title: George Washington

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 home and abroad and showed a skeptical world that the new republic would not degenerate into chaos. The same month, Washington was appointed president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati, a newly established hereditary fraternity of Revolutionary War officers.He served in this capacity for the remainder of his life. Early republic (1783–1789)

Return to Mount Vernon

<mask> was longing to return home after spending just ten days at Mount Vernon out of  years of war. He arrived on Christmas Eve, delighted to be "free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life". He was a celebrity and was fêted during a visit to his mother at Fredericksburg in February 1784, and he received a constant stream of visitors wishing to pay their respects to him at Mount Vernon. <mask> reactivated his interests in the Great Dismal Swamp and Potomac canal projects begun before the war, though neither paid him any dividends, and he undertook a 34-day, 680-mile (1090 km) trip to check on his land holdings in the Ohio Country. He oversaw the completion of the remodeling work at Mount Vernon, which transformed his residence into the mansion that survives to this day—although his financial situation was not strong. Creditors paid him in depreciated wartime currency, and he owed significant amounts in taxes and wages.Mount Vernon had made no profit during his absence, and he saw persistently poor crop yields due to pestilence and poor weather. His estate recorded its eleventh year running at a deficit in 1787, and there was little prospect of improvement. Washington undertook a new landscaping plan and succeeded in cultivating a range of fast-growing trees and shrubs that were native to North America. He also began breeding


title: George Washington

type: original

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 mules after having been gifted a Spanish jack by King Charles III of Spain in 1784. There were few mules in the United States at that time, and he believed that properly bred mules would revolutionize agriculture and transportation. Constitutional Convention of 1787

Before returning to private life in June 1783, Washington called for a strong union. Though he was concerned that he might be criticized for meddling in civil matters, he sent a circular letter to all the states, maintaining that the Articles of Confederation was no more than "a rope of sand" linking the states.He believed the nation was on the verge of "anarchy and confusion", was vulnerable to foreign intervention, and that a national constitution would unify the states under a strong central government. When Shays' Rebellion erupted in Massachusetts on August 29, 1786, over taxation, <mask> was further convinced that a national constitution was needed. Some nationalists feared that the new republic had descended into lawlessness, and they met together on September 11, 1786, at Annapolis to ask Congress to revise the Articles of Confederation. One of their biggest efforts, however, was getting <mask> to attend. Congress agreed to a Constitutional Convention to be held in Philadelphia in Spring 1787, and each state was to send delegates. On December 4, 1786, <mask> was chosen to lead the Virginia delegation, but he declined on December 21. He had concerns about the legality of the convention and consulted James Madison, Henry Knox, and others.They persuaded him to attend it, however, as his presence might induce reluctant states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process. On March 28, Washington told Governor Edmund Randolph

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title: George Washington

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 that he would attend the convention but made it clear that he was urged to attend. Washington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9, 1787, though a quorum was not attained until Friday, May 25. Benjamin Franklin nominated <mask> to preside over the convention, and he was unanimously elected to serve as president general. The convention's state-mandated purpose was to revise the Articles of Confederation with "all such alterations and further provisions" required to improve them, and the new government would be established when the resulting document was "duly confirmed by the several states". Governor Edmund Randolph of Virginia introduced Madison's Virginia Plan on May 27, the third day of the convention. It called for an entirely new constitution and a sovereign national government, which Washington highly recommended.Washington wrote Alexander Hamilton on July 10: "I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business." Nevertheless, he lent his prestige to the goodwill and work of the other delegates. He unsuccessfully lobbied many to support ratification of the Constitution, such as anti-federalist Patrick Henry; <mask> told him "the adoption of it under the present circumstances of the Union is in my opinion desirable" and declared the alternative would be anarchy. <mask> and Madison then spent four days at Mount Vernon evaluating the new government's transition. Chancellor of William & Mary
In 1788, the Board of Visitors of the College of William & Mary decided to re-establish the position of Chancellor, and elected <mask> to the office on January 18. The College Rector Samuel Griffin wrote to Washington inviting him to the

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title: George Washington

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 post, and in a letter dated April 30, 1788, <mask> accepted the position of the 14th Chancellor of the College of William & Mary. He continued to serve in the post through his presidency until his death on December 14, 1799.First presidential election

The delegates to the Convention anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected. The state electors under the Constitution voted for the president on February 4, 1789, and Washington suspected that most republicans had not voted for him. The mandated March4 date passed without a Congressional quorum to count the votes, but a quorum was reached on April 5. The votes were tallied the next day, and Congressional Secretary Charles Thomson was sent to Mount Vernon to tell Washington he had been elected president. Washington won the majority of every state's electoral votes; John Adams received the next highest number of votes and therefore became vice president. Washington had "anxious and painful sensations" about leaving the "domestic felicity" of Mount Vernon, but departed for New York City on April 16 to be inaugurated. Presidency (1789–1797)

Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, taking the oath of office at Federal Hall in New York City.His coach was led by militia and a marching band and followed by statesmen and foreign dignitaries in an inaugural parade, with a crowd of 10,000. Chancellor Robert R. Livingston administered the oath, using a Bible provided by the Masons, after which the militia fired a 13-gun salute. Washington read a speech in the Senate Chamber, asking "that Almighty Being who rules over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations—and whose providential aids can supply every human


title: George Washington

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 advice selecting its officers.Great Britain refused to relinquish its forts in the American West, and Barbary pirates preyed on American merchant ships in the Mediterranean at a time when the United States did not even have a navy. Cabinet and executive departments

Congress created executive departments in 1789, including the State Department in July, the Department of War in August, and the Treasury Department in September. Washington appointed fellow Virginian Edmund Randolph as Attorney General, Samuel Osgood as Postmaster General, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, and Henry Knox as Secretary of War. Finally, he appointed Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. <mask>'s cabinet became a consulting and advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution. Washington's cabinet members formed rival parties with sharply opposing views, most fiercely illustrated between Hamilton and Jefferson. <mask> restricted cabinet discussions to topics of his choosing, without participating in the debate.He occasionally requested cabinet opinions in writing and expected department heads to agreeably carry out his decisions. Domestic issues

