title: Cesar Picton

texts:
<mask> (c. 1755 – 1836) was presumably enslaved in Africa by the time he was about six years old. He was bought and brought to England by an English army officer who had been in Senegal, and in 1761 was "presented" as a servant to Sir John Philipps, who lived at Norbiton Place, near Kingston upon Thames in Surrey. <mask> later became a wealthy coal merchant in Kingston. Slave to servant
Sir John Philipps was a British Baronet and Member of Parliament. His journal for November 1761 recorded the arrival of <mask> in his household, along with the gift of "a parakeet and a foreign duck". He was soon baptised by the Philippses, who were supporters of missionary work – although it is quite likely that he had been born into an Islamic family. Initially rigged out as an exotic page-boy, with a velvet turban (cost 10 shillings and sixpence) in the rococo fashion of the day, he became a favourite of the family, especially Lady Philipps.When <mask> was about 33, Horace Walpole wrote in a letter of 1788: "I was in Kingston with the sisters of Lord Milford [Sir John's son]; they have a favourite black, who has been with them a great many years and is remarkably sensible", "sensible" at this period meaning "possessing sensibility". He had clearly achieved an unusual status in the household. <mask> took his surname from Picton Castle, Pembrokeshire, the Philipps's country estate in Wales, which was then a significant site for mining coal. The legal status of slaves imported into England was ambiguous when <mask> arrived, but they were certainly not regarded or treated in the same way as slaves in the British

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title: Cesar Picton

type: original

texts:
 American colonies. The situation was clarified considerably by Somersett's Case of 1772 (when <mask> was in his late teens), which ruled that no person could be a slave in England itself. By the time of Somersett's case, most black servants seem already to have been regarded and treated as free, at least by the time they reached adulthood. Tradesman to gentleman
Following the deaths of Sir John in 1764, and his wife in 1788, and the sale of Norbiton Place by their son, <mask> used a legacy of £100 from Lady Phillipps to set up in business as a coal merchant in nearby Kingston.The move from servant to tradesman was a common one; <mask> was presumably well-known to the owners and upper servants of the many large houses in the area after nearly thirty years at Norbiton. The three unmarried Phillipps daughters had moved to nearby Hampton Court on the sale of the house, and since they all later left him legacies (in total by 1820, £250 and £30 a year), they may well have encouraged their friends to buy coal from him. In the phrase of the day, he had "connections". In addition, it is probably no coincidence that the Phillipps' estate at Picton was a centre of coal mining; he may well have sourced his supplies from them, to mutual advantage, and perhaps had already been involved in managing their affairs. His original premises at 52 High Street, Kingston Upon Thames backs onto the River Thames. <mask> lived here for the first years of his business, initially renting, but in 1795 buying it and other property including a wharf onto the Thames for unloading the coal, and a malthouse. In 1801 <mask> was

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title: Cesar Picton

texts:
 convicted for poaching with an unlicensed gun and fined five pounds.The fine was relatively trivial for <mask> and someone of lower social status may have faced execution or transportation to Australia for the same offence. <mask> appealed the decision using the services of a London attorney, who challenged the conviction on the grounds that the magistrate's record of the year of the offence was incorrectly recorded. The King's Bench held that this was "surplusage" and not material to the validity of the case, so the conviction was upheld. <mask>'s race was not mentioned in either the judgement or the report of the appeal that appeared in The Morning Post. In 1807 <mask> let his Kingston properties and moved to a rented house in Tolworth, perhaps marking his retirement aged 52 from active trade. He was by then described in deeds as a "gentleman" and by 1816 he bought a house with a large garden in Thames Ditton for an above-average £4,000. He died in 1836 at the age of 81 and is buried in All Saints Church, Kingston upon Thames.He was evidently a very large man as a four-wheeled trolley was needed for the coffin. Legacy
<mask> was successful in business and became rich. While this was in contrast to the majority of black people in Britain at the time, some did achieve status and prosperity, for example the writer and abolitionist Olaudah Equiano and the Mayfair shopkeeper Ignatius Sancho. Other successful black businessmen worked as publicans and lodging-house keepers, providing some evidence of black upward social mobility. <mask> left a portrait of himself in his will (along with several other

masks: Picton Picton Picton Picton Picton Picton


title: Cesar Picton

texts:
 paintings), but its whereabouts is not known. It emerged in 2007 that the portrait of <mask> depicted in a mural of Kingston's history, commissioned by the Council, was actually of either Olaudah Equiano or Ignatius Sancho. He is not known to have married, and all his bequests were to friends, including 16 mourning rings.Although <mask> lived through the main period of the British abolitionist movement, no involvement by him is known. Both his former homes, in Kingston High Street and in Thames Ditton, have Grade II listed status and display  commemorative plaques. Both are known as Picton House, although the Kingston building was called Amari House between 1981 and 1985 when it was headquarters of Amari Plastics Ltd. A meeting and reception room, the <mask> Room, at Kingston University is named in his honour. <mask> is a character in the children's novel Jupiter Williams by S.I. Martin, set in 1800. During <mask>'s time in Kingston, the area also gave rise to a significant legal case related to slavery in R[ex] v Inhabitants of Thames Ditton of 1785, where Lord Mansfield (previously the judge in Somersett's Case) held that Charlotte Howe, a former slave, was not entitled to pay for her previous work, in the absence of a specific contract. See also
List of slaves
Black British people, 17th and 18th centuries

Notes

External links

Jane Austen's World feature on Picton

1755 births
1836 deaths
People from Kingston upon Thames
Burials at All Saints Church, Kingston upon Thames
English merchants
Black British former slaves
Senegalese emigrants to the United Kingdom
18th-century slaves
18th-century


title: Louis Kahn

texts:
<mask> (born Itze-Leib Schmuilowsky;  – March 17, 1974) was an Estonian-born American architect based in Philadelphia. After working in various capacities for several firms in Philadelphia, he founded his own atelier in 1935. While continuing his private practice, he served as a design critic and professor of architecture at Yale School of Architecture from 1947 to 1957. From 1957 until his death, he was a professor of architecture at the School of Design at the University of Pennsylvania. <mask> created a style that was monumental and monolithic; his heavy buildings for the most part do not hide their weight, their materials, or the way they are assembled. He was awarded the AIA Gold Medal and the RIBA Gold Medal. At the time of his death he was considered by some as "America's foremost living architect."Biography

Early life

<mask>, whose original name was Itze-Leib (Leiser-Itze) Schmuilowsky (Schmalowski), was born into a poor Jewish family, at that time in the Russian Empire, but now in Estonia. His exact birthplace is disputed, but it is widely regarded to be Kuressaare, Saaremaa, although some sources mention Pärnu. He spent his early childhood in Kuressaare on the island of Saaremaa, then part of the Russian Empire's Livonian Governorate. At the age of three, he saw coals in the stove and was captivated by the light of the coal. He put the coal in his apron, which caught on fire and burned his face. He carried these scars for the rest of his life. In 1906, his family emigrated to the United States, as they feared that his father would be recalled into the military during the Russo-Japanese War.His birth year may have been inaccurately recorded in the process of immigration. According to his son's 2003

masks:
Louis Isadore Kahn
Kahn
Louis Kahn


title: Louis Kahn

texts:
 documentary film, the family could not afford pencils. They made their own charcoal sticks from burnt twigs so that <mask> could earn a little money from drawings. Later he earned money by playing piano to accompany silent movies in theaters. He became a naturalized citizen of the U.S. on May 15, 1914. His father changed their name to <mask> in 1915. Education
<mask> excelled in art from a young age, repeatedly winning the annual award for the best watercolor by a Philadelphia high school student.He was an unenthusiastic and undistinguished student at Philadelphia Central High School until he took a course in architecture in his senior year, which convinced him to become an architect. He turned down an offer to go to the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts to study art under a full scholarship, instead working at a variety of jobs to pay his own tuition for a degree in architecture at the University of Pennsylvania School of Fine Arts. There, he studied under Paul Philippe Cret in a version of the Beaux-Arts tradition, one that discouraged excessive ornamentation. Career
After completing his Bachelor of Architecture in 1924, <mask> worked as senior draftsman in the office of the city architect, John Molitor. He worked on the designs for the 1926 Sesquicentennial Exposition. In 1928, <mask> made a European tour. He was interested particularly in the medieval walled city of Carcassonne, France, and the castles of Scotland, rather than any of the strongholds of classicism or modernism.After returning to the United States in 1929, <mask> worked in the offices of Paul Philippe Cret, his former studio critic at the University of Pennsylvania, and then with Zantzinger, Borie and Medary in Philadelphia. In 1932, <mask>

masks: Louis Kahn Kahn Kahn Kahn Kahn Kahn


title: Louis Kahn

texts: and Dominique Berninger founded the Architectural Research Group, whose members were interested in the populist social agenda and new aesthetics of the European avant-gardes. Among the projects <mask> worked on during this collaboration are schemes for public housing that he had presented to the Public Works Administration, which supported some similar projects during the Great Depression. They remained unbuilt. Among the more important of <mask>'s early collaborations was one with George Howe. <mask> worked with Howe in the late 1930s on projects for the Philadelphia Housing Authority and again in 1940, along with German-born architect Oscar Stonorov, for the design of housing developments in other parts of Pennsylvania. A formal architectural office partnership between <mask> and Oscar Stonorov began in February 1942 and ended in March 1947, which produced fifty-four documented projects and buildings.<mask> did not arrive at his distinctive architectural style until he was in his fifties. Initially working in a fairly orthodox version of the International Style, he was strongly influenced by a stay as architect-in-residence at the American Academy in Rome during 1950, which marked a turning point in his career. After visiting the ruins of ancient buildings in Italy, Greece, and Egypt, he adopted a back-to-the-basics approach. He developed his own style, as influenced by earlier modern movements, but not limited by their sometimes-dogmatic ideologies. In the 1950s and 1960s, as a consultant architect for the Philadelphia City Planning Commission, <mask> developed several plans for the center of Philadelphia that were never executed. In 1961 he received a grant from the Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in

masks: Kahn Kahn Kahn Kahn Kahn Kahn


title: Louis Kahn

texts:
 the Fine Arts to study traffic movement in Philadelphia and to create a proposal for a viaduct system. He described this proposal at a lecture given in 1962 at the International Design Conference in Aspen, Colorado:

