title: John Singer Sargent

texts: purchased by the Tate Gallery. His first trip to New York and Boston as a professional artist in 1887–88 produced over 20 important commissions, including portraits of Isabella Stewart Gardner, the famed Boston art patron. His portrait of Mrs. Adrian Iselin, wife of a New York businessman, revealed her character in one of his most insightful works.In Boston, <mask> was honored with his first solo exhibition, which presented 22 of his paintings. Here he became friends with painter Dennis Miller Bunker, who traveled to England in the summer of 1888 to paint with him en plein air, and is the subject of <mask>'s 1888 painting Dennis Miller Bunker Painting at Calcot. Back in London, <mask> was quickly busy again. His working methods were by then well-established, following many of the steps employed by other master portrait painters before him. After securing a commission through negotiations which he carried out, <mask> would visit the client's home to see where the painting was to hang. He would often review a client's wardrobe to pick suitable attire. Some portraits were done in the client's home, but more often in his studio, which was well-stocked with furniture and background materials he chose for proper effect.He usually required eight to ten sittings from his clients, although he would try to capture the face in one sitting. He usually kept up pleasant conversation and sometimes he would take a break and play the piano for his sitter. <mask> seldom used pencil or oil sketches, and instead laid down oil paint directly. Finally, he would select an appropriate frame. <mask> had no assistants; he handled all the tasks, such


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type: original

texts: as preparing his canvases, varnishing the painting, arranging for photography, shipping, and documentation. He commanded about $5,000 per portrait, or about $130,000 in current dollars. Some American clients traveled to London at their own expense to have <mask> paint their portrait.Around 1890, <mask> painted two daring non-commissioned portraits as show pieces—one of actress Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth and one of the popular Spanish dancer La Carmencita. <mask> was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and was made a full member three years later. In the 1890s, he averaged fourteen portrait commissions per year, none more beautiful than the genteel Lady Agnew of Lochnaw, 1892. His portrait of Mrs. Hugh Hammersley (Mrs. Hugh Hammersley, 1892) was equally well received for its lively depiction of one of London's most notable hostesses. As a portrait painter in the grand manner, <mask> had unmatched success; he portrayed subjects who were at once ennobled and often possessed of nervous energy. <mask> was referred to as "the Van Dyck of our times." Although <mask> was an American expatriate, he returned to the United States many times, often to answer the demand for commissioned portraits.<mask> exhibited nine of his portraits in the Palace of Fine Arts at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. <mask> painted a series of three portraits of Robert Louis Stevenson. The second, Portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his Wife (1885), was one of his best known. He also completed portraits of two U.S. presidents: Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Asher Wertheimer, a wealthy Jewish art dealer living in London,

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 commissioned from <mask> a series of a dozen portraits of his family, the artist's largest commission from a single patron. The Wertheimer portraits reveal a pleasant familiarity between the artist and his subjects. Wertheimer bequeathed most of the paintings to the National Gallery.In 1888, <mask> released his portrait of Alice Vanderbilt Shepard, great-granddaughter of Cornelius Vanderbilt. Many of his most important works are in museums in the United States. In 1897, a friend sponsored a famous portrait in oil of Mr. and Mrs. I. N. Phelps Stokes, by <mask>, as a wedding gift. Twentieth century portraits

By 1900, <mask> was at the height of his fame. Cartoonist Max Beerbohm completed one of his seventeen caricatures of <mask>, making well known to the public the artist's paunchy physique. Although only in his forties, <mask> began to travel more and to devote relatively less time to portrait painting.His An Interior in Venice (1900), a portrait of four members of the Curtis family in their elegant palatial home, Palazzo Barbaro, was a resounding success. But, Whistler did not approve of the looseness of <mask>'s brushwork, which he summed up as "smudge everywhere." One of <mask>'s last major portraits in his bravura style was that of Lord Ribblesdale, in 1902, finely attired in an elegant hunting uniform. Between 1900 and 1907, <mask> continued his high productivity, which included, in addition to dozens of oil portraits, hundreds of portrait drawings at about $400 each. In 1907, at the age of fifty-one, <mask> officially closed his studio. Relieved, he stated, "Painting a portrait would be quite amusing if one were

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texts: not forced to talk while working…What a nuisance having to entertain the sitter and to look happy when one feels wretched." In that same year, <mask> painted his modest and serious self-portrait, his last, for the celebrated self-portrait collection of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy.<mask> made several summer visits to the Swiss Alps with his sisters Emily and Violet (Mrs Ormond) and Violet's daughters Rose-Marie and Reine, who were the subject of a number of paintings 1906–1913. As <mask> wearied of portraiture he pursued architectural and landscapes subjects. During a visit to Rome in 1906 <mask> made an oil painting and several pencil sketches of the exterior staircase and balustrade in front of the Church of Saints Dominic and Sixtus, now the church of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. The double staircase built in 1654 is the design of architect and sculptor Orazio Torriani (fl.1602–1657). In 1907 he wrote: "I did in Rome a study of a magnificent curved staircase and balustrade, leading to a grand facade that would reduce a millionaire to a worm...." The painting now hangs at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University and the pencil sketches are in the collection of the Harvard University art collection of the Fogg Museum. <mask> later used the architectural features of this stair and balustrade in a portrait of Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University from 1869 to 1909. <mask>'s fame was still considerable and museums eagerly bought his works.That year he declined a knighthood and decided instead to keep his American citizenship. From 1907 on, <mask> largely forsook

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 portrait painting and focused on landscapes. He made numerous visits to the United States in the last decade of his life, including a stay of two full years from 1915 to 1917. In April 1917 <mask> was visiting the Miami estate of James Deering and was invited to cruise the Florida Keys with James and his brother Charles Deering aboard James' yacht Nepenthe. <mask> was much more interested in the "mine of sketching" that was the estate, not at all interested in fishing, and made the cruise "reluctantly," doing some watercolor sketches (including Derelicts, 1917). By the time <mask> finished his portrait of <mask>. Rockefeller in 1917, most critics began to consign him to the masters of the past, "a brilliant ambassador between his patrons and posterity." Modernists treated him more harshly, considering him completely out of touch with the reality of American life and with emerging artistic trends including Cubism and Futurism.<mask> quietly accepted the criticism, but refused to alter his negative opinions of modern art. He retorted, "Ingres, Raphael and El Greco, these are now my admirations, these are what I like." In 1925, shortly before he died, <mask> painted his last oil portrait, a canvas of Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston. The painting was purchased in 1936 by the Currier Museum of Art, where it is on display. Watercolors

During <mask>'s long career, he painted more than 2,000 watercolors, roving from the English countryside to Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. Each destination offered pictorial stimulation and treasure. Even at his leisure, in escaping the

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 pressures of the portrait studio, he painted with restless intensity, often painting from morning until night.His hundreds of watercolors of Venice are especially notable, many done from the perspective of a gondola. His colors were sometimes extremely vivid and as one reviewer noted, "Everything is given with the intensity of a dream." In the Middle East and North Africa <mask> painted Bedouins, goatherds, and fisherman. In the last decade of his life, he produced many watercolors in Maine, Florida, and in the American West, of fauna, flora, and native peoples. With his watercolors, <mask> was able to indulge his earliest artistic inclinations for nature, architecture, exotic peoples, and noble mountain landscapes. And it is in some of his late works where one senses <mask> painting most purely for himself. His watercolors were executed with a joyful fluidness.He also painted extensively family, friends, gardens, and fountains. In watercolors, he playfully portrayed his friends and family dressed in Orientalist costume, relaxing in brightly lit landscapes that allowed for a more vivid palette and experimental handling than did his commissions (The Chess Game, 1906). His first major solo exhibit of watercolor works was at the Carfax Gallery in London in 1905. In 1909, he exhibited eighty-six watercolors in New York City, eighty-three of which were bought by the Brooklyn Museum. Evan Charteris wrote in 1927:

To live with <mask>'s water-colours is to live with sunshine captured and held, with the luster of a bright and legible world, 'the refluent shade' and 'the Ambient ardours of the noon.' Although not generally accorded

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 the critical respect given Winslow Homer, perhaps America's greatest watercolorist, scholarship has revealed that <mask> was fluent in the entire range of opaque and transparent watercolor technique, including the methods used by Homer. Other work
As a concession to the insatiable demand of wealthy patrons for portraits, <mask> dashed off hundreds of rapid charcoal portrait sketches, which he called "Mugs".Forty-six of these, spanning the years 1890–1916, were exhibited at the Royal Society of Portrait Painters in 1916. All of <mask>'s murals are to be found in the Boston/Cambridge area. They are in the Boston Public Library, the Museum of Fine Arts, and Harvard's Widener Library. <mask>'s largest scale works are the mural decorations that grace the Boston Public Library depicting the history of religion and the gods of polytheism. They were attached to the walls of the library by means of marouflage. He worked on the cycle for almost thirty years but never completed the final mural. <mask> drew on his extensive travels and museum visits to create a dense art historial melange.The murals were restored in 2003–2004. <mask> worked on the murals from 1895 through 1919; they were intended to show religion's (and society's) progress, from pagan superstition up through the ascension of Christianity, concluding with a painting depicting Jesus delivering the Sermon on the Mount. But <mask>'s paintings of "The Church" and "The Synagogue", installed in late 1919, inspired a debate about whether the artist had represented Judaism in a stereotypical, or even an anti-Semitic, manner. Drawing upon iconography that was used in medieval


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 paintings, <mask> portrayed Judaism and the synagogue as a blind, ugly hag, and Christianity and the church as a lovely, radiant young woman. He also failed to understand how these representations might be problematic for the Jews of Boston; he was both surprised and hurt when the paintings were criticized. The paintings were objectionable to Boston Jews since they seemed to show Judaism defeated, and Christianity triumphant. The Boston newspapers also followed the controversy, noting that while many found the paintings offensive, not everyone was in agreement.In the end, <mask> abandoned his plan to finish the murals, and the controversy eventually died down. Upon his return to England in 1918 after a visit to the United States, <mask> was commissioned as a war artist by the British Ministry of Information. In his large painting Gassed and in many watercolors, he depicted scenes from the Great War. <mask> had been affected by the death of his niece Rose-Marie in the shelling of the St Gervais church, Paris, on Good Friday 1918. Relationships and personal life
<mask> was a lifelong bachelor with a wide circle of friends including both men and women such as Oscar Wilde (whom he was neighbors with for several years ), lesbian author Violet Paget, and his likely lover Albert de Belleroche. Biographers once portrayed him as staid and reticent. However, recent scholarship has speculated that he was a homosexual man, as he had devoted significant time to renderings of nude male figure studies.This view is based on statements by his friends and associations, the overall alluring remoteness of his portraits, the way his works

