title: Claudio Tiribelli

texts:
<mask> (born 6 October 1946) is an Italian hepatologist best known for his studies on bilirubin and in particular on Kernicterus, a bilirubin-induced neurological damage. Biography
<mask> was born in Venice, Italy on 6 October 1946. He graduated summa cum laude in Medicine and Surgery at the University of Padua. During his Ph.D. he studied at the University of Trieste as research clinical fellow. In 1980 he started his activity as professor of medicine. From 1980 to 1985 he was assistant professor of medicine, from 1985 to 1988 research associate, from 1989 to 2008 he was professor of medicine, specializing in biochemistry applied to medicine, and 2008 he was appointed professor of gastroenterology at the University of Trieste, until his retirement in 2016. He was research fellow at the Department of Pharmacology, University of Groningen in 1982, a visiting scientist at Polytechnic University, New York, NY, USA in 1989, a visiting professor, University of Toronto, Canada in 1994.Since 2019, Tiribelli is visiting professor at Charles University, Prague Czech Republic. Tiribelli also had an intense clinical activity. In 2001 he become director of the Liver Research Center of Trieste, and then in 2010 he became director of the Liver Clinical Center, based in the Trieste Teaching Hospital, where in 2013 he was appointed head of the entire medical department. In 1980 Tiribelli created Fondo Studi Fegato (Liver Studies Found), which in 2008 became Fondazione Italiana Fegato - Italian Liver Foundation, a no-profit research institution focused on liver and hepatic diseases, based in Trieste with worldwide collaborations and exchanges of students and scientists. <mask> is scientific director of the foundation. For his international scientific activity, in 2011 he was awarded of the Laurea Honoris Causa by the Favaloro University, Buenos Aires, Argentina, and the following year again he obtained the Laurea Honoris Causa from the Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina. In 2017 was awarded by the Ministry of Science, Technology and

masks:
Claudio Tiribelli
Claudio Tiribelli
Tiribelli


title: Claudio Tiribelli

type: original

texts:
 Productive Innovation of Argentina of the Premio de Cooperación Internacional en Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación "Luis Federico Leloir" - Award for International Cooperation in Science, Technology and Innovation granted very selectively to foreign scientists who gave a great contribution to the scientific international cooperation – Premios Leloir.Since 1972 Tiribelli is married with Rita Russo and has a son, Mario who is an associate professor of hematology at the University of Udine Medical School. Scientific activity

Since the very beginning Tiribelli was fascinated by bilirubin, the yellow compounds which gives the yellow color the sclera and skin when increased for genetic condition or clinical liver disorders. This love lasted all his scientific life and nor he is regarded as one of the few world experts in the field. Based on his expertise he founded Bilimetrix® which develop the firs point-of-care device to measure bilirubin in neonates preventing a timely diagnosis of severe neonatal jaundice and a proper treatment. Due to his clinical activity, linked with research interests, he is active in translational activity in several liver disorders as fatty liver and hepatocellular carcinoma. Together with his longstanding research associate Stefano Bellentani he designed and performed the Dionysus Study, the first project exploring the prevalence and incidence of liver diseases in the general population. He is coordinating a large group of researchers (PostDocs, PhD fellows, senior researchers) located in the hub lab at the Italian Liver Foundation in Trieste and spread around the world.The international programs <mask> is coordinating forces him to cross the Equator 14 times in 2019 (before the COVID pandemic). Fondazione Italiana Fegato – Italian Liver Foundation
In 1980 the Fondo Studi Fegato (Liver Studies Found) was founded, renamed in 2008 Fondazione Italiana Fegato ("FIF", Italian Liver Foundation) a no-profit organization primarily involved in the field of molecular research applied to the liver and its diseases


title: Claudio Tiribelli

texts:
 (Translational Hepatology). FIF actively interacts with several national and international scientific organizations and hosts every year PhD and post-doctoral researchers, international fellow researchers, and undergraduate students from University. In 2020, the scientific production of the Italian Liver Foundation was 35 full papers, 21 reviews, and 2 book chapters. <mask> is scientific director of the foundation and coordinates the scientific activity of the senior scientists and the main current research lines at the foundation, which are:

Bilirubin in neurological damage including bilirubin-induced neurological damage in neonatal hyperbilirubinemia
Bilirubin as modulating molecule in metabolic disorders (obesity, diabetes) and degenerative neurological disease (Parkinson and Alzheimer)
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)

International cooperation
Major efforts have been also given to the international cooperation among FIF and liver research centers around the world. These activity led to the signature of operational MoUs with several countries as Mexico (Medica Sur), Brazil Sociedade Brasileira de Hepatologia), Vietnam (Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Min City), India (ILBS Institute of Liver & Biliary Sciences), Indonesia (Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology) among the others. Of particular relevance the cooperation with Argentina elicited in the creation of the first center for criobiology in South America Centro Binacional (Argentina-Italia) de Investigaciones en Criobiología Clínica y Aplicada (CAIC) established in 2009, also due to a grant of the Region Friuli Venezia Giulia.CAIC was joined by the Liver Transplant Program of Fundacion Favaloro. Another very active project is that involving DOST Department of Science and Technology and PCHRD Philippine Council for Research and Development of the Philippines, with the creation of PhD and sandwich fellowships for Filipino students at FIF and the creation of the Filipino Liver Network together with University of the Philippines


title: Joshua Key

texts:
<mask> "Josh<mask> is a United States Army deserter, who fled while on leave from the Iraq War, and is a current resident of Canada. He is the author, with Lawrence Hill, of The Deserter's Tale, a book chronicling his service in Iraq and his subsequent departure from military life. Personal life
<mask> was born in 1978 in Guthrie, Oklahoma, which is located just outside Oklahoma City. At age 20, he married Brandi Johnston, with whom he has four children. She initially joined him in moving to Canada, but later divorced him and returned to the US with their children. Military service and desertion
In 2002 <mask> enlisted in the United States Army. He attended basic training and was stationed in Fort Carson, Colorado.He was deployed to the Middle East in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. "<mask> served as a combat engineer for eight months in Iraq 2003." "Mr. <mask> had told the IRB that while in Iraq with a unit of combat engineers, he took part in at least 200 raids on civilian homes." When he returned home on leave, he deserted the Army in November, 2003. <mask> states he holds no regrets about deserting the US Army, as illustrated on the back cover of The Deserters Tale. In the book <mask> gives a short summary of his own life prior, during and after his tour of duty and subsequent desertion. In the book <mask> claims to have witnessed many troubling acts: systematic vandalism of Iraqi homes during house raids, murder of an Iraqi child, and sexual abuse of innocent women, all purportedly committed by American soldiers and officers.After deserting the military, <mask> spent 14 months in hiding in the US before going to Canada. Life in Canada
He fled to Toronto, Ontario, Canada on March 8, 2005, and 3 days later made a claim for asylum as a conscientious objector seeking refugee status. First hearing at Canada's Immigration and Refugee Board

Negative IRB decision: Oct 20, 2006
He had a hearing at Canada's Immigration and Refugee Board (IRB), represented by Jeffry House, but the Board rendered a negative decision on Oct 20, 2006. He appealed to the Federal Court. Successful appeal:

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Joshua
" Key
Joshua Key
Key
Key
Key
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title: Joshua Key

texts:
 Canada's Federal Court Ruling of July 4, 2008
On July 4, 2008, <mask> won a Federal Court appeal forcing the IRB to re-examine his claim for refugee status in Canada. The IRB was ordered to take another look at <mask>'s failed bid for asylum in an unprecedented court ruling that could affect scores of other U.S. soldiers, now in Canada, who have refused to fight in Iraq. In the decision the Federal Court found the IRB made mistakes in turning down <mask>'s claim for asylum.While the earlier board deemed him credible, it declined his claim for refugee status on the grounds he was not required to systematically commit war crimes. The earlier board rulings deemed that it was not important enough that he had to violate the Geneva Conventions. Federal Court Justice Robert Barnes disagreed with that earlier analysis. "Officially condoned military misconduct falling well short of a war crime may support a claim to refugee protection," Barnes wrote. Military action that "systematically degrades, abuses or humiliates" either combatants or non-combatants could provide such support, he said. Prior to Justice Barnes' ruling, and after turning down several similar asylum claims, the refugee board had consistently held that the United States is a democracy, which affords deserters due judicial process. However, the Federal Court said the board should hear evidence on whether deserters can rely on the American government to treat them fairly regardless of its status as a democracy.On July 14, 2008, a Los Angeles Times editorial referred to the July 4 ruling from Canada's Federal Court with these words:

...we should take a second look at our procedures for dealing with soldiers who allege human rights violations -- before they become deserters…[If] we would prefer not to hear shameful allegations from our own deserters and be judged by our neighbors, we cannot lightly dismiss expressions of moral outrage... The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's July 4, 2008 coverage of the story said that there is now a possibility that he "could qualify as a refugee." Second IRB hearing: June 3, 2009
On

masks:
Joshua Key
Key
Joshua Key


title: Joshua Key

texts:
 June 3, 2009, <mask> had a new hearing in front of the IRB. Ken Atkinson, the immigration board member who heard <mask>'s case, reserved his decision. Lawrence Hill was present at this hearing, while supporters held a vigil outside. He was represented by attorney Alyssa Manning. Negative IRB decision: July 30, 2010
On July 30, 2010, Ken Atkinson of the IRB made a decision which rejected granting refugee status to <mask>.Atkinson stated, "I find that the claimant is neither a . . . refugee nor a person in need of protection." Atkinson went on to say, "I find that there is adequate state protection in the USA and the claimant has not taken all reasonable steps to pursue the available state protection." The IRB made this statement even after the Federal Court had previously instructed the IRB to hear evidence on whether deserters can rely on the American government to treat them fairly (see above). The negative ruling meant the Canada Border Services Agency could deport <mask>. <mask> said in a telephone interview that he is hopeful the Federal Court of Appeal would agree to hear his case, allowing him to stay in Canada. Three months later, on 22 October 2010, Wikileaks released documents on the Iraq War which dealt, in part, with civilian deaths. <mask> praised these leaked documents as supporting his refugee claim.In 2016, <mask> was granted temporary permission to work and receive government health care while his case continues to be reviewed. See also
 List of Iraq War Resisters
 Canada and Iraq War Resisters
 Nuremberg Defense
 Jeremy Hinzman

