title: Gerda Lerner

texts:
 women's oppression. She received the Bruce Catton Prize for Lifetime Achievement in Historical Writing from the Society of American Historians, and the Berkshire Conference of Women Historians Special Book Award.In 1992, the Organization of American Historians established the annual Lerner-Scott Prize, named for her and Anne Firor Scott. It is awarded annually to the writer of the best doctoral dissertation that year in U.S. women's history. She is the subject of a full-length documentary film, Why Women Need to Climb Mountains (2016), by Renata Keller. <mask> died on January 2, 2013, in Madison, Wisconsin, at the age of 92. She was survived by her grown children Dan and <mask>. Other works

Musical
Singing of Women (1951, with Eve Merriam)

Screenplays
Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom (1957)
Black Like Me (1964)
Home for Easter (n.d.)

Books
No Farewell (1955) an autobiographical novel; originally in German under the pseudonym Margaret Rainer: Es git keinen Abschied (1953)
The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina: Rebels against Authority (1967)
The Woman in American History [ed.] (1971)
Black Women in White America: A Documentary History (1972)
The Female Experience: An American Documentary (1976)
A Death of One's Own (1978/2006)
The Majority Finds Its Past: Placing Women in History (1979)
Teaching Women's History (1981)
Women's Diaries of the Westward Journey (1982)
The Creation of Patriarchy (1986)
The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-seventy (1994)
Scholarship in Women's History Rediscovered & New (1994)
Why History Matters (1997)
Fireweed: A Political Autobiography (Temple University Press, 2003)
Living with History/Making Social Change (2009)

References
Notes

Biographies
 Ransby, Barbabra.2002. "A Historian Who Takes Sides", The Progressive, September. <mask>, Gerda. 2005. "Life of Learning", Charles Homer Haskins Lecture for 2005. MacLean, Nancy. 2002."Rethinking the Second Wave", The Nation, October 14. Gordon, Linda; Kerber, Linda K.; Kessler-Harris, Alice.

masks:
Death Lerner
Stephanie Lerner
Lerner


title: Gerda Lerner

type: original

texts:
 2013. "<mask> <mask> (1920–2013). Pioneering Historian and Feminist", Clio. Women, Gender, History. Keller, Renata.2015. "Why Women Need to Climb Mountains - on a journey through the life and vision of Dr. <mask> <mask>"

Further reading
 Daum, Andreas W., "Refugees from Nazi Germany as Historians: Origins and Migrations, Interests and Identities," in The Second Generation: Émigrés from Nazi Germany as Historians. With a Biobibliographic Guide, ed. Daum, Hartmut Lehmann, James J. Sheehan. New York: Berghahn Books, 2016 , 1‒52. Felder, Deborah G., and Diana Rosen. 2003.Fifty Jewish Women Who Changed the World. New York: Citadel Press (Kensington Publishing), pp. 216–220. Scanlon, Jennifer, and Shaaron Cosner. 1996. American Women Historians, 1700s–1990s: A Biographical Dictionary. Westport, Connecticut, and London: Greenwood Press, pp.144–146. Weigand, Kate. 2001. Red Feminism: American Communism and the Making of Women's Liberation. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. (Multiple references, indexed.) External links

Jewish Women and the Feminist Revolution from the Jewish Women's Archive
 <mask> <mask> - Corporatizing Higher Education
 Papers, 1950–1995.Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. Papers, 1924–2006. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. Additional papers of <mask> <mask>, 1916–2013. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. 1920 births
2013 deaths
American communists
American feminist writers
American socialist feminists
Columbia University alumni
Communist women writers
Duke University faculty
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Feminist historians
Historians from New York (state)
Historians of the United States
Jewish American historians
Jewish emigrants from Austria to the United States after the Anschluss
Jewish feminists
Jewish socialists
Marxist feminists
Radical feminists
The New School alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
Women historians
Women's historians
Writers from

masks: Gerda Lerner Gerda Lerner Gerda Lerner Gerda Lerner


title: Barbara M. Carey-Shuler

texts:
<mask>. Carey-Shuler, public servant, community activist and educator served as the first African American woman on the Board of County Commissioners for Miami-Dade County, Florida (formerly Metro-Dade County) when she was appointed by then-Governor Robert Bob Graham on December 10, 1979. She was elected to the Commission in 1982, 1986, 1996, 2000, and 2004 while serving as the Chairwoman of the Board of County Commissioners from 2002-2004, when she became the first African-American to hold the position in the 60 years of Miami-Dade County governance. Early life and education
<mask> was born and raised in the small coastal town of Fernandina Beach, Florida by her parents Wendell H. and <mask>. In 1957, she graduated as the valedictorian from Peck High School, a segregated school for African Americans. <mask> attended Florida A&M University, a historically Black university, where she graduated in 1961 with a Bachelor of Science degree in speech. In 1962, she earned a Master of Arts in speech and communications from Ohio State University. Furthering her education while working as a public-school teacher and later as an administrator for the Miami-Dade County Public Schools, <mask> earned a Master of Education in Guidance at the University of Miami in 1969.She also completed a Doctorate in Educational Supervision and Administration from the University of Florida in 1978. Appointment
As a civic activist, <mask> co-chaired the 1978 Dade County election campaign of Governor-to-be Robert Bob Graham. When sitting County Commissioner Neal Adams was removed from office, Governor Graham, announced on December 10, 1979 that he was appointing Carey as the first black female to sit on the nine-member Metropolitan Dade County Board of County Commissioners. At the time of her appointment <mask> was married to Archibald Carey, Sr. with a 12 year old son Archibald,

masks:
Barbara M
Barbara Jean McCollough
Janie Lang McCollough
Barbara McCollough
Barbara McCollough Carey
Barbara Carey
Barbara Carey


title: Barbara M. Carey-Shuler

texts:
 Jr. Archibald Sr. later died in August 1981 after a long period of illness. Miami-Dade County Commission
Within days of Carey’s appointment, <mask>, an insurance agent, was killed by Metro-Dade Police Officers. On May 17, 1980 an all-white jury acquitted the officers, and after an initial non-violent protest, riots lasting three days broke out and caused 18 deaths and an estimated $100 million in property damage. The McDuffie Riot was the most destructive race riot at that time in the United States.Carey led the effort at the Metro-Dade County Commission to compensate the <mask>ie family, stating "We can never compensate a family adequately for the life of loved ones particularly in these circumstances. It is in the best interest of everyone to settle out of court. We can't open up these wounds in the community again". She additionally sought federal support for the rebuilding of the Liberty City community, while also advocating for police reforms, including a civilian-led police oversight panel and minority hiring

Before <mask> King Jr. Day became a federal holiday, Carey spearheaded a resolution designating the January 15th birthday of Dr <mask> King, Jr. as an official county holiday in Miami-Dade County. Carey authored and secured passage of legislation requiring every motorist to observe a 15-mph speed limit while driving in school zones. Her leadership also led to black employees of the County’s Solid Waste Department who only had been hired as part-time employees, being hired as full-time employees eligible for all benefits. In addition, Carey introduced and led the effort to pass the set-aside law and the affirmative action policy, which was argued all the way to the United States Supreme Court, resulting in creating more jobs and business opportunities for minorities and women than any other economic measure passed by the County

masks:
Arthur McDuffie
McDuff
Martin Luther
Martin Luther


title: Barbara M. Carey-Shuler

texts: Culturally, Carey-Shuler secured funding for the construction and renovation of Virginia Key Beach Park Civil Rights Museum and Cultural Center. A major restoration of The Historic Lyric Theater in Overtown was accomplished by the Black Archives through a continuing resolution of funding, sponsored by Carey-Shuler; becoming one of the first jewels of the Overtown renaissance. The Historic Hampton House Hotel was saved from demolition by a Carey-Shuler-led coalition of preservation activist.She steered the Performing Arts Center project through the County Commission during a difficult period of delayed construction and over-budget spending. Her efforts and leadership contributed to the Adrienne Arsht Center for the Performing Arts becoming a financial success and a world renown facility of the arts. She was responsible for the concept and creation of Music Fest Miami, a multi-cultural festivity on Labor Day Weekend centered around the global music community of Miami and South Florida. The three-year event featured music, food and culture events in numerous neighborhood mini-festivals around Miami-Dade County. Local high school students were introduced to nationally known musicians during interactive presentations and in-school concerts. The culminating event was an all-day music festival of world music at Miami’s Bayfront Park, featuring artists Isaac Hayes, <mask>, Arturo Sandoval, Jonathan Butler, Inner Circle, Earth, Wind and Fire, Charlie Haden and Patti Labelle. After serving more than twenty years, on December 6, 2005 Carey-Shuler resigned from the Miami-Dade County Commission to care for ailing family members.Less than seven weeks later, her mother died on January 8, 2006; her husband, James Lamar Shuler, died on October 1 2006; and her mentor M. Athalie Range died on November 14th of the same year. Philanthropist, volunteer and civic activist


title: Barbara M. Carey-Shuler

texts:
In 2017, Carey-Shuler was instrumental in advocating for the City of Delray Beach to rename a street after her late husband, James Lamar Shuler as an ode to his work in redeveloping the blighted areas of Delray Beach, FL. As Carey-Shuler has managed and maintained her husband’s legacy at the Shuler’s Memorial Chapel, she has continued her civic and social activism within the African American community of south Palm Beach County. Carey-Shuler, provided a gift to Palm Beach State College which afforded the college the opportunity to establish the Cross-Cultural Equity Institute to improve retention and graduation rates among minority students. Carey-Shuler adopted Inlet Grove Community High School and volunteers as President of the foundation and Vice President of the governing board. Inlet Grove High School is a training ground that educates students to be career or college ready upon graduation. Carey-Shuler serves as the Secretary on the Board of Trustees of Technology, Enterprise and Development Center, which provides business experience in its programming to clients and customers.She also serves as a member of the Board of Directors for Pathways to Prosperity, a non-profit organization based in Boynton Beach, Florida, which is dedicated to strengthening the communityby providing educational and social service resources. <mask> Carey-Shuler’s continued activism for history and community preservation is fulfilled by her service as a board member of the Spady Museum in Delray Beach, Florida. In 2013, Carey-Shuler was recognized for her business success and personal contributions to the Greater West Palm Beach community by Delta Sigma Theta sorority of West Palm Beach and the Delta Heritage Foundation. References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
People from Fernandina Beach, Florida
County commissioners in Florida
People from


