title: Tony DiPreta

texts:
 comic strip art as an assistant to cartoonist Frank E. "Lank" Leonard's popular strip about a suburban beat cop, Mickey Finn. <mask> continued in that position, while concurrently drawing freelance for comic books, through 1955. In 1959, DiPreta succeeded creator Ham Fisher and first successor artist Moe Leff on the long-running boxing strip Joe Palooka. He continued on that strip, written by Jim Lawrence, Bob Gustafson, Ken Fitch, Morris Weiss, and Ed Moore, through its end in 1984. In 1983, he became the latest successor, following artists Marvin Bradley, Frank Springer, and Fernando Da Silva, of Rex Morgan, M.D., working with writer-creator Nicholas P. Dallis, also known as Dal Curtis, and Dallis' assistant, writer Woody Wilson.The strip continued after <mask>'s 2000 retirement. Fellow Stamford cartoonist Mort Walker said in 2010 that <mask> did an unspecified amount of work at some point on Walker's strip Beetle Bailey. Later career
<mask>'s last known comics credit is A.C.E. Comics' Fantastic Adventures #3 (Oct. 1987), for which he penciled and inked the cover, the four-page humor story "The Score Board Kid" (by writer Jerry DeFuccio), and "The Motor-Man On Wheels! ", a six-page DeFuccio profile of <mask> and the artist's Golden Age character Zippo. Personal life
In November 1960, <mask> married Frances, who died September 26, 2009. The couple had two sons, Richard and Edward, and a daughter, Janet.<mask> died of respiratory and cardiac arrest in Greenwich, Connecticut on June 2, 2010, aged 88. References

External links

1921 births
2010 deaths
American comic strip cartoonists
Atlas Comics
Artists from Stamford, Connecticut
Deaths from respiratory failure
Marvel Comics people
American people of Italian descent
Stamford High School (Stamford,

masks: DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta DiPreta


title: Florentino López Cuevillas

type: original

texts:
<mask> (November 14, 1886 – July 30, 1958) was a Spanish anthropologist and prehistorian, although in the course of his life he also became involved in writing, primarily essays and fiction. Like several other Galician intellectuals of his generation, he was a member of Xeración Nós, of the Seminar of Galician Studies and the Irmandades da Fala, combining the cultural and linguistic activities he carried out in those institutions with a discrete participation in pro-Galician politics. However, his social and political activities were profoundly disrupted by the victory of nationalists in the Spanish Civil War, although in the 1940s he returned to his commitment to the spread of Galician culture as a full member of the Royal Galician Academy, and of the Instituto de Estudios Gallegos Padre Sarmiento. Like the other members of his generation, he contributed to the maturation of Galician literature, but he was renown as a result of his efforts in the field of science. Galvanized by Hugo Obermaier's book (Impresiones de un viaje prehistórico por Galicia), Cuevillas undertook the complicated task of developing the field of archeology in Galicia with the aim of reconstructing and studying a period of history that had been hitherto forgotten. His field research, mostly directed at the study of megalithic art and the Celtic Castro culture, as well as his systematization of Galician prehistory, lead him to be crowned as the most important figure in Galicia in the field of prehistory. Indirectly, his scientific work contributed to the normalization of the Galician language.Biography
<mask> <mask>-Cuevillas was born on November 14, 1886 at 77 Progress Street, Ourense. He was the only son of don <mask> <mask>, an agent of the tax

masks:
Florentino López Alonso Cuevillas
Florentino
López Alonso
Florentino
López Barbán


title: Florentino López Cuevillas

texts: office who practiced his profession in Ourense as well as Lugo, and doña Vicenta Alonso-Cuevillas Álvarez, daughter of a famous brigadier who carried out many important military duties in Ourense and who belonged to the prestigious Seara family. Cuevillas's father's death in Lugo before his birth quickly caused his mother to  move in with her family in Ourense. From that moment on, <mask> <mask> was raised and educated by his maternal family, receiving an education few people would have been able to afford at that time. As a preschooler he attended a girls' school, which accepted very young children, and later attended the Colegio León XIII. It was at this time that he began to develop an interest in music, and he went on to learn the violin in his youth. Between 1896 and 1901 he studied at the Instituto de Orense where he was taught by teachers of great renown, such as the professor of rhetoric and poetry, Marcelo Macías.After five years of study he completed his baccalaureate studies (at the time still regulated by the Ley Moyano), and subsequently attended the University of Santiago de Compostela to study pharmacology, although he never went on to practice that profession. During the course of his college years, he displayed a great interest in literature and during this time he attended literary outings of the Ateneo León XIII as well as conferences organized by the alumni of the medical and legal departments. He was licensed in June 1906, and five years later he moved to Madrid to take classes in the social sciences. In the capital he came into contact with Otero Pedrayo, Primitivo Rodríguez Sanjurjo and Urbano Feijoo de Sotomayor, attended meetings in the Ateneo, theatrical and opera performances, and frequented

masks: Florentino Cuevillas


title: Florentino López Cuevillas

texts:
 result of worsening of rheumatism in his joints he had to abandon fieldwork and dedicated himself to the systematization of Galician prehistory. On July 7, 1941, <mask> was admitted as a full member of the Royal Galician Academy at the proposition of Ramón Otero Pedrayo, Ángel del <mask> y Alejandro Barreiro Noya. Three years later, in 1944, he was admitted to the Instituto de Estudios Padre Sarmiento. That same year he wrote Prehistoria which would become the third volume of Historia de Galiza, edited by Otero Pedrayo. On July 30, 1958 he died in his house on Santo Domingo in Ourense, as a result of a worsening of the rheumatism from which he suffered.He was interred at the Cementerio de San Francisco de Orense. At the moment of his interment, Requiem a Cuevillas, written for him by Fermín Bouza Brey, was sung. The sixth celebration of Galician Literature Day, in 1968, was dedicated to his memory. Archeological and Historical Work

Cuevillas's archeological work, which grew with the assistance of the people associated with the Museo da Comisión de Monumentos, is reflected in the study A mansión de Aquis Querquernis (1921) contained a vast amount of work on pre-Roman Galicia. In fact, it was him and his group of collaborators that began a brief excavation in the early 1920s on the site of the Roman encampment of Aquis Querquennis, discovering the wall of the encampment, although they didn't this short wall as the principle wall of the complex, and other walls of small size related to habitable structures. Cuevillas was a great scholar of the Castro culture, with his initial work on that topic appearing in the magazine Nós. The first Castro site he studied was located in the parish of San Cibrao de Las (Orense),

masks:
Cuevillas
Castillo López


title: Florentino López Cuevillas

texts: consisting of a fortress nine hectares in area, and one of the largest sites in Galicia.The excavations, overseen at all times by Cuevillas, began in 1922 and continuing until 1925, when they came to a halt. Although the investigation lasted only three years, (in the 1940s he would resume the excavation), it served as a source of data for his works, published in Nós (which also published his Catálogo dos Castros Galegos) under the title A Edade de Ferro no Galiza. After being founded in 1923, <mask> joined the Seminario de Estudos Galegos and began to collaborate closely with Fermín Bouza Brey. Out of this professional relationship came the study and excavation of the Castro de O Neixón in 1925, the site where Cuevillas discovered the remains of a Punic aryballos that was produced in Carthaginian workshops in the Mediterranean, consequently bringing to light the existence of commercial relationships between the ancient settlers of Galicia and merchants on the edges of the Mediterranean. His work on this site formed a major part of the work  (1929). In 1927 he undertook the first archaeological journey across all of Galicia, along with Fermín Bouza Brey, through the financial support of the Comisión de Estudios de Galicia. The journey resulted in the study of archaeological sites in Sobroso and Briteiros.In 1929 Cuevillas worked with the archeologist Lluís Pericot on the excavation of the Castro de Troña, removing numerous pieces of handicrafts and coins of both Celtic and Roman origin from the complex. Furthermore, in their initial work in the area they discovered around 30 circular structures, the moat and defensive walls on the eastern side. On some occasions, Cuevillas limited himself to only the search and


title: Leo Seltzer

texts:
<mask><mask> (April 5, 1903 – January 30, 1978) is generally credited as the creator of the sport of roller derby, and was the founder and head of the original Roller Derby league from 1935 until his son <mask> took over the business in 1958. Early life
<mask> was born in Helena, Montana on April 5, 1903. Seltzer attended Lincoln High School in Portland, Oregon where he was a member of the school's basketball team. He competed in the amateur and semi-pro basketball circuits in Portland after high school. As a young adult, Seltzer was in the motion picture distributing field with the Universal film company. This eventually led him to own a chain of struggling movie theaters in Oregon. In 1929, after observing the popularity of cash prize-awarding dance marathons among out-of-work contestants and spectators, Seltzer sought ways to capitalize on the trend.In 1931, he helped organize and promote "walkathon"s, which at that time was another name for dance marathons, since most dancers ended up merely shuffling around for the duration of the contests, which could run as long as 40 days. His first commercial walkathon was held in Denver, Colorado, with twenty-two more to follow, including events at the Lotus Isle amusement park in Portland, Oregon. He grossed $2 million before retiring, citing that the events had become "vulgar." Seltzer moved his family to Chicago in 1933, and began booking events into the Chicago Coliseum, a fortress-like structure at 15th & Wabash. Transcontinental Roller Derby
Sometime in early 1935, <mask> read an article in Literary Digest magazine that said ninety-three percent of Americans roller skated at one time or another during their lives. Discussing the article with some of the regulars at Ricketts, a restaurant in Chicago's Near North Side, Seltzer was challenged

masks:
Leo A
. Seltzer
Jerry Seltzer
Seltzer
Leo


title: Leo Seltzer

texts: to come up with a sport utilizing roller skating participants. Bicycle races and dance marathons were very popular at the time, and in previous decades there had been successful 24-hour and multi-day roller skating races, at least one of which was called a "roller derby" in the press.Seltzer began jotting ideas onto the tablecloth, incorporating these popular entertainment forms with a roller skating theme. The name Roller Derby was trademarked on July 14, 1935 (No. 336652), and on August 13, 1935, twenty thousand spectators filled the Chicago Coliseum to see 'Colonel' <mask>er's Transcontinental Roller Derby, a mythical marathon race from one end of the country to the other which incorporated both male and female participants on a banked track. Seltzer's decision to use women was a double-edged sword for the sport, since it guaranteed a large female audience at a sporting event, but the presence of women athletes made the mainstream press view Roller Derby as a sideshow, not a legitimate sport. The premier race in Chicago was a tremendous success, but subsequent engagements throughout the country were not as successful, and Seltzer's entire enterprise almost ended with a tragic bus crash in 1937 when nineteen members of a touring group of Roller Derby skaters and support personnel were killed. The number 1 was never worn again in Roller Derby, as a tribute to Joe Kleats and the other skaters who died in the crash. In December 1937, sportswriter Damon Runyon saw the game in Coral Gables Florida, became enthralled, and with <mask>er created a more structured game with more contact between the skaters and a new version of Roller Derby was created.Seltzer's game and traveling troupe of skaters evolved and continued to have moderate growth, but it was not until November 29, 1948, when Roller

masks:
Leo Seltz
Leo Seltz


title: Leo Seltzer

texts:
 Derby, broadcast on television from New York City's 69th Regiment Armory, captivated the nation. Roller Derby was finally the smash hit <mask> had always envisioned, although within a few years, the sport was overexposed on TV, the brand new medium that had catapulted it to prominence. Roller Derby's fluctuating popularity