Notes

References

External links
 Co-Author of The Deserter's Tale, Lawrence Hill's website
 A critical review of the book, with excerpts

Video Links
  by Janette Luu, the host for CANOE Live, a local TV program on Sun TV in Toronto, Ontario, Canada

1978 births
Living people
United States Army soldiers
United States Army personnel of the Iraq War
American conscientious objectors
American anti–Iraq War activists
Iraq War resisters
Deserters
American male writers
Applicants for refugee status in Canada
People from Guthrie,

masks:
Joshua Key
Key
Key
Key
Key
Key
Key


title: Charles Barry

texts:
<mask>   (23 May 1795 – 12 May 1860) was a British architect, best known for his role in the rebuilding of the Palace of Westminster (also known as the Houses of Parliament) in London during the mid-19th century, but also responsible for numerous other buildings and gardens. He is known for his major contribution to the use of Italianate architecture in Britain, especially the use of the Palazzo as basis for the design of country houses, city mansions and public buildings. He also developed the Italian Renaissance garden style for the many gardens he designed around country houses. Background and training

Born on 23 May 1795 in Bridge Street, Westminster (opposite the future site of the Clock Tower of the Palace of Westminster), he was the fourth son of <mask> (died 1805), a stationer, and <mask> née Maybank (died 1798). He was baptised at St Margaret's, Westminster, into the Church of England, of which he was a lifelong member. His father remarried shortly after Frances died and <mask>'s stepmother Sarah would bring him up. He was educated at private schools in Homerton and then Aspley Guise, before being apprenticed to Middleton & Bailey, Lambeth architects and surveyors, at the age of 15.<mask> exhibited drawings at the Royal Academy annually from 1812 to 1815. Upon the death of his father, <mask> inherited a sum of money that allowed him, after coming of age, to undertake an extensive Grand Tour around the Mediterranean and Middle East, from 28 June 1817 to August 1820. He visited France and, while in Paris, spent several days at the Musée du Louvre. In Rome he sketched antiquities, sculptures and paintings at the Vatican Museums and

masks:
Sir Charles Barry
Walter Edward Barry
Frances Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts: other galleries, before carrying on to Naples, Pompeii, Bari and then Corfu. While in Italy, <mask> met <mask> Eastlake, an architect, William Kinnaird and Francis Johnson (later a professor at Haileybury and Imperial Service College) and Thomas Leverton Donaldson. With these gentlemen he visited Greece, where their itinerary covered Athens, which they left on 25 June 1818, Mount Parnassus, Delphi, Aegina, then the Cyclades, including Delos, then Smyrna and Turkey, where <mask> greatly admired the magnificence of Hagia Sophia. From Constantinople he visited the Troad, Assos, Pergamon and back to Smyrna.Whilst in Athens, <mask> met David Baillie, who was taken with <mask>'s sketches and offered to pay him £200 a year plus any expenses to accompany him to Egypt, Palestine and Syria in return for <mask>'s drawings of the countries they visited. The major sites of the Middle East that they visited included Dendera, the Temple of Edfu, Philae – it was here that he met his future client William John Bankes on 13 January 1819 – then Thebes, Luxor and Karnak, then back to Cairo and Giza with its pyramids. Continuing through the Middle East, the major sites and cities visited were Jaffa, the Dead Sea, Jerusalem, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, then Bethlehem, Baalbek, Jerash, Beirut, Damascus and Palmyra, then on to Homs. On 18 June 1819, <mask> parted from Baillie at Tripoli, Lebanon. Over this time, <mask> created more than 500 sketches. <mask> then travelled on to Cyprus, Rhodes, Halicarnassus, Ephesus and Smyrna from where he sailed on 16 August 1819 for Malta. <mask> then sailed from Malta to Syracuse, Sicily, then Italy and back

masks:
Barry
Charles Lock
Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 through France.His travels in Italy exposed him to Renaissance architecture and after arriving in Rome in January 1820, he met architect John Lewis Wolfe, who inspired <mask> himself to become an architect. Their friendship continued until <mask> died. The building that inspired <mask>'s admiration for Italian architecture was the Palazzo Farnese. Over the following months, he and Wolfe together studied the architecture of Vicenza, Venice, Verona and Florence, where the Palazzo Strozzi greatly impressed him. Early career

While in Rome he had met Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne, through whom he met Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland, and his wife, Elizabeth Fox, Baroness Holland. Their London home, Holland House, was the centre of the Whig Party. <mask> remained a lifelong supporter of the Liberal Party, the successor to the Whig Party.<mask> was invited to the gatherings at the house, and there met many of the prominent members of the group; this led to many of his subsequent commissions. <mask> set up his home and office in Ely Place in 1821. In 1827 he moved to 27 Foley Place, then in 1842 he moved to 32 Great George Street and finally to The Elms, Clapham Common. Now 29 Clapham Common Northside, the Georgian house of five bays and three stories was designed by Samuel Pepys Cockerell as his own home. Probably thanks to his fiancée's friendship with John Soane, <mask> was recommended to the Church Building Commissioners, and was able to obtain his first major commissions building churches for them. These were in the Gothic Revival architecture style, including two in Lancashire, St. Matthew, Campfield, Manchester

masks: Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts: (1821–22), and All Saints' Church, Whitefield (or Stand) (1822–25). <mask> designed three churches for the Commissioners in Islington: Holy Trinity, St. John's and St. Paul's, all in the Gothic style and built between 1826 and 1828.Two further Gothic churches in Lancashire, not for the Commissioners followed in 1824: St Saviour's Church, Ringley, partially rebuilt in 1851–54 and <mask>'s neglected Welsh Baptist Chapel, on Upper Brook Street (1837–39) in Manchester (and owned by the City Council), long open to the elements and at serious risk after its roof was removed in late 2005, the building was converted to private apartments in 2014–17. His final church for the Commissioners' was the Gothic St Peter's Church, Brighton (1824–28), which he won in a design competition on 4 August 1823 and was his first building to win acclaim. The next church he designed was St Andrew's Hove, East Sussex, in Waterloo Street, Brunswick, (1827–28); the plan of the building is in line with Georgian architecture, though stylistically the Italianate style was used, the only classical church <mask> designed that was actually built. The Gothic Hurstpierpoint church (1843–45), with its tower and spire, unlike his earlier churches was much closer to the Cambridge Camden Society's approach to church design. According to his son Alfred, <mask> later disowned these early church designs of the 1820s and wished he could destroy them. His first major civil commission came when he won a competition to design the new Royal Manchester Institution (1824–35) for the promotion of literature, science and arts (now part of the Manchester Art Gallery), in Greek revival style,

masks: Barry Barry Barry Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts: the only public building by <mask> in that style. Also in north-west England, he designed Buile Hill House (1825) in Salford this is the only known house where <mask> used Greek revival architecture.The Royal Sussex County Hospital was erected to <mask>'s design (1828) in a very plain classical style. Thomas Attree's villa, Queen's Park, Brighton, the only one to be built of a series of villas designed for the area by <mask> and the Pepper Pot (1830), whose original function was a water tower for the development. In 1831 he entered the competition for the design of Birmingham Town Hall, the design was based on an Ancient Greek temple of the Doric order, but it failed to win the competition. The marked preference for Italian architecture, which he acquired during his travels showed itself in various important undertakings of his earlier years, the first significant example being the Travellers Club, in Pall Mall, built in 1832, as with all his urban commissions in this style the design was astylar. He designed the Gothic King Edward's School, New Street, Birmingham (1833–37), demolished 1936, it was during the erection of the school that <mask> first met Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, he helped <mask> design the interiors of the building. His last work in Manchester was the Italianate Manchester Athenaeum (1837–39), this is now part of Manchester Art Gallery. From (1835–37) he rebuilt Royal College of Surgeons of England, in Lincoln's Inn Fields, Westminster, he preserved the Ionic portico from the earlier building (1806–13) designed by George Dance the Younger, the building has been further extended (1887–88) and (1937).In 1837 he won the

masks: Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 competition to design the Reform Club, Pall Mall, London, which is one of his finest Italianate public buildings, notable for its double height central saloon with glazed roof. His favourite building in Rome, the Farnese Palace, influenced the design. Country house work

A major focus of his career was the remodelling of older country houses. His first major commission was the transformation of Henry Holland's Trentham Hall in Staffordshire, between 1834 and 1840. It was remodelled in the Italianate style with a large tower (a feature <mask> often included in his country houses). <mask> also designed the Italianate gardens, with parterres and fountains. Largely demolished in 1912, only a small portion of the house, consisting of the porte-cochère with a curving corridor, and the stables, are still standing, although the gardens are undergoing a restoration.Additionally, the belvedere from the top of the tower survives as a folly at Sandon Hall. Between 1834 and 1838, at Bowood House, Wiltshire, owned by Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne, <mask> added the tower, made alterations to the gardens, and designed the Italianate entrance lodge. For the same client, he designed the Lansdowne Monument in 1845. Walton House in Walton-on-Thames followed in 1835–39. Again <mask> used the Italianate style, with a three-storey tower over the entrance porte-cochère (which was demolished 1973). Then, from 1835 to 1838, he remodelled Sir Roger Pratt's Kingston Lacy, with the exterior being re-clad in stone. The interiors were also <mask>'s work.Highclere Castle, Hampshire, with its large tower, was remodelled between about 1842 and 1850,

masks: Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts: in Elizabethan style, for Henry Herbert, 3rd Earl of Carnarvon. The building was completely altered externally, with the plain Georgian structure being virtually rebuilt. However, little of the interior is by <mask>, because his patron died in 1849 and Thomas Allom completed the work in 1861. At Duncombe Park, Yorkshire, <mask> designed new wings, which were added between in 1843 and 1846 in the English Baroque style of the main block. At Harewood House he remodelled the John Carr exterior between 1843 and 1850, adding an extra floor to the end pavilions, and replacing the portico on the south front with Corinthian pilasters. Some of the Robert Adam interiors were remodelled, with the dining room being entirely by <mask>, and he created the formal terraces and parterres surrounding the house. Between 1844 and 1848, <mask> remodelled Dunrobin Castle, Sutherland, Scotland, in Scots Baronial Style, for George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 2nd Duke of Sutherland for whom he had remodelled Trentham Hall.Due to a fire in the early 20th century, little of <mask>'s interiors survive at Dunrobin, but the gardens, with their fountains and parterres, are also by <mask>. Canford Manor, Dorset, was extended in a Tudor Gothic style between 1848 and 1852, including a large entrance tower. The most unusual interior is the Nineveh porch, built to house Assyrian sculptures from the eponymous palace, decorated with Assyrian motifs. James Paine's Shrubland Park was remodelled between 1849 and 1854, including an Italianate tower and entrance porch, a lower hall with Corinthian columns and glass domes, and impressive formal gardens based on Italian Renaissance