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
<mask> (3 January 1780 – 29 July 1835) was a British Tory Member of Parliament (MP) whose Evangelical Anglicanism and prior experience as a Poor Law administrator in Leeds led him to oppose Malthusian theories of population and their use to decry state provision for the poor. Overview
<mask> entered the British House of Commons at the behest of the 4th Duke of Newcastle, returned by the pocket borough of Newark as an 'Ultra' opponent of Catholic emancipation, but he devoted much effort in Parliament to urging the extension of the Poor Law to Ireland. In 1832, in the last session of the unreformed House of Commons he brought forward a Bill to regulate the minimum age and maximum working hours of children (no more than ten hours for persons under eighteen) in the textile industry. He chaired a Select Committee on the Bill which heard evidence from witnesses on overwork and ill-treatment of factory children. No legislation had resulted before the Reform Act passed and in the election which followed <mask> stood for Leeds but failed to be elected. Parliamentary leadership of the factory reform movement passed to Lord Ashley. Publication of the evidence gathered by Sadler's Select Committee had a considerable effect on public opinion: the effect of Sadler's Bill and Committee on the Whig government was to persuade them that new factory legislation was required but that this should be based upon evidence gathered on a sounder basis.When he died, contemporaries mentioned his work on Ireland, population, and poverty as well as his ten-hour bill, but only the latter is now remembered. Early years
<mask> was born in Snelston, Derbyshire,

masks:
Michael Thomas Sadler
Michael Sadler
Sadler
Michael Sadler


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts: on 3 January 1780, the son of <mask> a minor local squire ; according to tradition his family came from Warwickshire and was descended from Sir <mask>. He was educated at home; when newly elected an MP he was said to have a 'rather broad' Yorkshire accent. In 1800 on the death of his mother he moved to Leeds to work with an elder brother (Benjamin); his father died soon afterwards. <mask> and his brother were linen-drapers; in 1810 they gave up the retail trade and went into partnership with the widow of an importer of Irish linen (in 1816 he married her eldest daughter Anne), but his biographer comments that <mask> was lucky to have competent partners as his mind, nature, and habits were unfitted to business. His biographer reports that his family were Anglicans but his mother was sympathetic to Methodism adding that "He had always entertained a decided preference for the Church of England, but after his marriage he became more regular and undeviating in his attendance on her ordinances. "with no indication of the nature of the pre-marital irregularities and deviations.One of his earliest publications was An Apology for Methodists written in 1797 and in 1831 the Leeds Mercury published a letter from a Methodist dignitary to the superintendent of the Leeds circuit which advised Methodists not to vote for Sadler because he had been insufficiently active in the anti-slavery cause "to say nothing of the ambition which has made him court the High Church and despise us". A correspondent in the Leeds Intelligencer confirmed that <mask> (now an Anglican Alderman and J.P.) had once been a Methodist circuit-steward and <mask> had

masks:
James Sadler
Ralph Sadler
Sadler
Michael
Benjamin Sadler
Michael


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts: regularly gone to chapel with him, but denied that <mask> had ever been a Methodist. Religious affiliation was not merely a matter of private conscience (or social status) but also had political implications: Dissenters objected to paying for the Established Church, and were therefore favourable to any reform which might address this, and antagonistic to any steps which might increase the burden. A specific local instance of this arose in Leeds: additional Anglican churches were built in Leeds parish; Dissenters  passed a motion at the vestry meeting forbidding any expenditure by the parish on equipping the new churches, and then voted out (in the middle of his term in office) a churchwarden who ignored the motion (having legal advice that the parish was legally required to pay for the fitting out of the churches). Sadler attempted to dissuade the vestry meeting from this, but was shouted down. His interests lay largely outside business; he became a member of Leeds Corporation (soon after his marriage), contributed articles to the Leeds Intelligencer (the local Tory paper) and commanded a company in the local volunteers ; he also visited the sick and destitute as a member of the 'Stranger's Friend Society', was superintendent of a large Sunday School, and sat on the Poor Law board for Leeds, eventually becoming Poor-rates Treasurer. These latter activities, especially the last, gave him a familiarity with the habits, the wants, and the sufferings of the poor, and a concern with them which stayed with him for the rest of his days.He became active in politics; a supporter of the Tories and strongly opposed to Catholic


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts: vote for these candidates was supported by the 4th Duke of Newcastle's policy of unfailingly evicting any tenant who gave a vote to the 'Blues' (opponents of the Red/Yellow candidates); his allies took similar measures but less implacably. In 1829 one of Newark's MPs was General Sir William Henry Clinton GCB, a kinsman of the Duke of Newcastle. He held a minor post (Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance) under the Duke of Wellington, whom he had served under in the Peninsula. Wellington had formed a government from the opponents of Catholic Emancipation, but by 1829 the state of Ireland was such that – despite his previous strong opposition to Catholic Emancipation – Robert Peel, the leading MP in the government became convinced that granting it was the only safe way to defuse the situation. Wellington's government therefore brought in a Catholic Relief Bill. Since Clinton felt unable to vote against this Bill, and Newcastle was strongly opposed to it, Clinton offered to resign as MP for Newark.Without consulting his allies, Newcastle accepted Clinton's resignation ; he did not inform his allies of this. Again without consulting them, he searched for Clinton's replacement, eventually picking <mask> as a good public speaker with suitably hard-line views against Emancipation. In 1813 at a meeting in Leeds he had seconded a petition to be sent to Parliament against any relief of Catholic disabilities. Sir, the Protestant cause has long been identified with that of the British nation. May they never be separated ! But we are firmly convinced, that to concede to its grand adversary the power it seeks to recover, to resign that


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts: influence which it would infalllibly exert, would be to dilapidate the venerable fabric of that happy constitution erected by the wisdom and cemented by the blood of our ancestors ; would shake the very pillars on which the Protestant throne of these realms is founded ; would invalidate the title of the present Protestant royal family ; would threaten the existence of the Protestant establishment; would change many of our laws and subvert many of our sacred institutions; would extinguish the very spirit of the glorious revolution of 1688, and pour contempt on those great characters, who, under divine providence, brought about that happy event ; and in fine, would, in the present state of political parties, deliver up the country to Roman Catholic ascendancy. but his objections were not merely political or constitutional; he held – he said in his declaration speech in 1829 – that "No man is properly qualified to fulfil the duties of any important office whose religion is not founded upon the sacred book of God – who does not derive his faith from that only source -who is prevented from reading it in his native language – who is deprived of the translated Bible".In the by-election following Clinton's resignation, <mask> campaigned against Catholic Emancipation, but his Blue opponent campaigned against Newcastle's electoral tyranny as evidenced by <mask> being imposed on the borough without consultation: the candidate (or rather the selection process) had become the issue. <mask> was elected with a majority of 214, but at the General Election of 1830 was ahead of the Blue candidate by only 94 votes, the Blue cause having gained

masks: Sadler Sadler Sadler


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 adherents and the Yellows having become less keen to enforce support of the Red candidate. In 1831, it was therefore thought prudent that <mask> should stand for Aldborough, rather than Newark where his election would be ensured as the borough, which had less than 80 electors, was securly under the control of the Duke of Newcastle. The Duke's candidates for Aldborough were always returned. In the 1831 election <mask>, and the man who stood with him Clinton James Fynes-Clinton, were therefore returned unopposed as the representatives for Aldborough. In parliament

Catholic relief
<mask>'s first major speech in the House of Commons was against the Second Reading of the Catholic Relief Bill. The speech was well received, but it was rapidly concluded that <mask> could never expect a government post under George IV (apparently because he lacked social polish).His speech against the Third Reading was less successful an opponent describing his performance as the most perfect specimen of a canting Methodist I ever saw. <mask>'s reputation as a Parliamentary debater declined; in March 1830, Hansard recorded mockery by a colleague which the House apparently thought a definite "hit""... he meant the able, the enlightened, the accomplished Member for Newark —able as a writer and as a reasoner, – striking in his eloquence, – well versed in ancient and modern learning, and accomplished in his mode of applying that learning." [The loud and general burst of laughter which followed this sentence prevented our hearing whether the hon. and learned Member finished the encomium here.] Irish Poor Laws
He took up in Parliament the argument he had

masks: Sadler Sadler Sadler Sadler Sadler


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 already made outside it that the English Poor Law system should be extended to Ireland (which at that point had no Poor Laws), presenting a petition in 1829 and the next year making a long speech in favour on his own motion, which he then withdrew; it being clear from the debate that his motion would be defeated: there already being a Committee sitting on measures to be taken on Irish poverty. <mask> had been invited to serve on it, but declined because (he said) the selection of MPs for the committee had ensured a built-in majority for opponents of an Irish Poor Law: he also had declined to give evidence to it. In a speech in Leeds in 1831 he described the introduction of Irish Poor Laws as "not a measure of politics, but a measure of justice, policy and mercy"
It lies at the very foundation of all civil institutions that where property is appropriated there should be a reservation for those who are left without provision when their labour is no longer demanded, when sickness assails them, and when calamity overtakes them.Whoever the authority might be, you will find that these rights of human nature are clearly recognised, and it is not denied by any jurist in the world that every human being whom the Providence of God has placed upon earth has a claim to sustenation and relief when his honest labour will no longer afford him the necessities of life  He initiated a debate on a declaratory resolution that the Poor Laws should be extended to Ireland on 29 August 1831: the resolution was defeated 52–64, a margin so narrow as to be regarded as a moral victory, making it virtually inevitable that the Government would have to act.