In the center of town the streets should become buildings.This should be interplayed with a sense of movement which does not tax local streets for non-local traffic. There should be a system of viaducts which encase an area which can reclaim the local streets for their own use, and it should be made so this viaduct has a ground floor of shops and usable area. A model which I did for the Graham Foundation recently, and which I presented to Mr. Entenza, showed the scheme. <mask>'s teaching career began at Yale University in 1947. He eventually was named as the Albert F. Bemis Professor of Architecture and Planning at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1956. <mask> then returned to Philadelphia to teach at the University of Pennsylvania from 1957 until his death, becoming the Paul Philippe Cret Professor of Architecture. He also was a visiting lecturer at Princeton University School of Architecture from 1961 to 1967.Awards and honors
<mask> was elected a Fellow in the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1953. He was made a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1964. He was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal in 1964. In 1965 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician. He was made a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968 and awarded the AIA Gold Medal, the highest award given by the AIA, in 1971, and the Royal Gold Medal by the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), in 1972. In 1971, he received the Golden Plate

masks: Kahn Kahn Kahn


title: Louis Kahn

texts:
 Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Death
In 1974, <mask> died of a heart attack in a restroom at Penn Station in Manhattan.He had just returned from a work trip to India. Owing to police miscommunications in both New York City and Philadelphia, his wife was initially not notified. Personal life
<mask> had three children with three women. With his wife Esther he had a daughter, Sue Ann. With Anne Tyng, who began her working collaboration and personal relationship with <mask> in 1945, he also had a daughter, Alexandra. When Tyng became pregnant in 1953, to mitigate the scandal, she went to Rome, for the birth of their daughter. With Harriet Pattison, he had a son, <mask>.Anne Tyng was an architect and teacher, while Harriet Pattison was a pioneering landscape architect. <mask>'s obituary in the New York Times, written by Paul Goldberger, mentions only Esther and his daughter by her as survivors. Documentary
In 2003 <mask> released a documentary about his father, titled, My Architect: A Son's Journey. The Oscar-nominated film provides views and insights into the architecture of <mask> while exploring him personally through people who knew him: family, friends, and colleagues. Designs

 Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut (1951–1953), the first significant commission of <mask>. The ceilings, which are three feet (0.9 meters) thick, consist of a grid of triangular openings that draw the eye upward into dimly-lit, three-sided pyramidal spaces. These exposed spaces provide the means for channeling the heating, cooling, and electrical services throughout the galleries.Richards Medical Research Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1957–1965), a breakthrough in

masks:
Kahn
Kahn
Kahn
Nathaniel Kahn
Kahn
Nathaniel Kahn
Kahn
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title: Louis Kahn

texts:
 <mask>'s career that helped set new directions for modern architecture with its clear expression of served and servant spaces and its evocation of the architecture of the past. The Salk Institute, La Jolla, California (1959–1965) was to be a campus composed of three main clusters: meeting and conference areas, living quarters, and laboratories. Only the laboratory cluster, consisting of two parallel blocks enclosing a water garden, was built. The two laboratory blocks frame a long view of the Pacific Ocean, accentuated by a thin linear fountain that seems to reach for the horizon. It has been named "arguably the defining work" of <mask>. First Unitarian Church, Rochester, New York (1959–1969), named as one of the greatest religious structures of the twentieth century by Paul Goldberger, the Pulitzer Prize-winning architectural critic. Tall, narrow window recesses create an irregular rhythm of shadows on the exterior while four light towers flood the sanctuary walls with indirect, natural light.Shaheed Suhrawardy Medical College and Hospital, Dhaka, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
 Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, in Ahmedabad, India (1961)
 Eleanor Donnelly Erdman Hall, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania (1960-1965), designed as a modern Scottish castle. Phillips Exeter Academy Library, Exeter, New Hampshire (1965–1972), awarded the Twenty-five Year Award by the American Institute of Architects in 1997. Its dramatic atrium features enormous circular openings into the book stacks. Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas (1967–1972), features repeated bays of cycloid-shaped barrel vaults with light slits along the apex, which bathe the artwork on display in an ever-changing diffuse light. Arts United

masks: Kahn Kahn


title: Louis Kahn

texts:
 Center, Fort Wayne, Indiana (1973), The only building realized of a ten-building Arts Campus vision, <mask>'s only theatre and building in the Midwest
 Hurva Synagogue, Jerusalem, Israel, (1968–1974), unbuilt
 Yale Center for British Art, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (1969–1974)
 Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park, Roosevelt Island, New York (1972–1974), construction completed 2012
Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (National Assembly Building) in Dhaka, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was <mask>'s last project, developed 1962 to 1974. <mask> got the design contract with the help of Muzharul Islam, one of his students at Yale University, who worked with him on the project. The Bangladeshi Parliament building is the centerpiece of the national capital complex designed by <mask>, which includes hostels, dining halls, and a hospital.According to Robert McCarter, author of <mask><mask>, "it is one of the twentieth century's greatest architectural monuments, and is without question <mask>'s magnum opus." 1976 – Point Counterpoint II, an improved concert venue for the American Wind Symphony Orchestra, is debuted posthumously
1979 – Flora Lamson Hewlett Library of the Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley, California

Legacy

<mask>'s work infused the International style with a fastidious, highly personal taste. Isamu Noguchi called him "a philosopher among architects." He was concerned with creating strong formal distinctions between served spaces and servant spaces. What he meant by servant spaces was not spaces for servants, but rather spaces that serve other spaces, such as stairwells, corridors, restrooms, or any other back-of-house function such as storage space or mechanical rooms. His palette of materials

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title: Louis Kahn

texts:
 tended toward heavily textured brick and bare concrete, the textures often reinforced by juxtaposition to highly refined surfaces such as travertine marble. <mask> argued that brick can be more than the basic building material:

If you think of Brick, you say to Brick, 'What do you want, Brick?'And Brick says to you, 'I like an Arch.' And if you say to Brick, 'Look, arches are expensive, and I can use a concrete lintel over you. What do you think of that, Brick?' Brick says, 'I like an Arch.' And it's important, you see, that you honor the material that you use. ... You can only do it if you honor the brick and glorify the brick instead of shortchanging it. <mask> worked closely with engineers and contractors on his buildings.In addition to the influence <mask>'s more well-known work has on contemporary architects (such as Muzharul Islam, Tadao Ando), some of his work (especially the unbuilt City Tower Project) became very influential among the high-tech architects of the late twentieth century (such as Renzo Piano, who worked in <mask>'s office, Richard Rogers, and Norman Foster). His prominent apprentices include Muzharul Islam, Moshe Safdie, Robert Venturi, Jack Diamond, and Charles Dagit. Many years after his death, <mask> continues to provoke controversy. Before his Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park at the southern tip of Roosevelt Island was built, a New York Times editorial opined:

There's a magic to the project. That the task is daunting makes it worthy of the man it honors, who guided the nation through the Depression, the New Deal and a world war. As for Mr. <mask>, he died in 1974, as he passed alone through New York City's Penn Station. In his briefcase were renderings of the memorial, his last


title: Louis Kahn

texts:
 completed plan.The editorial describes <mask>'s plan as:

... simple and elegant. Drawing inspiration from Roosevelt's defense of the Four Freedoms—of speech and religion, and from want and fear—he designed an open 'room and a garden' at the bottom of the island. Trees on either side form a 'V' defining a green space, and leading to a two-walled stone room at the water's edge that frames the United Nations and the rest of the skyline. A group spearheaded by William J. vanden Heuvel raised over $50 million in public and private funds between 2005 and 2012 to establish the memorial. Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park officially opened to the public on October 24, 2012. In popular culture
<mask> was the subject of the 2003 Oscar-nominated documentary film My Architect: A Son's Journey, presented by <mask>, his son. <mask>'s complicated family life inspired the "Undaunted Mettle" episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent.In the 1993 film Indecent Proposal, character David Murphy (played by Woody Harrelson), referenced <mask> during a lecture to architecture students, attributing the quote "Even a brick wants to be something" to <mask>. Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Lewis Spratlan, with collaborators Jenny Kallick and John Downey (Amherst College, class of 2003), composed the chamber opera Architect as a character study of <mask>. The premiere recording was due to be released in 2012 by Navona Records. In Showtime's Billions (Season 4, Episode 6), Taylor Mason and Wendy Rhoades meet at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park and discussed <mask>'s genius and his relationship with his estranged son. Gallery

Notes and references

Cited sources

Further reading

<mask>, <mask>. <mask>: Essential Texts, edited

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Nathaniel Kahn
Kahn
Kahn
Kahn
Kahn
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Louis
Louis Kahn


title: Louis Kahn

texts:
 by Robert Twombly. London & New York: WW Norton & Company, 2003.Mowla, Qazi Azizul 2007 <mask>’s Creation in Dhaka – Re Evaluated, Jahangirnagar Planning Review,(Journal: issn=1728-4198).Vol.5, June 2007, Dhaka, pp. 85–96. Choudhury, Bayezid Ismail 2014. PhD dissertation at the University of Sydney ‘The genesis of Jatio Sangsad Bhaban at Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka’

 Harriet Pattison: Our days are like full years : a memoir with letters from <mask>, New Haven : Yale University Press, [2020],

External links

<mask>. <mask> – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings Project
Exhibition at the University of Pennsylvania on <mask> I. Kahn Interiors
Great Buildings Online – <mask>. <mask>
Louis <mask> pool on flickr
The Works of <mask><mask>, a personal collection of photographs taken at various Kahn buildings. Honoring <mask>'s Legacy on the 100th Anniversary of His Birth
Redefining the Basemap
<mask> traffic studies
William S. Huff Photographs of the work of <mask>  from the University at Buffalo Libraries
Google Map - location of <mask>'s Buildings

Modernist architects from the United States
1901 births
1974 deaths

American ecclesiastical architects
Architecture educators
Estonian architects
Jewish architects
Modernist architects
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal
Architects from Philadelphia
Architecture of Phillips Exeter Academy
American people of Estonian-Jewish descent
Estonian emigrants to the United States
Estonian Jews
Central High School (Philadelphia) alumni
University of Pennsylvania School of Design alumni
University of Pennsylvania faculty
Yale School of Architecture faculty
People from Kuressaare
20th-century American architects
Recipients of the AIA