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 gardens. The gardens included a -high series of terraces linked by a grand flight of steps, with an open temple structure at the top. Originally there were cascades of water either side of the staircase. The main terrace is at the centre of a string of gardens nearly  in length.Between 1850 and 1852, <mask> remodelled Gawthorpe Hall, an Elizabethan house situated south-east of the small town of Padiham, in the borough of Burnley, Lancashire. It was originally a pele tower, built in the 14th century as a defence against the invading Scots. Around 1600, a Jacobean mansion had been dovetailed around the pele, but today's hall is re-design of the house, using the original Elizabethan style. <mask>'s last major remodelling work was Cliveden House, which had been the seat of the Earl of Orkney from 1696 till 1824. <mask>'s remodelling was again on behalf of the 2nd Duke of Sutherland. After the previous building was burnt down (1850–51), <mask> built a new central block in the Italianate Style, rising to three floors, the lowest of which have arch headed windows, and the upper two floors have giant Ionic pilasters. He also designed the parterres below the house.Little of <mask>'s interior design survived later remodelling. Later urban work

<mask> remodelled Trafalgar Square (1840–45) he designed the north terrace with the steps at either end, and the sloping walls on the east and west of the square, the two fountain basins are also to <mask>'s design, although Edwin Lutyens re-designed the actual fountains (1939). <mask> was commissioned to design (1840–42) the facade of Pentonville prison, that was designed by Joshua Jebb, he added a stuccoed

masks: Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts: Italianate pilastered frontage to Caledonian Road. The (Old) Treasury (Now Cabinet Office) Whitehall by John Soane, built (1824–26) was virtually rebuilt by <mask> (1844–47). It consists of 23 bays with a giant Corinthian order over a rusticated ground floor, the five bays at each end project slightly from the facade. Bridgewater House, Westminster, London (1845–64) for Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere, in a grand Italianate style. The structure was complete by 1848, but interior decoration was only finished by 1864.The main (south) front is 144 feet long, of nine bays in more massive version of his earlier Reform Club, the garden (west) front is of seven bays. The interiors are intact apart from the north wing which was bombed in The Blitz. The main interior is the central Saloon, a roofed courtyard of two storeys, of three by five bays of arches on each floor, the walls are lined with scagliola, the coved ceiling is glazed and the centre has three glazed saucer domes. The decoration of the major rooms is not the work of <mask>. The last major commission of <mask>'s was Halifax Town Hall (1859–62), in a North Italian Cinquecento style, and a grand tower with spire, the interior includes a central hall similar to that at Bridgewater House, the building was completed after <mask>'s death by his son Edward Middleton <mask>. Completed after <mask>'s death in 1863 was the classical, Guest Memorial Reading Room and Library in Dowlais, Wales. The most significant of <mask>'s designs that were not carried out included, his proposed Law Courts (1840–41), that if built would have covered Lincoln's Inn Fields with a large Greek Revival


title: Charles Barry

texts: building, this rectangular building would have been over three hundred by four hundred feet, in a Greek Doric style, there would have been octastyle porticoes in the middle of the shorter sides and hexastyle porticoes on the longer sides, leading to a large central hall that would have been surrounded by twelve court rooms that in turn were surrounded by the ancillary facilities.Later was his General Scheme of Metropolitan Improvements, that were exhibited in 1857. This comprehensive scheme was for the redevelopment of much of Whitehall, Horse Guards Parade, the embankment of the River Thames on both sides of the river in the areas to the north and south of the Palace of Westminster, this would eventual be partially realised as the Victoria Embankment and Albert Embankment, three new bridges across the Thames, a vast Hotel where Charing Cross railway station was later built, the enlargement of the National Gallery (<mask>'s son Edward would later extend the Gallery) and new buildings around Trafalgar Square and along the new embankments and the recently created Victoria Street. There were also several new roads proposed on both sides of the Thames. The largest of the proposed buildings would have been even larger than the Palace of Westminster, this was the Government Offices, this vast building would have covered the area stretching from horse Guards Parade across Downing Street and the sites of the future Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the HM Treasury on Whitehall up to Parliament Square. It would have had a vast glass-roofed hall, 320 by 150 feet, at the centre of the building. The plan was to house all government departments apart


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 from the Admiralty in the building. The building would have been in a Classical style incorporating <mask>'s existing Treasury building.Houses of Parliament

Following the destruction by fire of the old Houses of Parliament on 16 October 1834, a competition was held to find a suitable design, for which there were 97 entries. <mask>'s entry, number 64, for which Augustus Pugin helped prepare the competition drawings, won the commission in January 1836 to design the new Palace of Westminster. His collaboration with Pugin, who designed furniture, stained glass, sculpture, wallpaper, decorative floor tiles and mosaic work, was not renewed until June 1844, and then continued until Pugin's mental breakdown and death in 1852. The Tudor Gothic architectural style was chosen to complement the Henry VII Lady Chapel opposite. The design had to incorporate those parts of the building that escaped destruction, most notably Westminster Hall, the adjoining double-storey cloisters of St Stephen's court and the crypt of St Stephen's Chapel. <mask>'s design was parallel to the River Thames, but the surviving buildings were at a slight angle to the river, so <mask> had to incorporate the awkwardly different axes into the design. Although the design included most of the elements of the finished building, including the two towers at either end of the building, it would undergo significant redesign.The winning design was only about  in length, about two-thirds the size of the finished building. The central lobby and tower were later additions, as was the extensive royal suite at the southern end of the building. The amended design on which construction


title: Charles Barry

texts: commenced was approximately the same size as the finished building, although both the Victoria Tower and Clock Tower were considerably taller in the finished building, and the Central Tower was not yet part of the design. Before construction could commence, the site had to be embanked and cleared of the remains of the previous buildings, and various sewers needed to be diverted. On 1 September 1837, work started on building a  long coffer-dam to enclose the building site along the river. The construction of the embankment started on New Year's Day 1839. The first work consisted of the construction of a vast concrete raft to serve as the building's foundation.After the space had been excavated by hand,  of concrete were laid. The site of the Victoria Tower was found to consist of quicksand, necessitating the use of piles. The stone selected for the exterior of the building was quarried at Anston in Yorkshire, with the core of the walls being laid in brick. To make the building as fire-proof as possible, wood was only used decoratively, rather than structurally, and extensive use was made of cast iron. The roofs of the building consist of cast iron girders covered by sheets of iron, cast iron beams were also used as joists to support the floors and extensively in the internal structures of both the clock tower and Victoria tower. <mask> and his engineer Alfred Meeson were responsible for designing scaffolding, hoists and cranes used in the construction. One of their most innovative developments was the scaffolding used to construct the three main towers.For the central tower they designed an inner rotating scaffold, surrounded by timber


title: Charles Barry

texts: centring to support the masonry vault of the Central Lobby, that spans , and an external timber tower. A portable steam engine was used to lift stone and brick to the upper parts of the tower. When it came to building the Victoria and Clock towers, it was decided to dispense with external scaffolding and lift building materials up through the towers by an internal scaffolding that travelled up the structure as it was built. The scaffold and cranes were powered by steam engines. Work on the actual building began with the laying of a foundation stone on 27 April 1840 by <mask>'s wife Sarah, near the north-east corner of the building. A major problem for <mask> came with the appointment on 1 April 1840 of the ventilation expert Dr David Boswell Reid. Reid, whom <mask> said was "...not profess to be thoroughly acquainted with the practical details of building and machinery...", would make increasing demands that affected the building's design, leading to delays in construction.By 1845, <mask> was refusing to communicate with Reid except in writing. A direct result of Reid's demands was the addition of the Central Tower, designed to act as a giant chimney to draw fresh air through the building. The House of Lords was completed in April 1847 in the form of a double cube measuring . The House of Commons was finished in 1852, where later <mask> would be created a Knight Bachelor. The Elizabeth Tower, which houses the great clock and bells including Big Ben, is  tall and was completed in 1858. The Victoria Tower is  tall and was completed in 1860. The iron flagpole on the Victoria Tower tapers from  in diameter and the iron crown on top is  in


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 the East Corridor leading to the Lower Waiting Hall, to the east of which is the Members Dining Room located in the very centre of the east front. To the north of the Members Dining Room lies the House of Commons Library, and at the northern end of the east front is the projecting Speaker's House, home of the Speaker of the House of Commons. To the south of the Members Dining Room lies various committee rooms followed by House of Lords Library. Projecting from the southern end of the facade is the Lord Chancellor's House, home of The Lord Chancellor. Although Parliament gave <mask> a prestigious name in architecture, it nearly finished him off. Completion of the building was very overdue; <mask> had estimated it would take six years and cost £724,986 (excluding the cost of the site, embankment and furnishings). However, construction actually took 26 years, and it was also well over budget; by July 1854 the estimated cost was £2,166,846.Those pressures left <mask> tired and stressed. The full <mask> design was never completed; it would have enclosed New Palace Yard as an internal courtyard, and the clock tower would have been in the north-east corner, with a great gateway in the north-west corner surmounted by the Albert Tower, continuing south along the west front of Westminster Hall. Professional life

<mask> was appointed architect to the Dulwich College estate in 1830, an appointment that last until 1858. <mask> attended the inaugural meeting of the Royal Institute of British Architects on 3 December 1834 he became a fellow of the R.I.B.A. and later served as vice-president of the institute, in 1859 he turned down the Presidency of the