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texts: challenge 19th-century notions of gender difference, his previously ignored male nudes, and some nude male portraits, including those of Thomas E. McKeller, Bartholomy Maganosco, Olimpio Fusco, and that of aristocratic artist Albert de Belleroche, which hung in his Chelsea dining room.<ref>Ormond, Richard; Kilmurray, Elaine "<mask> <mask>, Complete Paintings, Volume 1 Yale University Press, 1998, p. 88</ref> <mask> had a long friendship with Belleroche, whom he met in 1882 and traveled with frequently. A surviving drawing speculatively may hint that <mask> might have used him as a model for Madame X, following a coincidence of dates for <mask> drawing each of them separately around the same time, and the delicate pose suggestive more of <mask>'s sketches of the male form than his often stiff commissions. It has been suggested that <mask>'s reputation in the 1890s as "the painter of the Jews" may have been due to his empathy with, and complicit enjoyment of their mutual social otherness. There is much evidence to conclude <mask>'s homosexuality; one such Jewish client, Betty Wertheimer, wrote that when in Venice, <mask> "was only interested in the Venetian gondoliers".Fairbrother, Trevor, <mask> <mask>: The Sensualist, Yale University Press, 2000, , p. 220, note 7 The painter Jacques-Émile Blanche, who was one of his early sitters, said after <mask>'s death that his sex life "was notorious in Paris, and in Venice, positively scandalous. He was a frenzied bugger." There remains little doubt that Sargent was indeed attracted to men, sexually and most probably romantically as well. There were many friendships with women: it has

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 been suggested that those with his sitters Rosina Ferrara, Virginie Gautreau, and Judith Gautier may have tipped into infatuation.As a young man, <mask> also courted for a time Louise Burkhardt, the model for Lady with the Rose. <mask>'s friends and supporters included Henry James, Isabella Stewart Gardner (who commissioned and purchased works from <mask>, and sought his advice on other acquisitions), Edward VII, and Paul César Helleu. His associations also included Prince Edmond de Polignac and Count Robert de Montesquiou. Other artists <mask> associated with were Dennis Miller Bunker, James Carroll Beckwith, Edwin Austin Abbey and <mask> (who also worked on the Boston Public Library murals), Francis David Millet, Joaquín Sorolla and Claude Monet, whom <mask> painted. Between 1905 and 1914, <mask>'s frequent traveling companions were the married artist couple Wilfrid de Glehn and Jane Emmet de Glehn. The trio would often spend summers in France, Spain or Italy, and all three would depict one another in their paintings during their travels. Critical assessment

In a time when the art world focused, in turn, on Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism, <mask> practiced his own form of Realism, which made brilliant references to Velázquez, Van Dyck, and Gainsborough.His seemingly effortless facility for paraphrasing the masters in a contemporary fashion led to a stream of commissioned portraits of remarkable virtuosity (Arsène Vigeant, 1885, Musées de Metz; Mr. and Mrs. Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes, 1897, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) and earned <mask> the moniker, "the Van Dyck of our times." Still, during his life his work

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texts: engendered negative responses from some of his colleagues: Camille Pissarro wrote "he is not an enthusiast but rather an adroit performer," and Walter Sickert published a satirical turn under the heading "Sargentolatry." By the time of his death he was dismissed as an anachronism, a relic of the Gilded Age and out of step with the artistic sentiments of post-World War I Europe. Elizabeth Prettejohn suggests that the decline of <mask>'s reputation was due partly to the rise of anti-Semitism, and the resultant intolerance of 'celebrations of Jewish prosperity.' It has been suggested that the exotic qualities inherent in his work appealed to the sympathies of the Jewish clients whom he painted from the 1890s on. Nowhere is this more apparent than in his portrait Almina, Daughter of Asher Wertheimer (1908), in which the subject is seen wearing a Persian costume, a pearl encrusted turban, and strumming an Indian tambura, accoutrements all meant to convey sensuality and mystery. If <mask> used this portrait to explore issues of sexuality and identity, it seems to have met with the satisfaction of the subject's father, Asher Wertheimer, a wealthy Jewish art dealer.Foremost of <mask>'s detractors was the influential English art critic Roger Fry, of the Bloomsbury Group, who at the 1926 <mask> retrospective in London dismissed <mask>'s work as lacking aesthetic quality: "Wonderful indeed, but most wonderful that this wonderful performance should ever have been confused with that of an artist." And, in the 1930s, Lewis Mumford led a chorus of the severest critics: "<mask> remained to the end an illustrator ... the most adroit

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 appearance of workmanship, the most dashing eye for effect, cannot conceal the essential emptiness of <mask>'s mind, or the contemptuous and cynical superficiality of a certain part of his execution." Part of <mask>'s devaluation is also attributed to his expatriate life, which made him seem less American at a time when "authentic" socially conscious American art, as exemplified by the Stieglitz circle and by the Ashcan School, was on the ascent. After such a long period of critical disfavor, <mask>'s reputation has increased steadily since the 1950s. In the 1960s, a revival of Victorian art and new scholarship directed at <mask> strengthened his reputation. <mask> has been the subject of large-scale exhibitions in major museums, including a retrospective exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1986, and a major 1999 traveling show that exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the National Gallery of Art Washington, and the National Gallery, London. In 1986, Andy Warhol commented to Sargent scholar Trevor Fairbrother that <mask> "made everybody look glamorous.Taller. Thinner. But they all have mood, every one of them has a different mood. "See Trevor Fairbrother," Warhol Meets <mask> at Whitney," Arts Magazine 6 (February 1987): 64–71. In a TIME magazine article from the 1980s, critic Robert Hughes praised <mask> as "the unrivaled recorder of male power and female beauty in a day that, like ours, paid excessive court to both. "Later life

In 1922 <mask> co-founded New York City's Grand Central Art Galleries together with Edmund Greacen, Walter Leighton Clark, and others. <mask> actively participated in the


title: John Singer Sargent

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 Grand Central Art Galleries and their academy, the Grand Central School of Art, until his death in 1925.The Galleries held a major retrospective exhibit of <mask>'s work in 1924. He then returned to England, where he died at his Chelsea home on April 14, 1925, of heart disease. <mask> is interred in Brookwood Cemetery near Woking, Surrey. Memorial exhibitions of <mask>'s work were held in Boston in 1925, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and at the Royal Academy and Tate Gallery in London in 1926. The Grand Central Art Galleries also organized a posthumous exhibition in 1928 of previously unseen sketches and drawings from throughout his career. SalesPortrait of Robert Louis Stevenson and his Wife was sold in 2004 for US$8.8 million and is located at Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art at Bentonville, Arkansas. In December 2004, Group with Parasols (A Siesta) (1905) sold for US$23.5 million, nearly double the Sotheby's estimate of $12 million.The previous highest price for a <mask> painting was US$11 million. In popular culture
In 2018, Comedy Central star Jade Esteban Estrada wrote, directed and starred in Madame X: A Burlesque Fantasy, a story based on the life of <mask> and his famous painting, Portrait of Madame X. The works of <mask> feature prominently in Maggie Stiefvater's 2021 novel Mister Impossible. Citations

 General sources
 Davis, Deborah. <mask>'s Women, pages 11–23. Adelson Galleries, Inc., 2003. Fairbrother, Trevor: <mask> <mask>: The Sensualist (2001), , Page 139, Note 4.Joselit, Jenna Weissman. "Restoring the American 'Sistine Chapel' "  The Forward, August 13, 2010. Kilmurray, Elaine:

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 Sargent Abroad. Abbeville Press, 1997. Pages 57–8, 242. Lehmann-Barclay, Lucie. "Public Art, Private Prejudice."Christian Science Monitor, January 7, 2005, p. 11. "New Painting at Boston Public Library Stirs Jews to Vigorous Protest." Boston Globe, November 9, 1919, p. 48. Noël, Benoît et Jean Hournon:  Portrait de Madame X in Parisiana – la Capitale des arts au XIXème siècle, Les Presses Franciliennes, Paris, 2006. pp. 100–105. Ormond, Richard: "<mask>'s Art" in <mask> <mask>, pp. 25–7.Tate Gallery, 1998. Prettejohn, Elizabeth: Interpreting <mask>, page 9. Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 1998. Promey, Sally M.  "<mask> <mask>'s Triumph of Religion at the Boston Public Library." Rewald, <mask>: Camille Pissarro: Letters to his Son Lucien, page 183. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. Further reading

 Adelson, Warren; Gerdts, William H.; Kilmurray, Elaine; Zorzi, Rosella Mamoli; Ormond, Richard; Oustinoff, Elizabeth (2006).<mask>'s Venice. New Haven: Yale University Press.  .
Video <mask> <mask>: Secrets of Composition and Design, Jason Alster, 2013. Discusses use of Gestalt and design techniques in <mask>'s paintings. External links

 Biography, Style and Artworks
 <mask> <mask> – Gallery of 809 paintings. "Mrs. Edward Goetz" at [Brigham Young Museum of Art]
 <mask> <mask> Virtual Gallery
 <mask> at Harvard – archived searchable database by Harvard University Art Museums
 The Sargent Murals at Boston Public Library
 <mask> <mask> – News, biography and works
<mask> <mask>, Miss M. Carey Thomas, July 1899, oil on canvas, Bryn Mawr College Art and Artifact Collections
 <mask> <mask> Letters Online at the Smithsonian Archives of American

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title: John Singer Sargent

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 Art
 "Sargent and the Sea at the Royal Academy", review by Richard Dorment, The Guardian, July 12, 2010
 <mask> <mask> at Harper's Magazine''
 <mask> <mask> at Smithsonian American Art Museum
 <mask> <mask> exhibition catalogs
 A video discussion about <mask>'s Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose from Smarthistory at Khan Academy. <mask> <mask>'s interest in picture frames

 <mask> <mask> at the Jewish Museum
Joseph J. Rishel, In the Luxembourg Gardens in The John G. <mask> Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art digital scholarly catalogue (fully available as a free PDF)

1856 births
1925 deaths
Bisexual men
Bisexual artists
Painters from Florence
19th-century American painters
19th-century male artists
American male painters
20th-century American painters
American portrait painters
American watercolorists
American expatriates in France
American emigrants to England
Italian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Burials at Brookwood Cemetery
National Academy of Design members
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
American alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
Alumni of the Académie Julian
Royal Society of Portrait Painters
Royal Academicians
Italian people of American descent
Gilded Age
Artists of the Boston Public Library
LGBT artists from the United