Washington was apolitical and opposed the formation of parties, suspecting that conflict would undermine republicanism. He exercised great restraint in using his veto power, writing that "I give my Signature to many Bills with which my Judgment is at variance…." His closest advisors formed two factions, portending the First Party System. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton formed the Federalist Party to promote national credit and a financially powerful nation. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson opposed Hamilton's agenda and founded the Jeffersonian Republicans. <mask>


title: George Washington

texts:
 escaping from slave states. That 1787 law lapsed when the new U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1789. The Slave Trade Act of 1794, which sharply limited American involvement in the Atlantic slave trade, was also signed by Washington. And, Congress acted on February 18, 1791, to admit the free state of Vermont into the Union as the 14th state as of March 4, 1791. National Bank

Washington's first term was largely devoted to economic concerns, in which Hamilton had devised various plans to address matters.The establishment of public credit became a primary challenge for the federal government. Hamilton submitted a report to a deadlocked Congress, and he, Madison, and Jefferson reached the Compromise of 1790 in which Jefferson agreed to Hamilton's debt proposals in exchange for moving the nation's capital temporarily to Philadelphia and then south near Georgetown on the Potomac River. The terms were legislated in the Funding Act of 1790 and the Residence Act, both of which Washington signed into law. Congress authorized the assumption and payment of the nation's debts, with funding provided by customs duties and excise taxes. Hamilton created controversy among Cabinet members by advocating establishing the First Bank of the United States. Madison and Jefferson objected, but the bank easily passed Congress. Jefferson and Randolph insisted that the new bank was beyond the authority granted by the constitution, as Hamilton believed.<mask> sided with Hamilton and signed the legislation on February 25, and the rift became openly hostile between Hamilton and Jefferson. The nation's first financial crisis occurred in March 1792. Hamilton's Federalists exploited large loans to gain control of U.S. debt securities, causing a


title: George Washington

texts:
 run on the national bank; the markets returned to normal by mid-April. Jefferson believed Hamilton was part of the scheme, despite Hamilton's efforts to ameliorate, and <mask> again found himself in the middle of a feud. Jefferson–Hamilton feud

Jefferson and Hamilton adopted diametrically opposed political principles. Hamilton believed in a strong national government requiring a national bank and foreign loans to function, while Jefferson believed the states and the farm element should primarily direct the government; he also resented the idea of banks and foreign loans. To <mask>'s dismay, the two men persistently entered into disputes and infighting.Hamilton demanded that Jefferson resign if he could not support <mask>, and Jefferson told Washington that Hamilton's fiscal system would lead to the overthrow of the Republic. <mask> urged them to call a truce for the nation's sake, but they ignored him. <mask> reversed his decision to retire after his first term to minimize party strife, but the feud continued after his re-election. Jefferson's political actions, his support of Freneau's National Gazette, and his attempt to undermine Hamilton nearly led <mask> to dismiss him from the cabinet; Jefferson ultimately resigned his position in December 1793, and <mask> forsook him from that time on. The feud led to the well-defined Federalist and Republican parties, and party affiliation became necessary for election to Congress by 1794. <mask> remained aloof from congressional attacks on Hamilton, but he did not publicly protect him, either. The Hamilton–Reynolds sex scandal opened Hamilton to disgrace, but <mask> continued to hold him in "very high esteem" as the dominant force in establishing federal law and

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title: George Washington

texts:
 government.Whiskey Rebellion

In March 1791, at Hamilton's urging, with support from Madison, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits to help curtail the national debt, which took effect in July. Grain farmers strongly protested in Pennsylvania's frontier districts; they argued that they were unrepresented and were shouldering too much of the debt, comparing their situation to excessive British taxation before the Revolutionary War. On August 2, <mask> assembled his cabinet to discuss how to deal with the situation. Unlike <mask>, who had reservations about using force, Hamilton had long waited for such a situation and was eager to suppress the rebellion by using federal authority and force. Not wanting to involve the federal government if possible, <mask> called on Pennsylvania state officials to take the initiative, but they declined to take military action. On August 7, <mask> issued his first proclamation for calling up state militias. After appealing for peace, he reminded the protestors that, unlike the rule of the British crown, the Federal law was issued by state-elected representatives.Threats and violence against tax collectors, however, escalated into defiance against federal authority in 1794 and gave rise to the Whiskey Rebellion. Washington issued a final proclamation on September 25, threatening the use of military force to no avail. The federal army was not up to the task, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon state militias. Governors sent troops, initially commanded by Washington, who gave the command to Light-Horse Harry Lee to lead them into the rebellious districts. They took 150 prisoners, and the remaining rebels dispersed without further fighting. Two of the


title: George Washington

texts:
 prisoners were condemned to death, but <mask> exercised his Constitutional authority for the first time and pardoned them. Washington's forceful action demonstrated that the new government could protect itself and its tax collectors.This represented the first use of federal military force against the states and citizens, and remains the only time an incumbent president has commanded troops in the field. <mask> justified his action against "certain self-created societies", which he regarded as "subversive organizations" that threatened the national union. He did not dispute their right to protest, but he insisted that their dissent must not violate federal law. Congress agreed and extended their congratulations to him; only Madison and Jefferson expressed indifference. Foreign affairs

In April 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars began between Great Britain and France, and Washington declared America's neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Citizen Genêt to America, and he was welcomed with great enthusiasm. He created a network of new Democratic-Republican Societies promoting France's interests, but <mask> denounced them and demanded that the French recall Genêt.The National Assembly of France granted Washington honorary French citizenship on August 26, 1792, during the early stages of the French Revolution. Hamilton formulated the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Great Britain while removing them from western forts, and also to resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution. Chief Justice John Jay acted as Washington's negotiator and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794; critical Jeffersonians, however, supported France. <mask> deliberated, then supported the treaty


title: George Washington

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 because it avoided war with Britain, but was disappointed that its provisions favored Britain. He mobilized public opinion and secured ratification in the Senate but faced frequent public criticism. The British agreed to abandon their forts around the Great Lakes, and the United States modified the boundary with Canada. The government liquidated numerous pre-Revolutionary debts, and the British opened the British West Indies to American trade.The treaty secured peace with Britain and a decade of prosperous trade. Jefferson claimed that it angered France and "invited rather than avoided" war. Relations with France deteriorated afterward, leaving succeeding president John Adams with prospective war. James Monroe was the American Minister to France, but Washington recalled him for his opposition to the Treaty. The French refused to accept his replacement Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and the French Directory declared the authority to seize American ships two days before Washington's term ended. Native American affairs

