet, a film that was well received by critics.Thelma Ritter was his costar in the 1960 Startime television episode "The Man".

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 During the early 1960s, <mask> donated his time and otherwise lent his name and image for three episodes of The Big Picture television series produced by the United States Army. He received the 1960 Outstanding Civilian Service Medal for his cooperation in the episode Broken Bridge, which featured his visits to military installations in Germany, Italy, Turkey and the U.S. state of New Mexico to showcase the military's latest weaponry. Writer Clair Huffaker wrote the 1961 screenplays for <mask>'s films Seven Ways from Sundown and Posse from Hell. Willard W. Willingham and his wife Mary Willingham befriended <mask> in his early days in Hollywood and worked with him on a number of projects. Willard was a producer on <mask>'s 1961 television series Whispering Smith, and co-wrote the screenplay for Battle at Bloody Beach that year. He collaborated on Bullet for a Badman in 1964 and Arizona Raiders in 1965.The Willinghams as a team wrote the screenplay for Gunpoint as well as the script for <mask>'s last starring lead in the western 40 Guns to Apache Pass in 1967. <mask> made Trunk to Cairo in Israel in 1966. He first met director Budd Boetticher when <mask> requested to be his boxing partner at Terry Hunt's Athletic Club. He subsequently appeared in the 1951 title role of Boetticher's first western The Cimarron Kid. Boetticher wrote the script in 1969 for <mask>'s last film, A Time for Dying. Two other projects that <mask> and Boetticher planned to collaborate on – A Horse for Mr Barnum and When There's Sumpthin' to Do – never came to fruition. Personal life

<mask> married actress Wanda Hendrix in 1949.Their divorce became final two years later in 1951. Four days later, he married former


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 airline stewardess Pamela Opal Lee Archer (7 October 1919/1920/1923 – 8 April 2010), with whom he had two sons: Terry Michael (born 14 March 1952), and James Shannon (born 1954). <mask> bred quarter horses at the Audie Murphy Ranch in what is now Menifee, California, and the Murphy Ranch in Pima County, Arizona. His horses raced at the Del Mar Racetrack, and he invested large sums of money in the hobby. <mask>'s gambling left his finances in a poor state. In 1968, he stated that he lost $260,000 in an Algerian oil deal and was dealing with the Internal Revenue Service over unpaid taxes. In spite of his financial difficulties, <mask> refused to appear in commercials for alcohol and cigarettes, mindful of the influence he would have on the youth market.In May 1970, he was arrested in Burbank, California, charged with battery and assault with intent to commit murder in a dispute with a dog trainer. He was accused of firing a shot at the man, which he denied. <mask> was cleared of the charges. Death and commemorations

On 28 May 1971, <mask> was killed when the private plane in which he was a passenger crashed into Brush Mountain, near Catawba, Virginia,  west of Roanoke in conditions of rain, clouds, fog and zero visibility. The pilot and four other passengers were also killed. The aircraft was a twin-engine Aero Commander 680 flown by a pilot who had a private-pilot license and a reported 8,000 hours of flying time, but who held no instrument rating. The aircraft was recovered on 31 May.After her husband's death, <mask> moved into a small apartment and got a clerk position at the Sepulveda Veterans Administration Hospital in Los Angeles, where she remained employed for 35 years. On 7

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 June 1971, <mask> was buried with military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. In attendance were Ambassador to the U.N. George H. W. Bush, Army Chief of Staff William Westmoreland, and many of the 3rd Infantry Division. <mask>'s gravesite is in Section 46, headstone number 46-366-11, located across Memorial Drive from the Amphitheater. A special flagstone walkway was later constructed to accommodate the large number of people who visit to pay their respects. It is the cemetery's second most-visited gravesite, after that of President John F. Kennedy. The headstones of Medal of Honor recipients buried at Arlington National Cemetery are normally decorated in gold leaf.<mask> previously requested that his stone remain plain and inconspicuous, like that of an ordinary soldier. The headstone contains the birth year 1924, based upon purportedly falsified materials among his military records. In 1974, a large granite marker was erected just off the Appalachian Trail at  at 3,100' elevation, near the crash site. In 1975, a court awarded <mask>'s widow, Pamela, and their two children $2.5 million in damages because of the accident. Civilian honors were bestowed on <mask> during his lifetime and posthumously, including a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2013, <mask> was honored by his home state with the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor. In 2014, the metal band Sabaton released a song titled "To Hell and Back" in reference to <mask> <mask> and his film, on their album Heroes.Song writing

David McClure, his collaborator on the book To Hell and Back, discovered <mask>'s talent for poetry during their work on the memoir when he found discarded verses in <mask>'s Hollywood apartment. One

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 of those poems, "The Crosses Grow on Anzio", appears in To Hell and Back attributed to a soldier named Kerrigan. Only two others survived, "Alone and Far Removed" and "Freedom Flies in Your Heart Like an Eagle". The latter was part of a speech <mask> had written at a 1968 dedication of the Alabama War Memorial in Montgomery, and later set to music by Scott Turner under the title "Dusty Old Helmet". <mask> was a fan of country music, in particular Bob Wills and Chet Atkins, but was not a singer or musician himself. Through his friend Guy Mitchell, <mask> was introduced to songwriter Scott Turner in 1961. The two collaborated on numerous songs between 1962 and 1970, the most successful of which was "Shutters and Boards" and "When the Wind Blows in Chicago".Notes

Footnotes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

 Image of <mask> <mask> with unidentified man during screen test in Los Angeles, California, 1946. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. 1925 births
1971 deaths
20th-century American male actors
Age controversies
Accidental deaths in Virginia
American lyricists
American male film actors
United States Army personnel of World War II
American people of Irish descent
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Male actors from Texas
Male Western (genre) film actors
National Guard of the United States officers
People from Hunt County, Texas
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients

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<mask> (, ; born 1985, disappeared May 24, 2005), alternatively <mask> or <mask>, was an Israeli Druze soldier from the village of Daliyat al-Karmel, located on the slopes of Mount Carmel, who disappeared on duty near Haifa in May 2005. <mask>'s body was found in 2012 on Mount Carmel and he was buried in Isfiya with full military honors. Background
<mask> was born in 1985 to <mask>, an employee at the Friends of the Israel Defense Forces, and <mask>, in the Druze village of Daliyat al-Karmel, located on Mount Carmel. <mask> began his mandatory military service in the IDF in the Israeli Air Force at a Be'er sheva campus of the Israeli Air And Space technical college but had difficulties serving at the place and as a result he lowered his Medical Profile and was transferred to serve in a vehicle workshop of the Ordnance Corps, at a maintenance and rehabilitation () base located near Haifa. When <mask> asked to raise his Medical Profile back in order to be transferred back to his old unit he was refused. During his military service <mask> became an absentee several times from the military bases in which he served. The disappearance and search efforts
<mask> disappeared on Tuesday, May 24, 2005, while he attempted to hitchhike from his village to his Ordnance Corps camp near Tirat Carmel, without carrying any weapons.At the time of his disappearance, he had served in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) for five months. In his parents testimony given afterwards they claimed that he was last seen in civilian clothes and that he took with him a small bag, in which he presumably carried his IDF uniform. Nevertheless, additional witnesses claimed to have seen him in uniform. A witness from <mask>'s village stated that he saw <mask> around 15:30 at the grocery store of the village, buying a beverage can, and further investigation revealed that he had pulled out 50 NIS from an ATM in his village before his disappearance. Various officers involved in the case claimed

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