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Johnson


title: Ralph M. Steinman

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<mask> (January 14, 1943 – September 30, 2011) was a Canadian physician and medical researcher at Rockefeller University, who in 1973 discovered and named dendritic cells while working as a postdoctoral fellow in the laboratory of Zanvil A. Cohn, also at Rockefeller University. Steinman was one of the recipients of the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Early life and education
<mask> was born into an Ashkenazi Jewish family in Montreal, one of four children of <mask> (d. 1995), a haberdasher, and <mask> (née Takefman, 1917–2016). The family soon moved to Sherbrooke, where the father opened and ran a small clothing store "Mozart's". After graduating from Sherbrooke High School, Steinman moved back to Montreal, where he stayed with his maternal grandparents Nathan and Eva Takefman. He received a bachelor of science degree from McGill University and received his M.D. (magna cum laude) in 1968 from Harvard Medical School.He completed his internship and residency at Massachusetts General Hospital. Awards
On October 3, 2011, the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine announced that he had received one-half of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for "his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity". The other half went to Bruce Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann, for "their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity". However, the committee was not aware that he had died three days earlier, on September 30, from pancreatic cancer. This created a complication, since the statutes of the Nobel Foundation stipulate that the prize is not to be awarded posthumously. After deliberation, the committee

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title: Ralph M. Steinman

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 decided that as the decision to award the prize "was made in good faith", it would remain unchanged. <mask>'s daughter said that he had joked the previous week with his family about staying alive until the prize announcement.Steinman said: "I know I have got to hold out for that. They don't give it to you if you have passed away. I got to hold out for that." Steinman had received numerous other awards and recognitions for his lifelong work on dendritic cells, such as the Albert Lasker Award For Basic Medical Research (2007), the Gairdner Foundation International Award (2003), and the Cancer Research Institute William B. Coley Award (1998). In addition, he was made a member of Institute of Medicine (U.S.; elected 2002) and the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.; elected 2001). In 2016, the city of Sherbrooke, Quebec, where Steinman lived during his childhood, named a new street rue <mask>man, in honor of the only Sherbrooke native ever to win a Nobel Prize. List of awards
 1998 – William B. Coley Award
 1999 – Robert Koch Prize
 2003 – Gairdner Foundation International Award
 2006 – Debrecen Award for Molecular Medicine
 2007 – Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
 2009 – Albany Medical Center Prize (Shared with Charles A. Dinarello and Bruce Beutler; )
 2010 – Heineken Prizes
 2011 – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with Bruce Beutler and Jules A. Hoffmann)

Research

Immunology tries to understand resistance to infection.Infections are first resisted by innate immunity, followed by adaptive immunity, which has memory, so can prevent reinfection. Two questions that immunologists ask: 1) By what mechanisms do

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texts: innate and adaptive resistance come about? 2) How do these mechanisms contribute to other fields of medicine such as cancer, allergy, autoimmunity, etc.? In the 20th century,  two theories arose: 1) Macrophages contribute to innate resistance through phagocytosis and intracellular killing 2) Antibodies mediate adaptive resistance by neutralizing microbial toxins. <mask> discovered that dendritic cells link innate to adaptive immunity, including adaptive T cell-mediated immunity. He studied the initiation of antibody responses in tissue culture in the laboratory. As shown, he found out that antigens, lymphocytes, and "accessory cells" together create immune responses.Accessory cells contain a new cell type with probing cell process or "dendrites". These cells proved to be the missing link between innate and adaptive immunity. Several features were used to identify and purify dendritic cells from mouse spleen. Because dendritic cells were discovered among "adherent" accessory cells (i.e. those that attach to tissue culture surfaces), they had to be distinguished from macrophages, whose hallmarks were persistent phagocytosis and adherence to tissue culture surfaces. However, Steinman found that dendritic cells had a different morphology and expressed different molecules from macrophages. For example, they did not express FcR- receptors, but did express major components of the major histocompatibility complex II and did not adhere to surfaces or exploit phagocytosis.Macrophages, though, showed the opposite characteristics. The study was carried out in collaboration with Zanvil A. Cohn, who studied resistance to infectious diseases,


title: Ralph M. Steinman

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 Maturing DCs also carry out innate responses, particularly the formation of cytokines and chemokines. Maturation links are innate to adaptive immunity; and control the quality of the response that develops in DCs and lymphocytes that recognize presented antigens. The term "subset" refers to distinct DCs with different receptors for antigen uptake and maturation, and distinct functions in innate and adaptive immunity. They reside in the peripheral organs and induce different forms of antigen-specific peripheral tolerance. Antigens from the periphery are captured by DCs in lymphoid tissues, even in steady (not matured) state. In steady state, DCs induce tolerance so that DC maturation can lead to immunity to microbial antigen, but maturing DCs capture microbial, as well as self dying cells, thus resulting in autoreactivity and chronic inflammation.See also
 List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

External links
BBC - "Nobel winner <mask>'s quest to cure cancer - including his own"

1943 births
2011 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Canadian Nobel laureates
Academics from Montreal
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian immunologists
Canadian expatriate academics in the United States
Canadian medical researchers
Cell biologists
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Harvard Medical School alumni
Jewish physicians
Jewish Canadian scientists
McGill University alumni
Members of the National Academy of Medicine
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Posthumous Nobel laureates
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
Scientists from Montreal
Winners of the


title: Erich Ludendorff

texts: <mask> (9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. Following his appointment as First Quartermaster-general () of the Imperial Army's Great General Staff in 1916, he became the chief policymaker in a de facto military dictatorship that dominated Germany for the rest of the war. After Germany's defeat, he contributed significantly to the Nazis' rise to power. <mask> came from a family of the minor nobility in Ludendorff, located in the Prussian province of Posen. After completing his education as a cadet, he received his commission as a junior officer in 1885. Later in 1893, Ludendorff was admitted to the prestigious German War Academy and was recommended by its commandant to the General Staff Corps only a year later.By 1904, he had rapidly risen in rank to become a member of the Army's Great General Staff, where he oversaw the development of the Schlieffen Plan. Despite being temporarily removed from the Great General Staff for meddling in German politics, Ludendorff restored his standing in the army through his success as a commander in World War I. On 16 August 1914, he led the successful German assault on Liège, a feat for which he earned the Pour le Mérite. Upon being transferred to the Eastern Front under the command of General Paul von Hindenburg, Ludendorff proved instrumental in inflicting a series of crushing defeats against the Russians, including at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. By 29 August 1916, he had successfully lobbied for

masks:
Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff
Erich Ludendorff


title: Erich Ludendorff

texts:
 liver cancer in Munich in 1937.Early life
Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Ludendorff near , in the Province of Posen and Kingdom of Prussia (now Kruszewnia,  County, Poland), the third of six children of August Wilhelm <mask> (1833–1905). His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had been raised to the status of a Junker. <mask>'s mother, Klara Jeanette Henriette von Tempelhoff (1840–1914), was the daughter of the noble but impoverished Friedrich August Napoleon von Tempelhoff (1804–1868) and his wife Jeannette Wilhelmine von Dziembowska (1816–1854), who came from a Germanized Polish landed family on the side of her father Stephan von Dziembowski (1779–1859). Through Dziembowski's wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh (1793–1862), <mask> was a remote descendant of the Counts of , the Dukes of Liegnitz and Brieg and the Marquesses and Electors of Brandenburg. Ludendorff had a stable and comfortable childhood, growing up on a small family farm. He received his early schooling from a maternal aunt and had a gift for mathematics, as did his younger brother Hans, who became a distinguished astronomer. Upon passing the entrance exam for the Cadet School at  with distinction, he was put in a class two years ahead of his age group, and thereafter he was consistently first in his class.The famous World War II General Heinz Guderian attended the same Cadet School, which produced many well-trained German officers. Ludendorff's education continued at the  at  near Berlin through to 1882. Pre-war military career

In 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then

masks: Ludendorff Erich Erich


title: Erich Ludendorff

texts:
 transferred Ludendorff, but Hindenburg's personal plea to the Kaiser reunited them. <mask> Falkenhayn, supreme commander at the OHL, came east to attack the flank of the Russian army that was pushing through the Carpathian passes towards Hungary. Employing overwhelming artillery, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians broke through the line between  and  and kept pushing until the Russians were driven out of most of Galicia, in Austro-Hungarian Poland. During this advance Falkenhayn rejected schemes to try to cut off the Russians in Poland, preferring direct frontal attacks. Outgunned, during the summer of 1915 the Russian commander Grand Duke Nicholas shortened his lines by withdrawing from most of Poland, destroying railroads, bridges, and many buildings while driving 743,000 Poles,
350,000 Jews, 300,000 Lithuanians and 250,000 Latvians into Russia.During the winter of 1915–16 Ludendorff's headquarters was in Kaunas. The Germans occupied present-day Lithuania, western Latvia, and north eastern Poland, an area almost the size of France. Ludendorff demanded Germanization of the conquered territories and far-ranging annexations, offering land to German settlers; see . Far-reaching plans envisioned Courland and Lithuania turned into border states ruled by German military governors answerable only to the Kaiser. He proposed massive annexations and colonization in Eastern Europe in the event of the victory of the German Reich, and was one of the main supporters of the Polish Border Strip. Ludendorff planned to combine German settlement and Germanisation in conquered areas with expulsions of native populations;


title: Erich Ludendorff

texts:
 Moltke-Hentsch. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
 1934: "Tannenberg". Zum 20. Jahrestag der Schlacht. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
 1934: Die politischen Hintergründe des 9. November 1923. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
 1935: Über Unbotmäßigkeit im Kriege.Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
 1935: Französische Fälschung meiner Denkschrift von 1912 über den drohenden Krieg. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
 1938-40: Feldherrnworte. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag
 1939: Tannenberg. Geschichtliche Wahrheit über die Schlacht. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag

As publisher
 1929–1933 (banned): Ludendorffs Volkswarte ("Ludendorff's Peoples' Viewpoint"; weekly) Munich

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Astore, William J. "The Tragic Pursuit of Total Victory." MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History (Autumn 2007) 20#1) pp 64–73.</ref.Brownell, William and Denise Drace-Brownell. The First Nazi: <mask>, The Man Who Made Hitler Possible (Berkeley: Counterpoint, 2016). 356pp highly negative online review

 Jones, LTC William A. Ludendorff: Strategist (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2015) online. Showalter, Dennis, and William J. Astore. Hindenburg: Icon of German Militarism  (2005) excerpt

Primary sources

<mask>, <mask>. The Coming War. Faber and Faber, 1931.()
Ludendorff, <mask>. The Nation at War. Hutchinson, London, 1936. ()