With dwindling attendance, Roller Derby left America to tour Europe in 1953, but returned the following year. Seltzer moved the headquarters to the West Coast, a few years before major league baseball would make the same move. <mask> never lost his vision that the game would once again be embraced by the country, but by 1958, it was time for son Jerry to take over day-to-day operation of the family business. <mask> (born June 3, 1932), once again took the sport to great heights by syndicating Roller Derby telecasts, featuring the San Francisco Bay Bombers, which were shown on a network of 120 TV stations across the country. Roller Derby broadcasts beat all competition in most markets.Derby's national tour became so successful that by 1969, the Bay Bombers were broken up into a San Francisco and Oakland team. These two units filled arenas across the country from 1969 through 1971, when a third unit was added. <mask> lived to see his game once again break attendance records all over the country and become the darling of the mainstream press under Jerry's guardianship. However, the original Roller Derby skated its last game on December 8, 1973, when Jerry closed the family business. <mask> was married to Rose Weinstein <mask> from 1926 to 1942 when she died from breast cancer. Their two children were Gloria (born May 23, 1929) and Jerry. From April 19, 1942 to December 11, 1944, Seltzer was married to Lois Reynolds Atkins.Atkins had been employed by <mask> as the manager

masks:
Leo Seltzer
Leo
Jerry Seltzer
Leo Seltzer
Leo
Seltzer
Seltzer


title: Leo Seltzer

texts:
 of his Arcadia Roller Rink in Chicago. When she married, Atkins turned over management of the rink to a relative named Phil Hayes, but she continued to draw income from a concession business she operated there. One month after their marriage, Seltzer turned over operation of the rink to Atkins and a partner, Fred Morelli. In late 1943, Seltzer asked Atkins to transfer her half of the partnership to him, but she refused. In January 1944, <mask> colluded with Hayes to overdraw the Atkins-Morelli partnership's account. The partnership was then replaced by one in which Atkins, Morelli, <mask> and Sol Morelli had equal interests. Atkins claimed, in a 1950 lawsuit disputing her income taxes, that Seltzer, seeking to evade taxes, only allowed her into the new partnership after she agreed, in writing, to deposit her earnings into a joint bank account the two of them shared for payment of living expenses.She filed for divorce two months after the partnership was formed, and the divorce was granted that December. Death, honors, and hope
<mask>er died January 30, 1978. In 2005, during the 70th anniversary celebration of the first Transcontinental Roller Derby, Seltzer posthumously became the first inductee into the Executive Wing of the National Roller Derby Hall of Fame in Chicago. His son Jerry, was inducted at the same celebration. <mask> had always wanted roller derby to be a legitimate sport and to be in the Olympics. His son Jerry said that with the recent grassroots movement of roller derby, including the advent of WFTDA, he thinks roller derby can now be an Olympic sport. See also
 History of roller derby

References

Roller derby
Sportspeople from Helena, Montana
1903 births
1978 deaths
Lincoln High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni
Jewish American sportspeople
20th-century American

masks:
Seltzer
Seltzer
Leo Seltz
Leo Seltzer


title: Charles Rogers (author)

texts:
<mask> (1825–1890) was a 19th-century Scottish minister and prolific author. In the second half of his life, he repeatedly ran into trouble for setting up publication societies from which he gained financial benefit. Life

The only son of James Roger(s) (1767–1849), minister of Dunino in Fife, he was born in the manse there on 18 April 1825; His mother, who died at his birth, was Jane, second daughter of William Haldane, minister successively at Glenisla and Kingoldrum. After attending the parish school at Denino for seven years, he matriculated at the University of St Andrews in 1839, and spent seven years there. Licensed by the presbytery of St Andrews in June 1846, he was employed in the capacity of assistant minister at Western Anstruther, Kinglassie, Abbotshall, Dunfermline, Ballingry, and Carnoustie. He then opened a preaching station at the Bridge of Allan, and from January 1855 until 11 August 1863 was chaplain of the garrison at Stirling Castle. During his time in Stirling, <mask> was elected in 1861 as a member of the town council, and took part in the erection of the Wallace Monument.In 1855 he inaugurated at Stirling a short-lived Scottish Literary Institute. In 1862 he opened the British Christian Institute, for the dissemination of religious tracts and issued a weekly paper, The Workman's Friend, and then monthly serials, The Briton and The Recorder. The scheme ended in 1863, when he founded and edited The Stirling Gazette, but its career was brief. In the aftermath of acrimony he resigned his chaplaincy, went to

masks:
Charles Rogers
Rogers


title: Charles Rogers (author)

texts:
 England, and became a writer. <mask> went into journalism. In November 1865 set up London a short-lived Naval and Military Tract Society, and he edited a quarterly periodical, The British Bulwark. It was followed by The London Book and Tract Depository, which he carried on until 1874.The Grampian Club, for Scottish literature, history, and antiquities, was inaugurated in London on 2 November 1868, and he was secretary and chief editor until his death. The Royal Historical Society was established in London on 23 November 1868. <mask> did much to promote it, but ran into the same issues with his financial interests as had occurred in Stirling. He was secretary and "historiographer" to the society until 1880, when he was called to account for running it for his personal benefit. In 1873 a number of his friends presented <mask> with a house in London, which he called Grampian Lodge. He returned to Scotland some years before his death, which took place at his house in Edinburgh on 18 September 1890, at the age of 65. He is buried in Grange Cemetery in south Edinburgh.The grave lies in the north-east section not far from the main entrance. Awards and honours
In 1854 Columbia College, New York, awarded <mask> the degree of LLD and in 1881 the University of St Andrews awarded him a DD. He was a member, fellow, or correspondent of numerous learned societies, British, foreign, and colonial, and an associate of the Imperial Archæological Society of Russia. Works
<mask>' major original writings, classified below as listed in the Dictionary of

masks: Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers


title: Charles Rogers (author)

texts:
 1867.Scotland, Social and Domestic, 1869. A Century of Scottish Life, 1871. Monuments and Monumental Inscriptions in Scotland, 2 vols. 1871–2. Social Life in Scotland, 3 vols. 1884–6. Religious
Christian Heroes in the Army and Navy, 1867.Our Eternal Destiny, 1868. Poetical
The Modern Scottish Minstrel, 6 vols. 1855–7. The Sacred Minstrel, 1859. The Golden Sheaf, 1867. Lyra Britannica, 1867. Life and Songs of the Baroness Nairne, 1869.Autobiographical and general
Issues of Religious Rivalry, 1866. Leaves from my Autobiography, 1876. The Serpent's Track, 1880. Parting Words to the Members of the Royal Historical Society, 1881. Threads of Thought, 1888. The Oak, 1868. Editions
<mask> also edited:

Aytoun's Poems, 1844.Campbell's Poems, 1870. Sir John Scot's Staggering State of Scottish Statesmen, 1872. Poetical Remains of King James, 1873. Hay's Estimate of the Scottish Nobility. Glen's Poems, 1874. Diocesan Registers of Glasgow, 2 vols. 1875 (with Joseph Bain).Boswelliana, 1874. Register of the Church of Crail, 1877. Events in the North of Scotland, 1635 to 1645, 1877. Chartulary of the Cistercian Priory of Coldstream, 1879. Rental-book of the Cistercian Abbey of Cupar-Angus, 1880. The Earl of Stirling's Register of Royal Letters, 2 vols. 1884–5.Family
On 14 December 1854, <mask> married Isabella Bain (d. 1880), the eldest daughter of John Bain of St Andrews. Notes

External links
Attribution

1825 births
1890 deaths
19th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
Scottish writers
Scottish newspaper editors
People from Fife
Scottish

masks: Rogers Rogers


title: Henrik Svensmark

texts:
<mask> (born 1958) is a physicist and professor in the Division of Solar System Physics at the Danish National Space Institute (DTU Space) in Copenhagen. He is known for his work on the hypothesis that cosmic rays are an indirect cause of global warming via cloud formation. Early life and education
<mask> obtained a Master of Science in Engineering (Cand. Polyt) in 1985 and a Ph.D. in 1987 from the Physics Laboratory I at the Technical University of Denmark. Career

<mask> is director of the Center for Sun-Climate Research at the Danish Space Research Institute (DSRI), a part of the Danish National Space Center. He previously headed the sun-climate group at DSRI. He held postdoctoral positions in physics at three other organizations: University of California, Berkeley, Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics, and the Niels Bohr Institute.In 1997, <mask> and Eigil Friis-Christensen popularised a theory that linked galactic cosmic rays and global climate change mediated primarily by variations in the intensity of the solar wind, which they have termed cosmoclimatology. This theory had earlier been reviewed by Dickinson. One of the small-scale processes related to this link was studied in a laboratory experiment performed at the Danish National Space Center (paper published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society A, February 8, 2007). Svensmark's conclusions from his research downplay the significance of the effects of man-made increases in atmospheric CO2 on recent and historical global warming, with him arguing that while the climate change role of greenhouse gases is considerable, solar variations play a larger role. Cosmoclimatology theory of climate change
Svensmark detailed his theory of cosmoclimatology in a paper published in 2007. The Center for Sun-Climate Research at the Danish National Space Institute "investigates the connection between solar activity and climatic changes on Earth". Its homepage lists several publications earlier works related to cosmoclimatology.Svensmark and Nigel Calder published a book The Chilling Stars: A New Theory of Climate Change (2007)

masks:
Henrik Svensmark
Henrik Svensmark
Henrik Svensmark
Svensmark


title: Henrik Svensmark

texts:
 exaggerated. Lockwood's review also highlighted the strength of evidence in favor of the solar influence on regional climates. Sloan and Wolfendale (2013) demonstrated that while temperature models showed a small correlation every 22 years, less than 14 percent of global warming since the 1950s could be attributed to cosmic ray rate. The study concluded that the cosmic ray rate did not match the changes in temperature, indicating that it was not a causal relationship. Another 2013 study found, contrary to Svensmark's claims, "no statistically significant correlations between cosmic rays and global albedo or globally averaged cloud height." In 2013, a laboratory study by Svensmark, Pepke and Pedersen published in Physics Letters A showed, that there is in fact a correlation between cosmic rays and the formation of aerosols of the type that seed clouds. Extrapolating from the laboratory to the actual atmosphere, the authors asserted that solar activity is responsible for ca.50 percent of temperature variation. In a detailed 2013 post on the scientists' blog RealClimate, Rasmus E. Benestad presented arguments for considering Svensmark's claims to be "wildly exaggerated". (Time magazine has characterized the main purpose of this blog as a "straightforward presentation of the physical evidence for global warming".) Selected publications