Ron Chernow describes Washington as always trying to be even-handed in dealing with the Natives. He states that Washington hoped they would abandon their itinerant hunting life and adapt to fixed agricultural communities in the manner of white settlers.He also maintains that <mask> never advocated outright confiscation of tribal land or the forcible removal of tribes and that he berated American settlers who abused natives, admitting that he held out no hope for pacific relations with the natives as long as "frontier settlers entertain the opinion that there is not the same crime (or indeed no crime at all) in killing a native as in killing a white man." By contrast, Colin G. Calloway writes that


title: George Washington

texts: "Washington had a lifelong obsession with getting Indian land, either for himself or for his nation, and initiated policies and campaigns that had devastating effects in Indian country." "The growth of the nation," Galloway has stated, "demanded the dispossession of Indian people. <mask> hoped the process could be bloodless and that Indian people would give up their lands for a "fair" price and move away. But if Indians refused and resisted, as they often did, he felt he had no choice but to "extirpate" them and that the expeditions he sent to destroy Indian towns were therefore entirely justified." During the Fall of 1789, Washington had to contend with the British refusing to evacuate their forts in the Northwest frontier and their concerted efforts to incite hostile Indian tribes to attack American settlers. The Northwest tribes under Miami chief Little Turtle allied with the British Army to resist American expansion, and killed 1,500 settlers between 1783 and 1790.As documented by Harless (2018), Washington declared that "The Government of the United States are determined that their Administration of Indian Affairs shall be directed entirely by the great principles of Justice and humanity", and provided that treaties should negotiate their land interests. The administration regarded powerful tribes as foreign nations, and <mask> even smoked a peace pipe and drank wine with them at the Philadelphia presidential house. He made numerous attempts to conciliate them; he equated killing indigenous peoples with killing whites and sought to integrate them into European-American culture. Secretary of War Henry Knox also attempted to encourage agriculture among the tribes. In the Southwest, negotiations failed between

masks: Washington Washington


title: George Washington

texts: federal commissioners and raiding Indian tribes seeking retribution. Washington invited Creek Chief Alexander McGillivray and 24 leading chiefs to New York to negotiate a treaty and treated them like foreign dignitaries. Knox and McGillivray concluded the Treaty of New York on August 7, 1790, in Federal Hall, which provided the tribes with agricultural supplies and McGillivray with a rank of Brigadier General Army and a salary of $1,500.In 1790, Washington sent Brigadier General Josiah Harmar to pacify the Northwest tribes, but Little Turtle routed him twice and forced him to withdraw. The Western Confederacy of tribes used guerrilla tactics and were an effective force against the sparsely manned American Army. Washington sent Major General Arthur St. Clair from Fort Washington on an expedition to restore peace in the territory in 1791. On November 4, St. Clair's forces were ambushed and soundly defeated by tribal forces with few survivors, despite <mask>'s warning of surprise attacks. <mask> was outraged over what he viewed to be excessive Native American brutality and execution of captives, including women and children. St. Clair resigned his commission, and <mask> replaced him with the Revolutionary War hero General Anthony Wayne. From 1792 to 1793, Wayne instructed his troops on Native American warfare tactics and instilled discipline which was lacking under St. Clair.In August 1794, <mask> sent Wayne into tribal territory with authority to drive them out by burning their villages and crops in the Maumee Valley. On August 24, the American army under Wayne's leadership defeated the western confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, and the Treaty of Greenville in August 1795 opened up two-thirds of the Ohio


title: George Washington

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 Country for American settlement. Second term

Originally, <mask> had planned to retire after his first term, while many Americans could not imagine anyone else taking his place. After nearly four years as president, and dealing with the infighting in his own cabinet and with partisan critics, <mask> showed little enthusiasm in running for a second term, while Martha also wanted him not to run. James Madison urged him not to retire, that his absence would only allow the dangerous political rift in his cabinet and the House to worsen. Jefferson also pleaded with him not to retire and agreed to drop his attacks on Hamilton, or he would also retire if <mask> did. Hamilton maintained that <mask>'s absence would be "deplored as the greatest evil" to the country at this time.<mask>'s close nephew <mask> <mask>, his manager at Mount Vernon, was critically ill and had to be replaced, further increasing <mask>'s desire to retire and return to Mount Vernon. When the election of 1792 neared, <mask> did not publicly announce his presidential candidacy. Still, he silently consented to run to prevent a further political-personal rift in his cabinet. The Electoral College unanimously elected him president on February 13, 1793, and John Adams as vice president by a vote of 77 to 50. <mask>, with nominal fanfare, arrived alone at his inauguration in his carriage. Sworn into office by Associate Justice William Cushing on March 4, 1793, in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia, <mask> gave a brief address and then immediately retired to his Philadelphia presidential house, weary of office and in poor health. On April 22, 1793, during the French Revolution, <mask> issued his famous Neutrality Proclamation and was

masks:
Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington
George Augustine
Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington


title: George Washington

texts: resolved to pursue "a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent Powers" while he warned Americans not to intervene in the international conflict.Although Washington recognized France's revolutionary government, he would eventually ask French minister to America Citizen Genêt be recalled over the Citizen Genêt Affair. Genêt was a diplomatic troublemaker who was openly hostile toward Washington's neutrality policy. He procured four American ships as privateers to strike at Spanish forces (British allies) in Florida while organizing militias to strike at other British possessions. However, his efforts failed to draw America into the foreign campaigns during <mask>'s presidency. On July 31, 1793, Jefferson submitted his resignation from <mask>'s cabinet. <mask> signed the Naval Act of 1794 and commissioned the first six federal frigates to combat Barbary pirates. In January 1795, Hamilton, who desired more income for his family, resigned office and was replaced by Washington appointment Oliver Wolcott, Jr. <mask> and Hamilton remained friends.However, Washington's relationship with his Secretary of War Henry Knox deteriorated. Knox resigned office on the rumor he profited from construction contracts on U.S. Frigates. In the final months of his presidency, Washington was assailed by his political foes and a partisan press who accused him of being ambitious and greedy, while he argued that he had taken no salary during the war and had risked his life in battle. He regarded the press as a disuniting, "diabolical" force of falsehoods, sentiments that he expressed in his Farewell Address. At the end of his second term, <mask> retired for personal and political reasons, dismayed with personal attacks, and to

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title: George Washington

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 ensure that a truly contested presidential election could be held. He did not feel bound to a two-term limit, but his retirement set a significant precedent. Washington is often credited with setting the principle of a two-term presidency, but it was Thomas Jefferson who first refused to run for a third term on political grounds.Farewell Address