German studies
 Amm, Bettina: Ludendorff-Bewegung. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg. ): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Judenfeindlichkeit in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Band 5: Organisationen, Institutionen, Bewegungen.De Gruyter, Berlin 2012. page 393 ff. .
 Gruchmann, Lothar: Ludendorffs „prophetischer“ Brief an Hindenburg

masks:
Erich Ludendorff
Ludendorff
Erich
Erich


title: Erich Ludendorff

texts:
 vom Januar/Februar 1933. Eine Legende. In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte. Band 47, 1999. pages 559–562. Nebelin, Manfred: Ludendorff. Diktator im Ersten Weltkrieg. Siedler, München 2011. .
 Pöhlmann, Markus: Der moderne Alexander im Maschinenkrieg.In: Stig Förster (Hrsg. ): Kriegsherren der Weltgeschichte. 22 historische Porträts. Beck, München 2006.  pages 268–286. Puschner, Uwe; Vollnhals, Clemens (Hrgb. ); Die völkisch-religiöse Bewegung im Nationalsozialismus; Göttingen 2012 . Schwab, Andreas: Vom totalen Krieg zur deutschen Gotterkenntnis.Die Weltanschauung <mask>dorffs. In: Schriftenreihe der Eidgenössischen Militärbibliothek und des Historischen Dienstes. Nr. 17, Bern 2005. Wegehaupt, Phillip: "Ludendorff, <mask>". In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg. ): Handbuch des Antisemitismus.Bd. 2: Personen. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, , page 494 ff. (retrieved über Verlag Walter de Gruyter

masks:
Erich Luden
Erich


title: Vicky Bullett

texts:
<mask> (born October 4, 1967) is an American former professional basketball player and current women's basketball head coach at West Virginia Wesleyan College. She played for the Charlotte Sting and Washington Mystics in the WNBA, as well as for European and South American professional teams, the U.S. Olympic team, and the University of Maryland Terrapins. <mask> played at various times as a center, small forward, and power forward. She was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2011. Early years
<mask> spent her childhood in Martinsburg, West Virginia. She grew up playing backyard basketball with her six brothers. One of her older brothers coached her high school basketball team and helped Bullett attract the attention of collegiate scouts.<mask>'s younger brother Scott played Major League Baseball for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Chicago Cubs in the 1990s. College career
<mask> is one of the most decorated players in the history of the women's basketball program at the University of Maryland, which she attended from 1985 to 1989. Over the course of her college career, <mask> averaged 16.9 points per game and 8.5 rebounds per game. She set Maryland records for points scored, field goals made, and rebounds recovered. She led the Terrapins to three ACC titles and one NCAA Final Four. In 1989, <mask> was named ACC Tournament MVP, ACC Player of the Year, and a Kodak All-American. She was also chosen for the All-ACC First Team in 1987, 1988, and 1989.<mask> graduated from Maryland with a bachelor's degree in general studies. In 2001, she returned to school and earned an additional degree in social work. After she graduated, the University of Maryland honored <mask> by retiring her jersey (#23). She was also named a member of the ACC Women's Basketball 50th Anniversary team in 2003. In 2007, <mask> was named an ACC Women's Basketball Legend. She is also a member of the Maryland

masks:
Victoria Andrea Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett


title: Vicky Bullett

texts:
 Athletics Walk of Fame. Fellow left-handed forward Crystal Langhorne in 2007-2008 broke many of <mask>'s Maryland career records.USA Basketball
<mask> was selected to the 1988 and 1992 United States Olympic Teams, which won gold and bronze medals, respectively. She also played on the 1986 USA Select (junior national) team, the United States team which won the gold medal at the 1990 World Championships, and the United States team for the 1990 Goodwill Games. <mask> was a member of the USA National team at the 1990 World Championships, held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The team won their opening round games fairly easily, with the closest of the first three games a 27-point victory over Czechoslovakia. Then they faced Cuba, a team that had beaten the US in exhibition matches only a few weeks earlier. The USA team was losing at halftime, but came back to win 87–78. The USA team found itself behind at halftime to Canada in their next game, but came back to win easily 95–70.After an easy match against Bulgaria, the USA team faced Czechoslovakia again, end achieved an almost identical result, winning 87–59. In the title match, the USA team won the gold medal with a score of 88–78. <mask> averaged 9.5 points per game. Professional career
When the WNBA was founded in 1997, <mask> was assigned by the league to the Charlotte Sting in the Initial Player Allocation phase of the draft. Over the next three seasons, <mask> started in all 90 Sting games and averaged more than 10 points per game. In all three seasons, the Sting reached the WNBA Playoffs. In 1999, <mask> was named as a reserve to the inaugural WNBA Eastern Conference All-Star team, and played in the All-Star Game as a substitute for the injured Rebecca Lobo.In January 2000, <mask> was traded to the Washington Mystics. Over the next three seasons, she started in all 96 of the Mystics' games. <mask> broke a WNBA record on July 3, 2001 by

masks: Bullett Bullett Bullett Bullett Bullett Bullett Bullett Bullett Bullett


title: Vicky Bullett

texts:
 playing 55 minutes in the Mystics' quadruple-overtime victory over the Seattle Storm. Her cumulative WNBA accomplishments in six seasons included more than 800 field goals made, more than 1100 rebounds, more than 250 assists, more than 250 blocks, and more than 350 steals. <mask> was also a renowned professional basketball player in Italy through much of the 1990s. She played for Bari from 1990 to 1993, then for Cesena from 1993 to 1997. Four times during her career, <mask> was named an All-Star for the Italian league.In addition, <mask> played several years in Brazil for the Data Control/Fluminense professional team, which won the Brazilian league championship in 1998. Coaching career
<mask> retired from the WNBA after the 2002 season, then retired from overseas professional play in 2007. She moved back to Martinsburg, West Virginia, which renamed the street where she grew up "<mask> Street" in her honor. She then taught for the Board of Education of Berkeley County, West Virginia and took graduate courses in education. She became a teacher at South Middle School in Martinsburg. In January 2009, the Washington Mystics hired <mask> as an assistant coach. In June 2009, the Mystics announced that <mask> would also take on the responsibilities of Manager of Basketball Operations.In June 2011, <mask> was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in Knoxville, Tennessee along with Ruthie Bolton, Muffet McGraw, Val Ackerman, Pearl Moore, and Lometa Odem. Since leaving the Mystics in 2009, <mask> has taken the head coaching job for the women's basketball team at Hagerstown Community College in Hagerstown Maryland. In 2011, she signed on as assistant coach to Dr. Marlys Palmer. As of March 2012 <mask> has taken over the many roles needed to coach a successful coaching position. On May 10, 2016, she was named as the head coach for the women's basketball team at West Virginia Wesleyan

masks:
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Vicky Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett
Bullett


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
<mask> (c. 5 January 1928 – 22 October 2011) ( Sulṭān ibn ʿAbdulʿazīz Āl Suʿūd), called <mask> ( Sulṭan al Khair) in Saudi Arabia, was the Saudi defense minister from 1963 to 2011 and the crown prince of Saudi Arabia from 2005 to 2011. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Riyadh in the mid to late 1920s to early 1930s, with the year being given as 1925, 1928, 1930, and 1931. He was the 15th son of King <mask> and his mother was Hassa bint Ahmed Al Sudairi. He was the second of the Sudairi Seven, who also included Fahd, Nayef and Salman. <mask>, along with many of his brothers, received his early education in religion, modern culture, and diplomacy at the royal court. Early experience
His career in public service began in 1940 when he was made a deputy to Riyadh governor or emir, Prince Nasser. In 1947, Prince <mask> replaced Prince Nasser as governor of Riyadh.Prince <mask> also assisted King Abdulaziz's attempts to establish a national administrative system based on the Islamic Sharia law during this period. In 1947, Prince <mask> oversaw ARAMCO's construction of the Kingdom's rail link between Dammam and Riyadh. He was appointed as the kingdom’s first minister of agriculture in 1953 and minister of transport in 1955. Following the assassination of Lebanese prime minister, Riad Al Solh, in 1951 King Abdulaziz sent Prince <mask> to Beirut to offer condolences to late prime minister's family. Although the direct military experience of Prince <mask> was brief, heading the Royal Guard in Riyadh in the early 1950s, he felt a lifelong connection to the military and the cause of Saudi independence from an early age. Major General Carl von Horn, Swedish commander of the UN observer mission

masks:
Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
Sultan the Good
Sultan
Abdulaziz
Prince Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 during the Yemeni civil war, described the Prince <mask> as "a volatile and emotional young man" in the early days. Minister of defense and aviation
In 1963, Crown Prince Faisal appointed <mask> as minister of defense and aviation.He presided over the development of the Saudi armed forces. During the reign of King Faisal, Prince <mask> was particularly interested in Yemen. At the beginning of King Faisal's reign in 1964 Prince <mask> became a member of the council which had been established by the king to guide the succession issues. In the late 1966 Prince <mask> survived an assassination attempt by the revolutionary Yemenites who were assisted by Egyptian intelligence. His influence declined under the reign of King Khalid due to the fact that in 1977 Prince <mask> unsuccessfully tried to prevent Prince Abdullah bin <mask> from becoming heir apparent when the king died. <mask> purchased U.S. tanks, fighter planes, missiles, and AWACS (airborne warning and control systems). However, as a result of problems assimilating technology within its armed forces, a relatively high proportion of the military equipment is stored or under maintenance, despite a large portion of Saudi's $34 billion defense budget being spent on maintaining military equipment.<mask> allegedly became extraordinarily wealthy from kickbacks by Western businesses that handled multibillion-dollar defense contracts. He was involved in many scandals, including the Al Yamamah deal. However, his influence remained unhindered until his health began to deteriorate. During his tenure, Saudi Arabia became the largest importer of U.S. arms, and he was a strong proponent of the U.S.-Saudi partnership. As well, <mask> authorized a deal with

masks:
Sultan
Prince Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Abdulaziz
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) in 1965. His program, called Operation Magic Carpet, traded £16 million for six second-hand Lightnings, six Hawker Hunters, and a set of missile launchers going to Royal Saudi Air Force. Geoffrey Edwards served as the official intermediary.British pilots also came over, privately contracted. <mask> was an expert on the Yemen civil war and Soviet involvement in the Horn of Africa in 1985. In 1996, <mask> opposed Pentagon plans to relocate U.S. troops to safer locations after the Dhahran complex bombings. He visited Iran in May 1999 that was the first official visit of a Saudi minister since 1979. Second Deputy Prime Minister
On 13 June 1982, after the death of King Khalid and Crown Prince Fahd became the King, <mask> was appointed second deputy prime minister. Opposition to his appointment as second deputy prime minister came in particular from his elder half-brothers Musaid and Bandar. The objection of Prince Musaid was easily ignored since his son, Faisal bin Musaid, had assassinated King Faisal.However, the interests of Bandar <mask> were much harder to ignore. Thus, he was compensated and the dispute was resolved. <mask>, in December 1995, attempted to seize power through the support of the Ulema when Crown Prince Abdullah was in Oman for a summit of the Gulf Cooperation Council. However, his attempted coup failed. <mask> was one of the members of the Al Saud Family Council established by Crown Prince Abdullah in June 2000 to discuss private issues such as business activities of princes and marriages of princess to individuals who were not members of the House of Saud. Crown Prince