Books

 Contribution in Die kalte Sonne. Warum die Klimakatastrophe nicht stattfindet (The Cold Sun),  by Fritz Vahrenholt and Sebastian Lüning (edrs)

Film
The Cloud Mystery

Awards
2001, the Energy-E2 Research Prize
1997, Knud Hojgaard Anniversary Research Prize

References

External links
Calder, Nigel, An experiment that hints we are wrong on climate change Nigel Calder, former editor of New Scientist, says the orthodoxy must be challenged, TimesOnline, February 11, 2007
DISCOVER Interview with <mask>, by Marion Long. Sun's shift may cause global warming - June 2007
LondonBookReview.com - Book review of The Chilling Stars

The CLOUD project

Danish climatologists
Danish physicists
Danish nuclear physicists
1958 births
Environmental


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: <mask> (; 29 October 1897 – 1 May 1945) was a German Nazi politician who was the Gauleiter (district leader) of Berlin, chief propagandist for the Nazi Party, and then Reich Minister of Propaganda from 1933 to 1945. He was one of Adolf Hitler's closest and most devoted acolytes, known for his skills in public speaking and his deeply virulent antisemitism, which was evident in his publicly voiced views. He advocated progressively harsher discrimination, including the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust. <mask>, who aspired to be an author, obtained a Doctor of Philology degree from the University of Heidelberg in 1921. He joined the Nazi Party in 1924, and worked with Gregor Strasser in its northern branch. He was appointed Gauleiter of Berlin in 1926, where he began to take an interest in the use of propaganda to promote the party and its programme. After the Nazis came to power in 1933, <mask>'s Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted control over the news media, arts, and information in Germany.He was particularly adept at using the relatively new media of radio and film for propaganda purposes. Topics for party propaganda included antisemitism, attacks on the Christian churches, and (after the start of the Second World War) attempting to shape morale. In 1943, Goebbels began to pressure Hitler to introduce measures that would produce "total war", including closing businesses not essential to the war effort, conscripting women into the labour force, and enlisting men in previously exempt occupations into the Wehrmacht. Hitler finally appointed him as Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War on 23 July 1944, whereby Goebbels undertook largely unsuccessful measures to increase the number of people

masks:
Paul Joseph Goebbels
Goebbels
Goebbels


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 available for armaments manufacture and the Wehrmacht. As the war drew to a close and Nazi Germany faced defeat, Magda <mask> and the Goebbels children joined him in Berlin. They moved into the underground Vorbunker, part of Hitler's underground bunker complex, on 22 April 1945. Hitler committed suicide on 30 April.In accordance with Hitler's will, <mask> succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany; he served one day in this post. The following day, Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, after poisoning their six children with cyanide. Early life
<mask> <mask> was born on 29 October 1897 in Rheydt, an industrial town south of Mönchengladbach near Düsseldorf, Germany. Both of his parents were Roman Catholics with modest family backgrounds. His father Fritz was a German factory clerk; his mother Katharina Maria (née Odenhausen) was born to Dutch and German parents in the Netherlands. Goebbels had five siblings: Konrad (1893–1949), Hans (1895–1947), Maria (1896–1896), Elisabeth (1901–1915), and Maria (1910–1949), who married the German filmmaker Max W. Kimmich in 1938. In 1932, Goebbels commissioned the publication of a pamphlet of his family tree to refute the rumours that his maternal grandmother was of Jewish ancestry.During childhood, Goebbels suffered from ill health, which included a long bout of inflammation of the lungs. He had a deformed right foot that turned inwards, due to a congenital deformity. It was thicker and shorter than his left foot. He underwent a failed operation to correct it just prior to starting grammar school. Goebbels wore a metal brace and special shoe because of his shortened leg and walked with a limp. He was rejected for military service in World War I because of this deformity.

masks:
Goebbels
Goebbels
Paul Joseph
Goebbels


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: <mask> was educated at a Gymnasium, where he completed his Abitur (university entrance examination) in 1917.He was the top student of his class and was given the traditional honour to speak at the awards ceremony. His parents initially hoped that he would become a Catholic priest, which Goebbels seriously considered. He studied literature and history at the universities of Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg, and Munich, aided by a scholarship from the Albertus Magnus Society. By this time Goebbels had begun to distance himself from the church. Historians, including Richard J. Evans and Roger Manvell, speculate that Goebbels' lifelong pursuit of women may have been in compensation for his physical disability. At Freiburg, he met and fell in love with Anka Stalherm, who was three years his senior. She went on to Würzburg to continue school, as did Goebbels.In 1921, he wrote a semi-autobiographical novel, Michael, a three-part work of which only Parts I and III have survived. Goebbels felt he was writing his "own story". Antisemitic content and material about a charismatic leader may have been added by Goebbels shortly before the book was published in 1929 by Eher-Verlag, the publishing house of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party; NSDAP). By 1920, the relationship with Anka was over. The break-up filled Goebbels with thoughts of suicide. At the University of Heidelberg, Goebbels wrote his doctoral thesis on Wilhelm von Schütz, a minor 19th-century romantic dramatist. He had hoped to write his thesis under the supervision of Friedrich Gundolf, a literary historian.It did not seem to bother Goebbels that Gundolf was Jewish. Gundolf was no longer teaching, so directed Goebbels to associate professor Max


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 of a man who was isolated, preoccupied with "religious-philosophical" issues, and lacked a sense of direction. Diary entries of mid-December 1923 forward show <mask> was moving towards the Völkisch nationalist movement. Nazi activist
<mask> first took an interest in Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1924. In February 1924, Hitler's trial for treason began in the wake of his failed attempt to seize power in the Beer Hall Putsch of 8–9 November 1923.The trial attracted widespread press coverage and gave Hitler a platform for propaganda. Hitler was sentenced to five years in prison, but was released on 20 December 1924, after serving just over a year. <mask> was drawn to the Nazi Party mostly because of Hitler's charisma and commitment to his beliefs. He joined the Nazi Party around this time, becoming member number 8762. In late 1924, <mask> offered his services to Karl Kaufmann, who was Gauleiter (Nazi Party district leader) for the Rhine-Ruhr District. Kaufmann put him in touch with Gregor Strasser, a leading Nazi organiser in northern Germany, who hired him to work on their weekly newspaper and undertake secretarial work for the regional party offices. He was also put to work as party speaker and representative for Rhineland-Westphalia.Members of Strasser's northern branch of the Nazi Party, including Goebbels, had a more socialist outlook than the rival Hitler group in Munich. Strasser disagreed with Hitler on many parts of the party platform, and in November 1926 began working on a revision. Hitler viewed Strasser's actions as a threat to his authority, and summoned 60 Gauleiters and party leaders, including Goebbels, to a special conference in Bamberg, in Streicher's Gau of Franconia, where he gave a two-hour

masks: Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 completely, offering Hitler his total loyalty. He wrote in his diary: "I love him ... He has thought through everything," "Such a sparkling mind can be my leader. I bow to the greater one, the political genius."He later wrote: "Adolf Hitler, I love you because you are both great and simple at the same time. What one calls a genius." As a result of the Bamberg and Munich meetings, Strasser's new draft of the party programme was discarded. The original National Socialist Program of 1920 was retained unchanged, and Hitler's position as party leader was greatly strengthened. Propagandist in Berlin
At Hitler's invitation, <mask> spoke at party meetings in Munich and at the annual Party Congress, held in Weimar in 1926. For the following year's event, <mask> was involved in the planning for the first time. He and Hitler arranged for the rally to be filmed.Receiving praise for doing well at these events led Goebbels to shape his political ideas to match Hitler's, and to admire and idolise him even more. Gauleiter
<mask> was first offered the position of party Gauleiter for the Berlin section in August 1926. He travelled to Berlin in mid-September and by the middle of October accepted the position. Thus Hitler's plan to divide and dissolve the northwestern Gauleiters group that Goebbels had served in under Strasser was successful. Hitler gave Goebbels great authority over the area, allowing him to determine the course for organisation and leadership for the Gau. Goebbels was given control over the local Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS) and answered only to Hitler. The party membership numbered about 1,000 when Goebbels arrived, and he reduced it to a core of 600 of the most active and promising members.To

masks: Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 fines for libellous material he had placed in Der Angriff over the course of the previous year. <mask> continued to be elected to the Reichstag at every subsequent election during the Weimar and Nazi regimes. In his newspaper Berliner Arbeiterzeitung (Berlin Workers Newspaper), Gregor Strasser was highly critical of Goebbels' failure to attract the urban vote. However, the party as a whole did much better in rural areas, attracting as much as 18 per cent of the vote in some regions. This was partly because Hitler had publicly stated just prior to the election that Point 17 of the party programme, which mandated the expropriation of land without compensation, would apply only to Jewish speculators and not private landholders. After the election, the party refocused their efforts to try to attract still more votes in the agricultural sector. In May, shortly after the election, Hitler considered appointing Goebbels as party propaganda chief.But he hesitated, as he worried that the removal of Gregor Strasser from the post would lead to a split in the party. <mask> considered himself well suited to the position, and began to formulate ideas about how propaganda could be used in schools and the media. By 1930 Berlin was the party's second-strongest base of support after Munich. That year the violence between the Nazis and communists led to local SA troop leader Horst Wessel being shot by two members of the Communist Party of Germany. He later died in hospital. Exploiting Wessel's death, Goebbels turned him into a martyr for the Nazi movement. He officially declared Wessel's march Die Fahne hoch (Raise the flag), renamed as the Horst-Wessel-Lied, to be the Nazi Party anthem.Great Depression
The Great Depression