In 1796, <mask> declined to run for a third term of office, believing his death in office would create an image of a lifetime appointment. The precedent of a two-term limit was created by his retirement from office. In May 1792, in anticipation of his retirement, <mask> instructed James Madison to prepare a "valedictory address", an initial draft of which was entitled the "Farewell Address". In May 1796, <mask> sent the manuscript to his Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton who did an extensive rewrite, while <mask> provided final edits. On September 19, 1796, David Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser published the final version of the address. Washington stressed that national identity was paramount, while a united America would safeguard freedom and prosperity. He warned the nation of three eminent dangers: regionalism, partisanship, and foreign entanglements, and said the "name of AMERICAN, which belongs to you, in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local discriminations."Washington called for men to move beyond partisanship for the common good, stressing that the United States must concentrate on its own interests. He warned against foreign alliances and their influence in domestic affairs, and bitter partisanship and the dangers of political parties. He counseled friendship and commerce


title: George Washington

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 with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars. He stressed the importance of religion, asserting that "religion and morality are indispensable supports" in a republic. <mask>'s address favored Hamilton's Federalist ideology and economic policies. <mask> closed the address by reflecting on his legacy:

After initial publication, many Republicans, including Madison, criticized the Address and believed it was an anti-French campaign document. Madison believed <mask> was strongly pro-British.Madison also was suspicious of who authored the Address. In 1839, Washington biographer Jared Sparks maintained that <mask>'s "...Farewell Address was printed and published with the laws, by order of the legislatures, as an evidence of the value they attached to its political precepts, and of their affection for its author." In 1972, Washington scholar James Flexner referred to the Farewell Address as receiving as much acclaim as Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence and Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. In 2010, historian Ron Chernow reported the Farewell Address proved to be one of the most influential statements on Republicanism. Post-presidency (1797–1799)

Retirement

<mask> retired to Mount Vernon in March 1797 and devoted time to his plantations and other business interests, including his distillery. His plantation operations were only minimally profitable, and his lands in the west (Piedmont) were under Indian attacks and yielded little income, with the squatters there refusing to pay rent. He attempted to sell these but without success.He became an even more committed Federalist. He vocally supported the Alien and Sedition Acts and convinced Federalist John Marshall to run for Congress to


title: George Washington

texts: weaken the Jeffersonian hold on Virginia. <mask> grew restless in retirement, prompted by tensions with France, and he wrote to Secretary of War James McHenry offering to organize President Adams' army. In a continuation of the French Revolutionary Wars, French privateers began seizing American ships in 1798, and relations deteriorated with France and led to the "Quasi-War". Without consulting <mask>, Adams nominated him for a lieutenant general commission on July 4, 1798, and the position of commander-in-chief of the armies. <mask> chose to accept, replacing James Wilkinson, and he served as the commanding general from July 13, 1798, until his death 17 months later. He participated in planning for a provisional army, but he avoided involvement in details.In advising McHenry of potential officers for the army, he appeared to make a complete break with Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans: "you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the government of this country." <mask> delegated the active leadership of the army to Hamilton, a major general. No army invaded the United States during this period, and <mask> did not assume a field command. <mask> was known to be rich because of the well-known "glorified façade of wealth and grandeur" at Mount Vernon, but nearly all his wealth was in the form of land and slaves rather than ready cash. To supplement his income, he erected a distillery for substantial whiskey production. Historians estimate that the estate was worth about $1million in 1799 dollars, . He bought land parcels to spur development around the new Federal City named in his honor, and he sold individual

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title: George Washington

texts:
 lots to middle-income investors rather than multiple lots to large investors, believing they would more likely commit to making improvements.Final days and death

On December 12, 1799, Washington inspected his farms on horseback. He returned home late and had guests over for dinner. He had a sore throat the next day but was well enough to mark trees for cutting. That evening, he complained of chest congestion but was still cheerful. On Saturday, he awoke to an inflamed throat and difficulty breathing, so he ordered estate overseer <mask> to remove nearly a pint of his blood; bloodletting was a common practice of the time. His family summoned Doctors James Craik, Gustavus Richard Brown, and Elisha C. Dick. (Dr. William Thornton arrived some hours after Washington died.)Dr. Brown thought <mask> had quinsy; Dr. Dick thought the condition was a more serious "violent inflammation of the throat". They continued the process of bloodletting to approximately five pints, and <mask>'s condition deteriorated further. Dr. Dick proposed a tracheotomy, but the others were not familiar with that procedure and therefore disapproved. <mask> instructed Brown and Dick to leave the room, while he assured Craik, "Doctor, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go." <mask>'s death came more swiftly than expected. On his deathbed, he instructed his private secretary Tobias Lear to wait three days before his burial, out of fear of being entombed alive. According to Lear, he died peacefully between 10 and 11 p.m. on December 14, 1799, with Martha seated at the foot of his bed.His last words were "'Tis well", from his conversation with Lear about his burial. He was 67. Congress immediately adjourned for the day upon news of <mask>'s death, and

masks:
George Rawlins
Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington


title: George Washington

texts: the Speaker's chair was shrouded in black the next morning. The funeral was held four days after his death on December 18, 1799, at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred. Cavalry and foot soldiers led the procession, and six colonels served as the pallbearers. The Mount Vernon funeral service was restricted mostly to family and friends. Reverend Thomas Davis read the funeral service by the vault with a brief address, followed by a ceremony performed by various members of Washington's Masonic lodge in Alexandria, Virginia.Congress chose Light-Horse Harry Lee to deliver the eulogy. Word of his death traveled slowly; church bells rang in the cities, and many places of business closed. People worldwide admired Washington and were saddened by his death, and memorial processions were held in major cities of the United States. Martha wore a black mourning cape for one year, and she burned their correspondence to protect their privacy. Only five letters between the couple are known to have survived: two from Martha to <mask> and three from him to her. The diagnosis of <mask>'s illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since the day he died. The published account of Drs.Craik and Brown stated that his symptoms had been consistent with cynanche trachealis (tracheal inflammation), a term of that period used to describe severe inflammation of the upper windpipe, including quinsy. Accusations have persisted since <mask>'s death concerning medical malpractice, with some believing he had been bled to death. Various modern medical authors have speculated that he died from a severe case of epiglottitis complicated by the given treatments, most notably the massive blood loss which almost certainly