On 1 August 2005, <mask> <mask> was designated heir apparent despite

masks:
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
bin Abdulaziz
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
Sultan bin
Abdulaziz


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 having a discord with King Abdullah. During the same period he led the group called Sudairi Seven, being the eldest of the group after King Fahd's demise.Various positions
During the 1970s <mask> was one of the members of the inner family council which was led by King Khalid and included <mask>'s brothers Prince Mohammed, Crown Prince Fahd, Prince Abdullah, and Prince Abdul Muhsin and his uncles Prince Ahmed and Prince Musaid. <mask> was Saudi Arabia's inspector general. He was chairman of the board of Saudi Arabia's national airline, Saudi Arabian Airlines. As chairman, he approved a ban on smoking inside all Saudi airports. In 1986, he founded the Saudi National Commission for Wildlife Conservation. He was chairman of the Higher Council for Islamic Affairs, which financially supports Muslim communities around the world. Scientific prizes sponsored by Prince <mask> bin Abdulaziz
 Prince <mask> bin Abdulaziz prize for water.He was the founder and patron of the Prince <mask> Abdulaziz International Prize for Water, a bi-annual international scientific award for water research created in 2002. <mask> <mask>z Chair for environmental engineering, department of civil engineering, King Fahd University for Petroleum and Minerals. It is the first chair in the university. The scientific agreement between <mask> <mask> and Oxford University for academic and cultural co-operation, which enables Saudi students for bachelor's, master and PhD degrees in the field of human sciences. Charity works

<mask> was known as "<mask> the Good" (Arabic:سلطان الخير Sulṭan al-Khair) in Saudi Arabia for his generosity. He played a role in many charitable works, including providing for the poor and people with special

masks:
Prince Sultan
Sultan
Prince Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan bin
Prince Sultan
bin Abdulazi
Prince Sultan
bin Abdulaziz
Prince Sultan
Sultan


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 needs. He set up and funded the Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Foundation on 21 January 1995, with the aim of providing humanitarian services and medical services to people unable to afford the expenses.With the exception of his private residence and important necessities, he donated his possessions to the foundation. The foundation includes the following centers in different countries:

Sultan bin Abdulaziz Humanitarian City
Sultan bin Abdulaziz Science and Technology Center
Charity housing projects
Sultan bin Abdulaziz Special Education Program at the Arabian Gulf University in Bahrain
Prince Sultan Center for Speech and Hearing in Bahrain
King Abdulaziz Center for Islamic Studies at Bologna University
Sultan bin Abdulaziz Arab and Islamic Studies Program at the University of California, Berkeley
Prince <mask> bin Abdulaziz Private: Committee for Relief. This private committee organizes relief and medical convoys and sets up camps to combat diseases like Malaria and blindness. It has carried out several developmental, social and medical projects, like, digging wells, building schools, public libraries, mosques, hospitals, establishing dialysis centers. It also sponsors Muslim preachers in Ethiopia, Chad, Niger, Malawi, Mali, Comoro Islands, Djibouti and Indonesia. He inaugurated and served as the patron of Prince Sultan University in Riyadh. It was named in his honor by the university's parent institution, Al-Riyadh Philanthropic Society, which was founded by the prince's brother, Salman of Saudi Arabia, who would later become king.This is the first private/non-profit university established in the kingdom. In 2007, Prince <mask> was awarded the Medal of Human Honor for his charitable works. In

masks: Sultan Sultan


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 April 2005, <mask> donated £2 million to the Ashmolean Museum. A year after his donations to establish an art museum, Oxford University agreed to 'expedite' the scholarship application process for Saudi students, and identify colleges for ten Saudi students from Prince Sultan University. When this arrangement became public, it led to criticism due to the donations bypassing Oxford’s governing council, and breaching the admissions process for prospective students. A press release issued by Oxford University on 20 April 2005 said that:
 HRH Prince <mask> bin <mask> Al Saud has given the Ashmolean Museum a substantial donation to provide a fitting home for the Museum's internationally renowned collection of Islamic art. The total value of the gift is £2 million, which will also provide for ten scholarships at the University of Oxford for Saudi Arabian students.The press release added further that ‘the new gallery, part of the ambitious redevelopment of one of the world’s oldest museums, will be named the “<mask> bin Abdulaziz al Saud Gallery”’. Arab News on 21 April 2005 reported that <mask>’s donation was a ‘move to promote understanding between Islam and the West’, adding that ‘Saudi and British officials’ had said that the new gallery ‘will help to portray Islamic culture and civilization in right perspectives.’

Controversy
In 2002, families of the victims of the September 11 attacks in the United States sued <mask> and other senior Saudi officials for their alleged contributions to al-Qaeda linked charities. The lawsuits were thrown out by a US federal judge due to insufficient evidence submitted. Personal life

<mask> mostly married women who had a tribal background. He had thirty-two

masks:
Sultan
Sultan
Abdulaziz
Prince Sultan
Sultan
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 children by his multiple wives. His eldest son <mask> <mask>, after <mask>'s death, was appointed deputy minister of defense and served in the post until 20 April 2013. Bandar <mask> was the former ambassador to the United States, the former secretary general of the national security council and the former head of the general intelligence directorate.Fahd <mask> is the governor of the Tabuk province. Salman bin <mask>, another son, is the former deputy defense minister. Faisal <mask> (born 1951) is the secretary general of Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Foundation. His other sons are Turki (1959–2012), Nayef (born 1979), Badr (born 1980), Saud, Ahmad (born 1983), Nawwaf, Abdullah, Mishaal (born 1988), Mansour, Fawwaz, Abdulmajid and Abdul Ilah. <mask> had fifteen daughters, the oldest of whom is Nawf bint <mask>. One of his daughters, Reema, is the spouse of Muhammad bin Nayef, former Crown Prince. His other daughter, Noura bint <mask>, married Turki bin Nasser.Another daughter, Munira bint <mask>, who was Faisal bin Fahd's spouse, died in June 2011 at age 59. He doled out money at banquets in keeping with tribal customs. A conservative, it was expected that he would have put a brake on King Abdullah's timid reforms. <mask> was considered to be pro-American. Views
<mask> took a lifetime anti-communist and anti-Soviet view, based on his dislike of Soviet state atheism as well as Soviet interest in Gulf oil and access to ports that he felt risked Saudi independence. He rebuked U.S. President Jimmy Carter for what he saw as "pusillanimity" in the face of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In a 23 October 2001 interview in Kuwaiti newspaper As Seyassa, concerning 9/11 attacks, <mask> stated “Who

masks:
Khalid bin
Sultan
Prince Sultan
bin Sultan
bin Sultan
Sultan
bin Sultan
Prince Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan
Sultan


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 stands behind this terrorism and who carried out this complicated and carefully planned terrorist operation?Osama <mask> and those with him have said what indicates that they stand behind this carefully planned act. We, in turn, ask: Are <mask> and his supporters the only ones behind what happened or is there another power with advanced technical expertise that acted with them?”. Wealth and property
<mask>’s wealth in 1990 was reported to be $1.2 billion. In 1993 Fortune magazine cited him as the 34th rich person in the world with $4.0 billion wealth. Later, his fortune was estimated at $270 billion, which he distributed between his sons prior to his death in October 2011 in order to support their political position in the competitive princely arena. <mask> owned 2–8a Rutland Gate, the former London residence of the Lebanese politician and businessman Rafic Hariri. <mask> had been given the property after Hariri's assassination in 2005.Documents in the Paradise Papers release show <mask> used the law firm Appleby at the center of the use of offshore businesses and trusts by world leaders. Health issues
<mask> was rumored to have had colon cancer in 2003. A foreign correspondent was forced to leave the country after reporting his health problems. In 2004, <mask> was diagnosed with colon cancer and underwent several corrective surgeries. He underwent an operation to remove an intestinal polyp in Jeddah in 2005. <mask> visited a Swiss clinic in late April 2008. In April 2009, he began to suffer from Alzheimer's disease.A leaked March 2009 diplomatic cable from WikiLeaks stated that U.S. diplomats viewed Prince <mask> as "for all intents and purposes incapacitated". He was possibly suffering

masks:
bin Laden
bin Laden
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
Prince Sultan
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title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 dementia, specifically Alzheimer's disease. Morocco vacation
In February 2009, <mask> spent several months in New York City at New York–Presbyterian Hospital and underwent surgery in New York. He then convalesced at Agadir, Morocco. He went back to Saudi Arabia, but soon returned to Morocco in August 2009. During his vacation, the Saudi cabinet increased officer salaries, a traditional domain of <mask>. In 2009, King Abdullah took charge of all defense purchases and reduced the power of the Defense Ministry.In October 2010, Abdullah personally conducted much of the negotiations for the U.S. arms package worth over $60 billion. In November 2010, <mask> received in Agadir Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Al-Hariri to discuss the future of Lebanon's government. He had been receiving treatment since 2009 for what analysts and diplomats believed to be cancer. At the end of November 2010, he returned to Saudi Arabia because King Abdullah had left for the United States for surgery. His return was seen as a legal formality necessary under Saudi law, which stipulates that only one of the kingdom's top two officials can be abroad at a given time. Death and funeral
The Saudi Royal court announced on 22 October 2011 that Prince <mask> died at dawn of an unspecified illness. According to media reports, Prince <mask> had been battling cancer and had been seeking medical treatment in the United States since mid-June 2011.He had a surgical operation in New York in July 2011. Unnamed U.S. officials cited by The New York Times stated that he died at New York-Presbyterian Hospital in Manhattan, New York City. His body was taken from New York City to Riyadh on 24 October 2011. His funeral was held at the Imam Turki

masks: Sultan Sultan Sultan Sultan Sultan


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

texts:
 <mask> Abdullah mosque in Riyadh on 25 October 2011 in the presence of King Abdullah bin <mask>. He was buried in Al Oud cemetery in Riyadh. Various leaders, including the president of Afghanistan, Farouk Al Sharaa, the vice-president of Syria, the Iranian foreign minister and the head of Egypt's ruling military council, participated in the funeral. Additionally, other statesmen went to Riyadh to offer their condolences, such as the US Vice President Joe Biden, Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari and Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak.Honours
Among others, <mask> was the recipient of the following honours and medals:
  National Order of Chad, First Class (1972). Order of the Lion of Senegal (1972). Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, First Class (19 July 1997). Order of Abdulaziz Al Saud (1973; First Class). National Order of Merit (1973; Grand Class). Order of the Liberator, First Class (Venezuela, 1975). : Honorary Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (P.M.N.)(1982)
 : Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (2000)