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 R.I.B.A. In 1845 he awarded the commission in the competition for New College, Edinburgh to William Henry Playfair. <mask> also served on the Royal Commission (learned committee) developing plans for the Great Exhibition of 1851; also in 1851, he was a co-founder of what became the Royal Architectural Museum.In 1852 he was an assessor on the committee that selected Cuthbert Brodrick's design in the competition to design Leeds Town Hall. In 1853 <mask> was consulted by Albert, Prince Consort on his plans for creation of what became known as Albertopolis. <mask> spent two months in Paris in 1855 representing, along with his friend and fellow architect <mask> Cockerell, English architecture on the juries of the Exposition Universelle. <mask> was an active fellow of the Royal Academy, and he was involved in revising the architectural curriculum in 1856. In 1858 <mask> was appointed to the St. Paul's Committee, whose function was to oversee the maintenance of the Special Evening Service in St Paul's Cathedral and carry out redecoration of the cathedral. Several architects received their training in <mask>'s office, including: John Hayward, John Gibson, George Somers Leigh Clarke, J. A. Chatwin and his sons <mask> and Edward Middleton <mask>.Additionally <mask> had several assistants who worked for him at various times, including Robert Richardson Banks, Thomas Allom, Peter Kerr and Ingress Bell. Awards and recognition

 <mask> was elected Associate of the Royal Academy on 2 November 1840
 On 10 February 1842 <mask> was elected a Royal Academician of the Royal Academy, his diploma work being a drawing of the south front of the Travellers Club.

masks:
Barry
Barry
Barry
Charles Robert
Barry
Barry
Barry
Charles Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 He was recognised by the main artistic bodies of many European countries, and was enrolled as a member of the academies of art in Rome (Accademia di San Luca) in 1842, Saint Petersburg (1845), Brussels (1847), Prussia (1849) and Stockholm (1850). He was later elected to the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1849. Awarded the RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1850, it was presented to him on 3 June by Thomas de Grey, 2nd Earl de Grey, the president of the institute. <mask> was knighted in 1852 by Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle, marking the completion of the main interiors of the Palace of Westminster.After the foundation of the American Institute of Architects in 1857 <mask> was elected a member. A London County Council blue plaque, unveiled in 1950, commemorates <mask> at "The Elms", his house by Clapham Common. Personal life and the next generation
<mask> disliked being away from London not liking life in the country, he preferred the bustle and society of the city. He was an early riser, usually between four and six o'clock in the morning, he only needed four or five hours sleep. Preferring to do his thinking and designing in the morning, but was happy to have company while at work, liking to be read to or join in conversation. He had a dislike of public display, considering it hollow and lacking in conviction. His general disposition was sanguine, though he had a quick temper.He preferred science to literature, he frequently attended the Friday night lectures held at the Royal Institution. <mask> was engaged to Sarah Rowsell (1798–1882) in 1817, they married on 7 December 1822 and had seven children


title: Charles Barry

texts: together. Four of Sir <mask>'s five sons followed in his career footsteps. Eldest son <mask> (junior) (1823–1900) designed Dulwich College and park in south London and rebuilt Burlington House (home of the Royal Academy) in central London's Piccadilly; Edward Middleton <mask> (1830–1880) completed the Parliament buildings and designed the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden; Godfrey Walter <mask> (1833–1868) became a surveyor; Sir John Wolfe-<mask> (1836–1918) was the engineer for Tower Bridge and Blackfriars Railway Bridge. Edward and <mask> also collaborated on the design of the Great Eastern Hotel at London's Liverpool Street station. His second son, Rev. <mask> (1826–1910), became a noted clergyman.He was headmaster of Leeds Grammar School from 1854 to 1862 and of Cheltenham College from 1862 to 1868. He later became the third Bishop of Sydney, Australia. He wrote a 400-page biography of his father, The Life and Times of Sir <mask>, R.A., F.R.S., that was published in 1867. <mask>'s daughters were <mask> (1828–1886) and Adelaide Sarah <mask> (1841–1907). Sir <mask>' relative John Hayward designed several buildings including, The Hall, Chapel Quad Pembroke College, Oxford. Two of <mask>'s grandsons continued in the profession, <mask> <mask> (1855–1937) architect and assistant to his father, and his brother Lt Col Arthur John <mask>, TD, MICE (1859–1943), civil engineer and architect, son of <mask> Jr. and pupil and later partner of Sir John Wolfe-<mask>. He was the author of Railway Expansion in China and the Influence of Foreign Powers in Its Development (London, 1910) and is noted for significant infrastructure projects in India,

masks:
Charles Barry
Charles Barry
Barry
Barry
Barry
Charles
Alfred Barry
Charles Barry
Barry
Emily Barry
Barry
Charles
Barry
Charles Edward
Barry
Barry CBE
Charles Barry
Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 China, Thailand and Egypt.He was the final generation of the <mask> architectural and engineering dynasty. Death and funeral

From onward 1837 <mask> suffered from sudden bouts of illness, one of the most severe being in 1858. On 12 May 1860 after an afternoon at the Crystal Palace with Lady <mask>, at his home The Elms, Clapham Common, he was seized at eleven o'clock at night with difficulty in breathing and was in pain from a heart attack and died shortly after. His funeral and interment took place at one o'clock on 22 May in Westminster Abbey, the cortège formed at Vauxhall Bridge, there were eight pall-bearers: Sir <mask>; William Cowper-Temple, 1st Baron Mount Temple; George Parker Bidder; Sir Edward Cust, 1st Baronet; Alexander Beresford Hope; The Dean of St. Paul's Henry Hart Milman; <mask> Cockerell and Sir William Tite. There were several hundred mourners at the funeral service, including his five sons, (it was against custom for women to attend, so neither his widow or daughters were present), his friend Mr Wolfe, numerous members of the House of Commons and Lords, attended, several who were his former clients, about 150 members of the R.I.B.A., including: Decimus Burton, Thomas Leverton Donaldson, Benjamin Ferrey, <mask>, George Godwin, Owen Jones, Henry Edward Kendall, John Norton, Joseph Paxton, James Pennethorne, Anthony Salvin, Sydney Smirke, Lewis Vulliamy, Matthew Digby Wyatt and Thomas Henry Wyatt. Various members of the Royal Society, Royal Academy, Institution of Civil Engineers, Society for the Encouragement of Fine Art and Society of Antiquaries were present. The funeral service was taken by the Dean of Westminster

masks:
Barry
Barry
Barry
Charles Eastlake
Charles Robert
Charles Fowler


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 Abbey Richard Chenevix Trench.Hardman & Co. made the monumental brass marking <mask>'s tomb in the nave at Westminster Abbey shows the Victoria Tower and Plan of the Palace of Westminster flanking a large Christian cross bearing representations of the Paschal Lamb and the four Evangelists and on the stem are roses, leaves, a portcullis and the letter B., beneath is this inscription:

Sacred to the memory of Sir <mask>, Knight R.A. F.R.S. & c. Architect of the New Palace of Westminster and other buildings who died the 12th May A.D. 1860 aged 64 years and lies buried beneath this brass. The brass has this inscription running around its edge:

Whatsoever ye do do it heartily as to the Lord and not unto Men for ye serve the Lord Christ. Col. Colossians III.23.24. The following tribute was paid by the R.I.B.A. :

The Royal Institute of British Architects impressed with the loss which the profession and the country have sustained through the decease of Sir <mask>, whose genius has conferred great lustre upon this age, hereby record their profound sympathy with the affliction which has fallen upon the widow and family of their lamented friend. Following <mask>'s death a life size white-marble sculpture (1861–65) of him was carved by John Henry Foley and was set up as a memorial to him at the foot of the Committee Stairs in the Palace of Westminster.The figure is seated holding a large book resting in his lap held at the top in his left hand. Major projects

<mask> designed:

 Remodelling of Soughton Hall under the instructions of travelling companion William John Bankes (1820s)
 All Saints' Church, Whitefield (1822–25)
 St Matthew's Church,

masks:
Barry
Charles Barry
Charles Barry
Barry
Barry


title: Charles Barry

texts:
 Manchester (1825)
 St Peter's Church, Brighton (1824–28)
 The Royal Institution of Fine Arts, Manchester, now Manchester Art Gallery (1824–35)
St Paul's Church, Islington (1826–28)
St John, Holloway Road, Islington (1826–28)
Holy Trinity, Cloudesley Square, Islington (1826–29)
 New tower Petworth Church, Sussex (1827)
 The Royal Sussex County Hospital, Brighton (1828)
 Thomas Attree's villa and the Pepper Pot, Queen's Park, Brighton (1830)
 Travellers Club. Alfred, (1867) The Life and Times of Sir <mask> R.A., F.S.A., John Murray
Beaver, Patrick, (1986 2nd Edition) The Crystal Palace, Phillimore & Co. Ltd,
Bingham, Neil, (2011) Masterworks: Architecture at the Royal Academy of Arts, Royal Academy of Arts,
Bisgrove, Richard, (1990) The English Garden, Viking,
Bradley, Simon & Pevsner, Nikolaus, (2003) The Buildings of England: London 6 Westminster, Yale University Press,
Brodie, Antonia; Felstead, Alison; Franklin, Jonathan; Pinfield, Leslie and Oldfiled, Jane, (2nd edition 2001) Directory of British Architects 1834–1914 Volume 1:A-K, Continuum,
Brownlee, David B., (1984) The Law Courts: The Architecture of George Edmund Street, M.I.T. Cockerell, Zwemmer Ltd,
Whiffen, Marcus, (1950) The Architecture of Sir Charles Barry in Manchester and Neighbourhood, Council of the Royal Manchester Institution

External links

 Biography – Britain Express
 The History of St Peter's Church, Brighton
 Palace of Westminster
Charles Barry & the Map Room – UK Parliament Living Heritage