masks: Goebbels Goebbels


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: greatly impacted Germany and by 1930 there was a dramatic increase in unemployment. During this time, the Strasser brothers started publishing a new daily newspaper in Berlin, the Nationaler Sozialist. Like their other publications, it conveyed the brothers' own brand of Nazism, including nationalism, anti-capitalism, social reform, and anti-Westernism. Goebbels complained vehemently about the rival Strasser newspapers to Hitler, and admitted that their success was causing his own Berlin newspapers to be "pushed to the wall". In late April 1930, Hitler publicly and firmly announced his opposition to Gregor Strasser and appointed <mask> to replace him as Reich leader of Nazi Party propaganda. One of Goebbels' first acts was to ban the evening edition of the Nationaler Sozialist. Goebbels was also given control of other Nazi papers across the country, including the party's national newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter (People's Observer).He still had to wait until 3 July for Otto Strasser and his supporters to announce they were leaving the Nazi Party. Upon receiving the news, Goebbels was relieved the "crisis" with the Strassers was finally over and glad that Otto Strasser had lost all power. The rapid deterioration of the economy led to the resignation on 27 March 1930 of the coalition government that had been elected in 1928. A new cabinet was formed, and Paul von Hindenburg used his power as president to govern via emergency decrees. He appointed Heinrich Brüning as chancellor. <mask> took charge of the Nazi Party's national campaign for Reichstag elections called for 14 September 1930. Campaigning was undertaken on a huge scale, with thousands of meetings and speeches held all over the country.Hitler's


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: speeches focused on blaming the country's economic woes on the Weimar Republic, particularly its adherence to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which required war reparations that had proven devastating to the German economy. He proposed a new German society based on race and national unity. The resulting success took even Hitler and Goebbels by surprise: the party received 6.5 million votes nationwide and took 107 seats in the Reichstag, making it the second largest party in the country. In late 1930 Goebbels met Magda Quandt, a divorcée who had joined the party a few months earlier. She worked as a volunteer in the party offices in Berlin, helping Goebbels organise his private papers. Her flat on the Reichskanzlerplatz soon became a favourite meeting place for Hitler and other Nazi Party officials. <mask> and Quandt married on 19 December 1931.Hitler was his best man. For two further elections held in 1932, Goebbels organised massive campaigns that included rallies, parades, speeches, and Hitler travelling around the country by aeroplane with the slogan "the Führer over Germany". Goebbels wrote in his diary that the Nazis must gain power and exterminate Marxism. He undertook numerous speaking tours during these election campaigns and had some of their speeches published on gramophone records and as pamphlets. Goebbels was also involved in the production of a small collection of silent films that could be shown at party meetings, though they did not yet have enough equipment to widely use this medium. Many of Goebbels' campaign posters used violent imagery such as a giant half-clad male destroying political opponents or other perceived enemies such as "International High Finance". His propaganda


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: the vote, it was not the landslide expected by the party leadership. <mask> finally received Hitler's appointment to the cabinet, officially becoming head of the newly created Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda on 14 March. The role of the new ministry, which set up its offices in the 18th-century Ordenspalais across from the Reich Chancellery, was to centralise Nazi control of all aspects of German cultural and intellectual life.Goebbels hoped to increase popular support of the party from the 37 per cent achieved at the last free election held in Germany on 25 March 1933 to 100 per cent support. An unstated goal was to present to other nations the impression that the Nazi Party had the full and enthusiastic backing of the entire population. One of Goebbels' first productions was staging the Day of Potsdam, a ceremonial passing of power from Hindenburg to Hitler, held in Potsdam on 21 March. He composed the text of Hitler's decree authorising the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, held on 1 April. Later that month, Goebbels travelled back to Rheydt, where he was given a triumphal reception. The townsfolk lined the main street, which had been renamed in his honour. On the following day, Goebbels was declared a local hero.Goebbels converted the 1 May holiday from a celebration of workers' rights (observed as such especially by the communists) into a day celebrating the Nazi Party. In place of the usual ad hoc labour celebrations, he organised a huge party rally held at Tempelhof Field in Berlin. The following day, all trade union offices in the country were forcibly disbanded by the SA and SS, and the Nazi-run German Labour Front was created to take their place. "We are the masters of


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: Germany," he commented in his diary entry of 3 May. Less than two weeks later, he gave a speech at the Nazi book burning in Berlin on 10 May, a ceremony he suggested. Meanwhile, the Nazi Party began passing laws to marginalise Jews and remove them from German society. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933, forced all non-Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service.Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practise. The first Nazi concentration camps (initially created to house political dissenters) were founded shortly after Hitler seized power. In a process termed Gleichschaltung (co-ordination), the Nazi Party proceeded to rapidly bring all aspects of life under control of the party. All civilian organisations, including agricultural groups, volunteer organisations, and sports clubs, had their leadership replaced with Nazi sympathisers or party members. By June 1933, virtually the only organisations not in the control of the Nazi Party were the army and the churches. On 2 June 1933, Hitler appointed <mask> a Reichsleiter, the second highest political rank in the Nazi Party. On 3 October 1933, on the formation of the Academy for German Law, <mask> was made a member and given a seat on its executive committee.In a move to manipulate Germany's middle class and shape popular opinion, the regime passed on 4 October 1933 the Schriftleitergesetz (Editor's Law), which became the cornerstone of the Nazi Party's control of the popular press. Modelled to some extent on the system in Benito Mussolini's Italy, the law defined a Schriftleiter as anyone who wrote, edited, or selected texts and/or illustrated


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: by 1938 nearly ten million sets had been sold. Loudspeakers were placed in public areas, factories, and schools, so that important party broadcasts would be heard live by nearly all Germans. On 2 September 1939 (the day after the start of the war), Goebbels and the Council of Ministers proclaimed it illegal to listen to foreign radio stations.Disseminating news from foreign broadcasts could result in the death penalty. Albert Speer, Hitler's architect and later Minister for Armaments and War Production, later said the regime "made the complete use of all technical means for domination of its own country. Through technical devices like the radio and loudspeaker, 80 million people were deprived of independent thought." A major focus of Nazi propaganda was Hitler himself, who was glorified as a heroic and infallible leader and became the focus of a cult of personality. Much of this was spontaneous, but some was stage-managed as part of <mask>' propaganda work. Adulation of Hitler was the focus of the 1934 Nuremberg Rally, where his moves were carefully choreographed. The rally was the subject of the film Triumph of the Will, one of several Nazi propaganda films directed by Leni Riefenstahl.It won the gold medal at the 1935 Venice Film Festival. At the 1935 Nazi party congress rally at Nuremberg, Goebbels declared that "Bolshevism is the declaration of war by Jewish-led international subhumans against culture itself." <mask> was involved in planning the staging of the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. It was around this time that he met and started having an affair with the actress Lída Baarová, whom he continued to see until 1938. A major project in 1937 was the Degenerate Art Exhibition, organised by


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 Grynszpan. In response, <mask> arranged for inflammatory antisemitic material to be released by the press, and the result was the start of a pogrom. Jews were attacked and synagogues destroyed all over Germany. The situation was further inflamed by a speech <mask> gave at a party meeting on the night of 8 November, where he obliquely called for party members to incite further violence against Jews while making it appear to be a spontaneous series of acts by the German people.At least a hundred Jews were killed, several hundred synagogues were damaged or destroyed, and thousands of Jewish shops were vandalised in an event called Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass). Around 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps. The destruction stopped after a conference held on 12 November, where Göring pointed out that the destruction of Jewish property was in effect the destruction of German property since the intention was that it would all eventually be confiscated. Goebbels continued his intensive antisemitic propaganda campaign that culminated in Hitler's 30 January 1939 Reichstag speech, which Goebbels helped to write:

While Goebbels had been pressing for expulsion of the Berlin Jews since 1935, there were still 62,000 living in the city in 1940. Part of the delay in their deportation was that they were needed as workers in the armaments industry. Deportations of German Jews began in October 1941, with the first transport from Berlin leaving on 18 October. Some Jews were shot immediately on arrival in destinations such as Riga and Kaunas.In preparation for the deportations, Goebbels ordered that all German Jews wear an identifying yellow badge as of 5 September 1941. On 6 March 1942, Goebbels received a


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: make them any worse. Through his propaganda campaigns, he worked hard to maintain an appropriate level of morale among the public about the military situation, neither too optimistic nor too grim. The series of military setbacks the Germans suffered in this period – the thousand-bomber raid on Cologne (May 1942), the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein (November 1942), and especially the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad (February 1943) – were difficult matters to present to the German public, who were increasingly weary of the war and sceptical that it could be won. On 16 November 1942 <mask>, like all Gauleiters, was appointed the Reich Defense Commissioner for his Gau. This enabled him to issue direct instructions to authorities within his jurisdiction in matters concerning the civilian war effort.On 15 January 1943, Hitler appointed Goebbels as head of the newly created Air Raid Damage committee, which meant Goebbels was nominally in charge of nationwide civil air defences and shelters as well as the assessment and repair of damaged buildings. In actuality, the defence of areas other than Berlin remained in the hands of the local Gauleiters, and his main tasks were limited to providing immediate aid to the affected civilians and using propaganda to improve their morale. By early 1943, the war produced a labour crisis for the regime. Hitler created a three-man committee with representatives of the State, the army, and the Party in an attempt to centralise control of the war economy. The committee members were Hans Lammers (head of the Reich Chancellery), Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command; OKW), and Martin Bormann, who


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: controlled the Party. The committee was intended to independently propose measures regardless of the wishes of various ministries, with Hitler reserving most final decisions to himself. The committee, soon known as the Dreierausschuß (Committee of Three), met eleven times between January and August 1943.However, they ran up against resistance from Hitler's cabinet ministers, who headed deeply entrenched spheres of influence and were excluded from the committee. Seeing it as a threat to their power, <mask>, Göring, and Speer worked together to bring it down. The result was that nothing changed, and the Committee of Three declined into irrelevance by September 1943. Partly in response to being excluded from the Committee of Three, Goebbels pressured Hitler to introduce measures that would produce "total war", including closing businesses not essential to the war effort, conscripting women into the labour force, and enlisting men in previously exempt occupations into the Wehrmacht. Some of these measures were implemented in an edict of 13 January, but to Goebbels' dismay, Göring demanded that his favourite restaurants in Berlin should remain open, and Lammers successfully lobbied Hitler to have women with children exempted from conscription, even if they had child care available. After receiving an enthusiastic response to his speech of 30 January 1943 on the topic, Goebbels believed he had the support of the German people in his call for total war. His next speech, the Sportpalast speech of 18 February 1943, was a passionate demand for his audience to commit to total war, which he presented as the only way to stop the Bolshevik onslaught and save the German people from destruction.The speech also had a strong