He was also posthumously given the King Khalid award in 2011. Ancestry

References

External links

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<mask>
1928 births
2011 deaths
Burials at Al Oud cemetery
Sultan
Governors of Riyadh Province
Government ministers of Saudi Arabia
Grand Officers of the National Order of Merit (France)
Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
People named in the Panama Papers
Recipients of the Order of the Defender of the Realm
Saudi Arabian anti-communists
Saudi Arabian Sunni

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Sultan Sultan


title: Tseng Cheng

texts:
<mask>, OBE, JP (; 29 July 1915 – 28 August 2008) was a Hong Kong businessman, government advisor, public welfare advocate, and philanthropist. He has ancestral roots in Zhuhai, Guangdong. He was best noted for his positions as a board member of the Hong Kong Housing Authority, Director of the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals, and Chairman of the Hong Kong Tuberculosis, Chest and Heart Disease Foundation. Biography
Born on 29 July 1915 near Tangshan, Hebei, Tseng's father died when he was just fourteen. His father set his childhood ambition to study medicine, but to save without the expensive medical fees from his father, <mask> was forced to study civil engineering instead. He fled to Tianjin before the outbreak of World War II. He studied at Diocesan Boys' School, where he finished the Junior Matriculation exam of the University of Hong Kong.Due to financial difficulties from his father's illness, he was not able to afford further education in Hong Kong. He left school at 17, and find work to support the family. He obtained work first as apprentices and later as a piece worker for an engineering and construction company, where he was joined by his younger brother when he, too, reach 17. They both worked very hard for the next couple of years. From the age of 20 to 23, through money he saved from working, he completed university education in Canton, China, in a private college, Citizen's University 廣州國文大學 (now closed). He graduated from university just before the Japanese invasion in 1937. He took up an engineering job repairing bridges of the Kowloon Canton Railway damaged by the Japanese, and was involved in constructing the Humen Pearl River Bridge.His family (mother and brother Pei) fled to the neutral French concession in

masks:
Tseng Cheng
Tg Cheng


title: Tseng Cheng

texts:
 Public Health Professionals.He was awarded an Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II, Charles, Prince of Wales, and Diana, Princess of Wales in 1995 for his contributions to Hong Kong society. Philanthropy
It is reported that <mask> <mask> served in over 20 public service positions in Hong Kong, Macau, and Zhuhai, China. His work spanned education, culture, disaster relief, public health, housing, and welfare. He was President of several charitable organisations, including Director of the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals. In 2007, the Tseng Charitable Fund was established for charitable causes in Hong Kong and China. According to statistics, the Fund has donated over 1,180 million yuan for public welfare for work in education, health, and disaster relief. In the spring of 1994, Tseng returned from Hong Kong to visit his hometown of Zhuhai to find primitive, poor school conditions.In the late 1990s, Tseng funded the construction of a Vocational School, Zhuhai Ji Da Elementary School () and a student's residence in his ancestral home of Zhuhai, China. He also created a 10 million yuan Tseng Scholarship for high achieving, low income students. He visited the school ten times to oversee the high-quality construction of the five-story building. His donation of nearly 15 million yuan was the largest ever donated to Zhuhai by patriotic compatriots

In 1998, Tseng donated to the renovation of the Tseng Cheng Zhuhai Nanping Polytechnic School (). In 2000, the government mandated that the school needed a new student apartment and solicited donations due to tight education funding. Tseng donated an additional 300 million yuan with no conditions. Tseng served as honorary President of the Zhuhai Nanping Polytechnic School, which was

masks: Tseng Cheng


title: Tseng Cheng

texts:
 subsequently named after him.With student apartments, integrated laboratories, fencing halls, and a swimming pool, the school is one of the highest performing schools in Zhuhai. A small museum in the school is dedicated to him. In addition, the 20 million yuan Tseng scholarship program rewards 100 students annually for outstanding performance. In 1994, Tseng was awarded Guangdong Province's Advancement for Teaching of Individuals () award. In 1998, he was recognised with the Zhuhai Advancement of Children () award and was hired to consult for the CPPCC Xiangzhou District Committee. In 1999, Tseng was awarded Zhuhai Honorary Citizenship by various members of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) and the District People's Congress. After the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, the Tseng Charity Fund donated 10 million yuan to support earthquake relief work in Wenchuan, China.Personal
Following the end of World War II, Tseng returned to Hong Kong and married a nurse from Macau. They had seven sons and five daughters, many of whom have studied or settled overseas in the United Kingdom or the United States of America. Tseng suffered a stroke in 2004. At age 93, he died at St. Theresa's Hospital on 28 August 2008. His life was commemorated by students and officials of the Zhuhai schools he built. Honours and recognition
 MBE, 1965
 Justice of Peace, 1965
 OBE, 1995

References

External links
 Tseng <mask> article at Zhuhai official website
 Tseng Clan article

1915 births
2008 deaths
Hong Kong chief executives
Hong Kong philanthropists
Hong Kong real estate businesspeople
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from Tangshan
Businesspeople from Hebei
20th-century philanthropists
Chinese emigrants to British


title: Anita Page

texts:
<mask> (born <mask>; August 4, 1910 – September 6, 2008) was an American film actress who reached stardom in the final years of the silent film era. She was referred to as "a blond, blue-eyed Latin" and "the girl with the most beautiful face in Hollywood" in the 1920s. She retired from acting in 1936, but came back to it by 1961, after when she retired again. <mask> returned to acting thirty-five years later in 1996, and appeared in four films in the 2000s. Early life
<mask> was born on August 4, 1910 in Flushing, Queens, New York. Her parents were Marino Leo Pomares Jr., who was originally from Brooklyn, and Maude Evelyn (née Mullane) Pomares. She had one brother, Marino Pomares III, who later worked for her as a gym instructor while her mother worked as her secretary and her father as her chauffeur.<mask>'s paternal grandfather Marino Sr. was from Spain, and had worked as a consul in El Salvador. Her grandmother Anna Muñoz was of Castilian Spanish and French descent. Career

Silent films and early talkies

<mask> entered films with the help of friend, actress Betty Bronson. A photo of <mask> was spotted by a man who handled Bronson's fan mail who was also interested in representing actors. With the encouragement of her mother, <mask> telephoned the man who arranged a meeting for her with a casting director at Paramount Studios. After doing a screen test for Paramount, she became among the first residents of the Chateau Marmont. <mask> was offered contracts by both studios and selected MGM, "because they were so good for female actresses.If you ask me, MGM was the studio." <mask>'s first film for MGM was the 1928 comedy-drama Telling the World, opposite William Haines. Her

masks:
Anita Page
Anita Evelyn Pomares
Page
Anita Evelyn Pomares
Page
Page
Page
Page
Page
Page


title: Anita Page

texts: performance in her second MGM film, Our Dancing Daughters (1928) opposite Joan Crawford was a success and it inspired two similar films in which they also co-starred, Our Modern Maidens and Our Blushing Brides. "I used to say that we're going to be 'The Galloping Grandmothers' at the rate we're going with these pictures," she reminisced in 1993. The Broadway Melody (1929) opposite Bessie Love is considered among her most successful films, and it won Best Picture at the Academy Awards. <mask> transitioned to talking pictures, but she criticised the total loss of silent films. "In my opinion, silents were much better than talkies.One thing you had was mood music, which you could have playing throughout your scene to inspire you. My favorite song was 'My Heart at Thy Sweet Voice' from Samson and Delilah. I never seemed to tire of it. The trouble with talkies was, they let you have the music, but they'd stop it when you had to talk and it was always a let down for me." When not working on films, she was busy with studio photographer George Hurrell creating publicity shots. She was one of his first subjects, and her photograph was his first to be published. MGM played up her heritage in these press releases such as this 1932 blurb: "She is that rarest and most interesting type of beauty,” ... “A Spanish blonde", and dubbed her "a blonde, blue-eyed Latin".She was the leading lady to Lon Chaney, Buster Keaton, Robert Montgomery, Clark Gable and others. During the early 1930s, she was one of Hollywood's busiest actresses. She was involved romantically with Gable briefly during that time. At the height of her popularity, she was receiving more fan mail than any other female star, with the


title: Anita Page

texts:
 exception of Greta Garbo, and received several marriage proposals from Benito Mussolini in the mail. Retirement
When her contract expired in 1933, she announced her retirement from acting at the age of 23. She retired as she was denied a pay rise. She made one more movie, Hitch Hike to Heaven, in 1936, and then retired fully from acting.Later, <mask> claimed that Irving Thalberg had offered her the starring role in three movies if she would sleep with him, which she refused. She married composer Nacio Herb Brown in 1934. The marriage was annulled a year later because Brown's previous divorce had not been finalized at the time they were married. She married Navy pilot Lieutenant Hershel A. House on January 9, 1937,  in Yuma, Arizona. They moved to Coronado, California, and lived there until his death in 1991. They had two daughters, Linda and Sandra.Return to acting
<mask> came back to acting and portrayed a nun in The Runaway, completed in 1961, but she cut short her comeback. Once again, she returned to acting in 1996 after over thirty years of retirement and appeared in several low budget horror films. Film veteran Margaret O'Brien appeared in two of them. Later years and death
<mask> was the last living attendee of the first Academy Awards ceremony in 1929, and frequently gave interviews as the "last star of the silents", appearing in documentaries about the era. <mask> died in her sleep at the age of 98 on September 6, 2008, at her Los Angeles home, where she had lived with long time companion Randal Malone. She is buried in the Holy Cross Cemetery in San Diego. Legacy
For her contribution to the motion picture industry, <mask> has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at

masks:
Page
Page
Page
Page
Anita Page


title: Anita Page

texts:
 6116 Hollywood Boulevard.Personal life
<mask> was a Democrat who supported the campaign of Adlai Stevenson during the 1952 presidential election. <mask> was a Roman Catholic. <mask>'s second marriage was to Herschel Austin House in 1937. They lived in southern California and were together for 54 years, until Herschel's death in 1991 at the age of 84. Herschel had retired from the Navy as a Rear Admiral. They had two daughters, Sandra and Linda. They are buried together under his last name.Filmography

References
Citations

Works cited

External links

 <mask> Biography and Gallery
 <mask> Photo Gallery
 <mask> at Golden Silents
 Guardian Interview with <mask>
 Photographs of <mask>