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Kahn
Louis Kahn
Louis I
Kahn
Louis
Louis I
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. Kahn
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Louis Kahn
Louis Kahn
Louis Kahn


title: Ali Kushayb

texts:
<mask>-Al-Rahman (), commonly known as <mask> () (also: Koship, Kosheib, Kouchib, Kosheb,  Koshib), is a senior Janjaweed commander who supported the Sudanese government against Darfur rebel groups during the Omar al-Bashir presidency. He was indicted by the International Criminal Court (ICC) for war crimes. He was known as aqid al oqada ("colonel of colonels") and was active in Wadi Salih, West Darfur. On 27 February 2007, Prosecutor Luis Moreno-Ocampo charged Kushayb with crimes against civilians in Darfur during 2003 and 2004, accusing him of ordering killings, rapes, and looting. An ICC arrest warrant was issued for him and Ahmed Haroun, his co-defendant, on 27 April 2007. In April 2008, he was released from Sudanese custody. Sudanese authorities re-arrested Kushayb in October 2008.In early 2013, <mask> was commander of the Central Reserve Forces (Abu Tira) in Rahad el-Berdi in South Darfur. Reports on his activities continued sporadically from 2013 to 2017. He was taken into custody by the International Criminal Court in June 2020. Background
<mask>'s father was a member of the Ta’isha tribe while his mother was from the Dangaoni tribe from the southern part of Sudan. <mask> was an aqid al-ogada, a colonel of colonels, for the Wadi Salih area in Darfur. He was one of the senior leaders of the tribal hierarchy in the Wadi Salih locality, and was a member of the Popular Defence Forces (PDF), as well as a commander of a government backed militia in Darfur from August 2003 until March 2004. He served as a liaison between the government and the Janjaweed, while simultaneously participating in attacks against targeted

masks:
Ali Muhammad Ali Abd
Ali Kushayb
Kushayb
Ali Kushayb
Ali Kushayb


title: Ali Kushayb

texts:
 groups.Alleged criminal activity in Darfur
The ICC charged Kushayb with 504 assassinations, 20 rapes, and the forced displacement of 41,000 people. In one of the various attacks by <mask> and the militia under his command, a survivor reported that 150 people were murdered, in which 30 children were killed, all in 90 minutes. Similarly, a woman who survived the pillaging of her village, Galania, and arrived to a refugee camp in Chad, related how one day the Janjaweed militia arrived at her town to kill civilians. Her husband was the first to be killed, and while she tried to run away she was caught by militia soldiers, and, at the command of Kushayb, was forced at knifepoint to confess she was "tora-bora," or a rebel. After she arrived in Chad, other victims told similar stories of the horrors they underwent by the militia under the command of Kushayb: sixteen women were murdered, from which six were elderly women, children were thrown into a fire, houses were burned, countless were tortured and wounded, a dozen others were killed. <mask> has been accused of personally participating in attacks against civilians in the towns of Kodoom, Bindisi, Mukjar and Arawala and surrounding areas between August 2003 and March 2004. Kushayb was reported to be working for Ahmed Haroun.Eyewitnesses have reported meetings between Kushayb and Haroun. In one instance in August 2003, for example, <mask> and Haroun supposedly met in the town of Mukluk, where Haroun provided money and arms to Kushayb for the militia. After their meeting <mask> led the militia in an attack on the town of Bindisi. The attack lasted five days, during which more than

masks:
Ali Kushayb
Kushayb
Kushayb
Kushayb


title: Ali Kushayb

texts:
 100 people were killed including 30 children. In December 2003 in the town of Arawala, a witness reported Kushayb inspecting her and other women who had been tied to a tree naked to be raped repeatedly by Janjaweed militia soldiers. According to the ICC, <mask> directly participated in the murder of 32 men in the town of Mukjar. Fifteen minutes after <mask> and his soldiers took the men from the village, gunshots were heard and 32 dead bodies were found the next day.In another attack led by Kushayb near Mukjar, a man was arrested and told what he witnessed:

"[The] men were restrained in different ways. Some of them … had been tied and suspended in the air… His arms were held wide apart and tied to a plank of wood on the ceiling, while his legs were also held wide apart and tied to objects on either side … a stove was left burning between his legs…. All the men had whip marks on their bodies and their clothes were torn and blood-stained… He had been repeatedly beaten, called "Tora Bora" and deprived of food…. Two other men … had been badly beaten and their fingernails and toenails had been forcibly removed." Other activity
In April 2013, <mask>, as commander of the Central Reserve Forces (Abu Tira) in Rahad el-Berdi in South Darfur, carried out a military attack with support from military intelligence forces after a peace treaty between the Salamat and al-Taaysha tribes had been signed. On 7 July 2013, <mask>, his bodyguards, and a tea-seller standing nearby were injured by a gunman in Nyala. Kushayb was bleeding from his shoulders and admitted to the Nyala Police Hospital with two bullet wounds in his shoulder.One of the

masks: Kushayb Kushayb Kushayb Kushayb


title: Ali Kushayb

texts:
 bodyguards died. <mask> was transferred to a hospital in Khartoum. In December 2017, <mask> was accused by leaders of the Salamat tribe of trying to kill <mask> Obeid, a cattle merchant, in Rahad el-Berdi. As of June 2019, <mask> remained a fugitive. International Criminal Court case
On 27 February 2007, Prosecutor Luis Moreno-Ocampo charged Kushayb with crimes against civilians in Darfur during 2003 and 2004, accusing him of ordering killings, rapes, and looting. An ICC arrest warrant was issued for him and Ahmed Haroun, his co-defendant, on 27 April 2007. In April 2008, he was released from Sudanese custody.In October 2008, the Sudanese authorities re-arrested Kushayb. According to local media, Kushayb had moved from Sudan to the Central African Republic in February 2020, being worried about arrest by Sudanese authorities during the 2019 Sudanese transition to democracy. <mask> surrendered himself for arrest in June 2020, appearing before the International Criminal Court on 15 June 2020. In July 2021, the judges of the International Criminal Court (ICC) confirmed the indictment of <mask>b. His trial is currently set to begin in April 2022. See also
Cases before the International Criminal Court#Darfur, Sudan

References

External links
Abd-Al-Rahman Case as recorded by the International Criminal Court
The Prosecutor v. Ahmad Muhammad Harun ("Ahmad Harun") and <mask> <mask>-Al-Rahman ("Ali Kushayb") at the International Criminal Court

Arabs in Sudan
Living people
People of the War in Darfur
Fugitives wanted by the International Criminal Court
Fugitives wanted on crimes against humanity charges
Fugitives wanted on war crimes

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Kushayb
Kushayb
Ali Osman
Kushayb
Kushayb
Ali Kushay
Ali Muhammad
Ali Abd


title: August Böckh

texts:
<mask> or Boeckh (; 24 November 1785 – 3 August 1867) was a German classical scholar and antiquarian. Life
He was born in Karlsruhe, and educated at the local gymnasium; in 1803 he left for the University of Halle, where he studied theology. F. A. Wolf was teaching there, and creating an enthusiasm for classical studies; Böckh transferred from theology to philology, and became the best of Wolf's scholars. In 1807, he established himself as Privatdozent in the University of Heidelberg and was shortly afterwards appointed professor extraordinarius, becoming professor two years later. The common misapprehension of Böckh's first name being not just August but <mask> originated in Heidelberg where staff of the university misread the abbreviation 'Dr phil' (doctor philosophiae) as 'Dr <mask>'. In 1811, he moved to the new University of Berlin, where he had been appointed professor of eloquence and classical literature. He remained there till his death.He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814, and for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches contained in his Gesammelte kleine Schriften were delivered in this latter capacity. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1853. Böckh died in Berlin in 1867. Works
Böckh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology and illustrated them by his practice. Discarding the old idea that philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words and the exercise of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire knowledge of antiquity (totius antiquitatis cognitio), historical and philosophical. He divides philology into five parts: first, an inquiry into public acts,

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August Böckh
Philipp August
Philipp August Böh


title: August Böckh

texts: with a knowledge of times and places, into civil institutions, and also into law; second, an inquiry into private affairs; third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of the ancient nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical speculations and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a complete explanation of the language.Böckh set forth these ideas in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (Gesammelte kleine Schriften, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress of German philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the historical construction of the entire life — therefore, of all forms of culture and all the productions of a people in its practical and spiritual tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great for any one person; but the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus to the pursuit of truth, and scholars strive because they have not attained. An account of Böckh's division of philology will be found in Freund's Wie studiert man Philologie?. From 1806, till his death <mask>'s literary activity was unceasing. His principal works include an edition of Pindar, the first volume of which (1811) contains the text of the Epinician odes; a treatise, De Metris Pindari, in three books; and Notae Criticae: the second (1819) contains the Scholia; and part ii. of volume ii.(1821) contains a Latin translation, a commentary, the fragments and indices. It was for a long time the most complete edition of Pindar. But it was especially the treatise on the metres which placed Böckh in the first rank of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of the subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to determine the Greek metres by mere subjective


title: August Böckh

texts:
 consist of orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his contributions to the Transactions of the Berlin Academy, and the seventh contains his critiques. <mask>'s lectures, delivered from 1809-1865, were published by Bratusehek under the title of Encyklopädie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften (1877; 2nd ed. Klussmann, 1886). His philological and scientific theories are set forth in Elze, Über Philologie als System (1845), and Reichhardt, Die Gliederung der Philologie entwickelt (1846). His correspondence with Karl Otfried Müller appeared at Leipzig in 1883. John Paul Pritchard has made an abridged translation of <mask>'s Encyclopädie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften: <mask>, On Interpretation and Criticism, University of Oklahoma Press, 1968.Works
Philolaos des Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den Bruchstücken seines Werkes (1819)

See also
<mask> Wolf

References

Citations

Sources

Frederick C. Beiser, The German Historicist Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2011. Max Hoffmann, <mask>öckh, 1901. S. Reiter, in Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum (1902), p. 436. Sachse, Erinnerungen an August Böckh, 1868. Stark, in the Verhandlungen den Würzburger Philologensammlung, 1868. External links