masks: George Washington Washington


title: George Washington

texts:
 caused hypovolemic shock. Burial, net worth, and aftermath

<mask> was buried in the old Washington family vault at Mount Vernon, situated on a grassy slope overspread with willow, juniper, cypress, and chestnut trees. It contained the remains of his brother Lawrence and other family members, but the decrepit brick vault needed repair, prompting <mask> to leave instructions in his will for the construction of a new vault. <mask>'s estate at the time of his death was worth an estimated $780,000 in 1799, approximately equivalent to $17.82million in 2021. <mask>'s peak net worth was $587.0 million, including his 300 slaves.Washington held title to more than 65,000 acres of land in 37 different locations. In 1830, a disgruntled ex-employee of the estate attempted to steal what he thought was Washington's skull, prompting the construction of a more secure vault. The next year, the new vault was constructed at Mount Vernon to receive the remains of <mask> and Martha and other relatives. In 1832, a joint Congressional committee debated moving his body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol. The crypt had been built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s during the reconstruction of the burned-out capital, after the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812. Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South; many were concerned that Washington's remains could end up on "a shore foreign to his native soil" if the country became divided, and Washington's remains stayed in Mount Vernon. On October 7, 1837, Washington's remains were placed, still in the original lead coffin, within a marble sarcophagus designed by William Strickland and constructed by John

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title: George Washington

texts:
 Struthers earlier that year.The sarcophagus was sealed and encased with planks, and an outer vault was constructed around it. The outer vault has the sarcophagi of both <mask> and <mask>; the inner vault has the remains of other <mask> family members and relatives. Personal life

<mask> was somewhat reserved in personality, but he generally had a strong presence among others. He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator or debater. He was taller than most of his contemporaries; accounts of his height vary from  to  tall, he weighed between  as an adult, and he was known for his great strength. He had grey-blue eyes and reddish-brown hair which he wore powdered in the fashion of the day. He had a rugged and dominating presence, which garnered respect from his peers.He bought William Lee on May 27, 1768, and he was <mask>'s valet for 20 years. He was the only slave freed immediately in <mask>'s will. <mask> frequently suffered from severe tooth decay and ultimately lost all his teeth but one. He had several sets of false teeth, which he wore during his presidency, made using a variety of materials including both animal and human teeth, but wood was not used despite common lore. These dental problems left him in constant pain, for which he took laudanum. As a public figure, he relied upon the strict confidence of his dentist. <mask> was a talented equestrian early in life.He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon, and his two favorite horses were Blueskin and Nelson. Fellow Virginian Thomas Jefferson said <mask> was "the best horseman of his age and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback"; he also hunted foxes, deer, ducks, and other game. He was an excellent

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George
Martha Washington
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Washington
Washington
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title: George Washington

texts:
 dancer and attended the theater frequently. He drank in moderation but was morally opposed to excessive drinking, smoking tobacco, gambling, and profanity. Religion and Freemasonry

<mask> was descended from Anglican minister <mask> (his great-great-grandfather), whose troubles with the Church of England may have prompted his heirs to emigrate to America. <mask> was baptized as an infant in April 1732 and became a devoted member of the Church of England (the Anglican Church). He served more than 20 years as a vestryman and churchwarden for Fairfax Parish and Truro Parish, Virginia.He privately prayed and read the Bible daily, and he publicly encouraged people and the nation to pray. He may have taken communion on a regular basis prior to the Revolutionary War, but he did not do so following the war, for which he was admonished by Pastor James Abercrombie. Washington believed in a "wise, inscrutable, and irresistible" Creator God who was active in the Universe, contrary to deistic thought. He referred to God by the Enlightenment terms Providence, the Creator, or the Almighty, and also as the Divine Author or the Supreme Being. He believed in a divine power who watched over battlefields, was involved in the outcome of war, was protecting his life, and was involved in American politics—and specifically in the creation of the United States. Modern historian Ron Chernow has posited that Washington avoided evangelistic Christianity or hellfire-and-brimstone speech along with communion and anything inclined to "flaunt his religiosity". Chernow has also said <mask> "never used his religion as a device for partisan purposes or in official undertakings".No mention of Jesus Christ appears in his private correspondence, and

masks:
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Lawrence Washington
Washington
Washington


title: George Washington

texts: such references are rare in his public writings. He frequently quoted from the Bible or paraphrased it, and often referred to the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. There is debate on whether he is best classed as a Christian or a theistic rationalist—or both. Washington emphasized religious toleration in a nation with numerous denominations and religions. He publicly attended services of different Christian denominations and prohibited anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army. He engaged workers at Mount Vernon without regard for religious belief or affiliation. While president, he acknowledged major religious sects and gave speeches on religious toleration.He was distinctly rooted in the ideas, values, and modes of thinking of the Enlightenment, but he harbored no contempt of organized Christianity and its clergy, "being no bigot myself to any mode of worship". In 1793, speaking to members of the New Church in Baltimore, <mask> proclaimed, "We have abundant reason to rejoice that in this Land the light of truth and reason has triumphed over the power of bigotry and superstition." Freemasonry was a widely accepted institution in the late 18th century, known for advocating moral teachings. <mask> was attracted to the Masons' dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason, and brotherhood. The American Masonic lodges did not share the anti-clerical perspective of the controversial European lodges. A Masonic lodge was established in Fredericksburg in September 1752, and <mask> was initiated two months later at the age of 20 as one of its first Entered Apprentices. Within a year, he progressed through its ranks to become a Master Mason.<mask> had high regard for the Masonic Order, but his personal lodge


title: George Washington

texts:
 attendance was sporadic. In 1777, a convention of Virginia lodges asked him to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia, but he declined due to his commitments leading the Continental Army. After 1782, he frequently corresponded with Masonic lodges and members, and he was listed as Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria Lodge No. 22 in 1788. Slavery

In <mask>'s lifetime, slavery was deeply ingrained in the economic and social fabric of Virginia. Slavery was legal in all of the Thirteen Colonies prior to the American Revolution. <mask>'s slaves
<mask> owned and rented enslaved African Americans, and during his lifetime over 577 slaves lived and worked at Mount Vernon.He acquired them through inheritance, gaining control of 84 dower slaves upon his marriage to Martha, and purchased at least 71 slaves between 1752 and 1773. From 1786 he rented slaves, at his death he was renting 41. His early views on slavery were no different from any Virginia planter of the time. From the 1760s his attitudes underwent a slow evolution. The first doubts were prompted by his transition from tobacco to grain crops, which left him with a costly surplus of slaves, causing him to question the system's economic efficiency. His growing disillusionment with the institution was spurred by the principles of the American Revolution and revolutionary friends such as Lafayette and Hamilton. Most historians agree the Revolution was central to the evolution of Washington's attitudes on slavery; "After 1783", Kenneth Morgan writes, "...[Washington] began to express inner tensions about the problem of slavery more frequently, though always in private..."