1910 births
2008 deaths
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from New York City
American child actresses
American film actresses
American people of French descent
American people of Spanish descent
American silent film actresses
Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City
California Democrats
Catholics from California
Catholics from New York (state)
Hispanic and Latino American actresses
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players
New York (state) Democrats
People from Queens, New York
WAMPAS Baby Stars
Washington Irving High School (New York City)

masks:
Page
Page
Anita
Anita Page
Anita Page
Anita Page
Anita Page
Anita Page


title: Li Fanwen

texts:
<mask> () (born November 1932) is a Chinese linguist and Tangutologist. Biography

<mask> was born in Xixiang County, Shaanxi in November 1932. After leaving school, he worked for several years before going to Beijing to study Tibetan at the Central College for Nationalities, from which he graduated in 1956. He stayed on at the college as a research student in the History department until he graduated in 1959. By this time, he had become fascinated with the extinct and only semi-deciphered Tangut script, and in 1960 he decided to move to Yinchuan in Ningxia, the former capital of the Tangut Empire, to devote himself to Tangut studies, but his wife was unwilling to accompany him, so they divorced. When <mask>wen arrived at Ningxia, he was disappointed to find that there were no opportunities to study the Tangut script and language, and instead he was assigned to Ningxia Education College to research the Hui people. Two years later, he was reassigned to the Ningxia Museum and he was finally able to dedicate himself to the study of Tangut history and language.He was sent by the museum to participate in a minor capacity in the excavations of the Western Xia tombs at the foot of the Helan Mountains, and whilst his new wife (Yang Shende 楊慎德) and children stayed behind at Yinchuan, he lived and worked at the excavations for seven years. The conditions were harsh, and the rations meagre, so that at the end of seven years, he had become emaciated and very ill, but his wife nursed him back to health. Up to that time, <mask> had been studying the Tangut script and

masks:
Li Fanwen
Li Fanwen
Li Fan
Li Fanwen


title: Li Fanwen

texts: language by himself from whatever books he could get hold of, and had no formal training in Tangut. Nevertheless, by the early 1970s he had already created more than 30,000 vocabulary cards for Tangut on his own initiative, with the intention of eventually compiling a Tangut-Chinese dictionary. In January 1972, when Premier Zhou Enlai visited the National Museum of Chinese History and was informed that only a handful of old scholars could read the Tangut script, he instructed Wang Yeqiu (), director of the State Bureau of Cultural Relics, to assign young scholars to study Tangut before all knowledge of Tangut died out. In response to this, Wang Yeqiu asked the Ningxia authorities to train people in the Tangut language, but there was nobody who could teach the language in Ningxia, so in May 1973, <mask> was sent to Beijing to study under Luo Fuyi (), the son of Luo Zhenyu, the founding father of Chinese Tangut studies. This opportunity gave <mask>wen access to much new material, and he was able to complete the first draft of his dictionary in 1976.Although the dictionary was initially accepted for publication by the Cultural Relics Publishing House, it was eventually rejected after expert review of the manuscript concluded that it was not yet mature. For the next few years, <mask>wen made detailed studies of primary Tangut sources such as Wen Hai (文海 "Sea of Characters") and Tong Yin (同音 "Homophones") in order to fill in the missing gaps in the dictionary coverage. In April 1984, on his way to visit the renowned Japanese Tangutologist, Nishida Tatsuo, he was

masks:
Li Fanwen
Li Fan
Li Fan


title: Li Fanwen

texts: knocked off his bicycle in a traffic accident, and spent eighteen months in bed with a fractured thighbone. This gave him the opportunity to finish his study of the Tong Yin, which was published in 1986. By late 1992, the new draft of <mask>wen's Tangut-Chinese dictionary was almost complete, but he was not satisfied with the system of phonetic reconstruction that he was using, so after the Taiwan Tangutologist  Gong Hwang cherng came to see him, he decided to use Professor Gong's system of phonetic reconstruction instead. The dictionary was now complete, but technical and financial issues delayed its publication until 1997. Originally, <mask> had hoped to computer typeset the Tangut text, but eventually he had to abandon this plan, and the Tangut text in the 1997 edition was laboriously inserted using photocomposition.The dictionary comprised exactly 6,000 Tangut characters, and these 6,000 characters were later used as the source for the Mojikyo set of Tangut characters, which have since been widely used by Tangutologists for typesetting Tangut text. In 2002, the dictionary won the Wu Yuzhang Prize for Humanities and Social Sciences. In 2008, a revised and expanded edition of <mask>'s Tangut-Chinese dictionary, with 6,074 entries, was published. The new edition was computer typeset using a Tangut font developed by Jing Yongshi (). In addition to his work on Tangut language, <mask> has also published a comprehensive history of the Western Xia and a study of the Song dynasty Chinese dialect spoken in the north-west of China. <mask> currently holds

masks:
Li Fan
Li Fanwen
Li Fanwen
Li Fanwen
Li Fanwen


title: Li Fanwen

texts:
 professorships at Beijing University, Nanjing University, People's University, Capital Normal University, Shaanxi Normal University and Fudan University, and is the honorary head of the Ningxia Academy of Social Sciences. In 2013 <mask> won the Prix Stanislas Julien for his Tangut-Chinese dictionary.Works

 1980. Xi Xia Yanjiu Lunji 西夏研究論集 (A Compilation of Xixia Studies). Ningxia. 1984. Xi Xia <mask>mu Chutu Canbei Cuibian 西夏陵墓出土殘碑粹編 (A Collection of Fragments of Memorial Inscriptions from the Western Xia Tombs). Beijing. 1986.Tongyin Yanjiu 同音研究 (Study of the Homophones). Yinchuan. 1994. Songdai xibei fangyin: Fan han heshi zhang zhong zhu dui yin yanjiu 宋代西北方音——《番汉合时掌中珠》对音研究 [The Northwest Chinese Dialect at Song Times: Transliteration in Fan-Han Heshi Zhang-zhong-zhu]. Beijing. 1997. Xia Han Zidian 夏漢字典 (Tangut-Chinese Dictionary).Beijing. 2005. Xi Xia Tong Shi 西夏通史 (Comprehensive History of the Western Xia). Beijing and Yinchuan. 2008. Xia Han Zidian 夏漢字典 (Revised edition of Tangut-Chinese Dictionary). Beijing.With Luo Fuyi 羅福頤
 1982. Xixia Guanyin Huikao 西夏官印匯考 (Collected Study of Official Seals of the Western Xia). Yinchuan. References

External links
 About <mask> and his Tangut-Chinese Dictionary

1932 births
Chinese lexicographers
Linguists from China
Tangutologists
Living people
Minzu University of China alumni
People's Republic of China historians
Writers from Hanzhong
Historians from Shaanxi
Educators from Shaanxi
Peking University faculty
Nanjing University faculty
Renmin University of China faculty
Capital Normal University faculty
Fudan

masks:
Li Fanwen
Ling
Li Fanwen


title: Jonas Bronck

texts:
<mask> (alternatively <mask>, <mask>, or <mask>) was born around year 1600 and died in 1643. Bronck was an immigrant to the Dutch colony of New Netherland after whom the Bronx River, and by extension, the county and New York City borough of the Bronx are named. A mural at the Bronx County Courthouse depicting Bronck's arrival was created in the early 1930s by James Monroe Hewlett. Origin
Different theories account for Bronck's origin. The town of Tórshavn, the capital of the Faroe Islands, has a street bearing the name Jónas Broncksgøta ("<mask>'s Street"). One theory holds that <mask> was born ca. 1600, son of a Lutheran minister, <mask>, and was raised in Tórshavn.That <mask>'s middle name would in this case be Mortensen, not Jonsson, speaks against this theory. The Faroe family may have originated from the Norwegian district of Elverum. (At the time, the Faroe Islands were part of a political entity also comprising Iceland, Greenland, Denmark and Norway.) In 1619 the younger Bronck went to school in Roskilde, Denmark, and eventually made his way to Holland. A number of sources published in the early 20th century identify Bronck as Danish, an idea espoused by A.J.F. van Laer, archivist at the New York State Library. Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898, winner of the 1999 Pulitzer Prize for History, also parenthetically claims Bronck as a Dane.A 1908 publication portrays Bronck as a Mennonite who fled the Netherlands to Denmark because of religious persecution. In a 1977 pamphlet commemorating the founding of the borough a publication of the Bronx County Bar Association states that it "is widely accepted that Bronck came from Denmark, but claims have also been made by the Frisian Islands on the North Sea coast and by a small town in Germany". In 1981 the Manx-Svenska Publishing Co. released a now out-of-print 19-page pamphlet, The Founder of the Bronx, authored G.V.C.

masks:
Jonas Bronck
Jonas Jonsson Brunk
Jonas Jonasson Bronk
Jonas Jonassen Bck
Jonasck
Jonas Jonsson Bronck
Morten Jespersen Bronck
Jonas Bronck


title: Jonas Bronck

texts: Young O.B.E., after he had conducted research in the Netherlands, Sweden, and New York. Young reported that he examined crucial references: Bronck's betrothal certificate dated June 18, 1638 and Bronck's document of guarantee from April 30, 1639. The theory of Bronck's Swedish origin fundamentally rely on Young's interpretations of three  key words found in these Dutch-language documents and that <mask>'s relative <mask> was born in 1616 in Jönköping, Sweden. In conjunction with John Davidson of Tórshavn in the Faroe Islands and Eva Brylla from the Ortnamnsarkiv in Uppsala, Sweden, the archival texts were transcribed from their traditional script.Young states that Bronck's middle name Jonsson means that his father's first name was <mask> (excluding the Faroe reverend Morten <mask>) and further that the words referring to Bronck's birthplace and spelled "Coonstay" and "Smolach" speaks for that it is most likely that "Coonstay" was Komstad in Jönköping county and that "Smolach" was a misrecording of Småland, the district in which Jönköping is located. Young concludes <mask> was born circa 1600 in Komstad, Småland, a historic province of Sweden adjacent to the then-Danish province of Skåne. This farm or small village was at this time inhabited by Jon Nilsson and his wife Marit Brunk who could be <mask>'s parents or other relatives. (He is silent regarding another town named Komstad located in the Simrishamn municipality in Skåne in southeastern Sweden, a region which prior to 1658 formed part of Kingdom of Denmark.) The Founder of the Bronx speculates that Bronck made his way to the coast on the Baltic Sea where he became a sailor in the Danish merchant marine, and later transferred to the Dutch fleet. The New York Times cites Sävsjö the seat of Sävsjö Municipality in Jönköping County, Sweden, of which Komstad was part. The official historian of the Bronx, Lloyd Ultan, adopted