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 Reporting his final illness in 1835, the Yorkshire Gazette described him as "this philanthropic gentleman, whose great exertions to ameliorate the condition of the poor of the sister isle will never be forgotten". The Poor Law system was introduced to Ireland in 1838 (when <mask> was no longer in Parliament (or alive)) but this was based not upon the Elizabethan Poor Law system which Sadler knew, but upon the 'New Poor Law' of 1834. Work on population
His argument for a Poor Law supporting the poor ran entirely contrary to the advice of orthodox political economists of the day, who held with Malthus;

Since population increased by geometrical progression whilst production increased by arithmetical progression, population was only held in check by the want and distress of the poor; hence to relieve that want and distress whether by charity or by the poor-rates was (however kind-hearted) wrong-headed since it would artificially sustain a greater number of the poor (and hence increase the number of those in distress). <mask> scrutinised Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population and became convinced that the statistics it quoted in support were unsound (or where sound mis-used). From his own studies of census data for England in 1810 and 1820  he concluded that the birthrate per hundred marriages was lower in the more densely populated counties; he went on to argue that this was because the more densely populated counties enjoyed a higher standard of living, and that prosperity, not poverty, was the more effective check on population growth. Sadler published (1830) the Law of Population which he derived from this detailed

masks: Sadler Sadler


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 examination of available population statistics (The Prolificness of human beings, otherwise similarly circumstanced, varies inversely as their numbers) in a large book of the same name "more than thirteen hundred closely-printed pages, crowded with an hundred-and-four statistical tables" which left most reviewers at a loss for words.However, <mask> Macaulay writing in the Edinburgh Review, was neither daunted nor impressed, beginning his review
We did not expect a good book from Mr <mask> ; and it is well that we did not ; for he has given us a very bad one. The matter of his treatise is extraordinary ; the manner more extraordinary still. His arrangement is confused, his repetitions endless, his style every thing which it ought not to be. Instead of saying what he has to say with the perspicuity, the precision, and the simplicity in which consists the eloquence proper to scientific writing, he indulges without measure in vague, bombastic declamation, made up of those fine things which boys of fifteen admire, and which every body, who is not destined to be a boy all his life, weeds vigorously out of his compositions after five-and-twenty. going on to point out that even <mask>'s analysis did not support an inverse relationship in the technical/accurate meaning of the term, but rather a mild tailing off of fecundity at higher population densities which did not invalidate Malthus, attacking various details of <mask>'s analysis, and ending 25 pages later:
We have shown that Mr <mask> is careless in the collection of facts, — that he is incapable of reasoning on facts when he has collected them, — that he does not understand the

masks:
Thomas Babington
Sadler
Sadler
Sadler
Sadler


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 simplest terms of science, — that he has enounced a proposition of which he does not know the meaning,— that the proposition which he means to enounce, and which he tries to prove, leads directly to all those consequences which he represents as impious and immoral, — and that, from the very documents to which he has himself appealed, it may be demonstrated that his theory is false. <mask> replied in a pamphlet showing that Macaulay had indulged in considerable misrepresentation of the content of the book. In June 1832, Sadler was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.Defence of his patron
Newcastle's intimidatory power in Newark was strengthened by his holding (on -it was alleged – advantageous terms) the lease of Crown lands in the neighbourhood ; the leases had come into his family by being granted by a previous Duke of Newcastle (when Prime Minister) to a close relative. A public meeting was held in Newark against these leases: Newcastle responded to an invitation to the meeting in a letter in which he asked "Is it presumed, then, that I am not to do what I will with my own ?". Newcastle meant the properties he leased to his tenants, but it did not take too much ill-will to take him to mean his tenants' votes; and the phrase was widely quoted on that basis. In a Commons debate on the Crown leases <mask> spoke in defence of his patron, effusively and not entirely accurately. John Cam Hobhouse claimed that <mask> had admitted in his speech that he owed his return for Newark to the Duke (it was contrary to the privileges of the House of Commons for a member of the House of Lords to procure the election of an MP); <mask> rapidly

masks: Sadler Sadler Sadler Sadler


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 denied he had said this, or that it was true. 1831; parliamentary reform
The Catholic Relief Bill duly passed, but the Tory Ultras (those – such as <mask> – irreconcilably opposed to Catholic Relief) withdrew their support from the Wellington administration, which then fell. Their Whig opponents came to power, committed to Parliamentary Reform ( sweeping away many of the 'rotten boroughs', creating new borough constituencies for unrepresented towns like Manchester and Leeds, and equalising the franchise).The 'Reform Bill' introduced in 1831 in fact consisted of separate Bills for England, for Scotland, and for Ireland. The English Bill went first; it passed its Second Reading, but upon it entering Committee stage, the first amendment to the Bill (a wrecking one, deploring the reduction in the number of English MPs, seconded by <mask>("Mr <mask>, in seconding the amendment, inflicted upon the house a most discursive speech of three closely printed columns, amid general yawning and coughing") was carried by a majority of 8. The Government then withdrew the Bill and called a General Election. <mask> (having been burnt in effigy at Newark) was now returned for Aldborough; the Whigs retained power and introduced a revised Reform Bill, which eventually passed the House of Commons. <mask> voted against the Reform Bill; he spoke at Committee stage when boroughs in schedule B (those formerly returning two MPs, but now to return one: Aldborough was to be one of these, but with revised boundaries, and hence no longer in the pocket of the Duke of Newcastle) were under consideration His main contribution was to (like a few Radicals such as


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts: Henry Hunt) deplore the introduction of a uniform qualification for the vote sweeping away much wider "scot & lot" franchises in the few boroughs where they existed. Otherwise he spoke rarely on the Reform Bill; during its passage through the Commons he made more speeches on Irish poverty and Irish Poor Laws. The debate he initiated on Irish Poor Laws (29 August 1831) was held on the next sitting day after Sir Robert Peel had supported ministers by appealing to members to "avoid every other business which should interfere with the progress of the Reform Bill".In October he moved the First Reading of a Bill to improve the lot of the (agricultural) labouring poor (by Government building respectable cottages with land attached and letting them at an economic rent.) Both sides of the House agreed that in any reformed House of Commons Manchester Birmingham and Leeds should be represented, and in September 1831 <mask> was approached (and agreed) to stand as the Tory candidate for Leeds in the election that would follow passage of the Bill. However, in October 1831 the second Reform Bill was rejected by the Lords; Parliament was prorogued and <mask>'s 'labouring poor' Bill lost. Sadler gave advance notice of three further Bills he might wish to bring in in the next session; for the relief of the Irish poor, for bettering the condition of the manufacturing poor, and for regulating the labour of Children in Factories. Attempts to form a Tory government failed, and Parliament reassembled before Christmas, still with a Whig government committed to the early passage of a Reform Bill. <mask> did not revive his 'labouring poor' Bill; instead


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 he announced his intention to bring in a Bill regulating the Labour of Children in Mills and Factories. 1832: The Ten Hour Bill
Parliamentary time in 1832 was largely taken up with passage of the third Reform Bill.<mask>'s only recorded speech in the Reform Bill debates was a short one on Hunt's amendment for a 'scot-and-lot' franchise "That all householders paying taxes, shall have a vote for the respective Members to be chosen in the next, and every succeeding Parliament. ": <mask> supported an even wider 'pot-walloper' franchise ("Every one above the rank of a pauper was entitled to the elective franchise.") and did not vote for Hunt's amendment. His efforts were concentrated upon a Bill extending the existing Factory Acts (which gave some protection to children working in the cotton industry) to other textile industries, and reducing to ten per day the working hours of children in the industries legislated for. In 1815 Sir Robert Peel (father of the Sir Robert Peel leading the Tories in the Commons when <mask> was an MP) had introduced a Bill which was to apply to all children in textile mills and factories. Children under ten were not to be employed; children between ten and eighteen could work no more than ten hours a day, and nightworking by them was banned. After four years and three Committees taking evidence, Peel got an Act passed in 1819 which only applied to children in cotton mills and factories.Children under nine were not to be employed; children between nine and sixteen could work no more than twelve hours a day; the ban on nightworking remained. In 1825 John Cam Hobhouse had introduced a Bill to reduce the


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts: working day for children in cotton mills to eleven hours, but in face of organised opposition had settled for a three-hour reduction in their working week by a short Saturday. In 1831 Hobhouse introduced a Bill to consolidate the cotton mills Factory Acts and apply them to all textile mills; again there was considerable opposition and the Act passed applied only to cotton mills (and banned nightworking up to the age of 21). <mask> had been absent from Parliament because of ill-health, but attended specifically to speak on the Third Reading of Hobhouse's Bill, regretting its reduced scope (and referring to a petition in its favour from Dundee spinners to whom it was now irrelevant). A network of 'Short Time Committees' had grown up in the textile districts of Yorkshire and Lancashire, working for a 'ten-hour day Act ' for children, with many millhands in the Ten Hour Movement hoping that this would in practice also limit the adult working day. Witnesses to one of the Committees taking evidence on Peel's Bill had noted that there were few millworkers over forty, and that they themselves expected to have to stop mill work at that age because of 'the pace of the mill' unless working hours were reduced. Hobhouse advised Richard Oastler, a Yorkshire supporter of <mask>, that Hobhouse had got as much as he could, given the opposition of Scottish flax-spinners and 'the state of public business':  if Sadler put forward a Bill matching the aims of the Short Time Committees “he will not be allowed to proceed a single stage with any enactment, and … he will only throw an air of ridicule and extravagance over the whole of this kind of


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 legislation”.Oastler responded that a failure with a Ten Hour Bill would "not dishearten its friends. It will only spur them on to greater exertions, and would undoubtedly lead to certain success "

<mask>'s Bill when introduced indeed corresponded closely to the aims of the Short Time Committees. Hobhouse's ban on nightwork up to 21 was retained; no child under nine was to be employed; and the working day for under-eighteens was to be no more than ten hours (eight on Saturday). These restrictions were to apply across all textile industries. The Second Reading debate on <mask>'s bill did not take place until 16 March 1832, the Reform Bill having taken precedence over all other legislation. Meanwhile, petitions both for and against the Bill had been presented to the Commons; both Peel and Sir George Strickland had warned that the Bill as it stood was too ambitious: more MPs had spoken for further factory legislation than against, but many supporters wanted the subject to be considered by a Select Committee. <mask>  had resisted this  "if the present Bill was referred to one, it would not become a law this Session, and the necessity of legislating was so apparent, that he was unwilling to submit to the delay of a Committee, when he considered they could obtain no new evidence on the subject".In his long Second Reading speech, <mask> argued repeatedly that a Committee was unnecessary, but concluded by accepting that he had not convinced the House or the Government of this, and that the Bill would be referred to a Select Committee. (Lord Althorp, responding for the Government, noted that <mask>'s speech made a strong case for


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 considering legislation, thought it did little to directly support the details of the Bill; the Government supported the Bill as leading to a Select Committee, but would not in advance pledge support for whatever legislation the Committee might recommend). This effectively removed any chance of a Factories Regulation Act being passed before Parliament was dissolved. <mask> was made chairman of the committee, which allowed him to make his case by hearing evidence from witnesses of <mask>'s selection, on the understanding that opponents of the Bill (or of some feature of it) would then have their innings. <mask> attempted (31 July 1832) to progress his Bill without waiting for the committee's report; when this abnormal procedure was objected to by other MPs, he withdrew the Bill. <mask>, as chairman of the committee, reported the minutes of evidence on 8 August 1832, when they were ordered to be printed. Parliament was prorogued shortly afterwards: <mask> gave notice of his intention to reintroduce a Ten-Hour Bill in the next session