The many contemporary reports of slave treatment at Mount


title: George Washington

texts:
 Washington's written permission before whipping, though his extended absences did not always permit this. Washington remained dependent on slave labor to work his farms and negotiated the purchase of more slaves in 1786 and 1787. Washington brought several of his slaves with him and his family to the federal capital during his presidency.When the capital moved from New York City to Philadelphia in 1791, the president began rotating his slave household staff periodically between the capital and Mount Vernon. This was done deliberately to circumvent Pennsylvania's Slavery Abolition Act, which, in part, automatically freed any slave who moved to the state and lived there for more than six months. In May 1796, Martha's personal and favorite slave Oney Judge escaped to Portsmouth. At Martha's behest, <mask> attempted to capture Ona, using a Treasury agent, but this effort failed. In February 1797, <mask>'s personal slave Hercules escaped to Philadelphia and was never found. In February 1786, Washington took a census of Mount Vernon and recorded 224 slaves. By 1799, slaves at Mount Vernon totaled 317, including 143 children.<mask> owned 124 slaves, leased 40, and held 153 for his wife's dower interest. <mask> supported many slaves who were too young or too old to work, greatly increasing Mount Vernon's slave population and causing the plantation to operate at a loss. Abolition and manumission

Based on his letters, diary, documents, accounts from colleagues, employees, friends, and visitors, <mask> slowly developed a cautious sympathy toward abolitionism that eventually ended with his will freeing his military/war valet Billy Lee, and then subsequently freeing the rest of his personally-owned slaves outright upon


title: George Washington

texts: Martha's death. As president, he remained publicly silent on the topic of slavery, believing it was a nationally divisive issue which could destroy the union. During the American Revolutionary War, <mask> began to change his views on slavery. In a 1778 letter to <mask>, he made clear his desire "to get quit of Negroes" when discussing the exchange of slaves for the land he wanted to buy. The next year, <mask> stated his intention not to separate enslaved families as a result of "a change of masters".During the 1780s, <mask> privately expressed his support for the gradual emancipation of slaves. Between 1783 and 1786, he gave moral support to a plan proposed by Lafayette to purchase land and free slaves to work on it, but declined to participate in the experiment. <mask> privately expressed support for emancipation to prominent Methodists Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury in 1785 but declined to sign their petition. In personal correspondence the next year, he made clear his desire to see the institution of slavery ended by a gradual legislative process, a view that correlated with the mainstream antislavery literature published in the 1780s that Washington possessed. He significantly reduced his purchases of slaves after the war but continued to acquire them in small numbers. In 1788, <mask> declined a suggestion from a leading French abolitionist, Jacques Brissot, to establish an abolitionist society in Virginia, stating that although he supported the idea, the time was not yet right to confront the issue. The historian Henry Wiencek (2003) believes, based on a remark that appears in the notebook of his biographer David Humphreys, that Washington considered making a public statement by freeing his slaves on the eve

masks:
Washington
Lund Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington
Washington


title: George Washington

texts: of his presidency in 1789.The historian Philip D. Morgan (2005) disagrees, believing the remark was a "private expression of remorse" at his inability to free his slaves. Other historians agree with Morgan that <mask> was determined not to risk national unity over an issue as divisive as slavery. <mask> never responded to any of the antislavery petitions he received, and the subject was not mentioned in either his last address to Congress or his Farewell Address. The first clear indication that <mask> seriously intended to free his slaves appears in a letter written to his secretary, Tobias Lear, in 1794. <mask> instructed Lear to find buyers for his land in western Virginia, explaining in a private coda that he was doing so "to liberate a certain species of property which I possess, very repugnantly to my own feelings". The plan, along with others <mask> considered in 1795 and 1796, could not be realized because he failed to find buyers for his land, his reluctance to break up slave families, and the refusal of the Custis heirs to help prevent such separations by freeing their dower slaves at the same time. On July 9, 1799, <mask> finished making his last will; the longest provision concerned slavery.All his slaves were to be freed after the death of his wife, Martha. <mask> said he did not free them immediately because his slaves intermarried with his wife's dower slaves. He forbade their sale or transportation out of Virginia. His will provided that old and young freed people be taken care of indefinitely; younger ones were to be taught to read and write and placed in suitable occupations. <mask> freed more than 160 slaves, including about 25 he had acquired from his wife's brother Bartholomew Dandridge in

masks: Washington Washington Washington Washington Washington Washington Washington Washington


title: George Washington

texts:
 payment of a debt. He was among the few large slave-holding Virginians during the Revolutionary Era who emancipated their slaves. On January 1, 1801, one year after <mask>'s death, <mask> signed an order to free his slaves.Many of them, having never strayed far from Mount Vernon, were naturally reluctant to try their luck elsewhere; others refused to abandon spouses or children still held as dower slaves (the Custis estate) and also stayed with or near Martha. Following <mask>'s instructions in his will, funds were used to feed and clothe the young, aged, and infirm slaves until the early 1830s. Historical reputation and legacy

<mask>'s legacy endures as one of the most influential in American history since he served as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, a hero of the Revolution, and the first president of the United States. Various historians maintain that he also was a dominant factor in America's founding, the Revolutionary War, and the Constitutional Convention. Revolutionary War comrade Light-Horse Harry Lee eulogized him as "First in war—first in peace—and first in the hearts of his countrymen". Lee's words became the hallmark by which <mask>'s reputation was impressed upon the American memory, with some biographers regarding him as the great exemplar of republicanism. He set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular, and he was called the "Father of His Country" as early as 1778.In 1879, Congress proclaimed Washington's Birthday to be a federal holiday. Twentieth-century biographer Douglas Southall Freeman concluded, "The great big thing stamped across that man is character." Modern historian David Hackett Fischer has expanded upon Freeman's assessment, defining

masks:
George Washington
Martha Washington
George Washington
Washington
Washington