 Papers of Charles Barry at the UK Parliamentary Archives
 Charles Barry works. Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library,


title: Dmitri Bystrolyotov

texts:
<mask>v (January 4, 1901 – May 3, 1975) () was a Russian/Soviet intelligence officer, a sailor and painter, a doctor and lawyer, a traveler and polyglot, a writer and a Gulag prisoner. One of the most outstanding Soviet undercover operatives, Bystrolyotov acted in Western Europe in the period between the great wars, recruiting and controlling several important agents in Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy. His greatest achievement was breaking into the British Foreign Office files years before Kim Philby, as well as procuring diplomatic ciphers of scores of European countries. Despite his personal courage and heroism, he fell victim of Joseph Stalin's purges of the 1930s. Arrested by the NKVD on drummed up charges, he was severely tortured and turned into an invalid. Serving his term, he spent over 16 years in various Gulag camps. There, at great risk to himself, he wrote and smuggled to the outside world his voluminous memoirs, an indictment of Communist Party of the Soviet Union's crimes against humanity.Early life and career
He was born to out-of-wedlock parents in the village of Aibory, in the Crimea, to Klavdiya Bystrolyotov, a provincial clergyman’s daughter. In his memoirs, Bystrolyotov identifies his father as a vice-governor of Saint Petersburg and governor of Vitebsk, Count Alexander Nikolaevich Tolstoy, a brother of Aleksei Tolstoi. Raised in an impoverished foster family of aristocrats in Saint Petersburg, with the outbreak of the Russian Civil War, Bystrolyotov first was drafted into the White Army but, after its defeat, was recruited as a “sleeper” by the Cheka, the Soviet secret police. He was sent to the West with the flow of Russian refugees and activated after he settled in Prague,


title: Dmitri Bystrolyotov

texts:
 hard labor.Ostracized and deprived of any means of sustenance as relatives of an “enemy of the people”, his wife and his mother committed suicide. Still in the camps, he overcame difficult circumstances—his ruined health and the risk of severe punishment—to begin writing his eyewitness account of Stalin’s Gulag. Smuggled to the outside world by his fellow inmates and his second wife, whom he had met and married in the camps, his memoir is comparable to that of Solzhenitsyn. Later life
After his release in 1954, a polyglot with nearly 20 languages at his disposal, including Dutch, Turkish, Chinese, and Japanese, he worked at various medical research organizations in Moscow as a translator and medical consultant. Besides being a gifted painter, <mask> was also a talented novelist, screenwriter, and memoirist. In 1963, journal Azia i Afrika segodnya (Asia and Africa Today) published a series of sketches about his African trips. In 1973, a film titled Chelovek v shtatskom (A Plainclothes Man) based on his script was released.In 1974, journal Nash sovremennik (Our Contemporary) published his short novel Para Bellum, a thinly-disguised account of one of his pre-World War II foreign operations. But not one of his memoirs was published in his lifetime. Bystrolyotov died on May 3, 1975, and was buried at the Khovanskoye Cemetery, Moscow. Currently, he is considered one of the leading heroes of Russian foreign intelligence. His portrait is displayed on the walls of the secret “Memory Room” at the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service headquarters. On November 21, 2011, the International Spy Museum in Washington, D.C. unveiled an exhibit devoted to him. Notes

References
Bystrolyotov D.A.(1996) "A Journey to the


title: Dmitri Bystrolyotov

texts:
 FBI (Foreign Counterintelligence Department), author of the book A Time for Spies: Theodore Stephanovich Mally and the Era of the Great Illegals. Further reading
Draitser, Emil Stalin's Romeo Spy: The Remarkable Rise and Fall of the KGB Most Daring Operative (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2010) . Pringle, Robert W., ed. Historical Dictionaries of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, Vol.. 5
Draitser, Emil. "Hunting for Interwar Diplomacy Secrets: Tradecraft of Dmitri Bystrolyotov," Journal of Intelligence History, Vol.6 (Winter 2008), 1-12. Draitser, Emil. "A Life Cut in Half: The Case of <mask> Bystrolyotov." Gulag Studies, Vol. 1 (in print)
Andrew, Christopher and Mitrokhin, Vassili. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. New York: Basic Books, 1999.Costello, John and Oleg Tsarev, Deadly Illusions. New York: Crown, 1993. West, Nigel and Oleg Tsarev. Crown Jewels: The British Secrets at the Heart of KGB Archives. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. West, Nigel. MI-5: British Security Operations, 1909-1945.NY: Stein and Day, 1982. Kern, Gary. A Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror. Enigma, 2003. Duff, William. A Time for Spies: Theodore Stephanovich Mally and the Era of the Great Illegals. Nashville and London: Vanderbilt University Press, 1999.Applebaum, Anne. Gulag: A History. New York: Doubleday, 2003. External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20110207141251/http://stalinsromeospy.com/
https://web.archive.org/web/20071112235455/http://svr.gov.ru/history/byst.html
http://svr.gov.ru/smi/2006/01/novrkr20060130.htm

1901 births
1975 deaths
People from Pervomaiske Raion
People from Perekopsky Uyezd
NKVD


title: Warren E. Burger

texts: <mask> (September 17, 1907 – June 25, 1995) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as the 15th chief justice of the United States from 1969 to 1986. Born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, <mask> graduated from the St. Paul College of Law in 1931. He helped secure the Minnesota delegation's support for Dwight D<mask> at the 1952 Republican National Convention. After <mask> won the 1952 presidential election, he appointed <mask> to the position of Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Civil Division. In 1956, <mask> appointed <mask> to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. <mask> served on this court until 1969 and became known as a critic of the Warren Court. In 1969, President Richard Nixon nominated <mask> to succeed Chief <mask>, and <mask> won Senate confirmation with little opposition.He did not emerge as a strong intellectual force on the Court, but sought to improve the administration of the federal judiciary. He also helped establish the National Center for State Courts and the Supreme Court Historical Society. <mask> remained on the Court until his retirement in 1986, when he became Chairman of the Commission on the Bicentennial of the United States Constitution. He was succeeded as chief justice by William H. Rehnquist, who had served as an associate justice since 1972. In 1974, <mask> wrote for a unanimous court in United States v. Nixon, which rejected Nixon's invocation of executive privilege in the wake of the Watergate scandal. The ruling played a major role in Nixon's resignation. <mask> joined the majority in Roe v. Wade in holding that the right to privacy prohibited states from banning abortions.He later abandoned  Roe v. Wade in Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. His majority opinion in INS v. Chadha struck down the one-house legislative veto. Although <mask> was perceived as a conservative, and the Burger Court delivered some conservative decisions, the Burger Court also delivered some liberal decisions regarding abortion,

masks:
Warren Earl Burger
Burger
. Eisenhower
Eisenhower
Burger
Eisenhower
Burger
Burger
Burger
Justice Earl Warren
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger


title: Warren E. Burger

texts:
 capital punishment, religious establishment, and school desegregation during his tenure. Early years

<mask> <mask> was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1907, as one of seven children. His parents, Katharine (née Schnittger) and Charles Joseph <mask>, a traveling salesman and railroad cargo inspector, were of Austrian German descent. He was raised Presbyterian. His grandfather, <mask>, had emigrated from Tyrol, Austria and joined the Union Army when he was 13.<mask> fought and was wounded in the Civil War, resulting in the loss of his right arm and was awarded the Medal of Honor at the age of 14. At age 16, <mask> became one of the youngest captains in the Union Army. <mask> grew up on the family farm near the edge of Saint Paul. At age 8, he stayed home from school for a year after contracting polio. He attended John A. Johnson High School, where he was president of the student council. He competed in hockey, football, track, and swimming. While in high school, he wrote articles on high school sports for local newspapers.He graduated in 1925, and received a partial scholarship to attend Princeton University, which he declined because his family's finances were not sufficient to cover the remainder of his expenses. That same year, <mask> also worked with the crew building the Robert Street Bridge, a crossing of the Mississippi River in Saint Paul that still exists. Concerned about the number of deaths on the project, he asked that a net be installed to catch anyone who fell, but was rebuffed by managers. In later years, <mask> made a point of visiting the bridge whenever he came back to town. Education and early career

<mask> enrolled in extension classes at the University of Minnesota for two years while selling insurance for Mutual Life Insurance. Afterward, he enrolled at St. Paul College of Law (which later became William Mitchell College of Law, now Mitchell Hamline School of Law), receiving his Bachelor of Laws magna cum laude in 1931. He took a job at a St. Paul law firm.In 1937, <mask> served as the eighth

masks:
Warren Earl
Burger
Burger
Joseph Burger
Joseph Burger
Joseph Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger


title: Warren E. Burger

texts:
 president of the Saint Paul Jaycees. He also taught for twelve years at William Mitchell. A spinal condition prevented <mask> from serving in the military during World War II; instead he supported the war effort at home, including service on Minnesota's emergency war labor board from 1942 to 1947. From 1948 to 1953, he served on the governor of Minnesota's interracial commission, which worked on issues related to racial desegregation. He also served as president of St. Paul's Council on Human Relations, which considered ways to improve the relationship between the city's police department and its minority residents. <mask> was a lifelong Republican. His political career began uneventfully, but he soon rose to national prominence.He supported Minnesota Governor Harold E. Stassen's unsuccessful pursuit of the Republican nomination for president in 1948. At the 1952 Republican National Convention, <mask> played a key role in Dwight D<mask>'s nomination by leading the Minnesota delegates to change their votes from Stassen to <mask> after Stassen failed to obtain 10 percent of the vote, which freed the Minnesota delegation from their pledge to support him. Assistant Attorney General

President <mask> appointed <mask> as the Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Civil Division of the Justice Department. In this role, he first argued in front of the Supreme Court. The case involved John P. Peters, a Yale University professor who worked as a consultant to the government. He had been discharged from his position on loyalty grounds. Supreme Court cases are usually argued by the Solicitor General, but he disagreed with the government's position and refused to argue the case.<mask> lost the case. Shortly after, in Dalehite v. United States, 346 U.S. 15 (1953), <mask> defended the United States against claims from the Texas City ship explosion disaster, successfully arguing that the Federal Tort Claims Act of 1947 did not allow a suit for negligence in policy making. Court of Appeals service

<mask> was nominated by

masks:
Burger
Burger
Burger
. Eisenhower
Eisenhower
Eisenhower
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger


title: Warren E. Burger

texts:
 President Dwight D<mask> on January 12, 1956, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated by Judge Harold M. Stephens. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on March 28, 1956, and received his commission on March 29, 1956. His service terminated on June 23, 1969, due to his elevation to the United States Supreme Court. Chief Justice