1785 births
1867 deaths
People from the Margraviate of Baden
German classical scholars
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
University of Halle alumni
Heidelberg University faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin

masks:
Böckh
Böckh
August Boeckh
Friedrich August
August B


title: Kostas Martakis

texts:
<mask> (; born 25 May 1984) is a Greek singer, model, television host and actor, who rose to fame after appearing on Greek talent show Dream Show aired by Alpha TV in 2006. Following his participation, he released five studio albums and also participated in the Greek national final for the Eurovision Song Contest 2008 and 2014. In 2011, he participated in the second season of Greece's Dancing with the Stars, placing second and three years later he was in the backstage host featuring Doukissa Nomikou. In 2013, he took part in the first season of Your Face Sounds Familiar. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born on 25 May 1984 in Athens, parents Nikolaos Politis and Labrini Lymberopoulou of Cretan origin. <mask> has an older sister named Tina and a younger brother Nikos. 2006–2007: Dream Show and debut album
<mask> first gained fame on the reality talent show Dream Show.Prior he had also done modelling work and played basketball in the Greek professional leagues where he won medals, as well as majoring in computer technologies at American College of Greece. Shortly after his appearance on Dream Show, he signed a contract with Sony BMG Greece and released his first CD-single in the summer of 2006 titled "Panda Mazi" (Always together). By winter 2006, <mask> was singing alongside Despina Vandi and Giorgos Mazonakis at REX night club, while in summer 2007 he starting singing with Kelly Kelekidou and Dionisis Makris at "Romeo" summer club. In June 2007, <mask> released his first studio album titled  Anatropi (Reversal). The album was generally well received, leading him to win the award for "Best New Artist" at the MAD Video Music Awards 2007. In the summer of 2007, he also took part of the international competition New Wave Festival 2007 held in Latvia, where he scored 2nd place, winning 1st place in the public vote. Shortly after, he was booked by Sony BMG Russia to release an English album in all the ex-soviet countries in 2008, although this never materialized and

masks:
Kostas Martakis
Martakis
Martakis
Martakis
Martakis
Martakis


title: Kostas Martakis

texts:
 his collaboration with the Russian branch was terminated.2008: Greece's Eurovision national final

Seeing his growing popularity, ERT asked him to compete in the Greek national final for the Eurovision Song Contest 2008. <mask> <mask> competed in the Greek National Final with a song by Dimitris Kontopoulos, with lyrics by Vicky Gerothodorou. The song was "Always and Forever". and it was recorded in two different styles. The pop rock version of the song was originally supposed to be performed at the National Final, but the dance version was chosen instead by <mask> and his label. The winning entrant was "Secret Combination" by Kalomoira, and <mask>' entry "Always and Forever" placed second. Following the Greek national final, a Russian language cover of "Always and Forever" based on the dance version with the title "С тобой навеки" (With you forever) was released in ex-soviet countries, while in December 2008, "Always & Forever" was added to American retailer Abercrombie & Fitch's nationwide US in-store music playlist, thus indirectly introducing the song to the American market.<mask> <mask> and Danish-Greek singer Shaya were chosen to record a Greek-language version of Right Here, Right Now from the soundtrack of the Disney film High School Musical 3: Senior Year. The cover was titled "Mikroi Theoi" (Little Gods) and was released as a single from the Greek edition of the film's soundtrack, as well as being made into a music video with <mask> and Shaya molded together with scenes from the film. The music video was included as a bonus feature on the Greek edition of the film's home video release. Walt Disney Records, via its international distribution partner EMI, commissioned several local market, foreign-language versions of songs from the entire High School Musical series, although "Mikroi Theoi" was the only Greek version song. "Fila Me" is another single by <mask> of which was made into a music video and released as a digital single. <mask> then took a

masks: Kostas Martakis Martakis Martakis Kostas Martakis Martakis Martakis Martakis


title: Kostas Martakis

texts:
 break from recording and live shows as he was called to fulfill service in the Hellenic Navy. In fall 2008, <mask> <mask> was the opening act for the Athens concert of Jennifer Lopez.He was chosen by concert organizers after they reviewed several video screenings of Greek artists. Ιn November 2008 American television station E! included <mask> on their "25 Most Sexy Men in the World", describing him a "Greek God". 2009: Pio Konta

In March 2009, it was announced that <mask> <mask> signed with Universal Music Greece. The collaboration with Sony BMG helped spawn nine singles, but his departure from the label in 2009 was on good terms. In June 2009, <mask> released a song as a digital download single titled "Pio Konta" (Come closer) composed by Swedish producers Holter & Erixson. On November 12, 2009, <mask> released his second studio album titled Pio Konta, which went platinum.2011: Sex Indigo, Dancing with the Stars and Entasi

In early 2011, <mask> participated in the second season of the Greek version of Dancing with the Stars and was partnered with Maria Antimisari. He placed second on the show. In March 2011, he traveled to Moscow to record the duet titled "Sex Indigo" with Russian pop star Diana Diez. A video was shot in Ukraine by the director Alan Badoev, while the song will be included in both artist's new albums. The premiere of song  "Sex Indigo" was on March 18, the version of "Sex Indigo" in Greek "Vres Ton Tropo" (Find the Way) was premiere on April 28 and the version of "Sex Indigo" in Spanish was the May 4. The world premieres of the three versions were on the Official Facebook Group of Kostas and the channel of the artist on YouTube, the letter of the Spanish version of "Sex Indigo" was written by Juliana Lira and Fermin Lira, The Sex Indigo video was premiered on July 14 for the ELLO channel and the Russian version was released on November 11 in the Diana Díez channel Official On YouTube. 2012: Entasi, MadWalk and Musical Rent

Martakis will

masks: Kostas Martakis Martakis Kostas Martakis Martakis Martakis Martakis


title: Kostas Martakis

texts:
 be releasing his third studio album titled Entasi (Intensity) on December 5, 2011.In the lead up to the album's release, <mask> teamed up with MAD TV and Hellas On-Line (HOL) for a special web concert previewing is new songs on November 24, 2011. The MadWalk By Vodafone. was held on February 8 in the Tae Kwon Do arena, this great event is held to raise funds for the foundation "Elpida" (Hope) Foundation against cancer in children. The event that combines music and fashion "Join The Fashion Rockstar" brings together the most popular Greeks artists and designers for an unforgettable show, the 2012 edition the guest host was <mask> <mask> who shared the presentation with Viki Kagia and Maria Sinatsaki. and performed with them as in his music video Entasi in the second act. On February 16, at the theater Veaki, <mask> made his acting debut in the musical Rent. here plays the decadent rock star Roger Davis and comes to us on stage telling the story of a group of marginalized young people, trying to survive in New York of the 90s, who suffer poverty, love, passion, rejection and loss.The musical was directed by Themidos Marcelou and counted with the participation of the actors Ada Livitsanou, Antigone Psychrami, Aris Plaskasovitis, Vasilis Axiotis, Christos Georgalis, Themis Marsellou, Stergios Ntaousanakis, Indra Kein, Andreas, and Maria Vasilatou Kapatais. Entries in Ellinikós Telikós and Eurosong

Awards and Nominations MAD Video Music Awards
List of Nominations and Awards by artist <mask> <mask> musical career 2006. The 'MAD Video Music Awards' are produced by the television and radio station Greek MAD TV. Although not affiliated with the music industry, are the most important awards of Greece now. Held annually during the month of June since 2004. Discography

Studio albums

EPs

References

External links

 ERT Biography

1984 births
Living people
21st-century Greek male singers
Greek pop singers
Greek male models
MAD Video Music Awards winners
Singers from

masks: Martakis Kostas Martakis Kostas Kostas Martakis


title: Norbert Wiener

texts:
<mask> (November 26, 1894 – March 18, 1964) was an American mathematician and philosopher. He was a professor of mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). A child prodigy, Wiener later became an early researcher in stochastic and mathematical noise processes, contributing work relevant to electronic engineering, electronic communication, and control systems. Wiener is considered the originator of cybernetics, the science of communication as it relates to living things and machines, with implications for engineering, systems control, computer science, biology, neuroscience, philosophy, and the organization of society. <mask>er is credited as being one of the first to theorize that all intelligent behavior was the result of feedback mechanisms, that could possibly be simulated by machines and was an important early step towards the development of modern artificial intelligence. Biography

<mask> was born in Columbia, Missouri, the first child of <mask> and Bertha Kahn, Jewish immigrants from Poland and Germany, respectively. Through his father, he was related to Maimonides, the famous rabbi, philosopher and physician from Al Andalus, as well as to Akiva Eger, chief rabbi of Posen from 1815 to 1837.Leo had educated <mask> at home until 1903, employing teaching methods of his own invention, except for a brief interlude when <mask> was 7 years of age. Earning his living teaching German and Slavic languages, Leo read widely and accumulated a personal library from which the young <mask> benefited greatly. Leo also had ample ability in mathematics and tutored his son in the subject until he left home. In his autobiography, <mask> described his father as calm and patient, unless he (<mask>) failed to give a correct answer, at which his father would lose his temper. A child prodigy, he graduated from Ayer High School in 1906 at 11 years of age, and Wiener then entered Tufts College. He was awarded a BA in mathematics in 1909 at the age

masks:
Norbert Wiener
Norbert Wien
Youth Wiener
Leo Wiener
Norbert
Norbert
Norbert
Norbert
Norbert


title: Norbert Wiener

texts:
 working on Brownian motion, the Fourier integral, Dirichlet's problem, harmonic analysis, and the Tauberian theorems. In 1926, Wiener's parents arranged his marriage to a German immigrant, Margaret Engemann; they had two daughters. His sister, Constance (1898–1973), married Philip Franklin. Their daughter, Janet, Wiener's niece, married Václav E. Beneš. <mask> <mask>'s sister, Bertha (1902–1995), married the botanist Carroll William Dodge. Many tales, perhaps apocryphal, were told of <mask> Wiener at MIT, especially concerning his absent-mindedness. It was said that he returned home once to find his house empty.He inquired of a neighborhood girl the reason, and she said that the family had moved elsewhere that day. He thanked her for the information and she replied, "That's why I stayed behind, Daddy!" In the run-up to World War II (1939–45) Wiener became a member of the China Aid Society and the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced German Scholars. He was interested in placing scholars such as Yuk-Wing Lee and Antoni Zygmund who had lost their positions. During and after World War II
During World War II, his work on the automatic aiming and firing of anti-aircraft guns caused Wiener to investigate information theory independently of Claude Shannon and to invent the Wiener filter. (To him is due the now standard practice of modeling an information source as a random process—in other words, as a variety of noise.) Initially his anti-aircraft work led him to write, with Arturo Rosenblueth and Julian Bigelow the 1943 article 'Behavior, Purpose and Teleology', which was published in Philosophy of Science.Subsequently his anti-aircraft work led him to formulate cybernetics. After the war, his fame helped MIT to recruit a research team in cognitive science, composed of researchers in neuropsychology and the mathematics and biophysics of the nervous system, including Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts. These men later made pioneering