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 antisemitic element and hinted at the extermination of the Jewish people that was already underway. The speech was presented live on radio and was filmed as well. During the live version of the speech, Goebbels accidentally begins to mention the "extermination" of the Jews; this is omitted in the published text of the speech. Goebbels' efforts had little impact for the time being, because Hitler, who in principle was in favour of total war, was not prepared to implement changes over the objections of his ministers. The discovery around this time of a mass grave of Polish officers that had been killed by the Red Army in the 1940 Katyn massacre was made use of by Goebbels in his propaganda in an attempt to drive a wedge between the Soviets and the other western allies. Plenipotentiary for total war

On 1 April 1943, <mask> was named Stadtpräsident of Berlin, thus uniting under his control the city's highest party and governmental offices. After the Allied invasion of Sicily (July 1943) and the strategic Soviet victory in the Battle of Kursk (July–August 1943), Goebbels began to recognise that the war could no longer be won.Following the Allied invasion of Italy and the fall of Mussolini in September, he raised with Hitler the possibility of a separate peace, either with the Soviets or with Britain. Hitler rejected both of these proposals. As Germany's military and economic situation grew steadily worse, on 25 August 1943 Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler took over the post of interior minister, replacing Wilhelm Frick. Intensive air raids on Berlin and other cities took the lives of thousands of people. Göring's Luftwaffe attempted to retaliate with air raids on London in early 1944, but they no longer had


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: sufficient aircraft to make much of an impact. While <mask>' propaganda in this period indicated that a huge retaliation was in the offing, the V-1 flying bombs, launched on British targets beginning in mid-June 1944, had little effect, with only around 20 per cent reaching their intended targets. To boost morale, Goebbels continued to publish propaganda to the effect that further improvements to these weapons would have a decisive impact on the outcome of the war.Meanwhile, in the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944, the Allies successfully gained a foothold in France. Throughout July 1944, <mask> and Speer continued to press Hitler to bring the economy to a total war footing. The 20 July plot, where Hitler was almost killed by a bomb at his field headquarters in East Prussia, played into the hands of those who had been pushing for change: Bormann, <mask>, Himmler, and Speer. Over the objections of Göring, <mask> was appointed on 23 July as Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War, charged with maximising the manpower for the Wehrmacht and the armaments industry at the expense of sectors of the economy not critical to the war effort. Through these efforts, he was able to free up an additional half a million men for military service. However, as many of these new recruits came from the armaments industry, the move put him in conflict with armaments minister Speer. Untrained workers from elsewhere were not readily absorbed into the armaments industry, and likewise, the new Wehrmacht recruits waited in barracks for their turn to be trained.At Hitler's behest, the Volkssturm (People's Storm) – a nationwide militia of men previously considered unsuitable for military service – was formed on 18 October 1944. <mask>

masks: Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels Goebbels


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: recorded in his diary that 100,000 recruits were sworn in from his Gau alone. However, the men, mostly age 45 to 60, received only rudimentary training and many were not properly armed. <mask>' notion that these men could effectively serve on the front lines against Soviet tanks and artillery was unrealistic at best. The programme was deeply unpopular. <mask> realised that his influence would diminish in wartime. He suffered a series of setbacks as propaganda became less important compared to warfare, the war economy, and the Allied bombing of German cities.Historian Michael Balfour states that from 1942 onward, Goebbels, "lost control over Nazi policy toward the press and over the handling of news in general." Rival agencies expanded. The foreign ministry took charge of propaganda outside Germany. The military set up its own propaganda division, providing daily reports on the progress of the war and the conditions of the armed forces. The Nazi Party also generated and distributed its own propaganda during the war. <mask> was still influential when he had the opportunity to meet with Hitler, who became less available as he moved his headquarters closer to the military front lines. They were together perhaps one day a month.Furthermore, Hitler rarely gave speeches or rallies of the sort that had dominated propaganda in the 1930s. After Hitler returned to Berlin in 1945, <mask>' ministry was destroyed by an Allied air raid on 13 March, and Goebbels had great difficulty disseminating propaganda. In April 1945, he finally bested the rival agencies and took full charge of propaganda, but by then the Soviet Red Army had already entered Berlin. Goebbels was an astute observer of the war, and historians have


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 exhaustively mined his diary for insights on how the Nazi leadership tried to maintain public morale. Defeat and death
In the last months of the war, Goebbels's speeches and articles took on an increasingly apocalyptic tone. By the beginning of 1945, with the Soviets on the Oder River and the Western Allies preparing to cross the Rhine River, he could no longer disguise the inevitability of German defeat. Berlin had little in the way of fortifications or artillery, and even Volkssturm units were in short supply, as almost everything and everyone had been sent to the front.<mask> noted in his diary on 21 January that millions of Germans were fleeing westward. He tentatively discussed with Hitler the issue of making peace overtures to the western allies, but Hitler again refused. Privately, Goebbels was conflicted at pushing the case with Hitler since he did not want to lose Hitler's confidence. When other Nazi leaders urged Hitler to leave Berlin and establish a new centre of resistance in the National Redoubt in Bavaria, Goebbels opposed this, arguing for a heroic last stand in Berlin. His family (except for Magda's son Harald, who had served in the Luftwaffe and been captured by the Allies) moved into their house in Berlin to await the end. He and Magda may have discussed suicide and the fate of their young children in a long meeting on the night of 27 January. He knew how the outside world would view the criminal acts committed by the regime and had no desire to subject himself to the "debacle" of a trial.He burned his private papers on the night of 18 April. Goebbels knew how to play on Hitler's fantasies, encouraging him to see the hand of providence in the death of United States President Franklin D.


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 Roosevelt on 12 April. Whether Hitler really saw this event as a turning point as Goebbels proclaimed is not known. By this time, Goebbels had gained the position he had wanted so long—at Hitler's side. Göring was utterly discredited, although he was not stripped of his offices until 23 April. Himmler, whose appointment as commander of Army Group Vistula had led to disaster on the Oder, was also in disgrace with Hitler. Most of Hitler's inner circle, including Göring, Himmler, Ribbentrop, and Speer, prepared to leave Berlin immediately after Hitler's birthday celebration on 20 April.Even Bormann was "not anxious" to meet his end at Hitler's side. On 22 April, Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself. Goebbels moved with his family into the Vorbunker, connected to the lower Führerbunker under the Reich Chancellery garden in central Berlin, that same day. He told Vice-Admiral Hans-Erich Voss that he would not entertain the idea of either surrender or escape. On 23 April, Goebbels made the following proclamation to the people of Berlin:

After midnight on 29 April, with the Soviets advancing ever closer to the bunker complex, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker. Afterward, he hosted a modest wedding breakfast. Hitler then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament.<mask> and Bormann were two of the witnesses. In his last will and testament, Hitler named no successor as Führer or leader of the Nazi Party. Instead, he appointed <mask> as Reich Chancellor; Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, who was at Flensburg near the Danish border, as Reich President; and Bormann as Party Minister. Goebbels wrote a


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: postscript to the will stating that he would "categorically refuse" to obey Hitler's order to leave Berlin—as he put it, "the first time in my life" that he had not complied with Hitler's orders. He felt compelled to remain with Hitler "for reasons of humanity and personal loyalty". His wife and children would stay as well. They would end their lives "side by side with the Führer".In the mid-afternoon of 30 April, Hitler shot himself. Goebbels was depressed, and said he would walk around the Chancellery garden until he was killed by the Russian shelling. Voss later recounted Goebbels as saying: "It is a great pity that such a man [Hitler] is not with us any longer. But there is nothing to be done. For us, everything is lost now and the only way out left for us is the one Hitler chose. I shall follow his example." On 1 May, Goebbels carried out his sole official act as Chancellor: he dictated a letter to General Vasily Chuikov and ordered German General Hans Krebs to deliver it under a white flag.Chuikov, as commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army, commanded the Soviet forces in central Berlin. <mask>'s letter informed Chuikov of Hitler's death and requested a ceasefire. After this was rejected, Goebbels decided that further efforts were futile. Later on 1 May, Voss saw Goebbels for the last time: "While saying goodbye I asked Goebbels to join us. But he replied: 'The captain must not leave his sinking ship. I have thought about it all and decided to stay here. I have nowhere to go because with little children I will not be able to make it, especially with a leg like mine'."On the evening of 1 May, Goebbels arranged for an SS dentist, Helmut Kunz, to inject his six children with morphine so that when they were


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts:
 unconscious, an ampule of cyanide could be then crushed in each of their mouths. According to Kunz's later testimony, he gave the children morphine injections but Magda <mask> and SS-Obersturmbannführer Ludwig Stumpfegger, Hitler's personal doctor, administered the cyanide. At around 20:30, <mask> and Magda left the bunker and walked up to the garden of the Chancellery, where they killed themselves. There are several different accounts of this event. One is that they each bit on a cyanide ampule near where Hitler had been buried and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterward. Goebbels's SS adjutant Günther Schwägermann testified in 1948 that they walked ahead of him up the stairs and out into the Chancellery garden. He waited in the stairwell and heard shots.Schwägermann then walked up the remaining stairs and, once outside, saw their lifeless bodies. Following Goebbels's prior order, Schwägermann had an SS soldier fire several shots into Goebbels's body, which did not move. The corpses were then doused with petrol, but they were only partially burned and not buried. A few days later, the Soviets brought Voss back to the bunker to identify the Goebbelses' partly burned bodies. The remains of the Goebbels family, Krebs, and Hitler's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed. The last burial was at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg on 21 February 1946. In 1970, KGB director Yuri Andropov authorised an operation to destroy the remains.On 4 April 1970, a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the Magdeburg SMERSH facility. They were burned, crushed, and scattered into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the nearby Elbe. Family life