Leeds Election 1832

At the 1832 election <mask> stood for the newly enfranchised seat of Leeds.His rival candidates were <mask> Macaulay a Whig politician of national standing (as well as a prolific reviewer for the Edinburgh Review) and John Marshall. Marshall's father had been a Leeds linen-draper and had become a millionaire by developing the spinning of flax by machinery, but as a Dissenter (Unitarian) had been excluded from Leeds Corporation (a'close corporation') – and hence prevented from becoming a magistrate – by the Anglican Tory circles which the Sadlers had joined. By 1832, the

masks:
Sadler
Sadler
Sadler
Sadler
Sadler
Sadler
Thomas Babington


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 descended further into personalities; the accusation that Sadler had deserted Methodism for Anglicanism from worldly motives and now despised Methodists was repeated; countered by Sadler's supporters by an assertion that no orthodox Christian should vote for Marshall or Macaulay as they were both Socinians, which accusation the Whigs met with the revelation that Sadler was "sadly addicted to PROFANE SWEARING" and had "attended the SUNDAY parties of a certain Dowager not noted for keeping all the Ten Commandments"
When the result was declared, Marshall had 2012 votes, and Macaulay 1984; Sadler failed to be elected, trailing badly with 1596 votes

Final years

Fate of the Ten Hour Bill
Extracts from 'the report of Mr Sadler's Committee' began to appear in newspapers in January 1833 and painted a picture of the life of a mill-child as one of systematic over-work and systematic brutality. The conclusion many papers drew was that Sadler's Bill should be revived and passed.Lord Ashley, eldest son of the 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, took <mask>'s place as the leading spokesman in Parliament for the factory reform movement, and reintroduced the Bill. However MPs criticised both the report (since the only witnesses heard had been <mask>'s, the report was unbalanced; since witnesses had not testified on oath, doubts were expressed about the accuracy/veracity of the more lurid accounts of factory life) and <mask>'s conduct. 'An air of ridicule and extravagance' had been thrown not upon factory legislation, but upon the use of Select Committees for fact-finding on factory conditions. A Factory Commission was set up to investigate and report.


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 <mask> and the Short Time Committees objected to any further fact-finding and attempted to obstruct the work of the Commissioners. Ashley's Bill proceeded to a Second Reading in early July 1833 (when the likely main recommendations of the commission were known, but its report was not yet available to MPs); Ashley wanted the Bill to then be considered by a Committee of the whole House and defeated Lord Althorp's amendment to refer the Bill to a Select Committee. However at Committee stage the first point considered where the Bill differed from the commission's was the age up to which hours of work should be limited Ashley lost (heavily) the vote on this, and left it to Althorp to pilot through a Factory Act based upon the commission's recommendations.Huddersfield by-election 1834
In the autumn of 1834, it became clear that a by-election at Leeds was imminent as Macaulay intended to resign his seat in Parliament. It was widely assumed that <mask> would be the Tory candidate. However, there was an unexpected by-election at Huddersfield. The Whig MP elected in 1832, had been opposed only by a Radical (Captain Wood) : since then Wood had converted to Catholicism and felt (or was advised) that this made it unlikely that he would win the by-election. Wood therefore advised his supporters to invite <mask> to stand as a Tory with Radical support. Whig papers then publicised allegations by John Foster, a former editor of the Leeds Patriot. The Patriot had been a Radical paper supporting the Ten-Hour movement which had been bankrupted by the legal costs of preparing to defend a libel action.Foster said that he had been promised that the


title: Michael Thomas Sadler

texts:
 Ten-Hour committee would pay all his legal costs and hadn't done so; that <mask> had promised before the Leeds election to pay a handsome price for the Patriot and reneged on the agreement post-election; that money collected for the Ten-Hour campaign had been misappropriated by Oastler; and that <mask> had been evasive and duplicitous. This mud-slinging aside, there were also underlying policy differences between the Tories and the Radicals (e.g. attitude to the Corn Laws) and the passage of Althorp's Factory Act had for the moment removed the Ten-Hour Bill as a cause behind which they could easily unite. For whichever reason, the Huddersfield Radicals refused to support <mask> (whose campaign was already well under way) and persuaded Wood to stand as their candidate. At the election, <mask> came second with 147 votes, Wood third (108), behind the successful Whig candidate (234 votes). This was the last election at which he stood: requisitioned to stand at the Leeds by-election, he declined the invitation. He and his family moved in July 1834 to Belfast, where he died in 1835 and was buried in Ballylesson churchyard.There is a Grade II listed statue of <mask> in St George's Fields (the former Woodhouse Cemetery) in Leeds. Major works
 Ireland, Its Evils and their Remedies(first published 1828)
 The Law of Population: A Treatise, in Six Books; (first published 1830)
 Report of the Select Committee on his Factory Regulation Bill, 1832

Minor works
 A refutation of an article in the Edinburgh Review (1830 : the article was the review by <mask> Macaulay of Sadler's Law of Population)
 The Factory Girl's Last Day a

masks:
Sadler
Sadler
Sadler
Sadler
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Thomas Babington


title: Willie Rushton

texts:
<mask> (18 August 1937 – 11 December 1996) was an English cartoonist, satirist, comedian, actor and performer who co-founded the satirical magazine Private Eye. Early life
<mask> was born 18 August 1937 in 3 Wilbraham Place, Chelsea, London, the only child of publisher <mask> (1908-1958) and his Welsh wife Veronica (née James, 1910-1977). He was educated at Shrewsbury School, where he was not academically successful but met his future Private Eye colleagues Richard Ingrams, Paul Foot and Christopher Booker. He also contributed to the satirical magazine The Wallopian, (a play on the school magazine name The Salopian) mocking school spirit, traditions and the masters. Later, he said he recalled little of his schooldays, except that "it was Blandings country. The sort of place you go to die, not to be educated". After school Rushton had to perform two years of national service in the army, where he failed officer selection.He later commented, "The Army is, God bless it, one of the funniest institutions on earth and also a sort of microcosm of the world. It's split almost perfectly into our class system. Through serving in the ranks I discovered the basic wit of my fellow man – whom basically, to tell the truth, I'd never met before." On leaving the army, he worked in a solicitor's office for a short period. Private Eye and the satire boom
Rushton remained in contact with his Shrewsbury friends, who had added John Wells to their number and were now running their own humour magazines at Oxford, Parsons Pleasure and

masks:
William George Rushton
Rushton
John Atton Rushton


title: Willie Rushton

texts: Mesopotamia, to which Rushton made many contributions during his frequent visits. A cartoon of a giraffe in a bar saying "The high balls are on me" was not met with approval by everyone in the university administrative quarters. Rushton suggested that Mesopotamia could continue after they left university.During his time as a clerk he had been sending his cartoons out to Punch but none had been accepted. After being knocked over by a bus, he gave up his job as a clerk, determined not to waste another day. After almost but not quite being accepted by Tribune (a Labour-supporting newspaper edited by Michael Foot, Paul's uncle), Rushton found a place at the Liberal News, which was also employing Christopher Booker as a journalist. From June 1960 until March 1961, he contributed a weekly strip, "Brimstone Belcher", following the exploits of the titular journalist (a fore-runner of Private Eyes Lunchtime O'Booze), from bizarre skulduggery in the British colonies (where the soldiers holding back the politicised rabble bear a strong resemblance to privates <mask> and Ingrams), travelogues through the US, and the hazards of by-electioneering as the independent candidate for the constituency of Gumboot North. After the strip folded, Rushton still contributed a weekly political cartoon to the Liberal News until mid-1962. The Salopians finally found a financier for their magazine and the first issue of Private Eye was published on 25 October 1961. Rushton put it together in his bedroom in Scarsdale Villas using Letraset and


title: Willie Rushton

texts: cow-gumming illustrations onto cards which were taken away to be photo-lithographed.He also contributed all the illustrations and the mast-head figure of Little Gnitty (who still appears on the cover, a blended caricature of John Wells and the Daily Express standard-head). One critic described the original lay-out of the magazine as owing much to "Neo-Brechtian Nihilism", although Rushton thought it resembled a betting shop floor. One feature in the early issues was the "Aesop Revisited", a full-page comic strip which let him work in a wealth of puns and background jokes. With Private Eye riding the satire boom, Peter Cook soon took an interest and contributed two serials recounting the bizarre adventures of Sir Basil Nardly-Stoads and the Rhandi Phurr, both of which were illustrated by Rushton, as was "Mrs Wilson's Diary". In the early days the team also worked on two books, Private Eye on London and Private Eye's Romantic England that make heavy use of his cartooning talents. One of the first Private Eye-published books was <mask>'s first collection of cartoons, <mask>'s Dirty Weekend Book (banned in Ireland). Reuniting with his Salopian chums had also reawakened Rushton's taste for acting.After they had finished university, he had accompanied his friends in a well-received revue at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. (Richard Burton even appeared one night in their parody of Luther.) In 1961, Richard Ingrams directed a production of Spike Milligan's surreal post-nuclear apocalypse farce The Bed-Sitting Room, in which

masks:
Rushton
Willie Rushton


title: Willie Rushton

texts:
 scare led Macmillan to resign and Sir Alec Douglas-Home became Prime Minister. It was necessary that Douglas-Home resign his peerage to find a safe Parliamentary seat. The Private Eye team were so disgusted by the Conservative Party's machinations that they decided to stand their own protest candidate in the Kinross and Western Perthshire by-election. Since he was the most well-known member of the team, <mask> was the obvious choice to stand. Rushton gained much attention from journalists, since he stood under the slogan "Death to the Tories". He polled only 45 votes, having advised his supporters at the last minute to vote Liberal, the Conservatives' only credible challenger. Douglas-Home won.Films, television and radio
When TW3 was cancelled in anticipation of the 1964 election, <mask> and some of the cast, as well as some of the members of the Cambridge University revue Cambridge Circus (including future Goodies Tim Brooke-Taylor and Bill Oddie), went on tour in America as David Frost Presents TW3. <mask> and Barry Fantoni (another Private Eye contributor) entered a painting titled Nude Reclining, a satirical portrait of three establishment types, for the 1963 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition under the name of Stuart Harris, which excited much controversy. He also began a career as a character actor for films in 1963. In late 1964 <mask> was involved as one of the hosts in the early episodes of another satirical programme, Not So Much a Programme, but drifted away as it became the vehicle that launched David Frost as