Nomination and confirmation

In June 1968, Chief <mask> <mask> announced his retirement, effective on the confirmation of his successor. President Lyndon Johnson nominated sitting associate justice Abe Fortas to the position, but a Senate filibuster blocked his confirmation, and Johnson withdrew the nomination.Richard Nixon was elected president in November 1968, and Johnson did not make another nomination before his term as president ended on January 20, 1969. <mask> was nominated by President Nixon to succeed <mask> on May 23, 1969. The Senate confirmed him by a 74–3 vote on June 9, 1969, and he took the judicial oath of office on June 23, 1969. Remaking the Supreme Court had been a theme in Nixon's presidential campaign, and he had pledged to appoint a strict constructionist as chief justice. <mask> had first caught Nixon's eye through a letter of support he sent to Nixon during the 1952 Fund crisis, and then again 15 years later when the magazine U.S. News and World Report reprinted a 1967 speech that <mask> had given at Ripon College. In it, <mask> compared the United States judicial system to those of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark:

Through speeches like this, <mask> became known as a critic of Chief <mask> and an advocate of a literal, strict-constructionist reading of the U.S. Constitution. Nixon's agreement with these views, being expressed by a readily confirmable, sitting federal appellate judge, led to the nomination.According to President Nixon's memoirs, he had asked <mask> in the spring of 1970 to be prepared to run for president in 1972 if the political repercussions of the Cambodia invasion were too negative for him to

masks:
. Eisenhower
Justice Earl
Warren
Burger
Earl Warren
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger
Justice Warren
Burger


title: Warren E. Burger

texts:
 endure. A few years later, <mask> was on Nixon's short list of vice presidential candidates following the resignation of Spiro Agnew in October 1973, before Gerald Ford was appointed to succeed him. Jurisprudence

The Court issued a unanimous ruling, Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971), supporting busing to reduce de facto racial segregation in schools. However, <mask> wrote the majority opinion for Milliken v. Bradley (1974), which upheld de facto school segregation across school district lines if segregationist policy was not explicitly stated by all of the districts involved. In United States v. U.S. District Court (1972), the Burger Court issued another unanimous ruling against the Nixon administration's desire to invalidate the need for a search warrant and the requirements of the Fourth Amendment in cases of domestic surveillance. Then, only two weeks later in Furman v. Georgia (1972), the Court, in a 5–4 decision, invalidated all death penalty laws then in force although <mask> dissented from that decision. In the most controversial ruling of his term, Roe v. Wade (1973), <mask> voted with the majority to recognize a broad right to privacy that prohibited states from banning abortions.However, <mask> later abandoned Roe in Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (1986). On July 24, 1974, <mask> led the Court in a unanimous decision in United States v. Nixon, arising from Nixon's attempt to keep several memos and tapes relating to the Watergate scandal private. As documented in Woodward and Armstrong's The Brethren and elsewhere, <mask>'s original feelings on the case were that Watergate was merely a political battle, and <mask> "didn't see what they did wrong". The actual final opinion was largely Brennan's work, but each justice wrote at least a rough draft of a particular section. <mask> was originally to vote in favor of Nixon but tactically changed his vote to assign the opinion to himself and to restrain the opinion's rhetoric. <mask>'s first draft of the

masks: Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger


title: Warren E. Burger

texts:
 opinion wrote that executive privilege could be invoked when it dealt with a "core function" of the presidency and that in some cases, the executive could be supreme. However, the other justices were able to convince <mask> to excise that language from the opinion: the judicial branch alone would have the power to determine whether something can be shielded under an assertion of executive privilege.<mask> joined the majority decision in Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley, which was the first special education law case decided by the Supreme Court. The Court upheld the constitutionality of Individual Education Plans, but also held that the school district did not have to provide every service necessary in order to maximize a child's potential. <mask> also emphasized the maintenance of checks and balances among the branches of government. In Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha (1983), he held for the majority that Congress could not reserve a legislative veto over executive branch actions. On issues involving criminal law and procedure, <mask> remained reliably conservative. He dissented in Solem v. Helm, which held that a life sentence for a phony check was unconstitutional. He once stated personal opposition to the death penalty in his Furman v. Georgia dissent, but defended it as constitutional.Leadership

Rather than dominating the Court, <mask> sought to improve administration both within the Court and within the nation's legal system. Criticizing some advocates as unprepared, <mask> created training venues for state and local government advocates. He also helped found the National Center for State Courts, which is now in Williamsburg, Virginia, as well as the Institute for Court Management, and National Institute of Corrections to provide professional training for judges, clerks, and prison guards. <mask> also began a tradition of annually delivering a State of the Judiciary speech to the American Bar Association, many of whose members had been alienated by the

masks: Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger Burger


title: Warren E. Burger

texts: Warren Court. However, some detractors thought his emphasis on the mechanics of the judicial system trivialized the office of chief justice. Despite his reputation for being imperious, he was well-liked by the law clerks and judicial fellows who worked with him. <mask> drew internal controversy within the Supreme Court throughout his tenure, as was revealed in Woodward and Armstrong's The Brethren.Although Sen. <mask> noted <mask> "looked, sounded, and acted like a chief justice," the reporters depicted <mask> as an ineffective chief justice who was not seriously respected by his colleagues for his alleged pomposity and lack of legal acumen. Woodward and Armstrong's sources indicated that some of the other justices were annoyed by <mask>'s practice of switching his vote in conference or simply not announcing his vote so that he could control opinion assignments. "<mask> repeatedly irked his colleagues by changing his vote to remain in the majority, and by rewarding his friends with choice assignments and punishing his foes with dreary ones." <mask> would also try to influence the course of events in a case by circulating a pre-emptive opinion. Clerks mocked him for his perceived egotism and intense homophobia, and Justice Lewis Powell allegedly referred to him as "the great white doughnut", a attack on both his intellect and physical appearance. Consequently, the Burger Court was described as his "in name only". Time magazine called him "plodding" and "standoffish" as well as "pompous," "aloof," and unpopular.<mask> was a constant irritant on the Court's group dynamic, according to The New York Times''' Linda Greenhouse. Jeffrey Toobin wrote in his book The Nine that by the time of his departure in 1986, <mask> had alienated all of his colleagues to one degree or another. In particular, Associate Justice Potter Stewart, who had been considered a candidate to succeed <mask> as chief justice, was so discontented with <mask> that he became the primary source for Woodward and Armstrong when they wrote The Brethren.

masks:
Burger
Everett Dirksen
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger
Burger
Warren
Burger


title: Warren E. Burger

texts:
 Greenhouse pointed to INS v. Chadha as evidence of <mask>'s "foundering leadership". <mask> would cause the case to be delayed for over twenty months although there had been five votes to affirm the appeals court's finding of unconstitutionality after the case had been first argued: Brennan, Marshall, Blackmun, Powell, and Stevens. <mask> did not allow an opinion to be assigned, first by asking for a special conference on the case and then by delaying the case for reargument when that conference fell through even though he never held a formal vote on holding the case over for reargument. Views on homosexuality
<mask> was deeply prejudiced against gays to an extent which bordered on hysteria.<mask> sent Byron White, who wrote the majority opinion in Bowers v. Hardwick upholding laws banning homosexual relations between consenting adults, a letter telling him to condemn homosexuality in his opinion. White refused. When Lewis Powell voted to strike down the anti-gay laws, <mask> aggressively lobbied him to change his mind, and sent him a letter so hostile towards homosexuals that Powell mockingly described it as "nonsense". <mask> wrote his own opinion attacking homosexuality, quoting a description of it as "an infamous crime against nature, of deeper malignity than rape, and an act not fit to be named, the very mention of which is an affront to human nature", and noted, with apparent approval, that homosexuals were once executed. <mask>'s language mobilized gay rights advocates to work to overturn sodomy laws, eventually succeeding in the 2003 case Lawrence v. Texas. Later life

<mask> left office on September 26, 1986, in part to lead the campaign to mark the bicentennial of the United States Constitution. He was succeeded as chief justice by William Rehnquist.He served longer than any other chief justice appointed in the 20th century. In 1987, Princeton University's American Whig-Cliosophic Society awarded <mask> the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service. In 1988, he was awarded the prestigious United


title: Warren E. Burger

texts:
 States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award as well as the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In a 1991 appearance on the MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, <mask> stated that the notion that the Second Amendment guaranteed an unlimited individual right to obtain guns "has been the subject of one of the greatest pieces of fraud, I repeat the word 'fraud,' on the American public by special interest groups". <mask> died on June 25, 1995, from congestive heart failure at the age of 87, at Sibley Memorial hospital in Washington, D.C. All of his papers were donated to the College of William and Mary, where he had served as Chancellor; however, they will not be open to the public until ten years after the death of Sandra Day O'Connor, the last surviving member of the Burger Court, per the donor agreement. <mask>'s casket lay in repose in the Great Hall of the United States Supreme Court Building. His remains are interred at Arlington National Cemetery.Legacy

As chief justice, <mask> was instrumental in founding the Supreme Court Historical Society and was its first president. <mask> is often cited as one of the foundational proponents of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), particularly in its ability to ameliorate an overloaded justice system. In a speech given in front of the American Bar Association, Chief <mask> lamented the state of the justice system in 1984, saying, "Our system is too costly, too painful, too destructive, too inefficient for a truly civilized people. To rely on the adversary process as the principal means of resolving conflicting claims is a mistake that must be corrected." The Warren E. Burger Federal Courthouse in Saint Paul, Minnesota, and the Warren E. Burger Library at his alma mater, the Mitchell Hamline School of Law (formerly the William Mitchell College of Law, and the St. Paul College of Law at the time of <mask>'s attendance) are named in his honor. Family and personal life

He married <mask> Stromberg in 1933. They had two children, Wade Allen <mask> (1936–2002) and <mask> <mask>

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Burger


title: Warren E. Burger

texts:
 (1946–2017).<mask> <mask> died at their home in Washington, D.C., on May 30, 1994, at the age of 86. See also
 Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States
 List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
 List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition
 List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)
 List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office
 United States Supreme Court cases during the Burger Court