Hitler was very fond of Magda and the


title: Joseph Goebbels

texts: children. He enjoyed staying at the Goebbelses' Berlin apartment, where he could relax. Magda had a close relationship with Hitler, and became a member of his small coterie of female friends. She also became an unofficial representative of the regime, receiving letters from all over Germany from women with questions about domestic matters or child custody issues. In 1936, Goebbels met the Czech actress Lída Baarová and by the winter of 1937 began an intense affair with her.Magda had a long conversation with Hitler about it on 15 August 1938. Unwilling to put up with a scandal involving one of his top ministers, Hitler demanded that Goebbels break off the relationship. Thereafter, <mask> and Magda seemed to reach a truce until the end of September. The couple had another falling out at that point, and again Hitler became involved, insisting the couple stay together. He arranged for publicity photos to be taken of himself with the reconciled couple in October. Goebbels also had short-term affairs and relationships with numerous other women. Magda too had affairs, including a relationship with Kurt Ludecke in 1933 and Karl Hanke in 1938.The Goebbels family included Harald Quandt (Magda's son from her first marriage; born 1921), plus Helga (1932), Hilde (1934), Helmuth (1935), Holde (1937), Hedda (1938), and Heide (1940). Harald was the only member of the family to survive the war. He died in an airplane crash in


title: Jimmy Brohan

texts:
<mask> (born 18 June 1935 in Ballintemple, Cork, Ireland) is an Irish retired sportsperson. He played hurling with his local club Blackrock and was a member of the Cork senior inter-county team from 1954 until 1963. Biography
<mask> was born in Ballintemple, County Cork in 1935. <mask> Snr, his father, was a native of Fethard, County Tipperary who moved to Cork to work in the Metropole Hotel. His mother, Mary Murphy, hailed from Ballintemple and also worked in the Metropole. <mask> was the middle child in a family of seven and was educated at Sullivan's Quay CBS. It was here that his hurling skills were first exploited.<mask> played on the school hurling team in the Dr. Harty Cup for five consecutive years, the first two as goalkeeper and the last three as a corner-back. In 1951 <mask> was at full-forward when Sullivan's Quay defeated the famous North Monastery in the Harty Cup, before later being defeated themselves by Thurles CBS. In 1952 and 1953 he was chosen on the Munster Colleges hurling team which played in the inter-provincial competition. He enjoyed much success and won two All-Ireland colleges' medals in both those years. After leaving Sullivan's Quay in 1953 Brohan worked at the Dunlop's tyre centre in Cork until its closure in 1983. Other Cork greats who also worked there included Johnny Clifford and Willie Murphy. <mask> later worked with the Customs Service until his retirement in 2000.Two of <mask>'s brothers also had sporting success playing soccer in the League of Ireland. Playing career

Club
Brohan played his club hurling with the famous Blackrock club in Cork and enjoyed much success. In 1956 the club, with

masks:
Jimmy Brohan
Jimmy Brohan
James Brohan
Brohan
Brohan
Brohan
Brohan
Brohan


title: Jimmy Brohan

texts:
 Brohan playing a key role, won the senior county championship for the first time in twenty-five years. Another county title followed five years later in 1961. <mask> also played Gaelic football with Blackrock's sister club called St Michael's and experienced some success. He won a county junior football championship title with the club in 1956. Inter-county
Brohan first came to prominence on the inter-county scene in the early 1950s as a member of the Cork minor hurling team.He was eligible to play for the team in both 1952 and 1953, however, Tipperary defeated Cork in the early rounds of the championship in both years. At the end of 1953 <mask> made his senior debut for Cork in the National Hurling League. He duly impressed the selectors and was subsequently called up to play in the All-Ireland semi-final against Galway. <mask> was replacing the injured Tony O'Shaughnessy and had a good game, however, O'Shaughnessy returned for the All-Ireland final and <mask> was left on the bench as Cork claimed victory over Wexford. In 1955 <mask> suffered a major setback when was suspended from all GAA activity for the year, due to his failure to turn up for a club game with St. Michael's. Clare defeated Cork in the opening round of the championship as <mask> watched on from the stand. In 1956 <mask> was back with Cork and was installed at corner-back.That year Cork reached the Munster final once again. Limerick provided the opposition on that occasion; however, Cork recorded a 5–5 o 3–5 victory thanks to three goals by Christy Ring. It was <mask>'s first Munster winners' medal on the field of play. Cork later lined out in the All-Ireland

masks: Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan


title: Jimmy Brohan

texts:
 final with Wexford providing the opposition. The game has gone down in history as one of the all-time classic games as Christy Ring was bidding for a record ninth All-Ireland medal. The game turned on one important incident as the Wexford goalkeeper, Art Foley, made a miraculous save from a Ring shot and cleared the sliotar up the field to set up another attack. Wexford went on to win the game on a score line of 2–14 to 2–8 and <mask> was left with an All-Ireland runners-up medal.<mask> added to his medal collection when he won a Munster junior football medal in 1957. Once again Cork's hurlers reached the Munster final, however, they were defeated by Waterford on a score line of 1–11 to 1–6. In spite of a lack of success in 1958 <mask> was still included on a Sunday Review best hurling team of the year selection. <mask>'s side contested three consecutive provincial finals in 1959, 1960 and 1961, however, he ended up on the losing side on every occasion. In a Gael-Linn sponsored poll in the Irish Independent in 1961, <mask> was named in the right corner-back position on a hurling team considered to be the best ever. He retired from inter-county hurling in the early 1960s. Inter-provincial
<mask> also lined out with Munster in the inter-provincial hurling competition and enjoyed much success.He first lined out with his province in 1957 and helped Munster to a 5–7 to 2–5 victory over Leinster. This was the first of five consecutive Railway Cup victories for <mask> as part of the Munster team. He won a sixth and final Railway Cup winners' medal in 1963 as Munster accounted for Leinster by just a single point. Unique style of

masks: Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan Brohan


title: Jimmy Brohan

texts:
 play
Brohan had a unique style of play, often described as tidy and economical. This was best illustrated by his defensive strategy which made him one of the most famous exponents of the batting skill in hurling and he often delighted the legions of Cork supporters in the 1950s and 1960s by batting away the ball to great distances out of defence to the frustration of opposing forwards. This was a tactic which was not very well developed or used to effect by his contemporaries and he duly deserved his reputation of being master of this particular skill which was best employed in a tight entanglement which did not allow room for the full natural hurley swing more conducive to loose marking and open play. Retirement
Following his retirement as a player Brohan became involved as a selector with the county hurling team.He was involved with the teams that won the All-Ireland titles in 1976, 1977, 1978 and 1986. In the latter year <mask> had the pleasure of seeing his nephew, Tom Cashman, captain Cork to victory. References

1935 births
Living people
Dual players
Blackrock hurlers
Cork inter-county hurlers
Munster inter-provincial hurlers
St Michael's (Cork) Gaelic footballers
Cork inter-county Gaelic footballers
Hurling


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
Dame <mask>  (; 23 April 1895 – 18 February 1982) was a New Zealand crime writer and theatre director. She was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1966. <mask> is known as one of the "Queens of Crime", along with Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, and Margery Allingham. She is known primarily for her character Inspector Roderick Alleyn, a gentleman detective who works for the Metropolitan Police (London). The Ngaio Marsh Award is awarded annually for the best New Zealand mystery, crime and thriller fiction writing. Youth

<mask> was born in the city of Christchurch, New Zealand, where she also died. In the Introduction to The Collected Short Fiction of <mask>, Douglas G. Greene writes:  "<mask> explained to an interviewer... that in New Zealand European children often receive native names, and Ngaio... can mean either 'light on the water' or 'little tree bug' in the Maori language.Other sources say that it is the name of a native flowering tree." Her father neglected to register her birth until 1900 and there is some uncertainty about the date. She was the only child of Rose and bank clerk <mask>, described by <mask> as "have-nots". Her mother's sister Ruth married the geologist, lecturer, and curator Robert Speight. Ngaio <mask> was educated at St Margaret's College in Christchurch, where she was one of the first pupils when the school was founded. She studied painting at the Canterbury College (NZ) School of Art before joining the Allan Wilkie company as an actress in 1916 and touring New Zealand. For a

masks:
Edith Ngaio Marsh
Marsh
Marsh
Ngo Marsh
Marsh
Henry Marsh
Marsh
Marsh


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
 short time in 1921 she was a member of the Rosemary Rees English Comedy Company, a touring company formed by actor-manager Rosemary Rees.In 1928 she went to London with friends (on whom she would base the Lamprey family [Surfeit of Lampreys]). From then on she divided her time between living in New Zealand and the United Kingdom. In London she began writing syndicated articles, which were published in New Zealand. In addition she and one of the friends with whom she had come to London opened Touch and Go, a handicraft shop that sold items such as decorated trays, bowls and lampshades. From 1928 to 1932 she ran the shop in Knightsbridge, London. During that time she wrote her first book, A Man Lay Dead. She wrote about the process of writing her first book in an essay, "Roderick Alleyn".<mask> was a member of The Group, an art association based in Christchurch, New Zealand. She exhibited with them in 1927, 1928, 1935, 1936, 1938, 1940 and 1947. Career

Internationally she is best known for her 32 detective novels published between 1934 and 1982. Along with Dorothy L. Sayers, Margery Allingham and Agatha Christie, she has been classed as one of the four original "Queens of Crime" — female writers who dominated the genre of crime fiction in the Golden Age of the 1920s and 1930s. All her novels feature British CID detective Roderick Alleyn. Several novels feature <mask>'s other loves, the theatre and painting. A number are set around theatrical productions (Enter a Murderer, Vintage Murder, Overture to Death, Opening Night, Death at the

masks: Marsh Marsh


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
 Dolphin, and Light Thickens), and three others are about actors off stage (Colour Scheme, False Scent and Final Curtain).Her short story "'I Can Find My Way Out" is also set around a theatrical production and is the earlier "Jupiter case" referred to in Opening Night; the short story won third prize in 1946 in the inaugural short story contest of Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine. Alleyn marries a painter, Agatha Troy, whom he meets during an investigation (Artists in Crime), and who features in three later novels. Most of the novels are set in England, but four are set in New Zealand, with Alleyn either on secondment to the New Zealand police (Colour Scheme and Died in the Wool) or on holiday (Vintage Murder and Photo Finish); Surfeit of Lampreys begins in New Zealand but continues in London. Notably, Colour Scheme includes Māori people among its cast of characters, unusual for novels of the British mystery genre. This novel is said to further subvert the genre by incorporating elements of spy fiction and providing a veiled critique of the British Empire. In 2018, HarperCollins Publishers released Money in the Morgue by Ngaio <mask> and Stella Duffy. The book was started by <mask> during World War II but abandoned.Working with just the book's title, first three chapters and some notes—but no idea of the plot or motive of the villain—Duffy completed the novel. Theatre
Marsh's great passion was the theatre. In 1942 she produced a modern-dress Hamlet for the Canterbury University College Drama Society (now University of Canterbury Dramatic