masks: Rushton Rushton Rushton Rushton


title: Willie Rushton

texts:
 played Tim Brooke-Taylor's gay husband in Sharon Tate's last film before her murder, The Thirteen Chairs (1969), and Tobias Cromwell in Flight of the Doves (1971), as well as appearing in sex comedies such as Keep It Up Downstairs (1976), Adventures of a Private Eye (1977) and Adventures of a Plumber's Mate (1978). His final film appearance was as Big Teddy in Consuming Passions released in 1988. As a TV actor in the 1970s he appeared in episodes of popular programmes as different as The Persuaders!, Colditz (episode: "The Guests" – Major Trumpington in a kilt) and Up Pompeii! as the narrator Plautus. He was Dr Watson to John Cleese's Sherlock Holmes in N. F. Simpson's surreal comedy Elementary, My Dear Watson. In 1975 and 1976 he appeared in well-received pantomimes of Gulliver’s Travels; in 1981 in Eric Idle's Pass the Butler; and in 1988 as Peter Tinniswood's irascible Brigadier in Tales from a Long Room.<mask> also wrote two musicals:
 Liz of Lambeth in 1976. Tallulah Who? in 1991, with Suzi Quatro and Shirlie Roden. In this period, he also found time to contribute seven humorous, spoken word pieces for the double LP, Tale of Ale. His last major solo TV project was Rushton's Illustrated (1980; partially wiped by ATV which often did not keep programmes considered of no international sales value). By now he was an established guest on quiz shows and celebrity panel games: Celebrity Squares, Blankety Blank, Countdown and Through the Keyhole. When asked why he appeared on these "ludicrous programmes", his answer was


title: Willie Rushton

texts: Cottage", and provided illustrations for many children's books. <mask> had not been involved in Private Eye since the latter part of the 1960s, other than a brief stint illustrating "Mrs Wilson's Diary" when the Labour Party came back into power in the mid-1970s. He returned to Private Eye in 1978 to take over the task of illustrating "Auberon Waugh's Diary", which continued until 1986.The cartoons perfectly complemented Auberon Waugh's scabrous and surreal flights of invective, and when Waugh moved his column to The Daily Telegraph as the "Way of the World" in 1990, Rushton followed, drawing at Waugh's instruction such surreal concepts as Richard Ingrams pretending to be a seven-year-old choirgirl, the head of a dead cow coming out of a computer connected to the then-new (in common usage) internet and a nude statue of Benjamin Britten with a bird bath discreetly covering its private parts. The Victoria and Albert Museum, recognising his accomplishments, commissioned 24 large colour illustrations which were collected as <mask>'s Great Moments of History. (<mask> had previous experience with the V&A when he had pulled a prank on the institution by labelling an electric plug socket in one of the galleries: "Plug hole designed by Hans Plug (b. 1908)", which remained for a full year – to the great annoyance of a cleaner who had to use a hefty extension lead for 12 months so as not to damage the exhibit.) This large-scale excursion into the use of colour was good practice for the monthly colour covers he created for the

masks:
Rushton
Willie Rushton
Rushton


title: Willie Rushton

texts:
 Literary Review when Waugh became its editor in 1986. <mask> drew these covers along with the fortnightly caricatures for Private Eyes literary review page until he died. <mask> had always been conscious of his weight, listing his recreations in Who's Who as "gaining weight, losing weight and parking", and in 1973 he had been the host of a slimming programme, Don't Just Sit There.His first major health scare had been the onset of diabetes (the cause of his father's death in 1958). Having to give up beer, Rushton became, according to Ingrams, "quite grumpy as a result, but his grumpiness had an admirable and jaunty quality to it." A sudden loss of three stone had prevented him from playing in Prince Rainier's XI at Monte Carlo, Monaco. Rushton was always passionate about cricket. His father had sent him for coaching at Lord's before he went to Shrewsbury. His cricket and general knowledge were called upon in his role as a regular team captain on BBC Radio 4's quiz show Trivia Test Match with Tim Rice and Brian Johnston, which ran from 1986 to 1993. Rushton was always an enthusiastic cricketer, playing in the Lord's Taverners, a charity celebrity cricket team.In 1989 he performed in The Secret Policeman's Biggest Ball. His act consisted of singing "Top Hat, White Tie and Tails" and acting out the lyrics, which left him standing in a top hat, white tie, and tails – but no trousers. In his later years his cartoons were part of an exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery. Death and memorials
<mask> died of a heart attack

masks: Rushton Rushton Rushton


title: Willie Rushton

texts:
 at Cromwell Hospital, Kensington, in 1996, aged 59. He had predicted this ten years earlier, presumably in jest, on I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue. In the first episode of Series 13, which aired on 26 July 1986, Chairman Humphrey Lyttelton asked the panellists to "gaze into their crystal balls" and make predictions for 1996. Rushton said, "I'm sorry you introduced this round, because I just spotted a memorial service for myself in Westminster Abbey".Among his last words was the advice, "Tell Bazza he's too old to do pantomime", meant for his long-time friend Barry Cryer. Rushton is honoured by a Comic Heritage blue plaque at Mornington Crescent tube station, a reference to the game Mornington Crescent on I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue. BBC7 showcased his contribution to I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue – in the week of the 10th anniversary of his death – by rebroadcasting five episodes of the show, one on each weekday night (11–15 December 2006). The broadcasts chosen included the last shows he recorded for the programme. According to the autobiography of Nicholas Parsons, <mask>'s ashes were buried by the boundary at The Oval Cricket Ground. Filmography

Bibliography

Novels
The Day of the Grocer <mask> (Andre Deutsch, 1971)
W. G. Grace's Last Case <mask> (Methuen, 1984)
Spy Thatcher; The Collected Ravings of a Senior MI5 Officer <mask> (Pavilion, 1987)

Solo works
<mask>'s Dirty Book <mask> (Private Eye Productions, 1964)
The 'I Didn’t Know The Way To Kings Cross When I First Came Here But Look at Me Now' Book By <mask>, Author,

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William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton


title: Willie Rushton

texts:
 Artist And Beer-Drinker Extraordinary <mask> (New English Library, 1966)
Sassenach's Scotland <mask> (Seagram, 1975)
Superpig: A Gentleman's Guide To Everyday Survival <mask> (Macdonald And Janes, 1976)
The Reluctant Euro – Rushton Versus Europe <mask> (Queen Anne Press/Macdonald Futura 1980)
The Filth Amendment <mask> (Queen Anne Press, 1981)
Think of England. An Identikit Preview of the New Heir to the Throne William Rushton (Penguin Books, 1982)
The Naughty French Wine Book William Rushton (G & J Greenall, 1983?)Queen's English: High Taw Tawk Prawpah-leah (Pelham Books, 1985)

On sport
How To Play Football <mask> (Margaret & Jack Hobbs, 1968)
Pigsticking – A Joy For Life <mask> (Macdonald, 1978)
Marylebone Versus The World <mask> (Pavilion Books, 1987)
The Thoughts of Trueman Now Fred Trueman, Eric Morecambe, and Fred Rumsey (Rushton illustrations only) (Macdonald & Janes, 1978)
The Lord's Taverners Sticky Wicket Book with Tim Rice (eds.) (Queen Anne Press/Macdonald & Jane's: 1979)
The Compleat Cricketer Jonathan Rice (Rushton illustrations only) (Blandford Press, 1985)
Cricket Balls Rory Bremner (Rushton illustrations only) (Robson Books, 1994)

Children's books
Ebbledum E. Elephant Iris Degg (Rushton illustrations only) (George G. Harrap, 1961.) Sunny Bell and The Shrimp Street Gang Iris Degg (Rushton illustrations only) (George G. Harrap, 1962)
The Geranium of Flüt William Rushton (Andre Deutsch, 1975)
Jubilee Jackanory (Rushton story with illustrations) (BBC, 1977)
The Discontented Dervishes And Other Persian

masks:
William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton
William Rushton


title: Willie Rushton

texts:
 (Quartet, 1988)
But I Digress: The Collected Monologues of Ramblin' Ronnie Corbett David Renwick (New English Library, 1989.)Agreeable World of Wallace Arnold Craig Brown (Fourth Estate, 1990)
Soft Targets From The Weekend Guardian: Poems Simon Rae (Bloodaxe Books, 1991)
Thatcher's Inferno Simon Rae (Smith/Doorstop, 1992)
A Burning Candle, The Literary Review Anthology of Poetry Edited By Dariane Pictet, Introduced By Auberon Waugh (Peterborough, Uk: Poetry No, 1993)
Happy Families: An Old Game With New Faces (Mandarin, 1993)
The Mad Officials Christopher Booker and Dr. Richard North (Constable, 1994)
When the Lights Went Out Wanda Anderson (ed) (Friends of St. Helena Hospice, Colchester, 1995)
Gullible's Travails Brian Rix (ed) (André Deutsch, 1996)

References

 Pigs Can Fly. Barry Cryer, 2003. (Several references to some items in this article.) External links

 BBC biography
 gallery of <mask> cartoons
 British Cartoon Archive, University of Kent

1937 births
1996 deaths
20th-century British Army personnel
20th-century English comedians
20th-century English male actors
Audiobook narrators
English cartoonists
English illustrators
English male comedians
English male voice actors
English male radio actors
English male television actors
English male film actors
English people of Welsh descent
English radio personalities
English satirists
English television personalities
I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue
Independent British political candidates
People educated at Shrewsbury School
People from Chelsea, London
Private Eye


title: Claudio Gora

texts:
<mask>,  Emilio Giordana  (27 July 1913 – 13 March 1998) was an Italian actor and film director. He was particularly prolific, making some 155 appearances in film and television over nearly 60 years (from 1939 to 1997). In the 1950s he did dabble with directing and screenwriting and directed the film Three Strangers in Rome in 1958 which was incidentally the first leading role by Claudia Cardinale. Some of his notable roles includes Adua e le compagne, directed by Antonio Pietrangeli, Tutti a casa by Luigi Comencini, and Dino Risi's  A Difficult Life and Il Sorpasso. Selected filmography

 Torna, caro ideal! (1939) - Francesco Paolo Tosti
 Wealth Without a Future (1940) - Giovanni Di Cora
  (1940) - Il fidanzato della segretaria
 Il Bazar delle idee (1940)
 Love Me, Alfredo! (1940) - Il compositore Giacomo Varni
 Eternal Melodies (1940) - L'imperatore Giuseppe
 Amore imperiale (1941) - Alessio Romowski
 A Woman Has Fallen (1941) - Mario
 Document Z-3 (1942) - Paolo Sullich
 Quarta pagina (1942) - <mask>, l'avvocato
 Signorinette (1942) - Marco Lancia, lo scrittore
 Dove andiamo, signora?(1942) - Rudi Lindt, conte di Lerchmann
 Mater dolorosa (1943) - Giorgio della Valle
 L'amico delle donne (1943) - Il conte De Simerose
 La storia di una capinera (1943) - Nino Valentini
 National Velvet (1944) - Andrea
 Squadriglia Bianca (1944) - Alessandro, il pilota istruttore
 Resurrection (1944) - Dimitri Neklindoff
 Il fiore sotto gli occhi (1944) - Silvio Aroca
 Nessuno torna indietro (1945) - Andrea
 The Ten Commandments (1945) - (segment "Non dire falsa testimonianza")
 Il fabbro del convento (1945) - Des Measures
 I Met You in Naples (1946)

masks:
Claudio Gora
Claudio


title: Tariq ibn Ziyad

texts:
Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād (), also known simply as Tarik in English, was a Berber Umayyad commander who initiated the Muslim Umayyad conquest of Visigothic Hispania (present-day Spain and Portugal) in 711–718 AD. He led a large army and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from the North African coast, consolidating his troops at what is today known as the Rock of Gibraltar. The name "Gibraltar" is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Ṭāriq (جبل طارق), meaning "mountain of Ṭāriq", which is named after him. Origins
Medieval Arabic historians give contradictory data about Ṭāriq's origins and nationality. Some conclusions about his personality and the circumstances of his entry into al-Andalus are surrounded by uncertainty. The vast majority of modern sources state that Ṭāriq was a Berber mawla of <mask>, the Umayyad governor of Ifriqiya. History