title: George Washington

texts: <mask>'s character as "integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others". Washington became an international symbol for liberation and nationalism as the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire. The Federalists made him the symbol of their party, but the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence for many years and delayed building the Washington Monument. <mask> was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences on January 31, 1781, before he had even begun his presidency. He was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States during the United States Bicentennial to ensure he would never be outranked; this was accomplished by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976.On March 13, 1978, <mask> was militarily promoted to the rank of General of the Armies. Parson Weems wrote a hagiographic biography in 1809 to honor Washington. Historian Ron Chernow maintains that Weems attempted to humanize <mask>, making him look less stern, and to inspire "patriotism and morality" and to foster "enduring myths", such as <mask>'s refusal to lie about damaging his father's cherry tree. Weems' accounts have never been proven or disproven. Historian John Ferling, however, maintains that Washington remains the only founder and president ever to be referred to as "godlike", and points out that his character has been the most scrutinized by historians, past and present. Historian Gordon S. Wood concludes that "the greatest act of his life, the one that gave him his greatest fame, was


title: George Washington

texts:
 his resignation as commander-in-chief of the American forces." Chernow suggests that Washington was "burdened by public life" and divided by "unacknowledged ambition mingled with self-doubt".A 1993 review of presidential polls and surveys consistently ranked <mask> number 4, 3, or2 among presidents. A 2018 Siena College Research Institute survey ranked him number1 among presidents. In the 21st century, Washington's reputation has been critically scrutinized. Along with various other Founding Fathers, he has been condemned for holding enslaved human beings. Though he expressed the desire to see the abolition of slavery come through legislation, he did not initiate or support any initiatives for bringing about its end. This has led to calls from some activists to remove his name from public buildings and his statue from public spaces. Nonetheless, <mask> maintains his place among the highest-ranked U.S. Presidents, listed second (after Lincoln) in a 2021 C-SPAN poll.Memorials

Jared Sparks began collecting and publishing Washington's documentary record in the 1830s in Life and Writings of <mask> (12 vols., 1834–1837). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799 (1931–1944) is a 39-volume set edited by John Clement Fitzpatrick, whom the George Washington Bicentennial Commission commissioned. It contains more than 17,000 letters and documents and is available online from the University of Virginia. Educational institutions

Numerous secondary schools are named in honor of Washington, as are many universities, including George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis. Places and monuments

Many places and monuments have been named in honor of Washington, most

masks:
Washington
Washington
George Washington


title: George Washington

texts:
 notably the capital of the United States, Washington, D.C. The state of Washington is the only US state to be named after a president. Washington appears as one of four U.S. presidents in a colossal statue by Gutzon Borglum on Mount Rushmore in South Dakota.Currency and postage

<mask> appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar bill, the Presidential one-dollar coin and the quarter-dollar coin (the Washington quarter). <mask> and Benjamin Franklin appeared on the nation's first postage stamps in 1847. Washington has since appeared on many postage issues, more than any other

masks:
George Washington
Washington


title: Christian Jungersen

texts:
<mask> (born 10 July 1962 in Copenhagen) is a Danish novelist whose works have been translated into 20 languages. He has published three novels in Danish – Krat (1999), Undtagelsen (2004, published in English as The Exception in 2006), and Du Forsvinder (2012, published as You Disappear in 2014). Background and education
Jungersen earned a master's in communication and social science from Roskilde University. Before publishing his first novel, he taught film at Folkeuniversitetet, an open university in Copenhagen. He also worked as an advertising copywriter, a manuscript consultant, and a TV screenwriter. Since 2005, he has divided his time among the US, Ireland, Denmark, and Malta. Krat
Krat [Undergrowth] depicts the intense relationship between two men over the course of nearly 70 years.While they begin as bosom buddies in an upper-class suburb of Copenhagen during the 1920s, they end as retirees who, despite not having spoken in decades, remain just as consumed with each other – but now as mortal enemies. Krat was on the Danish bestseller list for three months when it came out in 1999. It won Bogforum's Debutant Prize and was nominated for Weekendavisen’s literary prize. When the Danish Arts Foundation awarded Jungersen a three-year fellowship in 2000, it was the first time in 20 years that the foundation had given the honor to a debut novelist. The Exception
A psychological thriller, The Exception ("Undtagelsen") is told in turn by four women who work for the dysfunctional Danish Center for Genocide Information. When two of them receive death threats, it is unclear whether the threats have been sent by an exposed war criminal or a coworker. Drawing on recent work on the nature of evil, the book makes the case that the same dark impulses that lead to genocide may underlie the bullying that plagues the center's office – and be present in all human beings.The novel was on the bestseller list for a year and a half in Denmark, where it won the P2 Novel Prize and De Gyldne Laurbær. In 2009,


title: Christian Jungersen

texts:
 Marco Effekten [The Marco Effect], the Jussi Adler-Olsen thriller.You Disappear has been sold to another ten countries, including Germany and France.The US edition came out in January 2014 from Nan A. Talese/Doubleday. The American translation by Misha Hoekstra won the Leif & Inger Sjöberg Prize from the American-Scandinavian Foundation. Film adaptations
The film Du Forsvinder, based on You Disappear, was directed by Peter Schønau Fog from the screenplay by Peter Schønau Fog and starred Trine Dyrholm and Nikolaj Lie Kaas. The movie premiered in 2017 and was one of the best-selling films in Denmark that year. Du Forsvinder was Denmark's submission for the 2017 Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film. The movie Undtagelsen was based on Jungersen's second novel, The Exception. It was directed by Jesper W. Nielsen from the screenplay by <mask>.Sidse Babett Knudsen, Amanda Collin, Danica Curcic, and Lene Maria Christensen played the leading roles. It came out when Danish cinemas reopened in July 2020, after having been closed for four months due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and it remained on the country's top-10 list of best-selling films for nine weeks. Under the title The Exception, it won the Valhalla Award for Best Nordic Film at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival in 2020. The Gyldendal Anniversary Collection
To mark its sestercentennial in 2020, the publishing house Gyldendal polled 40,000 readers on which ten books to include in its 250th anniversary collection, Gyldendals Jubilæumskollektion. Just three of the winning books were written by living authors, including Jungersen's Undtagelsen [The Exception''], as well as books by Kim Leine and Carsten Jensen. The collection also includes classics by Karen Blixen and Tove Ditlevsen. References

External links

 Review of The Exception in The New Yorker
 Review of The Exception in The New York Times
 Review of The Exception in The Economist