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
 especially writing and theatre production, in the 1966 Queen's Birthday Honours
 1974 – Inducted into the Detection Club
 1978 – Received the Grand Master Award for lifetime achievement as a detective novelist from the Mystery Writers of America
 1989 – Honored with a stamp by New Zealand Post as part of a New Zealand authors series
 2015 – Honoured on 23 April 2015 with a Google Doodle

Personal life
<mask> was unofficially engaged to Edward Bristed, who died in action in December 1917. She never married and had no children. She enjoyed close companionships with women, including her lifelong friend Sylvia Fox, but denied being lesbian, according to biographer Joanne Drayton. "I think Ngaio <mask> wanted the freedom of being who she was in a world, especially in a New Zealand that was still very conformist in its judgments of what constituted 'decent jokers, good Sheilas, and 'weirdos'", Roy Vaughan wrote after meeting her on a P&O Liner.In 1965 she published an autobiography, Black Beech and Honeydew. British author and publisher Margaret Lewis wrote an authorized biography, <mask> <mask>, A Life in 1991. New Zealand art historian Joanne Drayton's biography, <mask> <mask>: Her Life in Crime was published in 2008. Towards the end of her life she systematically destroyed many of her papers, letters, documents and handwritten manuscripts. <mask> died in Christchurch and was buried at the Church of the Holy Innocents, Mount Peel. Bibliography

Detective novels
All 33 novels, including one finished after <mask>'s death, feature Chief

masks: Marsh Marsh Ngaio Marsh Ngaio Marsh Marsh Marsh


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
 Inspector Alleyn (later Chief Superintendent) of the Criminal Investigation Department, Metropolitan Police (London). The series is chronological: published and probably written in order of the fictional history.List (with the exception of Money in the Morgue) is from a list in The Collected Short Fiction of Ngaio <mask> ed. Douglas G. Greene (see below under Short Fiction). A Man Lay Dead (1934)
 Enter a Murderer (1935)
 The Nursing Home Murder (1935)
 Death in Ecstasy (1936)
 Vintage Murder (1937). <mask>'s working title was The Case of the Greenstone Tiki (Otago Daily Times, 13 March 1937)
 Artists in Crime (1938)
 Death in a White Tie (1938)
 Overture to Death (1939)
 Death at the Bar (1940)
 Surfeit of Lampreys (1941); Death of a Peer in the U.S.
 Death and the Dancing Footman (1941)
 Colour Scheme (1943)
 Died in the Wool (1945). Serialised: Wagga Wagga Daily Advertiser (1946)
 Money in the Morgue (2018) (unfinished – completed by Stella Duffy)
 Final Curtain (1947)
 Swing Brother Swing (1949); A Wreath for Rivera in the U.S.. Serialised: Home Magazine (1949)
 Opening Night (1951); Night at the Vulcan in the U.S. Serialised in the US, Woman's Day (1951). Serialised in abridged form in the UK, Woman's Journal, March to May 1951
 Spinsters in Jeopardy (1953); abridged later in the U.S. as The Bride of Death (1955). Serialised in abridged form in the UK, Woman's Journal, October 1953 to January 1954
 Scales of Justice (1955).Serialised: Australian Women's Weekly (1956). Serialised in abridged form in the UK, Woman's Journal, May to


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
 August 1955
 Off With His Head (1956); Death of a Fool in the U.S.
 Singing in the Shrouds (1958). Serialised: Australian Women's Weekly (1959). Serialised in abridged form in the UK, Woman's Journal, June to September 1958
 False Scent (1959). Serialised: Australian Women's Weekly (1960). Serialised in abridged form in the UK, Woman's Journal, February to May 1960
 Hand in Glove (1962). Serialised in abridged form in the UK, Woman's Journal, April to July 1962
 Dead Water (1963)
 Death at the Dolphin (1966); Killer Dolphin in the U.S.Clutch of Constables (1968)
 When in Rome (1970)
 Tied Up in Tinsel (1972)
 Black As He's Painted (1974)
 Last Ditch (1977)
 Grave Mistake (1978)
 Photo Finish (1980)
 Light Thickens (1982)

Short fiction
The Collected Short Fiction of Ngaio <mask>, ed. Douglas G. Greene, 1989 and 1991 editions (UK title Death on the Air and Other Stories, 1995). Includes:
Two essays:
"Roderick Alleyn"
"Portrait of Troy"
Three short stories featuring Alleyn:
Death on the Air. The Grand Magazine, February 1937. Co-authored with A Drummond Sharpe. (in both the 1989 and 1991 editions)
I Can Find My Way Out (1946—USA). (in both the 1989 and 1991 editions)
Chapter and Verse: The Little Copplestone Mystery (1974—USA).Republished 1936—NZ,2009). (in both the 1989 and 1991 editions). <mask>'s original title was 'Chapter and Verse'
Other short stories:
The Hand in the Sand. American Weekly, 15 March 1953. (in both the 1989 and 1991 editions)
The Cupid Mirror (1972). (in both the 1989 and 1991 editions)
A Fool about Money


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
 (1973—USA). Australian Women's Weekly, 19 February 1975.(in both the 1989 and 1991 editions)
Morepork (1979—USA). (in both the 1989 and 1991 editions)
The Figure Quoted. (Christchurch) Sun, Christmas 1927. Reprinted New Zealand Short Stories (1930,l ed. O N Gillespie). (only in the 1991 edition)
A television script:
Evil Liver, with an ending to be supplied by a jury chosen from the audience; Greene suggests 5 possible solutions. Uncollected short stories
Moonshine.(Christchurch) Sun, date unknown. Reprinted Yours and Mine: Stories by Young New Zealanders (1936: ed. Warwick Lawrence)
My Poor Boy (1959)

Stage plays
Noel. First performed at St Margaret's College (1912)
The Moon Princess. First performed at St Michael's Day School (1913)
Mrs 'obson. First performed at St Michael's Day School (1914)
So Much for Nothing. First performed at the Military Sanatorium (1921)
Little House Bound.First performed at Leeston Town Hall (1924)

Letters
Speech of New Zealanders. Press, 1 July 1939

Reviews
Marie Tempest by Hector Bolitho. Press, 9 January 1937

Adapted works
Exit Sir Derek by Henry Jellett, adapted from The Nursing Home Murder, unpublished at the time. First performed at the Little Theatre, Canterbury (1935)

Songs
Columbine and Pantaloon. First performed at Choral Hall, Christchurch (1919)
The Hawthorn Gate. First performed at Choral Hall, Christchurch (1920)
The Gift. First performed at Choral Hall, Christchurch (1920)

Television plays
Slipknot (1967) (Alleyn).Anthologised under <mask>'s original title, 'A Knotty Problem', in Bodies


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
 from the Library: Volume 3, ed. Tony Medawar (HarperCollins, 2020)
Evil Liver (script of an episode of the series Crown Court by Granada Television Ltd; recorded in England in 1975). Broadcast ITV, 23 August 1975. Collected in The Collected Short Fiction of Ngaio <mask> Burdon
 A Play Toward (1946)
 Black Beech and Honeydew (1965, autobiography; revised 1981)
 Singing Land (1974)

Short non-fiction articles
 The Night Train from Grey (published under the pseudonym Kowhai). Sun, 7 June 1919. The Novelist's Problem.Press, 22 December 1934
 Theatre: A Note on the Status Quo. Landfall, March 1947
 A National Theatre. Landfall, March 1949 (Co-authored with George Swan and Arnold F Goodwin)
 An Author's Defence of the Hackneyed Classics. ABC Weekly, 2 April 1949
 The Development of the Arts in New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of the Arts, 9 February 1951
 Theatre in a Young Country. Sydney Morning Herald, 29 April 1951
 New Zealand: Welfare Paradise. Holiday, November 1960
 The Quick Forge.Article within Shakespeare’s Quatercentenary. Landfall, March 1964 (Coauthored with James Bertram, DF McKenzie, and Frank Sargeson)
 Stratford-upon-Avon. Atlantic Monthly, February 1967

Adaptations
Two novels were adapted as television episodes in the 1960s; Death in Ecstasy in 1964 with Geoffrey Keen as Alleyn, and Artists in Crime in 1968 with Michael Allinson as Alleyn. Four of the Alleyn novels were adapted for television in New Zealand and aired there in 1977 under the title Ngaio Marsh Theatre, with George Baker as Alleyn. <mask> appears in

masks: MarshM Marsh


title: Ngaio Marsh

texts:
 a cameo in the episode "Vintage Murder." Nine were adapted as The Inspector Alleyn Mysteries and aired by the BBC in 1993 and 1994 (the pilot originally in 1990), with Simon Williams (pilot) and then Patrick Malahide as Alleyn. In the 1990s the BBC made radio adaptations of Surfeit of Lampreys, A Man Lay Dead, Opening Night, and When in Rome starring Jeremy Clyde as Inspector Alleyn, and in 2010 Death and the Dancing Footman featuring Nigel Graham.<mask> <mask> co-wrote the 1951 episode Night at the Vulcan of the Philco Television Playhouse; and appeared as herself in the sixth episode The Central Problem in a television series of the unfinished Charles Dickens mystery novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood. References

Further reading

 Kirker, Anne (1986). New Zealand Women Artists: A Survey of 150 Years. Craftsman House. External links

 Image of <mask> <mask> as Hamlet
 Images of <mask> <mask>
 Dame <mask> <mask>'s Christchurch Home, open to visit
 <mask> <mask> at Timaru (from NZBC Sound Archives)