According to Ibn Abd al-Hakam (803–871), <mask>yr appointed Ṭāriq governor of Tangier after its conquest in 710-711  but an unconquered Visigothic outpost remained nearby at Ceuta, a stronghold commanded by a nobleman named Julian, Count of Ceuta.After Roderic came to power in Spain, Julian had, as was the custom, sent his daughter, Florinda la Cava, to the court of the Visigothic king for education. It is said that Roderic raped her, and that Julian was so incensed he resolved to have the Muslims bring down the Visigothic kingdom. Accordingly, he entered into a treaty with Ṭāriq (Mūsā having returned to Qayrawan) to secretly convoy the Muslim

masks:
Musa ibn Nusayr
Musa ibn Nusa


title: Tariq ibn Ziyad

texts: army across the Straits of Gibraltar, as he owned a number of merchant ships and had his own forts on the Spanish mainland. On or about April 26, 711, the army of Ṭāriq Bin <mask>, composed of recent converts to Islam, was landed on the Iberian peninsula (in what is now Spain) by Julian. They debarked at the foothills of a mountain which was henceforth named after him, Gibraltar (Jabal Tariq). Ṭāriq's army contained about 7,000 soldiers, composed largely of Berber stock but also Arab troops. Roderic, to meet the threat of the Umayyads, assembled an army said to number 100,000, though the real number may well have been much lower.Most of the army was commanded by, and loyal to, the sons of Wittiza, whom Roderic had brutally deposed. Ṭāriq won a decisive victory when Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Ṭāriq Bin <mask> split his army into four divisions, which went on to capture Córdoba under Mughith al-Rumi, Granada, and other places, while he remained at the head of the division which captured Toledo. Afterwards, he continued advancing towards the north, reaching Guadalajara and Astorga. Ṭāriq was de facto governor of Hispania until the arrival of Mūsā a year later. Ṭāriq's success led Musa to assemble 12,000 (mostly Arab) troops to plan a second invasion, and within a few years Ṭāriq and Musa had captured two-thirds of the Iberian peninsula from the Visigoths. Both Ṭāriq and Musa were simultaneously ordered back to Damascus by the Umayyad Caliph

masks: Ziyad Ziyad


title: Gay McDougall

texts:
<mask> (born August 13, 1947, in Atlanta, Georgia) is an American lawyer who has spent her career addressing international human rights and racial discrimination. She is currently a Distinguished Scholar-in-Residence at the Leitner Center on International Law and Justice of Fordham University Law School. She was Executive Director of Global Rights, Partners for Justice (from September 1994 to 2006). In August 2005, she was named the first United Nations Independent Expert on Minority Issues, serving until 2011. Early years
<mask> was born August 13, 1947 to Louis and <mask>. Her father was a hospital cook and her mother a high school math teacher. She grew up in the Dixie Hills neighborhood of Atlanta.She attended Atlanta public schools and in 1965 graduated from Booker T. Washington High School. As a child, <mask> was banned from many public places in Atlanta. When she finished high school, she was chosen to be the first black student to integrate Agnes Scott College in Decatur, Georgia. Looking back on the experiences of her early years, she has said: "We believed then that our situation was uniquely tragic ... We often looked to the international community with the hope that somehow the world beyond this country operated on different rules…We were both right and wrong." Education and private law career
After two years at Agnes Scott, she transferred to Bennington College in Bennington, Vermont. She earned her BA in social science from Bennington, her JD at Yale Law School, and her LLM in public international law at the London School of Economics and Politics. After graduating from Yale Law School, she joined the New York City corporate law firm of Debevoise, Plimpton, Lyons & Gates.Non-profit career

McDougall is currently a Distinguished Scholar-in-Residence at the Leitner Center on International Law and Justice, Fordham University Law School

In 1998, she was first elected to serve as an independent expert on the United Nations treaty body that oversees the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD). She was the first

masks:
Gay Johnson McDougall
Gay Johnson McDougall
Inez Gay Johnson
Gay McDougall


title: Gay McDougall

texts: American to be elected to the body of 18 international experts who oversee compliance by governments worldwide with the obligations established under the treaty. She served a four-year term, from 1998 to 2001. She was elected to another four-year term on the CERD Committee in June 2015, and served on the Committee for a term that began on January 20, 2016, and ended on January 19, 2020. She was a Vice-chairperson of the Committee. At its 1996 session, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights elected her to serve a four-year term as a member (alternate) of the U.N. Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities of the Human Rights commission. She also served as Special Rapporteur on the issue of systematic rape, sexual slavery, and slavery-like practices in armed conflict, in which capacity she presented a study to the United Nations Sub-Commission on Human Rights that called for international legal standards for prosecuting acts of systematic rape and sexual slavery committed during armed conflict.As Special Rapporteur she also toured Sierra Leone with the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights to assess the devastating impact the civil war had on civilian populations. Prior to joining Global Rights, <mask> served as one of five international members of South Africa's 16-member Independent Electoral Commission which successfully organized and administered that country's first non-racial elections. During southern Africa's apartheid era, she was director of the Southern African Project of the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law from 1980 until early 1994 and gave direct assistance to the defense of thousands of political prisoners in South Africa and Namibia by financing the defense and collaborating with attorneys. In 1989, <mask> founded the Commission on Independence for Namibia, a bipartisan group of 31 distinguished Americans who monitored in detail the year-long process to independence mandated by the U.N. The Commission intervened to force modifications in critical legislation, such as the voter registration and election laws,

masks: McDougall McDougall


title: Gay McDougall

texts:
 which as drafted, threatened the fairness of the election process. Honors
<mask> was awarded a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 1999 for her "innovative and highly effective" work on behalf of international human rights. She has Honorary Doctor of Law degrees from Georgetown University Law Center, the University of Witwatersrand (South Africa), the School of Law of the City University of New York, Agnes Scott College and the School of Advanced Study, University of London.McDougall received a Candace Award from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women in 1990. Other positions
 Senior Scholars 2002, Institute for Policy Studies
 Board Member, Africare
 Board Member, CARE (Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere)
 Board Member, Global Fund for Women
 Advisory Council, Realizing Rights
 Executive Council, American Society of International Law
 Distinguished Scholar in Residence, American University's College of Law Faculty
 Visiting Scholar, American University Washington College of Law Academy on Human Rights and Humanitarian Law
 Mulligan Distinguished Visiting Professor of International Law, and  Distinguished Scholar-in-Residence, Leitner Center for International Law and Justice, Fordham University School of Law
Board member of the Open Society Justice Initiative of the Open Society Foundations

References

External links
 Interview with <mask> on the African Activist Archive Project website
 Global Rights website
 Institute for Policy Studies/Senior Scholars
 American University, Washington D.C. website/McDougall bio
 African National Congress speech
 Leitner Center for International Law and Justice

African-American lawyers
African-American academics
African-American activists
African-American educators
American educators
New York (state) lawyers
Living people
Minority rights
People from Atlanta
United Nations special rapporteurs
Members of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
Yale Law School alumni
1947 births
African-American women lawyers
American women lawyers
Bennington College alumni
MacArthur Fellows
American officials of the United

masks:
McDougall
Gay McDougall


title: Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal

texts: <mask>, 1st Marquis of Pombal and 1st Count of Oeiras (13 May 1699 – 8 May 1782), known as the Marquis of Pombal (Marquês <mask>mbal; ), was a Portuguese statesman and diplomat who effectively ruled the Portuguese Empire from 1750 to 1777 as chief minister to King <mask>. A liberal reformer influenced by the Age of Enlightenment, Pombal led Portugal's recovery from the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and modernized the kingdom's administrative, economic, and ecclesiastical institutions. During his lengthy ministerial career, Pombal accumulated and exercised autocratic power. The son of a country squire and nephew of a prominent cleric, Pombal studied at the University of Coimbra before enlisting in the Portuguese Army, where he reached the rank of corporal. Pombal subsequently returned to academic life in Lisbon, but retired to his family's estates in 1733 after eloping with a nobleman's niece. In 1738, with his uncle's assistance, he secured an appointment as King John V's ambassador to Great Britain. In 1745, he was named ambassador to Austria and served until 1749.When <mask> acceded to the throne in 1750, <mask> was appointed as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. Despite entrenched opposition from the hereditary Portuguese nobility, Pombal gained <mask>'s confidence and, by 1755, was the king's de facto chief minister. Pombal secured his preeminence through his decisive management of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, one of the deadliest earthquakes in history; he maintained public order, organized relief efforts, and supervised the capital's reconstruction in the Pombaline architectural style. Pombal was appointed as Secretary of State for Internal Affairs in

masks:
Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo
de Po
Joseph I
Joseph I
Pombal
Joseph


texts:
 1757 and consolidated his authority during the Távora affair of 1759, which resulted in the execution of leading members of the aristocratic party and allowed Pombal to suppress the Society of Jesus. In 1759, <mask> granted Pombal the title of Count of Oeiras and, in 1769, that of Marquis of Pombal. A leading estrangeirado strongly influenced by his observations of British commercial and domestic policy, Pombal implemented sweeping commercial reforms, establishing a system of companies and guilds governing each industry. These efforts included the demarcation of the Douro wine region, created to regulate the production and trade of port wine.In foreign policy, although <mask> desired to decrease Portuguese reliance on Great Britain, he maintained the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, which successfully defended Portugal from Spanish invasion during the Seven Years' War. Pombal enacted liberal domestic policies, including the prohibition of the import of black slaves within Portugal and Portuguese India, and greatly weakened the Portuguese Inquisition,  and granting civil rights to the New Christians. Despite these reforms, Pombal governed autocratically, curtailing individual liberties ,  suppressing political opposition, and fostered the slave trade to Brazil. Following the accession of Queen Maria I in 1777, Pombal was stripped of his offices and ultimately exiled to his estates, where he died in 1782. Early life