masks: Norbert Wiener Norbert


title: Norbert Wiener

texts:
 contributions to computer science and artificial intelligence. Soon after the group was formed, Wiener suddenly ended all contact with its members, mystifying his colleagues. This emotionally traumatized Pitts, and led to his career decline. In their biography of Wiener, Conway and Siegelman suggest that <mask>'s wife Margaret, who detested McCulloch's bohemian lifestyle, engineered the breach. Wiener later helped develop the theories of cybernetics, robotics, computer control, and automation.He discussed the modeling of neurons with John von Neumann, and in a letter from November 1946 von Neumann presented his thoughts in advance of a meeting with Wiener. Wiener always shared his theories and findings with other researchers, and credited the contributions of others. These included Soviet researchers and their findings. Wiener's acquaintance with them caused him to be regarded with suspicion during the Cold War. He was a strong advocate of automation to improve the standard of living, and to end economic underdevelopment. His ideas became influential in India, whose government he advised during the 1950s. After the war, Wiener became increasingly concerned with what he believed was political interference with scientific research, and the militarization of science.His article "A Scientist Rebels" from the January 1947 issue of The Atlantic Monthly urged scientists to consider the ethical implications of their work. After the war, he refused to accept any government funding or to work on military projects. The way Wiener's beliefs concerning nuclear weapons and the Cold War contrasted with those of von Neumann is the major theme of the book John Von Neumann and <mask> Wiener. Wiener was a participant of the Macy conferences. Personal life
In 1926 Wiener married Margaret Engemann, an assistant professor of modern languages at Juniata College. They had two daughters. Opinions are not all positive on Margaret's impacts on Wiener's career.<mask> died

masks: Wiener Norbert Wiener


title: Norbert Wiener

texts:
 in March 1964, aged 69, in Stockholm, from a heart attack. <mask> and his wife are buried at the Vittum Hill Cemetery in Sandwich, New Hampshire. Awards and honors
 Wiener was a Plenary Speaker of the ICM in 1936 at Oslo and in 1950 at Cambridge, Massachusetts. Wiener won the Bôcher Memorial Prize in 1933 and the National Medal of Science in 1963, presented by President Johnson at a White House Ceremony in January, 1964, shortly before Wiener's death. Wiener won the 1965 U.S. National Book Award in Science, Philosophy and Religion for God & Golem, Inc.: A Comment on Certain Points where Cybernetics Impinges on Religion. The Norbert Wiener Prize in Applied Mathematics was endowed in 1967 in honor of <mask> <mask> Wiener Award for Social and Professional Responsibility awarded annually by CPSR, was established in 1987 in honor of Wiener to recognize contributions by computer professionals to socially responsible use of computers.The crater Wiener on the far side of the Moon is named after him. The Norbert Wiener Center for Harmonic Analysis and Applications, at the University of Maryland, College Park, is named in his honor. Robert A. Heinlein named a spaceship after him in his 1957 novel Citizen of the Galaxy, a "Free Trader" ship called the Norbert Wiener mentioned in Chapter 14. Doctoral students
 Shikao Ikehara (Ph.D. 1930)
 Dorothy Walcott Weeks (Ph.D. 1930)
 Norman Levinson (Sc.D. 1935)
 Brockway McMillan (Ph.D. 1939)
 Abe Gelbart (Ph.D. 1940)
 John P. Costas (engineer) (Ph.D. 1951)
 Amar Bose (Sc.D. 1956)
 Colin Cherry (Ph.D. 1956)

Work

Wiener was an early studier of stochastic and mathematical noise processes, contributing work relevant to electronic engineering, electronic communication, and control systems. It was Wiener's idea to model a signal as if it were an exotic type of noise, giving it a sound mathematical basis.The example often given to students is that English text could be modeled as a random string of letters and spaces,

masks: Wiener Norbert Wienerbert


title: Norbert Wiener

texts:
 interval, known as classical Wiener space. Leonard Gross provided the generalization to the case of a general separable Banach space. The notion of a Banach space itself was discovered independently by both Wiener and Stefan Banach at around the same time. The Norbert Wiener Center for Harmonic Analysis and Applications (NWC) in the Department of Mathematics at the University of Maryland, College Park is devoted to the scientific and mathematical legacy of <mask> Wiener.The NWC website highlights the research activities of the center. Further, each year the Norbert Wiener Center hosts the February Fourier Talks, a two-day national conference displaying advances in pure and applied harmonic analysis in industry, government, and academia. In popular culture
His work with Mary Brazier is referred to in Avis DeVoto's As Always, Julia. A flagship named after him appears briefly in Citizen of the Galaxy by Robert Heinlein. The song Dedicated to <mask> Wiener appears as the second track on the 1980 album Why? by G.G. Tonet (Luigi Tonet), released on the Italian It Why label.Publications
Wiener wrote many books and hundreds of articles:
 1914,  Reprinted in
 1930,
 1933, The Fourier Integral and Certain of its Applications Cambridge Univ. Press; reprint by Dover, CUP Archive 1988
 1942, Extrapolation, Interpolation and Smoothing of Stationary Time Series. A war-time classified report nicknamed "the yellow peril" because of the color of the cover and the difficulty of the subject. Published postwar 1949 MIT Press. http://www.isss.org/lumwiener.htm])
 1948, Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. Paris, (Hermann & Cie) & Camb. Mass.(MIT Press) ; 2nd revised ed. 1961. 1950, The Human Use of Human Beings. The Riverside Press (Houghton Mifflin Co.). 1958, Nonlinear Problems in Random Theory. MIT Press & Wiley. 1964, Selected Papers of <mask> Wiener.Cambridge Mass. 1964 (MIT Press & SIAM)
 1964, God & Golem, Inc.: A Comment

masks: Norbert Norbert Norbert


title: Norbert Wiener

texts:
 on Certain Points Where Cybernetics Impinges on Religion. MIT Press. 1966,  Published in book form. 1966, Generalized Harmonic Analysis and Tauberian Theorems. MIT Press. 1993,  This was written in 1954 but Wiener abandoned the project at the editing stage and returned his advance.MIT Press published it posthumously in 1993. 1976–84, The Mathematical Work of <mask> Wiener. Masani P (ed) 4 vols, Camb. Mass. (MIT Press). This contains a complete collection of Wiener's mathematical papers with commentaries. Fiction:
 1959, The Tempter.Random House. Autobiography:
 1953, Ex-Prodigy: My Childhood and Youth. MIT Press. 1956, I am a Mathematician. London (Gollancz). Under the name "W. Norbert":
 1952, The Brain and other short science fiction in Tech Engineering News. See also

 Autowave
 Box–Muller transform
 Cellular automaton
 Functional integration
 Operational calculus
 Smoothing problem (stochastic processes)
 List of things named after <mask> Wiener

Notes

Further reading

 .External links

 Norbert Wiener Center for Harmonic Analysis and Applications
 Norbert Wiener and Cybernetics – Living Internet

 "Norbert Wiener" in Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography

1894 births
1964 deaths
20th-century American mathematicians
American agnostics
American pacifists
American people of German-Jewish descent
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Control theorists
Cornell University alumni
Cyberneticists
General Electric people
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Harvard University faculty
Jewish agnostics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish philosophers
Jewish American academics
Jewish pacifists
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science faculty
National Book Award winners
National Medal of Science laureates
People from Belmont, Massachusetts
People from Columbia, Missouri
Probability theorists
American systems scientists
Tufts University alumni
Analysands of Helene Deutsch
Scientists from

masks: Norbert Norbert


title: Joe Torsella

texts:
Joseph M<mask> (born October 8, 1963) is an American politician and former diplomat, who served as the Pennsylvania Treasurer from 2017 to 2021. He served as the U.S. Representative to the United Nations for Management and Reform (with the rank of ambassador) from 2011 to 2014. He previously served as President and CEO of the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia from 1997 though 2003 and again from 2006 through 2008 and as the Chairman of the Pennsylvania State Board of Education from 2008 through 2011. Education
After graduating from Wyoming Seminary, <mask> earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and history from the University of Pennsylvania, graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1986. As a Rhodes Scholar (1986–1990), he did graduate work in American history at New College, Oxford. Early career
<mask> served as Philadelphia's Deputy Mayor for Policy and Planning for Mayor Ed Rendell (later Governor of Pennsylvania) from January 1992 to September 1993. He was not yet 30.Under Rendell, Torsella developed and implemented financial and labor reforms that led the city toward a fiscal rebound that the New York Times called "one of the most stunning turnarounds in recent urban history". The municipal renaissance was chronicled in journalist Buzz Bissinger's book A Prayer for the City, in which <mask> describes the Rendell administration's philosophy as "taking control of the government and restructuring it for effectiveness". National Constitution Center (1997–2003)
In 1988, the United States Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed the Constitution Heritage Act calling for the creation of a National Constitution Center to "disseminate information about the United States Constitution on a non-partisan basis in order to increase the awareness and understanding of the Constitution among the American people". The non-profit museum

masks:
. Torsella
Torsella
Torsella
Torsella


title: Joe Torsella

texts:
 and education center was to be located in Philadelphia. But for almost a decade the project languished, financially troubled and inadequately focused. By 1997, the Constitution Center was still not built and already had an operating deficit of $200,000 (Philadelphia Business Journal, January 3, 2003). That year, Philadelphia Mayor Ed Rendell asked <mask> to become President and CEO.Torsella raised $185 million in private and public funds, formed a board of trustees led by Vanguard Group founder John C. Bogle and got the project back on track. The National Constitution Center opened on July 4, 2003 in a modern glass-fronted  structure (designed by Henry H. Cobb of Pei Cobb Freed & Partners) located on the north end of Independence Mall. Olympic bid (2005)
In 2005, <mask> co-chaired the city of Philadelphia's bid for the 2016 Olympic Games, along with David L. Cohen, executive vice president of Comcast Corp, and Olympic gold medalist Dawn Staley. Chicago was ultimately selected as the U.S. Olympic bid city, but <mask> continued  to serve as co-chairman of the Philadelphia Olympic and International Sports Project  the successor organization to Philadelphia 2016 that attracted two Olympic team trial events, table tennis and gymnastics. Return to the National Constitution Center (2006)
<mask> returned as President and CEO of the National Constitution Center in 2006, after his successor, Richard Stengel, left to become managing editor of Time magazine. Under <mask>'s leadership, the Center became the permanent home of the annual Liberty Medal ceremony. The medal was presented in 2006 to former Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton for their humanitarian work following Hurricane Katrina and the tsunami in Southeast Asia.In 2007, it went to Bono and DATA, the advocacy organization Bono co-founded for raising awareness about AIDS and