1895 births
1982 deaths
New Zealand Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Edgar Award winners
Members of the Detection Club
New Zealand crime fiction writers
New Zealand mystery writers
New Zealand theatre directors
New Zealand women novelists
People educated at St Margaret's College
University of Canterbury alumni
20th-century New Zealand novelists
Women mystery writers
Women autobiographers
New Zealand autobiographers
People from Christchurch
20th-century New Zealand women writers
20th-century British women

masks: Ngaio Marsh Ngaio Marsh Ngaio Marsh Ngaio Marsh Ngaio Marsh


title: Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere

texts: <mask> (5 August 1930 – 24 September 1975) was a  Malawian nationalist politician who played a significant role in bringing independence from colonial rule to his native country, formerly known as Nyasaland. From an early age Chipembere was a strong believer in natural justice and, on his return in 1954 from university in South Africa, he joined his country's independence struggle as a nationalist strategist and spokesman. In 1957, considering that the independence movement need such a strong leader similar to Kwame Nkrumah, and considering himself too young for this task, he joined with other young nationalists in inviting Hastings Kamuzu Banda to return to Nyasaland as the movement's leader. From 1958, Chipembere orchestrated a campaign of civil disobedience against the colonial authorities that Banda insisted should be non-violent, but which the younger leaders allowed to become more violent, and which eventually led the governor of Nyasaland to declare a State of emergency over the whole protectorate in March 1959. This led to the arrest of <mask>, Banda and other leaders of the Nyasaland African Congress and the deportation 72 of them to Southern Rhodesia, to the banning of the Congress party and to at least 51 African civilian deaths. Chipembere was regarded as a dangerous militant and imprisoned until late 1960: shortly after his release, he was prosecuted for sedition and imprisoned again until early 1963. Despite policy disagreements with Banda, on his second release Chipembere became a minister in Banda's cabinet in the run up to independence in July 1964.Barely a month later, Banda's autocratic style led to the Cabinet Crisis of 1964 in

masks:
Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere
Chipembere


title: Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere

texts:
 Malawi, when a majority of ministers who had voiced opposition to his style of government and several of his policies were sacked or resigned. Chipembere was not initially involved in this dispute and, although he did resign in sympathy with his colleagues, he attempted reconciliation during September 1964, until he and other ex-ministers were forced to leave the capital, Zomba, because of the hostility of Banda's supporters. After several months in Fort Johnston district, he and a few hundred supporters attempted an armed revolt in February 1965, which soon failed. Chipembere was ill with diabetes and, with British government support and Banda's consent, he was taken to California to study and for treatment. He then taught in Tanzania before returning to California in 1969 to complete his doctorate and for further diabetes treatment, and he later taught at California State University. He died in exile in Southern California, of complications arising from diabetes. Early life and career
Chipembere's father, Habil Matthew Chipembere, was a teacher from a prosperous Nyanja family, who was studying for the priesthood in the Church of the Province of Central Africa, a part of the Anglican Communion at the time of <mask>'s birth.<mask> was born in Kayoyo, then in Kota kota district, now Ntchisi district, in the Central Region of Nyasaland (now Malawi). His mother gave him the name "Masauko", which means "suffering" or "troubles", because it had been a difficult pregnancy. He was educated at Blantyre Secondary School, which also produced his later ministerial colleagues Augustine Bwanausi and Willie Chokani, up to School Certificate level. As university

masks:
Henry
Henry Chipeme


title: Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere

texts: In 1955, the governor considered that it was necessary to convince the African population the Federation was in their best interests and allay their fears. Accordingly, the Nyasaland government, with Colonial Office approval, increased the number of seats reserved for Africans on the Legislative Council from three to five. These African members would be nominated by Provincial Councils: although the Provincial Councils were largely composed of chiefs, their members were receptive to popular wishes, and they nominated Congress members or its supporters to the Legislative Council. In March 1956, aged only 25, <mask>e resigned his civil service post in order to stand for election. He was elected by an overwhelming majority to represent the Southern Province, along with Chiume for the Northern Province, Ralph Chinyama, N D Kwenje and Dunstan Chijozi (who was a sympathizer, but not a member of, the NAC).The council also included eleven official government members, headed by the Governor, and six non-official European members (so-called unofficials). Chipembere and Chiume seized the initiative in the Legislative Council with their outspoken and aggressive participation in its proceedings. The existing members, mostly European, had conducted proceedings with traditional British decorum and restraint, and presumably expected the new members to behave similarly; but these two asked awkward questions and made radical proposals which unsettled and embarrassed the existing membership. Their assault on colonial policies and condemnation of Federation turned the transcripts of the council's proceedings in Hansard, into a bestseller, particularly among young


title: Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere

texts: Africans, who were totally unaccustomed to seeing other Africans challenging the colonial authority so openly. <mask> later said that his behaviour here was inspired by Hastings Kamuzu Banda, whose speeches in London five years earlier against the Federation of Nyasaland with Southern and Northern Rhodesia had been similarly daring and inflammatory. In April 1955, at the 11th annual conference of the NAC, Chipembere and Chiume proposed secession from the Federation as official policy. In November 1956, Chipembere wrote to Dr Banda, then in semi-retirement in the Gold Coast (later Ghana), asking for his support in getting two African MPs, Manoah Chirwa and Clement Kumbikano, to resign from the Federal Assembly in Rhodesia, something which they had allegedly undertaken to do once they had officially protested against Federation in the assembly on Congress's behalf.Chipembere felt that their participation in the Federal Assembly weakened the Nyasaland African case for seceding from the Federation, which they had been adamantly and overwhelmingly opposed to in the first place. Banda, who had always regarded participation in the Federal Assembly as a betrayal, temporized and counselled patience, but Chipembere and Chiume nevertheless, on December 31, 1956, put a motion before Congress proposing that Chirwa and Kumbikano should be ordered to step down. In an eleven-hour debate, however, their motion was defeated, in part it is thought, because of the opposition of older members of Congress who regarded Chipembere and Chiume as too young and inexperienced to be taken seriously. It was probably this that determined the younger element to ask Banda, an


title: Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere

texts: older and highly respected man who had spent his entire adult life away from his native Nyasaland, to return and lead the campaign for secession (and ultimately independence). In January 1957, Sangala was persuaded to resign, and was replaced as President of Congress by Thamar Dillon Thomas Banda, known as T D T Banda, who was initially supported by Chipembere, Chiume and other young NAC members, and a youth movement called "the Kwaca Boys", which was later transformed into the Congress Youth League. In March 1957, T D T Banda went to the Gold Coast to participate in that country's independence celebrations, and while he was there, he visited Hastings Banda in order to try to persuade him to return. Banda was still reluctant, and two weeks later Chipembere wrote him a letter repeating the request.Later that year, partly in response to further moves by Sir Roy Welensky, the Prime Minister of the Federation, towards attaining dominion status for the Federation (which would make secession by Nyasaland very much harder to achieve), Banda finally agreed to return, but only on conditions which essentially gave him autocratic powers in Congress. Banda also threw his weight behind the demand for the resignation of the two Federal MPs, which happened shortly thereafter. One of Hastings Banda's preconditions was that he would become President of Congress, and the way for this was cleared when, in March 1958, T D T Banda was suspended over financial irregularities, a move orchestrated by Chipembere and Chiume, and was later removed from office. In June 1958, <mask>, Dunduzu Chisiza and Chief Kutanja joined Banda in meeting the Colonial Secretary, Lennox-Boyd,


title: Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere

texts:
 in London to discuss a new constitution for Nyasaland (one which had already been roundly rejected by Nyasaland's governor, Robert Armitage). Lennox-Boyd ‘took note’ of their views but said he did not think Congress represented Nyasaland African opinion. The following month, on 6 July 1958, Banda returned to Nyasaland after an absence of 42 years. At the Congress Annual General Meeting at Nkhata Bay on 1 August 1958, Banda was named President of the Congress, and he nominated <mask> as Treasurer General.The campaign for independence began in earnest. <mask> and most other leading Congress activists were in their late 20s or early 30s, but Banda was over 60. As well as the age difference, there was disagreement about Banda's role: the activists saw him as a figurehead, but he saw himself as the leader of Congress and expected their obedience. At that meeting, Banda also demanded and was given the power to appoint and dismiss all other party officers and members of its executive. Banda also appointed Chiume as Publicity Secretary, Dunduzu Chisiza as Secretary-general and four other young radicals to the party's executive committee, ignoring older moderates. However, he made it clear that he regarded his appointees as subordinates, not colleagues. Fight for independence
<mask>, Chiume and the two Chisiza brothers (Dunduzu and Yatuta) played a critical role in organizing Congress as a mass political party and creating support for Banda.Banda hitherto had been known mostly only by the educated minority in the country, although there was some awareness of his story among many of the people. They toured the country speaking to crowds assembled by the

masks: Chipembere Chipembere Chipembere


title: Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere

texts: newly energized Congress. In quite a few cases, this resulted in unrest, intimidation of opponents and rioting. In the latter part of 1958, Banda presented Congress proposals for an African majority in the Legislative Council to the governor, Sir Robert Armitage. As this would have led to a demand for withdrawal from the Federation, Armitage rejected them, although Banda continued to confer with the governor and leading officials on proposed constitutional changes. A final round of talks in the first days of January 1959 was abortive, and this impasse led to demands from Congress activists for more violent anti-government action, with their leaders including Chipembere making increasingly inflammatory statements, urging direct and potentially violent action. On 24 and 25 January 1959, there was a clandestine outdoor meeting of Congress held in Banda's absence at Limbe near Blantyre, which became known as the "bush meeting".In a letter sent to Chiume in the following week, <mask> wrote that "for the first time, Congress adopted 'action' as the official policy – and 'action' in the real sense of action". This letter was published as an appendix to the report of the Devlin Commission investigating disturbances in Nyasaland, and it clearly suggested action to defy the colonial authorities. It was alleged that the Congress members present had discussed using violence and intimidation of opponents as a means of furthering their push for independence. The Governor also received reports from police informers, only one of which attended the meeting, which claimed that Congress planned the indiscriminate killing of Europeans, Asians and its African


title: Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere

texts: opponents, the so-called "murder plot". There is no credible evidence that a murder plot as suggested by the police ever existed, but the refusal of Banda or other Congress leaders to condemn the violent actions of Congress members gave some plausibility to the allegation. <mask> later admitted he had misled the Devlin Commission as to the level of violence he was prepared to sanction, and it is possible that he, Chisiza and a few extremists had discussed killing the governor and leading civil servants. However, such a proposal was not put to or approved by the meeting in general, so the majority of attendees examined by the commission could truthfully report that they heard no suggestion made there such as Armitage reported to British ministers.Armitage decided to suspend negotiations without making any concessions and prepared for mass arrests, and on 20 February, troops from Rhodesia were flown to Nyasaland to assist in the planned detentions without trial. On February 20 and in the days following, both Chipembere and Yatuta Chisiza made a number of provocative speeches and on 20 February 1959 itself, Chipembere addressed a crowd at Ndirande near Blantyre, following which the crowd threw stones at passing motorists. Other disturbances followed, and the police or troops fired on some of these, leading to four deaths. Finally, on 3 March 1959, Armitage declared a State of Emergency over the whole of the protectorate and arrested Banda, other members of the Congress executive committee and over a hundred local party officials. The Nyasaland African Congress was banned the next day and <mask> and Chiume were later removed from the Legislative

masks: Chipembere Chipembere