<mask> <mask> <mask> <mask> () was born in Lisbon, the son of <mask> <mask> e Ataíde, a country squire with properties in the Leiria region, and of his wife <mask> <mask> <mask>. His uncle, <mask> <mask>, was a politically-influential cleric and

masks:
Joseph
Pombal
Sebastião
José de
Carvalho
e Melo
Manuel de
Carvalho
Teresa Luísa
de Mendonça
e Melo
Paulo de
Carvalho


texts:
 professor at the University of Coimbra. During his youth he studied at the University of Coimbra and then served briefly in the army, reaching the rank of corporal, before returning to academic study.He then moved to Lisbon and eloped with <mask> <mask> <mask> (1689–1737), the niece of the Count of Arcos. The marriage was a turbulent one, as she had married him against her family's wishes. Her parents made life unbearable for the young couple; they eventually moved to Melo properties near Pombal. Pombal continued his academic pursuits, studying law and history and securing admission in 1734 to a royal historical society. Political career
In 1738, with his uncle's assistance, Pombal received his first public appointment as the Portuguese ambassador to Great Britain, where, in 1740, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. This author points out that <mask> <mask> used his circulation among influential people to "investigate the causes, techniques, and mechanisms of British commercial and naval power." In 1745, he served as the Portuguese ambassador to Austria.The Queen consort of Portugal, Archduchess <mask> <mask> of Austria (1683–1754), was fond of him; after his first wife died she arranged for him to marry the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal <mask>, Count von Daun. The King, John V, was not pleased, however, and recalled him in 1749. John V died the following year and his son <mask> of Portugal was crowned king. <mask> was fond of Pombal; with the Queen <mask>'s approval he appointed him as Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence in him increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, the King

masks:
Teresa de
Mendonça
e Almada
Carvalho
e Melo
Mary Anne
Josepha
Leopold Josef
Joseph I
Joseph I
Mother


texts:
 appointed him Prime Minister. Impressed by English economic success which he had witnessed as ambassador, Pombal successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal.He abolished slavery in Portugal and the Portuguese colonies in India, reorganised the army and the navy, abolished the autos-da-fé and ended the Limpeza de Sangue (cleanliness of blood) civil statutes and their discrimination against New Christians, the Jews that had converted to Christianity, and their descendants regardless of genealogical distance, to escape the Portuguese Inquisition. Pombaline Reforms
The Pombaline Reforms were a series of reforms intended to make Portugal an economically self-sufficient and commercially strong nation, by means of expanding Brazilian territory, streamlining the administration of colonial Brazil, and fiscal and economic reforms both in the colony and in Portugal. During the Age of Enlightenment Portugal was considered small and unprogressive. It was a country of three million people in 1750. The economy of Portugal before the reforms was a relatively stable one, though it had become dependent on colonial Brazil for much of its economic support, and England for much of its manufacturing support, based on the Methuen Treaty of 1703. Even exports from Portugal went mostly through expatriate merchants like the English port wine shippers and French businessmen like <mask> Ratton, whose memoirs are scathing about the efficiency of his Portuguese counterparts. The need to grow a manufacturing sector in Portugal was made more imperative by the excessive spending of the Portuguese crown, the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, the expenditures on wars with Spain for


texts:
 South American territories, and the exhaustion of gold mines and diamond mines in Brazil.His greatest reforms were, however, economic and financial, with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He created the Douro Wine Company which demarcated the Douro wine region for production of Port, to ensure the wine's quality; his was the second attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe, after the Tokaj region of Hungary. He ruled with a heavy hand, imposing strict laws upon all classes of Portuguese society, from the high nobility to the poorest working class, and via his widespread review of the country's tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes, especially among the high nobility, who despised him as a social upstart. Further important reforms were carried out in education by Pombal: he expelled the Jesuits in 1759, created the basis for secular public primary and secondary schools, introduced vocational training, created hundreds of new teaching posts, added departments of mathematics and natural sciences to the University of Coimbra, and introduced new taxes to pay for these reforms. Lisbon earthquake

Disaster fell upon Portugal on the morning of 1 November 1755, when Lisbon was awakened by a violent earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 9 on the <mask> scale. The city was razed by the earthquake and ensuing tsunami and fires.<mask> survived by a stroke of luck and, unshaken, immediately took upon the task of rebuilding the city, with his famous quote: What now? We bury the dead and heal the living. Despite the calamity, Lisbon suffered no epidemics and, within less than

masks: Richter Pombal


texts: part of a wider plan to isolate and defeat Britain, Spanish and French envoys were sent to Lisbon to demand that the King and Pombal agree to cease all trade or co-operation with Britain or face war. While Pombal was keen to make Portugal less dependent on Britain, this was a long-term goal, and he and the King rejected the Bourbon ultimatum.On 5 May 1762, Spain sent troops across the border and penetrated into Trás-os-Montes to capture Porto, but they were repelled by the guerrillas and forced to abandon all their conquests but Chaves, after suffering huge losses (10,000 casualties). Thereby the Spanish general, Nicolás <mask>, Marquis of Sarriá, soon lost the Spanish King's confidence, and was replaced by Count of Aranda. In a second invasion (Province of Lower Beira, July 1762) a combined Franco-Spanish army was initially successful in capturing Almeida and several almost undefended fortresses, but they were soon ground to a halt by a small Anglo-Portuguese force entrenched in the hills East of Abrantes. Pombal had sent urgent messages to London requesting military assistance, consequently 7,104 British troops were sent together with William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe and military staff to organise the Portuguese Army. Victory in the battles of Valencia de Alcántara and Vila Velha – and above all – a scorched earth tactic coupled with guerrilla actions in the Spanish logistic lines induced starvation and eventually the disintegration of the Franco-Spanish army (15,000 casualties, many of them inflicted by the peasants), whose remnants were driven back and pursued to Spain. The Spanish headquarters in Castelo Branco was taken by a Portuguese force under


texts:
 <mask>, and all the strongholds that had previously been occupied by the Bourbon invaders were retaken, with the exception of Almeida. A third Spanish offensive in the Alentejo (November 1762) also met defeat in Ouguela, Marvão and Codiceira.The invaders were chased again back into Spain and saw several men captured by the advancing allies. According to a report sent to the British government by British ambassador in Portugal, Edward Hay, the Bourbon armies had suffered 30,000 casualties during their invasion of Portugal. In the Treaty of Paris, Spain had to restore to Portugal Chaves and Almeida plus all the territory taken from Portugal in South America in 1763 (most of Rio Grande do Sul and Colonia do Sacramento). Only the second was given back, while the vast territory of Rio Grande do Sul (together with present-day Roraima) would be reconquered from Spain in the undeclared Hispano-Portuguese war of 1763–1777. However, Portugal also conquered Spanish territory in South America during the Seven Years' War: most of the Rio Negro Valley (1763) and defeated a Spanish invasion aiming to occupy the right bank of the Guaporé River (in Mato Grosso, 1763) and also in the battle of Santa Bárbara, Rio Grande do Sul (1 January 1763). Portugal was able to keep all these territorial gains. In the years after the invasion, and despite the crucial British assistance, Pombal began to be increasingly concerned at the rise of British power.Despite being an Anglophile he suspected the British were interested in acquiring Brazil and he was alarmed by the seeming ease by which they had taken Havana and Manila from Spain in 1762. As noted by historian <mask>:

Opposition of

masks:
Townshend
Andreas Leutzsch


texts:
 the Jesuits

Having lived outside of Portugal in Vienna and London, the latter city in particular being a major centre of the Enlightenment, Pombal increasingly believed that the Society of Jesus, also known as the "Jesuits", had a grip on science and education, and that they were an inherent drag on an independent, Portuguese-style iluminismo. He was especially familiar with the anti-Jesuit tradition of Britain, and in Vienna he had made friends with <mask> Swieten, a confidant of <mask> of Austria and a staunch adversary of the Austrian Jesuits' influence. As prime minister Pombal engaged the Jesuits in a propaganda war, which was watched closely by the rest of Europe, and he launched a number of conspiracy theories regarding the order's desire for power. During the Távora affair (see below) he accused the Society of Jesus of treason and attempted regicide, a major public relations catastrophe for the order, in the age of absolutism. Historians today emphasise the Society's role in trying to protect Native Americans in the Portuguese and Spanish colonies, and the fact that the limitations placed upon the order resulted in the so-called Guarani War in which the Guarani tribesmen were halved by Spanish and Portuguese troops. According to a census conducted in 1756 the population of the Guarani from the seven missions was 14,284, which was about 15,000 less than the population in 1750.The former Jesuit missions were occupied by the Portuguese until 1759. Pombal named his brother, D. Paulo António <mask> <mask>, chief inquisitor and used the inquisition against the Jesuits. Pombal was thus an important precursor for the suppression of the Jesuits throughout

masks:
Gerhard van
Maria Theresa
de Carvalho
e Mença


texts:
 Europe and its colonies, which culminated in 1773, when European absolutists forced Pope <mask> to issue a bull empowering them to suppress the order in their domains. Expulsion of the Jesuits and consolidation of power

Following the earthquake, <mask> gave his Prime Minister even more authority, and Pombal became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high nobility became frequent. In 1758, <mask> was wounded in an attempted assassination when he was returning from a visit to his mistress, the young Távora Marchioness. The Távora family and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated, and they were executed after a quick trial.There were long-standing tensions between the Portuguese crown and the Jesuits, so that the Távora affair could be considered a pretext for the climax to the conflict that resulted in the Jesuits’ expulsion from Portugal and its empire in 1759. Jesuit assets were confiscated by the crown. According to historians <mask> and Stuart Schwartz, the Jesuits' "independence, power, wealth, control of education, and ties to Rome made the Jesuits obvious targets for Pombal's brand of extreme regalism." Pombal showed no mercy, prosecuting every person involved, even women and children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy and ensured the Prime Minister's victory against his enemies. In reward for his swift resolve, <mask> made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759. Following the Távora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition.Having become the Marquis of Pombal in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until <mask>'s death in 1777. In

masks:
Clement XIV
Joseph I
Joseph I
James Lockhart
Joseph I
Joseph I


texts:
 1771, botanist <mask> published Pombalia, a genus of flowering plants from America, belonging to the family Violaceae and named in honour of the Marquis of Pombal. Decline and death