References

Sources
 Barker, Lucius J. Black Americans and the Burger Court: Implications for the Political System, 1973 Wash. U. L. Q. 747 (1973). Greenhouse, Linda. Nixon Appointee Eased Supreme Court Away from Liberal Era, The New York Times, June 26, 1995. Schwartz, Bernard.A History of the Supreme Court Oxford University Press . Schwartz, Bernard, ed. The Burger Court: Counter-Revolution or Confirmation? Oxford University Press, 1998 . Further reading

 Graetz, Michael J., and Linda Greenhouse, eds. The Burger Court and the Rise of the Judicial Right'' (Simon & Schuster, 2016). xii, 468 pp.External links

 Ariens, Michael, <mask><mask>. Oyez, Supreme Court Media, <mask><mask>. <mask><mask> at Supreme Court Historical Society
 Supreme Court History, the Burger Court at Supreme Court Historical Society. 1907 births
1995 deaths
20th-century American judges
American legal scholars
American people of Swiss-German descent
American Presbyterians
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Chancellors of the College of William & Mary
Chief Justices of the United States
Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit
Minnesota lawyers
Minnesota Republicans
People from Saint Paul, Minnesota
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
United States Assistant Attorneys General for the Civil Division
United States court of appeals judges appointed by Dwight D. <mask>
United States federal judges appointed by Richard Nixon
University of Minnesota alumni
Washington, D.C. Republicans
Watergate scandal

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title: Paul Tillich

texts: <mask> (August 20, 1886 – October 22, 1965) was a German-American Christian existentialist philosopher and Lutheran Protestant theologian who is widely regarded as one of the most influential theologians of the twentieth century. Tillich taught at a number of universities in Germany before immigrating to the United States in 1933, where he taught at Union Theological Seminary, Harvard Divinity School, and the University of Chicago. Among the general public, <mask> is best known for his works The Courage to Be (1952) and Dynamics of Faith (1957), which introduced issues of theology and culture to a general readership. In academic theology, he is best known for his major three-volume work Systematic Theology (1951–63), in which he developed his "method of correlation", an approach that explores the symbols of Christian revelation as answers to the problems of human existence raised by contemporary existential analysis. Unlike mainstream interpretations of existentialism which emphasized the priority of existence over essence, <mask> considered existentialism "possible only as an element in a larger whole, as an element in a vision of the structure of being in its created goodness, and then as a description of man's existence within that framework." <mask>'s unique integration of essentialism and existentialism, as well as his sustained engagement with ontology in the Systematic Theology and other works, has attracted scholarship from a variety of influential thinkers including Karl Barth, Reinhold Niebuhr, H. Richard Niebuhr, George Lindbeck, Erich Przywara, Langdon Gilkey, James Luther Adams, Avery Cardinal Dulles, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Sallie

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title: Paul Tillich

texts:
 McFague, Richard John Neuhaus, David Novak, John D. Caputo, Thomas Merton, Robert W. Jenson, Thomas F. O'Meara, and Martin Luther King Jr. According to H. Richard Niebuhr,  reading of Systematic Theology can be a great voyage of discovery into a rich and deep, and inclusive and yet elaborated, vision and understanding of human life in the presence of the mystery of God."John Herman Randall Jr. lauded the Systematic Theology as "beyond doubt the richest, most suggestive, and most challenging philosophical theology our day has produced." In addition to <mask>'s work in theology, he also authored many works in ethics, the philosophy of history, and comparative religion. <mask>'s work continues to be studied and discussed around the world, and the North American Paul Tillich Society, Deutsche Paul-Tillich-Gesellschaft, and l'Association Paul Tillich d'expression française regularly host international conferences and seminars on his thought and its possibilities. Biography
<mask> was born on August 20, 1886, in the small village of Starzeddel (Starosiedle), Province of Brandenburg, which was then part of Germany. He was the oldest of three children, with two sisters: Johanna (born 1888, died 1920) and Elisabeth (born 1893). <mask>'s Prussian father <mask> was a conservative Lutheran pastor of the Evangelical State Church of Prussia's older Provinces; his mother Mathilde Dürselen was from the Rhineland and more liberal. When Tillich was four, his father became  superintendent of a diocese in Bad Schönfliess (now Trzcińsko-Zdrój, Poland), a town of three thousand, where Tillich began primary school (Elementarschule).In 1898, <mask> was sent to

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title: Paul Tillich

texts: Königsberg in der Neumark (now Chojna, Poland) to begin his gymnasium schooling. He was billeted in a boarding house and experienced a loneliness that he sought to overcome by reading the Bible while encountering humanistic ideas at school. In 1900, <mask>'s father was transferred to Berlin, resulting in <mask>'s switching in 1901 to a Berlin school, from which he graduated in 1904. Before his graduation, however, his mother died of cancer in September 1903, when <mask> was 17. <mask> attended several universities — the University of Berlin beginning in 1904, the University of Tübingen in 1905, and the University of Halle-Wittenberg from 1905 to 1907. He received his Doctor of Philosophy degree at the University of Breslau in 1911 and his Licentiate of Theology degree at Halle-Wittenberg in 1912. His PhD dissertation at Breslau was The Conception of the History of Religion in Schelling's Positive Philosophy: Its Presuppositions and Principles.During his time at university, he became a member of the Wingolf Christian fraternity in Berlin, Tübingen and Halle. That same year, 1912, <mask> was ordained as a Lutheran minister in the Province of Brandenburg. On 28 September 1914 he married Margarethe ("Grethi") Wever (1888–1968), and in October he joined the Imperial German Army as a chaplain during World War I.  Grethi deserted Tillich in 1919 after an affair that produced a child not fathered by Tillich; the two then divorced. During the war, <mask> served as a chaplain in the trenches, burying his closest friend and numerous soldiers in the mud of France. He was hospitalized three times for combat trauma, and was awarded the Iron Cross for bravery

masks: Tillich Tillich Tillich Tillich Tillich Tillich


title: Paul Tillich

texts: under fire. He came home from the war shattered. <mask>'s academic career began after the war; he became a Privatdozent of Theology at the University of Berlin, a post he held from 1919 to 1924.On his return from the war he had met Hannah Werner-Gottschow, then married and pregnant. In March 1924 they married; it was the second marriage for both. She later wrote a book entitled From Time to Time about their life together, which included their commitment to open marriage, upsetting to some; despite this, they remained together into old age. From 1924 to 1925, <mask> served as a Professor of Theology at the University of Marburg, where he began to develop his systematic theology, teaching a course on it during the last of his three terms. While at Marburg, <mask> met and developed a relationship with Martin Heidegger. From 1925 until 1929, <mask> was a Professor of Theology at the Dresden University of Technology and the University of Leipzig. He held the same post at the University of Frankfurt from 1929 to 1933.<mask> was in conversation with Erich Przywara. While at the University of Frankfurt, <mask> traveled throughout Germany giving public lectures and speeches  that brought him into conflict with the Nazi movement. When Adolf Hitler became German Chancellor in 1933, <mask> was dismissed from his position. Reinhold Niebuhr visited Germany in the summer of 1933 and, already impressed with <mask>'s writings, contacted Tillich upon learning of his dismissal. Niebuhr urged Tillich to join the faculty at New York City's Union Theological Seminary; Tillich accepted. At the age of 47, <mask> moved with his family to the United States. This meant

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title: Paul Tillich

texts: learning English, the language in which he would eventually publish works such as the Systematic Theology.From 1933 until 1955 he taught at Union Theological Seminary in New York, where he began as a Visiting Professor of Philosophy of Religion. During 1933–34 he was also a Visiting Lecturer in Philosophy at Columbia University. <mask> acquired tenure at the Union Theological Seminary in 1937, and in 1940 he was promoted to Professor of Philosophical Theology and became an American citizen. At Union, <mask> earned his reputation, publishing a series of books that outlined his particular synthesis of Protestant Christian theology and existential philosophy. He published On the Boundary in 1936; The Protestant Era, a collection of his essays, in 1948; and The Shaking of the Foundations, the first of three volumes of his sermons, also in 1948. His collections of sermons gave him a broader audience than he had yet experienced. <mask>'s most heralded achievements, though, were the 1951 publication of volume one of the Systematic Theology (University of Chicago Press), and the 1952 publication of The Courage to Be (Yale University Press).The first volume of the systematic theology examines the inner tensions in the structure of reason and being, primarily through a study in ontology. These tensions, Tillich contends, show that the quest for revelation is implied in finite reason, and that the quest for the ground of being is implied in finite being. The publication of Systematic Theology, Vol. 1 brought Tillich international academic acclaim, prompting an invitation to give the prestigious Gifford Lectures in 1953–54 at the University of Aberdeen. The

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title: Paul Tillich

texts: Courage to Be, which examines ontic, moral, and spiritual anxieties across history and in modernity, was based on <mask>'s 1950 Dwight H. Terry Lectureship and reached a wide general readership. These works led to an appointment at Harvard Divinity School in 1955, where he was University Professor, among the five highest ranking professors at Harvard. He was primarily a professor of undergraduates, because Harvard did not have a department of religion for them, but was thereby more exposed to the wider university and "most fully embodied the ideal of a University Professor."In 1959, <mask> was featured on the cover of Time magazine. In 1961, <mask> became one of the founding members of the Society for the Arts, Religion and Contemporary Culture, an organization with which he maintained ties for the remainder of his life. During this period, he published volume two of the Systematic Theology, as well as the popular book Dynamics of Faith, both in 1957. <mask>'s career at Harvard lasted until 1962, when he was appointed John Nuveen Professor of Theology at the University of Chicago. He remained at Chicago until his death in 1965. Volume three of <mask>'s Systematic Theology was published in 1963. In 1964, <mask> became the first theologian to be honored in Kegley and Bretall's Library of Living Theology: "The adjective 'great,' in our opinion, can be applied to very few thinkers of our time, but <mask>, we are far from alone in believing, stands unquestionably amongst these few."A widely quoted critical assessment of his importance was Georgia Harkness' comment: "What Whitehead was to American philosophy, Tillich has been to American theology."