masks:
Jonas Bronck
Pieter Bronck
Jonas
Bronck
Jonas Bronck
Jonas Bck


title: Jonas Bronck

texts:
 the theory of a Swedish Bronck.The Bronx County Historical Society and other publications followed suit. Marriage
On June 18, 1638 Bronck signed his banns of marriage as <mask> Bronck. This patronym indicated that his father's name was <mask>, which supports the theory of Swedish origin. He and his Dutch wife, Teuntje Joriaens, married at the New Church in Amsterdam on July 6, 1638. Immigration to New Netherland
<mask>'s decision to relocate from Europe was prompted by a number of factors. During the late 1630s, events in both Holland and America induced significant changes in the governance of New Netherland, territory controlled by the Dutch West India Company (WIC) between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers, and north along tidewaters of the Hudson. At its heart was the trading facility of New Amsterdam on the southern tip of Manhattan Island.Following the spectacular collapse of the Tulip mania in 1637, Holland's government contemplated the idea of taking control of New Netherland from the company and using the colony for resettlement of individuals impoverished by failed tulip bulb speculations. There also was vexation over the West India Company's failure to develop New Netherland much beyond its original function, facilitating the fur trade. By contrast, English enclaves in the region were rapidly expanding in territory, population, and viability. New Amsterdam's inhabitants then numbered only about four hundred, a count that hardly had increased during the previous decade. Company properties in the colony showed signs of physical neglect and conditions of law and order were less than ideal. Faced with possible government expropriation, the company appointed Willem Kieft as director of New Netherland with a mandate to increase the territory's population and vitality. Arriving in 1638, Kieft promptly purchased additional Lenape lands in the environs of Manhattan and

masks:
Jonas Jonasson
Jonas
Jonas Bronck


title: Jonas Bronck

texts:
 encouraged private settlement by enterprising colonists of diverse backgrounds.It also liberalized the previous Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions so that settlers were no longer encumbered with excessive responsibilities to the WIC. Previously, most real estate and commercial activity in New Netherland had been under its direct control. These vicissitudes did not escape Bronck's notice. He was among the first to recognize promising opportunities, and along with various emigrants from Europe he crossed the Atlantic to settle in New Amsterdam's hinterlands. Vriessendael and Colen Donck were established around the same time. In the spring of 1639 <mask> and a party of other emigrants, including his good friend, the Dane Jochem Pietersen Kuyter, departed the Dutch port of Hoorn on the Zuiderzee. In addition to passengers and crew, their ship, "De Brandt van Troyen" (Fire of Troy), was laden with numerous cattle.On June 16 the vessel was seen in the harbor of New Amsterdam. Site of homestead

<mask> and Kuyter navigated up the East River to land that was within the territory of the Siwanoy and Wecquaesgeek groups of Wappinger who inhabited it at the time of colonialization. It is said that <mask> wrote of his new home: "The invisible hand of the Almighty Father, surely guided me to this beautiful country, a land covered with virgin forest and unlimited opportunities. It is a veritable paradise and needs but the industrious hand of man to make it the finest and most beautiful region in all the world." Kuyter chose land on the west bank on the island of Manhattan; Bronck settled on the mainland. Teuntie and <mask>'s house was built by a promontory at the juncture of the Harlem River and the Bronx Kill across from Randalls Island and was constructed like "a miniature fort with stone walls and a tile roof". Bronck's farmstead consisted of approximately , which being a religious man,

masks:
Jonas Bronck
Bronck
Bronck
Jonas Bronck


title: Jonas Bronck

texts:
 he named Emaus.(Emmaus, according to the New Testament, is where Jesus appeared before two of his followers after his resurrection.) The site is in present-day Mott Haven, about 1,000 feet south of Bruckner Boulevard and 500 feet east of the Willis Avenue Bridge, on a tract (at approximately ) now part of the Harlem River Intermodal Yard, though which runs the Oak Point Link. Relations with Lenape tribes
On April 22, 1642 a peace treaty was signed at Bronck's homestead between Dutch authorities and the Wecquaesgeek sachems Ranaqua and Tackamuck. This event is portrayed in a painting by the American artist John Ward Dunsmore (1856–1945). On February 23, 1643, Director of New Netherland William Kieft launched an attack on refugee camps of the Weckquaesgeek and Tappan. Expansionist Mahican and Mohawk in the North (armed with guns traded by the French and English) had driven them south the year before, where they sought protection from the Dutch. Kieft refused aid despite the company's previous guarantees to the tribes to provide it.The attacks were at Communipaw (in today's Jersey City) and Corlaers Hook (lower Manhattan) in what is known as the Pavonia Massacre. The slaughter led to retaliation and attacks on many settlements outlying New Amsterdam, including some in what is now the Bronx, such as that of Anne Hutchinson. It is unknown if Bronck's death was related to the skirmishes. Last testament
Saturday May 6, 1643, not long after <mask>'s death, his widow Teuntie Jeuriaens, together with <mask>, conducted a formal inventory of the Bronck farm which was then known as Emaus. This procedure was conducted in the presence of the Rev. Everardus Bogardus, pastor of the First Reformed Dutch Church of New Amsterdam and Bronck's friend Jochem Pietersen Kuyter. According to official records of the State of New York, the latter two were identified as guardians of Bronck's widow.(In

masks:
Jonas Bronck
Peter Bronck


title: Jonas Bronck

texts: June 1643 Teuntje remarried. She and her new husband, Arent van Curler, soon thereafter departed for Beverwyck, a settlement on the North River near Fort Orange.) The inventory lists contents of the farm Bronck and his family had built in the wilderness during the period of less than four years following his arrival in America. Buildings on the property were a stone house with a tile roof, a barn, two barracks for farm employees, and a tobacco house. The tally of Bronck's livestock was 25 animals of various kinds, plus an uncounted number of hogs, said to be running in nearby woods. During the early 1640s it was not uncommon for Bronck's New Amsterdam contemporaries to identify themselves on legal documents with graphic marks that also were symbols of illiteracy. By contrast, <mask>'s personal library provides evidence he was literate in four languages, suggesting his education might have been as high as university level.His library was an impressive archive for its time and place, and is regarded as the earliest for which there is a detailed account in the colonial records of New York. The following materials were listed in the inventory of Bronck's library: one Bible, folio; Calvin's Institutes, folio; Bullingeri, Schultetus Dominicalia, (Medical); Moleneri Praxis, (Moral and Practical Discourses), quarto; one German Bible, quarto; Mirror of the Sea (Seespiegel), folio; one Luther's Psalter; Sledani, (History of the Reformation), folio; Danish chronicle, quarto; Danish law book, quarto; Luther's Complete Catechism; The Praise of Christ, quarto; Petri Apiani; Danish child's book; a book called Forty Pictures of Death, by Symon Golaert; Biblical stories; Danish calendar; Survey (or View) of the Great Navigation; a parcel of eighteen Dutch and Danish pamphlets by various authors; seventeen books in manuscript, which are old; and eleven pictures, large and small. Bronck's


title: Jonas Bronck

texts:
 becomes Bronx
Bronck's farm, a tract of , known as the biblical Emmaus, Bronck's Land, and then just Broncksland, or simply Bronck's— covered roughly the area emanating from general vicinity of Willis Avenue and 132nd Street in the Bronx in what, today, is Mott Haven.<ref>{{cite web | last = Hansen | first = Harry North of Manhattan | title = excerpted from North of Manhattan', Hastings House, 1950 | work = The Bronx...Its History & Perspective | publisher = The Bronx Mall | url = http://www.bronxmall.com/cult/series/2.html | access-date = 2012-01-20 |quote = The house was named "Emmanus" and stood on what today is in the general vicinity of Willis Avenue and 132nd Street. }}</ref>

Following Bronck's death, and the dispersion of the few settlers, the tract passed through the hands of successive Dutch traders until 1664, when it came into the possession of Samuel Edsall, (who also had acquired a large tract on the North River known as the English Neighborhood), who held it until 1670. He sold it to Captain Richard Morris and Colonel Lewis Morris, at the time merchants of Barbados. Four years later, Colonel Morris obtained a royal patent to Bronck's Land, which afterward became the Manor of Morrisania, the second Lewis (son of Captain Richard), exercising proprietary right. Despite Bronck having lived there for only four years, the area was known as "Broncksland" through the end of the 17th century.The current spelling came into use 1697. Descendants and relations
<mask> also was known as <mask> Bronck. Given the relative closeness in age and same father's name indicated by the patronym (<mask> was born about 1600, Pieter, born in 1616 in Jönköping, Sweden) it has been claimed that Pieter was a nephew or cousin to <mask>, and not a son as had been surmised. This would however in both cases mean that <mask> or his father <mask> have had a living brother with identical name,

masks:
Pieter Bronck
Pieter Jonasson
Jonas
Jonas Bronck
Jonas Bronck
Jonas


title: Jonas Bronck

texts:
 something which is unheard of in Scandinavian naming. They might instead have been brothers, as an age difference of 16 years among even full siblings is far from unlikely. Still he has been described as the "poorer cousin", and is believed to have emigrated to Beverwijck in the Hudson Valley circa 1650. The <mask> House is a registered historic place in Coxsackie, New York.The American poet William Bronk reported that he was a descendant of <mask>. The American biophysicist (and president of Rockefeller University) Detlev Bronk claimed to have been a Bronck descendant, but no evidence of lineage to Pieter's line was ever found or indicated. Legacy

Namesakes
There is a street in Tórshavn in the Faroe Islands that is named "Jónas Broncksgøta." The Jonas Bronck Academy  and Public School 43 Jonas Bronck  are located in the Bronx. A local brewery produces Jonas Bronck Beer. Jonas Bronck Center
There is a Jonas Bronck Center in Sävsjö, Sweden. where a celebration of the 375th anniversary of <mask>'s settlement of the Bronx took place in August 2014.The celebration was mainly the idea of Brian G. Andersson, the former commissioner of the New York City Department of Records and Information Services, a specialist in Bronck's genealogy, a founding director of the center, and a Bronxite of Swedish origin. See also

 New Netherland settlements

References

Sources
Benson, Adolph B. and Naboth Hedin, eds. Swedes in America, 1638-1938'' (The Swedish American Tercentenary Association. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 1938)

External links
 William Bronk
 Jonas Brock Center

1600s births
1643 deaths
17th-century Danish people
17th-century Swedish people
People of New Netherland
People from the Bronx
History of the Bronx
Danish emigrants to the Netherlands
Swedish emigrants to the Netherlands
Danish migration to North America
Swedish migration to North America
Kieft's War
People of

masks:
Pieter Bronck
Pieter Bronck
Jonas Bronck