King <mask>'s daughter and successor, Queen Maria I of Portugal, loathed Pombal. She was a devout woman and was influenced by the Jesuits, and upon her ascension to the throne, she did what she had long vowed to do: she withdrew all his political offices. She also issued one of history's first restraining orders, commanding that Pombal not be closer than 20 miles to her presence. If she were to travel near his estates, he was compelled to remove himself from his house to fulfill the royal decree. The slightest reference in her hearing to Pombal is said to have induced fits of rage in the Queen.Pombal built a palace in Oeiras, designed by <mask>. The palace featured formal French gardens enlivened with traditional Portuguese glazed tile walls. There were waterfalls and waterworks set within vineyards. <mask> died peacefully on his estate at Pombal in 1782. He was a controversial figure in his own era; today one of Lisbon's busiest squares and the busiest underground station is named Marquês de <mask> in his honour. There is an imposing statue of the Marquis depicting a lion next to him in the square as well. João Francisco <mask> <mask> Daun, 1st Duke of Saldanha was his grandson.See also
 History of Portugal
 Marquis of Pombal (title)
 List of marquises in Portugal
 Precedence among European monarchies

References

<mask>

 <mask>, <mask> <mask> <mask> <mask>, Marquês de. Cartas e outras obras selectas do Marquez de Pombal [selection], 1775–1780. <mask>ge, Edgar. ed. Catholic

masks:
Domenico Vandelli
Joseph
Carlos Mardel
Pombal
Pombal
de Saldanha
Oliveira e
Sources
Pombal
Sebasão
José de
Carvalho
e Melo
Presta


texts:
 Encyclopedia, 1911: <mask> Pombal

External links

|-

<mask>, Marquis of
Pombal, Marquis of
18th-century Portuguese people
Ambassadors of Portugal to the United Kingdom
Ambassadors of Portugal to Austria
Counts of Oeiras
Sebastio
People from Lisbon
People from Leiria District
Portuguese nobility
Portuguese Roman Catholics
Seismologists
University of Coimbra alumni
Fellows of the Royal Society
Portuguese Freemasons
 Age of

masks:
Marquis de
Pombal


title: Ranulf le Meschin, 3rd Earl of Chester

texts:
<mask>, 3rd Earl of Chester (1070−1129) was a Norman magnate based in northern and central England. Originating in Bessin in Normandy, Ranulf made his career in England thanks to his kinship with Hugh d'Avranches - the Earl of Chester, the patronage of kings William II Rufus and <mask>rc, and his marriage to Lucy, heiress of the Bolingbroke-Spalding estates in Lincolnshire. Ranulf fought in Normandy on behalf of Henry I, and served the English king as a kind of semi-independent governor in the far north-west, in Cumberland and Westmorland, founding Wetheral Priory. After the death of his cousin Richard d'Avranches in the White Ship Disaster of November 1120, Ranulf became earl of the county of Chester on the Anglo-Welsh marches. He held this position for the remainder of his life, and passed the title on to his son, <mask>. Biography

Family and origins
<mask>in's father and mother represented two different families of viscounts in Normandy, and both of them were strongly tied to Henry, son of William the Conqueror. His father was <mask>t, and likely for this reason the former <mask> was styled <mask>schin, "the younger".<mask>'s father was viscount of the Bessin, the area around Bayeux. Besides Odo, bishop of Bayeux, <mask> the elder was the most powerful magnate in the Bessin region of Normandy. <mask> <mask>in's great-grandmother may even have been from the ducal family of Normandy, as <mask>in's paternal great-grandfather viscount Anschitil is known to have married a daughter of Duke Richard III. <mask> <mask>in's mother, Margaret, was the daughter of <mask> Goz, Viscount of Avranches. Richard's father Thurstan Goz had become viscount of the Hiémois between 1017 and 1025, while Richard himself became viscount of the Avranchin in either 1055 or 1056.

masks:
Ranulf le Meschin
Henry I Beaucle
Ranulf de Gernon
Ranulf le Mesch
Ranulf de Brisar
Ranulf
le Me
Ranulf
Ranulf
Ranulf
le Mesch
le Mesch
Ranulf
le Mesch
Richard le


title: Ranulf le Meschin, 3rd Earl of Chester

texts:
 Her brother (Richard Goz's son) was Hugh d'Avranches "Lupus" ("the Wolf"), viscount of the Avranchin and Earl of Chester (from c. 1070). <mask> was thus, in addition to being heir to the Bessin, the nephew of one of Norman England's most powerful and prestigious families.We know from an entry in the Durham Liber Vitae, c. 1098 x 1120, that <mask> <mask>in had an older brother named Richard (who died in youth), and a younger brother named William. He had a sister called Agnes, who later married Robert de Grandmesnil (died 1136). Early career
Historian C. Warren Hollister thought that <mask>'s father <mask> de Briquessart was one of the early close companions of Prince Henry, the future Henry I. Hollister called <mask> the Elder "a friend from Henry's youthful days in western Normandy", and argued that the homeland of the two Ranulfs had been under Henry's overlordship since 1088, despite both ducal and royal authority lying with Henry's two brothers. Hollister further suggested that <mask> <mask>in may have had a role in persuading Robert Curthose to free Henry from captivity in 1089. The date of <mask> senior's death, and succession of Ranulf junior, is unclear, but the former's last and the latter's earliest appearance in extant historical records coincides, dating to 24 April 1089 in charter of Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, to Bayeux Cathedral. <mask> <mask>in appears as "Ranulf son of Ranulf the viscount". In the foundation charter of Chester Abbey granted by his uncle Hugh Lupus, earl of Chester, and purportedly issued in 1093, <mask> <mask>in is listed as a witness.His attestation to this grant is written Signum Ranulfi nepotis comitis, "signature of Ranulf nephew of the earl". However, the editor of the Chester comital charters, <mask>,

masks:
Ranulf
Ranulf
le Mesch
Ranulf
Ranulf
Ranulf
Ranulf
le Mesch
Ranulf
Ranulf
le Mesch
Ranulf
le Mesch
Geoffrey Barraclough


title: Ranulf le Meschin, 3rd Earl of Chester

texts: thought this charter was forged in the period of Earl <mask> II. Between 1098 and 1101 (probably in 1098) Ranulf became a major English landowner in his own right when he became the third husband of Lucy, heiress of the honour of Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire. This acquisition also brought him the lordship of Appleby in Westmorland, previously held by Lucy's second husband Ivo <mask>is. Marriage to a great heiress came only with royal patronage, which in turn meant that Ranulf had to be respected and trusted by the king. Ranulf was probably, like his father, among the earliest and most loyal of Henry's followers, and was noted as such by Orderic Vitalis. Ranulf was however not recorded often at the court of Henry I, and did not form part of the king's closest group of administrative advisers.He witnessed charters only occasionally, though this became more frequent after he became earl. In 1106 he is found serving as one of several justiciars at York hearing a case about the lordship of Ripon. In 1116 he is recorded in a similar context. Ranulf was, however, one of the king's military companions. When, soon after Whitsun 1101 Henry heard news of a planned invasion of England by his brother Robert Curthose, he sought promises from his subjects to defend the kingdom. A letter to the men of Lincolnshire names Ranulf as one of four figures entrusted with collecting these oaths. Ranulf was one of the magnates who accompanied King Henry on his invasion of Duke Robert's Norman territory in 1106.Ranulf served under Henry as an officer of the royal household when the latter was on campaign; Ranulf was in fact one of his three commanders at the Battle of Tinchebrai. The first line of Henry's force was led by Ranulf, the second (with the king) by Robert of Meulan,

masks: Ranulf Taillebo


title: Ranulf le Meschin, 3rd Earl of Chester

texts:
 and third by William de Warrene, with another thousand knights from Brittany and Maine led by Helias, Count of Maine. Ranulf's line consisted of the men of Bayeux, Avranches and Coutances. Lord of Cumberland

A charter issued in 1124 by David I, King of the Scots, to Robert I de Brus cited Ranulf's lordship of Carlisle and Cumberland as a model for Robert's new lordship in Annandale. This is significant because Robert is known from other sources to have acted with semi-regal authority in this region. A source from 1212 attests that the jurors of Cumberland remembered Ranulf as quondam dominus Cumberland ("sometime Lord of Cumberland"). Ranulf possessed the power and in some respects the dignity of a semi-independent earl in the region, though he lacked the formal status of being called such.A contemporary illustration of this authority comes from the records of Wetheral Priory, where Ranulf is found addressing his own sheriff, "Richer" (probably Richard de Boivill, baron of Kirklinton). No royal activity occurred in Cumberland or Westmorland during Ranulf's time in charge there, testimony to the fullness of his powers in the region. Ivo <mask>, when he married <mask>'s future wife Lucy, had acquired her Lincolnshire lands but sometime after 1086 he acquired estates in Kendal and elsewhere in Westmorland. Adjacent lands in Westmorland and Lancashire that had previously been controlled by Earl Tostig Godwinson were probably carved up between Roger the Poitevin and Ivo in the 1080s, a territorial division at least partially responsible for the later boundary between the two counties. Norman lordship in the heartland of Cumberland can be dated from chronicle sources to around 1092, the year King William Rufus seized the region from its previous ruler,

masks: Taillebois Ranulf


title: Ranulf le Meschin, 3rd Earl of Chester

texts: Dolfin. There is inconclusive evidence that settlers from Ivo's Lincolnshire lands had come into Cumberland as a result. Between 1094 and 1098 Lucy was married to Roger fitz Gerold de Roumare, and it is probable that this marriage was the king's way of transferring authority in the region to Roger fitz Gerold.Only from 1106 however, well into the reign of Henry I, do we have certain evidence that this authority had come to Ranulf. The "traditional view", held by the historian <mask>, was that Ranulf's authority in the region did not come about until 1106 or after, as a reward for participation in the Battle of Tinchebrai. Another historian, Richard Sharpe, has recently attacked this view and argued that it probably came in or soon after 1098. Sharpe stressed that Lucy was the mechanism by which this authority changed hands, and pointed out that Ranulf had been married to Lucy years before Tinchebrai and can be found months before Tinchebrai taking evidence from county jurors at York (which may have been responsible for Cumbria at this point). Ranulf likewise distributed land to the church, founding a Benedictine monastic house at Wetheral. This he established as a daughter-house of St Mary's Abbey, York, a house that in turn had been generously endowed by Ivo <mask>is. This had occurred by 1112, the year of the death of Abbot Stephen of St Mary's, named in the foundation deed.In later times at least, the priory of Wetheral was dedicated to St Mary and the Holy Trinity, as well as another saint named Constantine. Ranulf gave Wetheral, among other things, his two churches at Appleby, St Lawrences (Burgate) and St Michaels (Bongate). As an incoming regional magnate Ranulf would be expected to distribute land to his own followers, and indeed the record of

masks:
William Kapelle
Taillebo