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title: Paul Tillich

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 <mask> died on October 22, 1965, ten days after having a heart attack. In 1966, his ashes were interred in the <mask> Tillich Park in New Harmony, Indiana. His gravestone inscription reads: "And he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, that bringeth forth his fruit for his season, his leaf also shall not wither. And whatsoever he doeth shall prosper." (Psalm 1:3)

Philosophy and theology

Being
<mask> used the concept of being (Sein) throughout his philosophical and theological work. Some of his work engaged with the fundamental ontology of Martin Heidegger.<mask>'s preliminary analysis of being ascends from the human subject's asking of the ontological question ("What is being itself? "), upwards to the highest categories of metaphysics. He distinguishes among four levels of ontological analysis: self-world;  dynamics and form, freedom and destiny, and individualization and participation;  essential being and existential being; and time, space, causality, and substance. Being plays a key role throughout Tillich's Systematic Theology. In the opening to the second volume, <mask> writes:

God as the ground of being

Throughout most of his work <mask> provides an ontological view of God as being-itself, the ground of being, and the power of being, one in which God is beyond essence and existence. He was critical of conceptions of God as a being (e.g., the highest being), as well as of pantheistic conceptions of God as universal essence. Traditional medieval philosophical theology in the work of figures such as St. Anselm, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham tended to understand God as the highest existing being, to which predicates such

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title: Paul Tillich

texts: as omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence, goodness, righteousness, holiness, etc.may be ascribed. Arguments for and against the existence of God presuppose such an understanding of God. <mask> is critical of this mode of discourse, which he refers to as "theological theism," and argues that if God is a being, even if the highest being, God cannot be properly called the source of all being. With respect to both God's existence and essence, moreover, Tillich shows how difficulties beset Thomas Aquinas' attempt to "maintain the truth that God is beyond essence and existence while simultaneously arguing for the existence of God." Though <mask> is critical of propositional arguments for the existence of God as found in natural theology, as he considers them objectifying of God, he nonetheless affirms the reality of God as the ground of being. A similar line of thought is found in the work of Eric Voegelin. <mask>'s concept of God can be drawn out from his analysis of being.In <mask>'s analysis of being, all of being experiences the threat of nonbeing. Yet, following Heidegger, <mask> claims that it is human beings alone who can raise the question of being and therefore of being-itself. This is because, he contends, human beings' "infinite self-transcendence is an expression of [their] belonging to that which is beyond nonbeing, namely, to being-itself ... Being-itself manifests itself to finite being in the infinite drive of the finite beyond itself." <mask> addresses questions both ontological and personalist concerning God. One issue deals with whether and in what way personal language about the nature of God and humanity's relationship to God is


title: Paul Tillich

texts: appropriate. In distinction to "theological theism", <mask> refers to another kind of theism as that of the "divine-human encounter". Such is the theism of the encounter with the "Wholly Other" ("Das ganz Andere"), as in the work of Karl Barth and Rudolf Otto.It implies a personalism with regard to God's self-revelation. Tillich is quite clear that this is both appropriate and necessary, as it is the basis of the personalism of biblical religion altogether and of the concept of the "Word of God", but can become falsified if the theologian tries to turn such encounters with God as the Wholly Other into an understanding of God as a being. In other words, God is both personal and transpersonal. <mask>'s ontological view of God has precedent in Christian theology. In addition to affinities with the concept of God as being-itself in classical theism, it shares similarities with Hellenistic and Patristic conceptions of God as the "unoriginate source" (agennetos) of all being. This view was espoused in particular by Origen, one of a number of early theologians whose thought influenced Tillich's. Their views in turn had pre-Christian precedents in middle Platonism.Aside from classical and Christian influences in <mask>'s concept of God, there is a dynamism in <mask>'s notion of "the living God," reflecting some influence from Spinoza. Tillich combines his ontological conception of God with a largely existential and phenomenological understanding of faith in God, remarking that God is "the answer to the question implied in man's finitude ... the name for that which concerns man ultimately." This is notably manifest in his understanding of faith as ultimate

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title: Paul Tillich

texts:
 concern. Following his existential analysis, <mask> further argues that theological theism is not only logically problematic, but is unable to speak into the situation of radical doubt and despair about meaning in life. This issue, he said, was of primary concern in the modern age, as opposed to anxiety about fate, guilt, death and condemnation. This is because the state of finitude entails by necessity anxiety, and that it is our finitude as human beings, our being a mixture of being and nonbeing, that is at the ultimate basis of anxiety. If God is not the ground of being, then God cannot provide an answer to the question of finitude; God would also be finite in some sense.The term "God Above God," then, means to indicate the God who appears, who is the ground of being, when the "God" of theological theism has disappeared in the anxiety of doubt. While on the one hand this God goes beyond the God of theism as usually defined, it finds expression in many religious symbols of the Christian faith, particularly that of the crucified Christ. The possibility thus exists, says Tillich, that religious symbols may be recovered which would otherwise have been rendered ineffective by contemporary society. <mask> argues that the God of theological theism is at the root of much revolt against theism and religious faith in the modern period. <mask> states, sympathetically, that the God of theological theism

Another reason <mask> criticized theological theism was because it placed God into the subject-object dichotomy. The subject-object dichotomy is the basic distinction made in epistemology. Epistemologically, God cannot be made into an object, that is, an


title: Paul Tillich

texts: object of the knowing subject.<mask> deals with this question under the rubric of the relationality of God. The question is "whether there are external relations between God and the creature". Traditionally Christian theology has always understood the doctrine of creation to mean precisely this external relationality between God, the Creator, and the creature as separate and not identical realities. <mask> reminds us of the point, which can be found in Luther, that "there is no place to which man can withdraw from the divine thou, because it includes the ego and is nearer to the ego than the ego to itself". Tillich goes further to say that the desire to draw God into the subject–object dichotomy is an "insult" to the divine holiness. Similarly, if God were made into the subject rather than the object of knowledge (The Ultimate Subject), then the rest of existing entities then become subjected to the absolute knowledge and scrutiny of God, and the human being is "reified," or made into a mere object. It would deprive the person of his or her own subjectivity and creativity.According to Tillich, theological theism has provoked the rebellions found in atheism and Existentialism, although other social factors such as the industrial revolution have also contributed to the "reification" of the human being. The modern man could no longer tolerate the idea of being an "object" completely subjected to the absolute knowledge of God. <mask> argued, as mentioned, that theological theism is "bad theology". Alternatively, <mask> presents the above-mentioned ontological view of God as Being-Itself, Ground of Being, Power of Being, and occasionally as Abyss or


title: Paul Tillich

texts:
 God's "Abysmal Being". What makes <mask>'s ontological view of God different from theological theism is that it transcends it by being the foundation or ultimate reality that "precedes" all beings. Just as Being for Heidegger is ontologically prior to conception, <mask> views God to be beyond being. God is not a supernatural entity among other entities.Instead, God is the inexhaustible ground which empowers the existence of beings. We cannot perceive God as an object which is related to a subject because God precedes the subject–object dichotomy. Thus <mask> dismisses a literalistic Biblicism. Instead of rejecting the notion of personal God, however, <mask> sees it as a symbol that points directly to the Ground of Being. Since the Ground of Being ontologically precedes reason, it cannot be comprehended since comprehension presupposes the subject–object dichotomy. <mask> disagreed with any literal philosophical and religious statements that can be made about God. Such literal statements attempt to define God and lead not only to anthropomorphism but also to a philosophical mistake that Immanuel Kant warned against, that setting limits against the transcendent inevitably leads to contradictions.Any statements about God are simply symbolic, but these symbols are sacred in the sense that they function to participate or point to the Ground of Being. <mask> also further elaborated the thesis of the God above the God of theism in his Systematic Theology. Method of correlation
The key to understanding <mask>'s theology is what he calls the "method of correlation." It is an approach that correlates insights from Christian revelation with the issues raised


title: Paul Tillich

texts:
 by existential, psychological, and philosophical analyses. <mask> states in the introduction to the Systematic Theology:

For Tillich, the existential questions of human existence are associated with the field of philosophy and, more specifically, ontology (the study of being). This is because, according to Tillich, a lifelong pursuit of philosophy reveals that the central question of every philosophical inquiry always comes back to the question of being, or what it means to be, and, consequently, what it means to be a finite human being within being. To be correlated with existential questions are theological answers, themselves derived from Christian revelation.The task of the philosopher primarily involves developing the questions, whereas the task of the theologian primarily involves developing the answers to these questions. However, it should be remembered that the two tasks overlap and include one another: the theologian must be somewhat of a philosopher and vice versa, for <mask>'s notion of faith as "ultimate concern" necessitates that the theological answer be correlated with, compatible with, and in response to the general ontological question which must be developed independently from the answers. Thus, on one side of the correlation lies an ontological analysis of the human situation, whereas on the other is a presentation of the Christian message as a response to this existential dilemma. For Tillich, no formulation of the question can contradict the theological answer. This is because the Christian message claims, a priori, that the logos "who became flesh" is also the universal logos of the Greeks. In addition to the intimate

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texts: relationship between philosophy and theology, another important aspect of the method of correlation is Tillich's distinction between form and content in the theological answers. While the nature of revelation determines the actual content of the theological answers, the character of the questions determines the form of these answers.This is because, for Tillich, theology must be an answering theology, or apologetic theology. God is called the "ground of being" in part because God is the answer to the ontological threat of non-being, and this characterization of the theological answer in philosophical terms means that the answer has been conditioned (insofar as its form is considered) by the question. Throughout the Systematic Theology, <mask> is careful to maintain this distinction between form and content without allowing one to be inadvertently conditioned by the other. Many criticisms of <mask>'s methodology revolve around this issue of whether the integrity of the Christian message is really maintained when its form is conditioned by philosophy. The theological answer is also determined by the sources of theology, our experience, and the norm of theology. Though the form of the theological answers are determined by the character of the question, these answers (which "are contained in the revelatory events on which Christianity is based") are also "taken by systematic theology from the sources, through the medium, under the norm." There are three main sources of systematic theology: the Bible, Church history, and the history of religion and culture.Experience is not a source but a medium through which the sources speak. And the norm of theology