masks: Torsella Torsella Torsella Torsella Torsella


title: Joe Torsella

texts: extreme poverty in Africa. In 2008, the medal was presented to Mikhail Gorbachev to mark the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. In 2007, <mask> personally persuaded former President George H. W. Bush to serve as Chairman of the Board of Trustees, the only active board position President Bush then held. In 2008, <mask> announced that former President Bill Clinton would replace Bush as chairman as of January 1, 2009. The Constitution Center also hosted key events during the 2008 presidential race. On March 18, 2008, then-Senator Barack Obama delivered his much-heralded speech on race relations in America at the Constitution Center, one that historians Garry Wills and Harold Holzer have compared to Abraham Lincoln's famous Cooper Union address. On April 16, 2008, the National Constitution Center hosted a Democratic presidential primary debate between Senators Obama and Hillary Clinton, the last and highest rated debate of the primary season.That evening, <mask>'s appearance on The Colbert Report aired on Comedy Central, in a segment awarded "Best TV Performance" in Philadelphia Magazine's 2008 Best of Philly issue. In 2008, on the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Constitution Center launched an International Engagement Program to promote constitutional principles in emerging democracies by using the civic learning and educational initiatives it developed at the Constitution Center. The Program sought to bolster civil society in Afghanistan through partnerships with the Ministry of Education, the Marefet School and non-governmental organizations. The Constitution Center supported Nasim Fekrat, Afghanistan's leading blogger, to strengthen citizen journalism in the country. In addition, the Constitution Center provided Afghan students with digital cameras and camcorders to capture the sights and

masks: Torsella Torsella Torsella


title: Joe Torsella

texts:
 sounds of freedom, religious expression and other civic themes as part of its Being "We the People" exhibit project, which opened at the Constitution Center on August 24, 2009. On December 11, 2008, <mask> announced that he would be stepping down as President and CEO of the Constitution Center at the end of January 2009. The Philadelphia Inquirer described his tenure as a "resounding success" and called him a "modern-day founding father."Other political runs
In 2004, <mask> ran for a seat in the U.S. Congress in Pennsylvania's 13th congressional district. Torsella received endorsements from the region's major newspapers, including the Philadelphia Inquirer, but was outspent by close to $1 million, and lost in a close Democratic Party primary to Allyson Schwartz. In 2009, <mask> announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination in the 2010 U.S. Senate race in Pennsylvania. <mask> withdrew from the race after incumbent Senator Arlen Specter switched party affiliations from Republican to Democrat, citing a desire to avoid a potentially negative primary fight that would weaken Democratic chances in the November 2010 general election. In 2016, <mask> was elected as Pennsylvania State Treasurer, beating Republican Otto Voit of Berks County. As Treasurer, <mask> is responsible for overseeing more than $100 billion in public assets, but his bigger challenge comes with changing the public perception. The position of treasurer was previously held by Timothy A. Reese, who was nominated and confirmed in June 2015 following the resignation of Rob McCord.Chairman of the Pennsylvania State Board of Education
On August 13, 2008, Governor Edward G. Rendell named <mask> the Chairman of the Pennsylvania State Board of Education. Under <mask>'s leadership, the State Board passed a landmark reform strengthening high school graduation requirements on

masks: Torsella Torsella Torsella Torsella Torsella Torsella Torsella Torsella


title: Joe Torsella

texts:
 August 13, 2009; the reform requires students to demonstrate proficiency in core subjects such as math, science, English and social studies prior to receiving a diploma. When an earlier proposal for graduation testing ran into heavy opposition from statewide education groups and was reversed by the legislature, Torsella brokered a compromise initiative that was approved by the state's Independent Regulatory Review Commission on October 22, 2009 and took effect beginning with the 2010–2011 school year. The Board partnered with Pennsylvania's Department of Education to develop an application for the federal government's Race to the Top initiative, an incentive program designed to spur reform in K-12 education across the country. In the first-round selection, Pennsylvania was seventh out of forty-one applicant states and submitted a second round application on June 1, 2010. To support that application, the Board expedited its review and adopted "Common Core" academic standards in math and English language arts. In other initiatives, the Board initiated reviews to improve school safety, held more than half of its meetings outside Harrisburg and urged a variety of measures to make college more accessible and affordable, including the creation of a "no frills" option in higher education.More recently, the Board advanced new regulations on school nutrition and physical activity to reduce childhood obesity, a response that has been called "the most comprehensive such standards in the nation." On June 10, 2010, Governor Rendell tapped Torsella to lead Pennsylvania's participation in Complete College America, a 22-state effort to significantly increase college completion and accessibility by 2020. Ambassador
On November 15, 2010, <mask> was nominated by President Barack Obama to the position of U.S. Representative to the United Nations for


title: Joe Torsella

texts:
 Management and Reform, with the rank of Ambassador; on January 5, 2011, he was renominated after a lame duck session ended without his confirmation. He had a second hearing before the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations on March 16, 2011 (with Sen. Robert Casey, Jr. acting as chairman) and was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on April 19, 2011. <mask> was the architect and chief public spokesperson for the Obama Administration plans, released in 2012, for reform of the $36 billion UN system. In his testimony to the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, <mask> said the UN "at its best" could be a "powerful tool" but that "too often, we have seen [the UN] at its worst," and criticized "waste, inefficiency…abuse…[and] political theater." Pennsylvania State Treasurer

Elections

2016

In 2015, <mask> announced his candidacy for State Treasurer of Pennsylvania.It was an open seat election. The position of treasurer was being held by Timothy A. Reese, who was nominated and confirmed in June 2015 following the resignation of Rob McCord. Reese promised not to run for election, when nominated for the appointment. <mask>'s policy proposals included universal college savings accounts, portable IRAs for Pennsylvania workers whose employers do not offer retirement savings plans, banning the corrupt practice of third-party marketers introducing money managers to the state, appointing a chief integrity officer for Treasury, creating an online Pennsylvania Sunshine Checkbook that shows all state spending, disclosing all state contracts on alternative investments, adding political contributions by contract-holders to the Treasury's state contracts database, and requiring those trading public funds to disclose their personal trades. He also garnered high-profile endorsements from Barack Obama, Mayor Michael Bloomberg, and Governor Ed Rendell. On

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 November 8, 2016, <mask> was elected Treasurer, defeating Republican Otto Voit III of Berks County. <mask> captured 50.66% of the vote, winning by a larger margin (380,593 votes) than any other statewide candidate.<mask> was sworn in as Pennsylvania's State Treasurer on January 17, 2017. 2020

<mask> sought a second term in 2020. He was unopposed in the Democratic primary, which was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In the general election, <mask> faced Republican nominee Stacy Garrity. Garrity ultimately defeated <mask> in his bid for a second term by a 48.6%—47.9% margin. <mask>'s defeat was considered to be an upset, as he possessed a sizable fundraising advantage and consistently led Garrity in polling throughout the campaign. Integrity initiatives
<mask>'s first act as Treasurer was instating a formal ban on third-party placement agents.In his first week in office, <mask> implemented the Treasury Department's first ever code of conduct policy. The policy covers all personnel involved with investment activities and their immediate family members. That same week Torsella reduced the size of the Department's vehicle fleet by more than half, returning eleven vehicles to the Commonwealth. <mask> appointed the Department's first ever Chief Integrity Officer in February 2017. He appointed Kenya Mann Faulkner to the position. She served as Pennsylvania's Inspector General under Tom Corbett’s Administration. <mask> continued his pursuit of integrity and accountability with new pre-payment auditing practices for the Treasury's Bureau of Fiscal Review.The new practices save more than $50 million annually. In April 2017, Torsella transitioned all public equity investment holdings to a low-cost, index investment strategy. The action is estimated to save taxpayers $5 million a year. The move to index investments reduces fees and risk on

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 investments while improving returns for taxpayers. In June 2017, Torsella led a bipartisan effort of fellow state treasurers to help protect American families and their ability to save for retirement. PA ABLE

In April 2017, Torsella teamed up with more than 200 disability advocates, families, state lawmakers and U.S. Senator Bob Casey to officially open Pennsylvania Achieving a Better Life Experience Act (ABLE) Savings Program.Casey sponsored the federal legislation that authorized states to establish ABLE accounts. PA ABLE allows those with disabilities and their families a way to save for disability related expenses without losing access to benefits they may depend on. Keystone Scholars

In February 2018, Torsella, along with state lawmakers, announced the launch of the state's first universal children's savings program for higher education, Keystone Scholars. The pilot program provided a $100 grant as a starter deposit in a PA 529 plan for all babies born from the designated counties in 2018. The goal of the program is to encourage families to start saving early for postsecondary education expenses, and to encourage postsecondary education ambitions. The demonstration project was funded by $2.25 million in private funds. Philanthropic funding sources include the PHEAA Foundation, the Neubauer Family Foundation, and the National Philanthropic Trust.<mask> became the program's first philanthropic donor in 2017, when he donated his automatic pay increase. He continues to donate his annual pay increase to Keystone Scholars. Keystone Scholars legislation drew bipartisan support and was sponsored by Senators John Gordner (R) and Vincent Hughes (D), and Representative Duane Milne (R). Keystone Scholars was passed by Pennsylvania lawmakers in June 2018, and signed into law by Governor Tom Wolf. This legislative action made Pennsylvania the


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 largest state in the country to implement an automatic universal children's savings account program. Starting January 1, 2019, all babies born or adopted to a Pennsylvania family qualify for the $100 Keystone Scholars grant. Retirement security

In 2017, <mask> created the bipartisan Treasury Task Force on Private Sector Retirement Security to find ways to help the more than two million Pennsylvanians who do not have access to employee-sponsored retirement plans.The task force was charged with investigating the scale of the retirement crisis, cataloging solutions being enacted in surrounding states, and presenting options to empower Pennsylvanians to save for their retirement. In March 2019, Treasurer <mask> released the final report of the task force. It provides overviews of each hearing's testimonies, a breakdown of other states’ efforts to combat the retirement crisis, and final recommendations. Unclaimed property

Treasurer <mask> increased efforts to return unclaimed property being held by Treasury—returning hundreds of millions of dollars since taking office. This includes $91,000 that was returned to Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) in a partnership with Good Morning America. CHOP donated the returned funds to its Violence Prevention Initiative that spearheads anti-bullying programs in schools. The Pennsylvania Treasury Department holds billions of dollars in unclaimed property including dormant bank accounts, forgotten safe deposit boxes and uncashed checks.Treasury has a simple search tool to help as many Pennsylvanians as possible get back what is rightfully theirs. Torsella initiated an effort to return unclaimed or abandoned military decorations to veterans and their families. Treasury's vault holds hundreds of military awards and medals, including Purple Hearts and Bronze Stars. Torsella launched a dedicated


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 database to search for lost military medals that may be held by Treasury for safekeeping. Transparency portal

Torsella spearheaded the creation and launch of the state's first online tool to track state spending in real-time, the Transparency Portal. The Transparency Portal won national and global recognition. The portal was launched in 2017 and made the General Fund balance available in real-time on the Treasury Department's homepage.Users also had access to monthly and annual expenditures, and the ability to see how any active lines of credit were affecting the General Fund. The Transparency Portal was then relocated and expanded to its own website. The Treasury Department continuously works to further expand its capabilities. Taxpayers can use the tool to analyze state spending across all state departments and agencies. Act 5

As part of Act 5 enacted by the Pennsylvania legislature in 2017, <mask> served as vice-chair of the Public Pension Management and Asset Investment Review Commission (PPMAIRC) in 2018. PPMAIRC was responsible for conducting the first-ever independent review of the state's largest pension funds including the State Employees’ Retirement System (SERS) and the Pennsylvania Public School Employees’ Retirement System (PSERS). Shareholder engagement

<mask>, as the overseer of all state investments, goes beyond his constitutional responsibility and urges companies the state invests in to operate in a socially responsible manner—including calling for changes to a company's corporate governance and practices that affect its role in major social or environmental issues.Torsella has moved to hold drug manufacturers and distributors accountable for their role in the opioid epidemic. Torsella joined more than 40 institutional investors to form the Investors for Opioid Accountability Coalition. Together they filed 26

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 shareholder resolutions at 10 drug manufacturers and distributors calling for changes on issues connected to the opioid epidemic. Post-PA Treasurer Activities

Pennsylvania Public School Employees' Retirement System (PSERS) Board
In February 2021, <mask> was appointed to the Pennsylvania Public School Employees' Retirement System (PSERS) Board of Trustees by Governor Tom Wolf. The appointment is <mask>'s first for the board but would result in his second time as a board member, after serving as an ex-officio member of both PSERS and the State Employees' Retirement System (SERS) during his four years as Pennsylvania State Treasurer. The appointment fills an open seat that is selected by the Governor, but the position must be confirmed by a majority of the Pennsylvania State Senate. In April of 2021, the Pennsylvania Senate unanimously voted to confirm <mask>'s appointment to the PSERS Board of Trustees.Other endeavors
<mask> has served as a trustee or advisor to many civic and non-profit organizations, including the Philadelphia Convention and Visitors Bureau; the Holocaust Awareness Museum; Historic Philadelphia, Inc.; the Pennsylvania Heritage Foundation; the Springside School; and the Knight Foundation. He has written widely on historical and contemporary issues, with some of his work published in the [null New York Times], the Philadelphia Inquirer, the [null Cleveland Plain Dealer,] and the [null Miami Herald]. <mask> is a sought-after public speaker, and has appeared frequently in national broadcast media, including appearances on ABC's Nightly News, Good Morning America and the Colbert Report. In 1994, <mask> developed the Spaghetti Smock, a linen bib for adults. In 2004, he founded a business consulting firm called 743 Ventures. Personal life
<mask> and his wife, Carolyn Short <mask>, live in Flourtown, Pennsylvania and have four


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<mask> (13 August 1823 – 7 June 1910) was a British historian and journalist, active in the United Kingdom and Canada. In the 1860s he also taught at Cornell University in the United States. Life and career

Early life and education
<mask> was born at Reading, Berkshire. He was educated at Eton College and Magdalen College, Oxford, and after a brilliant undergraduate career he was elected to a fellowship at University College, Oxford. He threw his energy into the cause of university reform with another fellow of University College, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley. On the Royal Commission of 1850 to inquire into the reform of the university, of which Stanley was secretary, <mask> served as assistant-secretary; and he was then secretary to the commissioners appointed by the act of 1854. His position as an authority on educational reform was further recognised by a seat on the Popular Education Commission of 1858.In 1868, when the question of reform at Oxford was again growing acute, he published a pamphlet, entitled The Reorganization of the University of Oxford. In 1865, he led the University of Oxford opposition to a proposal to develop Cripley Meadow north of Oxford railway station for use as a major site of Great Western Railway (GWR) workshops. His father had been a director of GWR. Instead the workshops were located in Swindon. He was public with his pro-Northern sympathies during the American Civil War, notably in a speech at the Free Trade Hall, Manchester in April 1863 and

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 his Letter to a Whig Member of the Southern Independence Association the following year. Besides the Universities Tests Act 1871, which abolished religious tests, many of the reforms suggested, such as the revival of the faculties, the reorganisation of the professoriate, the abolition of celibacy as a condition of the tenure of fellowships, and the combination of the colleges for lecturing purposes, were incorporated in the act of 1877, or subsequently adopted by the university. <mask> gave the counsel of perfection that "pass" examinations ought to cease; but he recognised that this change "must wait on the reorganization of the educational institutions immediately below the university, at which a passman ought to finish his career."His aspiration that colonists and Americans should be attracted to Oxford was later realised by the will of Cecil Rhodes. On what is perhaps the vital problem of modern education, the question of ancient versus modern languages, he pronounced that the latter "are indispensable accomplishments, but they do not form a high mental training" – an opinion entitled to peculiar respect as coming from a president of the Modern Language Association. Oxford years

He held the regius professorship of Modern History at Oxford from 1858 to 1866, that "ancient history, besides the still unequalled excellence of the writers, is the 'best instrument for cultivating the historical sense." As a historian, indeed, he left no abiding work; the multiplicity of


title: Goldwin Smith

texts: his interests prevented him from concentrating on any one subject. His chief historical writings – The United Kingdom: a Political History (1899), and The United States: an Outline of Political History (1893) — though based on thorough familiarity with their subject, make no claim to original research, but are remarkable examples of terse and brilliant narrative. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1865. The outbreak of the American Civil War proved a turning point in his life.Unlike most of the ruling classes in England, he championed the cause of the North, and his pamphlets, especially one entitled Does the Bible Sanction American Slavery? (1863), played a prominent part in converting English opinion. Visiting America on a lecture tour in 1864, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and was entertained at a public banquet in New York. Andrew Dickson White, president of Cornell University at Ithaca, N.Y., invited him to take up a teaching post at the newly founded institution. But it was not until a dramatic change in <mask>'s personal circumstances that led to his departure from England in 1868, that he took up the post. He had resigned his chair at Oxford in 1866 in order to attend to his father, who had suffered permanent injury in a railway accident. In the autumn of 1867, when <mask> was briefly absent, his father took his own life.Possibly blaming himself for the tragedy, and now without an Oxford appointment, he decided to move to

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 North America. Cornell years

<mask>'s time at Cornell was brief, but his impact there was significant. He held the professorship of English and Constitutional History in the Department of History at Cornell University from 1868 to 1872. The addition of <mask> to Cornell's faculty gave the newly opened university "instant credibility." <mask> was something of an academic celebrity, and his lectures were sometimes printed in New York newspapers. During <mask>'s time at Cornell he accepted no salary and provided much financial support to the institution. In 1869 he had his personal library shipped from England and donated to the university.He lived at Cascadilla Hall among the students, and was much beloved by them. In 1871 <mask> moved to Toronto to live with relatives, but retained an honorary professorship at Cornell and returned to campus frequently to lecture. When he did, he insisted on staying with the students at Cascadilla Hall rather than in a hotel. <mask> bequeathed the bulk of his estate to the University in his will. <mask>'s abrupt departure from Cornell was credited to several factors, including the Ithaca weather, Cornell's geographic isolation, <mask>'s health, and political tensions between Britain and America. But the decisive factor in <mask>'s departure was the university's decision to admit women. <mask> <mask> told White that admitting women would cause Cornell to "sink at once from the rank of a University to that of an Oberlin or a high school"

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 and that all "hopes of future greatness" would be lost by admitting women.On June 19, 1906 Goldwin <mask> Hall was dedicated, at the time Cornell's largest building and its first building dedicated to the humanities, as well as the first home to the College of Arts and Sciences. <mask> personally laid the cornerstone for the building in October 1904 and attended the 1906 dedication. The Cornell Alumni News observed on the occasion, "To attempt to express even in a measure the reverence and affection which all Cornellians feel for <mask> <mask> would be attempting a hopeless task. His presence here is appreciated as the presence of no other person could be." Toronto
In Toronto, <mask> he edited the Canadian Monthly, and subsequently founded the Week and the Bystander, and where he spent the rest of his life living in The Grange manor. In 1893, <mask> was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. In his later years he expressed his views in a weekly journal, The Farmer's Sun, and published in 1904 My Memory of Gladstone, while occasional letters to the Spectator showed that he had lost neither his interest in English politics and social questions nor his remarkable gifts of style.He died at his residence in Toronto, The Grange. Political views
He continued to take an active interest in English politics. As a Liberal, he opposed Benjamin Disraeli, and was a strong supporter of Irish Disestablishment, but refused to follow Gladstone in accepting Home Rule. He

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 expressly stated that "if he ever had a political leader, his leader was John Bright, not Mr Gladstone." Causes that he powerfully attacked were Prohibition, female suffrage and state socialism, as he discussed in his Essays on Questions of the Day (revised edition, 1894). He also published sympathetic monographs on William Cowper and Jane Austen, and attempted verse in Bay Leaves and Specimens of Greek Tragedy. In his Guesses at the Riddle of Existence (1897), he abandoned the faith in Christianity that he had expressed in his lecture of 1861, Historical Progress, in which he forecast the speedy reunion of Christendom on the "basis of free conviction," and wrote in a spirit "not of Agnosticism, if Agnosticism imports despair of spiritual truth, but of free and hopeful inquiry, the way for which it is necessary to clear by removing the wreck of that upon which we can found our faith no more."Anglo-Saxonism
<mask> is considered by historian Edward P. Kohn to be a "devout Anglo-Saxonist", a racial belief system developed by British and American intellectuals, politicians and academics in the 19th century. In his view, <mask> defined the "Anglo-Saxon race" as not necessarily being limited to English people, but extended to the Welsh and Lowland Scots, though not the Irish. Speaking in 1886, he proclaimed that he was standing "by the side of John Bright against the dismemberment of the great Anglo-Saxon community of the West, as I now stand against the dismemberment of the


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 great Anglo-Saxon community of the East." These words formed the key to his views of the future of the British Empire and he was a leading member of the anti-imperialist "Little Englander" movement. <mask> thought that Canada was destined by geography to become part of the United States. In his view, separated by artificial north–south barriers, into zones communicating naturally with adjoining portions of the United States, Canada was an artificially constructed and badly-governed nation. In his view, it would eventually break away from the British Empire, and the "Anglo-Saxons" of the North American continent would become one nation.These views are most fully developed in his work Canada and the Canadian Question (1891). <mask>s's views on the future of Canada–United States relations was criticised by Canadian priest George Monro Grant in the Canadian Magazine. Imperialism

<mask> identified as an anti-imperialist, describing himself as "anti-Imperialistic to the core". Despite this, he admired aspects of the British Empire; speaking on the topic of British rule in India, <mask> claimed that "it is the noblest the world has seen... Never had there been such an attempt to make conquest the servant of civilization. About keeping India there is no question. England has a real duty there." <mask> remained resolutely opposed to Britain granting more representative government to India, expressing fear that this would lead to a "murderous anarchy."When the Second Boer War

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 (1899-1902) broke out, <mask> published several articles in the Canadian press and a book In The Court of History: An Apology of Canadians Opposed to the Boer War (1902) expressing his opposition to the war. Arguing against British involvement in the war on pacifist grounds, <mask>'s views were uncommon among the English Canadian community of the period. <mask> published another anti-imperialist work in 1902, Commonwealth or Empire?, arguing against the United States assuming an imperialistic foreign policy in the aftermath of its victory in the Spanish–American War. Antisemitism
<mask> held strong anti-Semitic views. Described by McMaster University professor Alan Mendelson as "the most vicious anti-Semite in the English-speaking world", <mask> referred to Jews as "parasites" who absorb "the wealth of the community without adding to it". Research by Glenn C. Altschuler and Isaac Kramnick has studied <mask>'s writings on Jews, which claimed that they were responsible for a form of "repulsion" they provoked in others, due to his assertion of their "peculiar character and habits", including a "preoccupation with money-making", which made them "enemies of civilization". He also denigrated brit milah, a Jewish ritual of circumcision, as a "barborous rite", and proposed either culturally assimilating Jews or deporting them to Palestine as a solution to the "Jewish problem".<mask> wrote that "The Jewish objective has always been the same, since Roman times. We regard our race

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 as superior to all humanity, and we do not seek our ultimate union with other races, but our final triumph over them." He had a strong influence on William Lyon Mackenzie King and Henri Bourassa. He proposed in other writings that Jews and Arabs were of the same race. He also believed that Islamic oppression of non-Muslims was for economic factors. In December 2020, the Cornell University Board of Trustees voted to remove <mask>'s name from the honorific titles of twelve professors at Cornell. The Board took this action in recognition of <mask>'s "racist, sexist and anti-Semitic" views.The Board declined to rename Goldwin <mask> Hall. Legacy
<mask> <mask> is credited with the quote "Above all nations is humanity," an inscription that was engraved in a stone bench he offered to Cornell in May 1871. The bench sits in front of Goldwin <mask> Hall, named in his honour. This quote is the motto of the University of Hawaii and other institutions around the world (for example, the Cosmopolitan Club at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign). Another stone bench inscribed with the motto, sits on the campus of Boğaziçi University in Istanbul. It sits with a clear view down onto the city. After his death, a plaque in his memory was erected outside his birthplace in the town centre of Reading.This still exists, outside the entrance to the Harris Arcade. See also
 Irish question
 Jewish question

Notes

Works

 1861 – Rational Religion, and the Rationalistic Objections of the

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 1907. "Ireland," The North American Review, Vol.185, No. 614, 3 May 1907. "Party Government", The Canadian Magazine, Vol. XXIX, No. 4, August 1907. "Evolution, Immortality and the Christian Religion: A Reply," The North American Review, Vol. 186, No.623, Oct. 1907. "Magdalen College, Oxford," The Outlook, 14 September 1907. "Reform of the Senate," The Canadian Magazine, Vol. XXX, No. 6, April 1908. "The Religious Situation," The North American Review, Vol. 187, No.629, Apr. 1908. "The Socialist Manifesto," The Canadian Magazine, Vol. XXXI, May/October 1908. "War," The Canadian Magazine, Vol. XXXI, May/October 1908. "Party Government," The North American Review, Vol.188, No. 636, Nov. 1908. "Has England Wronged Ireland?," The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol. LXIV, July/December 1908. "The Crisis in India," The Canadian Magazine, Vol. XXXII, November 1908/April 1909. "Labour and Socialism," The Canadian Magazine, Vol.XXXII, November 1908/April 1909. "The American Civil War," McClure's Magazine, September 1910. "The Founding of Cornell University and His Introduction into Washington Society," McClure's Magazine, October 1910. "Last Words on Ireland," The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol. LXVIII, July/December 1910. "My Early Connection with London Journalism," The Canadian Magazine, Vol. XXXVI, November 1910/April 1911.Miscellany

 "Letters of <mask> <mask> to Charles Eliot Norton", Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 49, October 1915/June 1916, pp.

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 106–160. References

Further reading

 Adam, G. Mercer (1881). "The Press Banquet to Mr. <mask> <mask>, M.A." Canadian Monthly and National Review, Vol. VII, pp. 101–106."Anglo-American Memories," New-York Tribune, 31 July 1910. "The Association and Mr. <mask> <mask>." In: A History of Canadian Journalism. Toronto: Murray Printing Co., 1908, pp. 76–82. Bell, Kenneth (1910). "<mask> <mask> as a Canadian," The Cornhill Magazine 29, New Series, pp.239–251. Bell, Duncan (2007). The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860–1900 (Princeton, 2007), ch. 7
 Brown, R. Craig (1962). "Goldwin <mask> and Anti‐imperialism," Canadian Historical Review 43 (2), pp. 93–105. Bryce, James (1914)."<mask> <mask>," The North American Review, Vol. 199, No. 701, pp. 513–527. Cooper, John James (1912). <mask> <mask>, D.C.L. ; A Brief Account of his Life and Writings.Reading, Eng. : Poynder & Son. Dalberg-Acton, John Emerich Edward (1907). "Mr. <mask> <mask>'s Irish History." In: The History of Freedom and Other Essays. London: Macmillan & Co., pp. 232–269.Gaffney, Patricia H. (1972). Goldwin Smith Bibliography, 1845–1913. Ithaca, N.Y.: Collection of Regional History and University Archives, John M. Olin Library. Gollancz, Hermann (1909). "Goldwin <mask>'s Essay 'On the Jewish Question'." In: Sermons and Addresses. London: Myers & Co., pp.222–239. "<mask> <mask>, 'The Sage of the Grange'," The New York Times, 10 September 1905. "The Great Minds of America. I. <mask>

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texts: <mask>," The North American Review, Vol. 186, No. 622, Sep., pp. 1–7.Gregory, W. D. (1910). "<mask> <mask>," The Outlook, Vol. 95, No. 17, pp. 950–959. Haultain, Arnold (1913). A Selection from <mask> <mask>'s Correspondence.London: T. Werner Laurie. Haultain, Arnold (1913). "Why <mask> <mask> Came to America," The North American Review, Vol. 198, No. 696, pp. 688–697. Haultain, Arnold (1914).<mask> <mask>: His Life and Opinions. London: T. Werner Laurie. Hincks, Sir Francis (1881). "Canada and Mr. <mask> <mask>," The Contemporary Review 40, pp. 825–842. "History, Philosophy and Mr. <mask> <mask>," The North British Review, Vol. XXXVII, August 1862, pp.1–34. Holland, Lionel R. (1888). Mr. <mask> <mask> and Canada. [S.l. : s.n.] Lang, Andrew (1900). "Scotland and Mr. <mask> <mask>," Blackwood's Magazine, Vol.CLXVII, pp. 541–550. Le Sueur, William Dawson (1882). "Mr <mask> <mask> on the 'Data of Ethics'," Popular Science Monthly 22, pp. 145–156. MacTavish, Newton (1910). "<mask> <mask>, the Sage of the Grange," Munsey's Magazine, Vol.XLIII, No. 5, pp. 680–683. Moses, Montrose J. (1910). "A Glimpse of Goldwin <mask>," The New York Times, 18 June. "Mr. <mask> <mask> on the Study of History," The Westminster Review, No.150, October 1861, pp. 157–180. Phillips, Paul T. (2002). The Controversialist: An Intellectual Life of <mask> <mask>. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. Spencer, Herbert (1882). "Professor <mask> <mask> as a Critic," The Popular Science Monthly 22 (1), pp.18–20.

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 Tollemache, Lionel A. (1911). "Jottings About Goldwin <mask>." In: Nuts and Chestnuts. London: Edward Arnold, pp. 19–32.Trent, W.P. (1893). "Mr. <mask> <mask> on the United States," The Sewanee Review 2 (1), pp. 1–16. Wallace, Elisabeth (1954). "<mask> <mask> on England and America," The American Historical Review 59 (4), pp. 884–894.Wallace, Elisabeth (1954). "<mask> <mask>, Liberal," University of Toronto Quarterly 23, pp. 155–172. Wallace, Elisabeth (1954). "<mask> <mask> on History," The Journal of Modern History 26 (3), pp. 220–232. Wallace, Elisabeth (1957).<mask> <mask>: Victorian Liberal. University of Toronto Press. Wallace, Elisabeth (1969). The Grange and its Occupants: the Boultons and Goldwin Smith. Toronto: Education Dept., Art Gallery of Ontario. Wilson, Woodrow (1893). "Mr. <mask> <mask>'s 'Views' on Our Political History," The Forum 16 (4), pp.489–499. Underhill, Frank (1933). "<mask> <mask>," University of Toronto Quarterly 2, pp. 285–309. Wolf, Lucien (1881). "A Jewish View of the Anti-Jewish Agitation," The Nineteenth Century 9, pp. 338–357.External links

 Obituaries: New-York Tribune, The Dial

 Works by <mask> <mask> at Hathi Trust
 Works by <mask> <mask> at Europeana
 Works by <mask> <mask> at The Online Library of Liberty
 The Cambridge History of English and American Literature: <mask> <mask>
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
 <mask> <mask> on War
 Goldwin's Myth
 Toronto's Historical Plaques: <mask> <mask> 1823–1910

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