Danish male writers
Living people
Danish crime fiction writers
1962 births
People from


title: Charlie Christian

texts:
<mask> (July 29, 1916 – March 2, 1942) was an American swing and jazz guitarist. <mask> was an important early performer on the electric guitar and a key figure in the development of bebop and cool jazz. He gained national exposure as a member of the Benny Goodman Sextet and Orchestra from August 1939 to June 1941. His single-string technique, combined with amplification, helped bring the guitar out of the rhythm section and into the forefront as a solo instrument. For this, he is often credited with leading to the development of the lead guitar role in musical ensembles and bands. John Hammond and George T. Simon called <mask> the best improvisational talent of the swing era. In the liner notes to the album Solo Flight: The Genius of <mask> (Columbia, 1972), Gene Lees wrote that "Many critics and musicians consider that <mask> was one of the founding fathers of bebop, or if not that, at least a precursor to it."<mask>'s influence reached beyond jazz and swing. In 1990, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the category Early Influence. In 2006 Oklahoma City renamed a street in its Bricktown entertainment district "Charlie <mask> Avenue" (<mask> was raised in Oklahoma City and was one of many musicians who jammed along the city's "Deep Deuce" section on N.E. Second Street). Early life
<mask> was born in Bonham, Texas. His family moved to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, when he was a small child. His parents were musicians.He had two brothers, Edward, born in 1906, and Clarence, born in 1911.

masks:
Charles Henry Christian
Christian
Christian
Charlie Christian
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Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts: All three sons were taught music by their father, Clarence Henry <mask>. Clarence Henry was struck blind by fever, and in order to support the family he and the boys worked as buskers, on what the Christians called "busts." He would have them lead him into the better neighborhoods, where they would perform for cash or goods. When Charles was old enough to go along, he first entertained by dancing. Later he learned to play the guitar, inheriting his father's instruments upon his death when Charles was 12. He attended Douglass School in Oklahoma City, where he was further encouraged in music by an instructor, Zelia N. Breaux.Charles wanted to play tenor saxophone in the school band, but she insisted he try trumpet instead. As he believed playing the trumpet would disfigure his lip, he quit to pursue his interest in baseball, at which he excelled. In a 1978 interview with <mask> biographer Craig McKinney, <mask> said that in the 1920s and '30s <mask> led a band in Oklahoma City as a pianist and had a shaky relationship with the trumpeter James Simpson. Around 1931, he took the guitarist "Bigfoot" Ralph Hamilton and began secretly schooling the younger Charles in jazz. They taught him to solo on three songs, "Rose Room", "Tea for Two", and "Sweet Georgia Brown". When the time was right they took him out to one of the many after-hours jam sessions along "Deep Deuce", Northeast Second Street, in Oklahoma City. "Let Charles play one," they told Edward."Ah, nobody wants to hear them old blues," Edward replied.

masks:
Christian
Charlie Christian
Clarence Christian
Edward Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts:
 After some encouragement, he allowed Charles to play. "What do you want to play?" he asked. All three songs were big in the early 1930s, and Edward was surprised that Charles knew them. After two encores, Charles had played all three, and Deep Deuce was in an uproar. He coolly dismissed himself from the jam session, and his mother had heard about it before he got home.Charles fathered a daughter, Billie Jean <mask> (December 23, 1932 – July 19, 2004) by Margretta Lorraine Downey of Oklahoma City. Charles soon was performing locally and on the road throughout the Midwest, as far away as North Dakota and Minnesota. By 1936 he was playing electric guitar and had become a regional attraction. He jammed with many of the big-name performers traveling through Oklahoma City, including Teddy Wilson and Art Tatum. Mary Lou Williams, the pianist for Andy Kirk and His Clouds of Joy, told the record producer John Hammond. National fame

In 1939, <mask> auditioned for John Hammond, who recommended him to the bandleader Benny Goodman. Goodman was the fourth white bandleader to feature black musicians in his live band: the first was Jimmy Durante, for whom the clarinetist Achille Baquet played and recorded in Durante's Original New Orleans Jazz Band (1918–1920); the second was the violinist Arthur Hand, who led The California Ramblers, which, from 1922 to 1925, included the trumpeter Bill Moore, who was billed as the Hot Hawaiian; the third was Ben Bernie, whose band from 1925 to 1928 also featured Moore.Goodman

masks: Christian Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts: became the fourth by bringing in Teddy Wilson on piano in 1935 and Lionel Hampton on vibraphone in 1936. Goodman hired <mask> to play with the newly formed Goodman Sextet in September 1939. It has been claimed that Goodman was initially uninterested in hiring <mask> because the electric guitar was a relatively new instrument. Goodman had been exposed to the instrument with Floyd Smith and Leonard Ware, among others, none of whom had the ability of <mask>. There is a report that Goodman unsuccessfully tried to buy out Floyd Smith's contract from Andy Kirk. However, Goodman was so impressed by <mask>'s playing that he hired him instead. There are several versions of the first meeting of <mask> and Goodman on August 16, 1939.The encounter that afternoon at the recording studio had not gone well. <mask> recalled in a 1940 article in Metronome magazine, "I guess neither one of us liked what I played," but Hammond decided to try again—without consulting Goodman. (<mask> says Goodman invited him to the show that evening.) He installed <mask> on the bandstand for that night's set at the Victor Hugo restaurant in Los Angeles. Displeased at the surprise, Goodman called “Rose Room”, a tune he assumed <mask> would be unfamiliar with. Unknown to Goodman, <mask> had been reared on the tune, and he came in with his first chorus of about twenty, all of them different, all unlike anything Goodman had heard before. That version of "Rose Room" lasted forty minutes.By its end, <mask> was in the band. In the course of a

masks: Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts:
 few days, <mask> went from making $2.50 a night to $150 a week. <mask> was placed in Goodman's new sextet, which included Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Artie Bernstein and Nick Fatool. By February 1940 <mask> dominated the jazz and swing guitar polls and was elected to the Metronome All Stars. In the spring of 1940 Goodman let most of his entourage go in a reorganization. He retained <mask>, and in the fall of that year Goodman led a sextet with <mask>, Count Basie, longtime Duke Ellington trumpeter Cootie Williams, former Artie Shaw tenor saxophonist Georgie Auld and later drummer Dave Tough. This all-star band dominated the jazz polls in 1941, including another election to the Metronome All Stars for <mask>.Johnny Guarnieri, who replaced Henderson in the first sextet, filled the piano chair in Basie's absence. In 1966, 24 years after his death, <mask> was inducted into the Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame. In 1989 the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame created its first seven inductions, which included <mask>. Style and influences

<mask>'s solos are frequently described as "horn-like", and  in that sense he was more influenced by horn players such as Lester Young and Herschel Evans than by early acoustic guitarists like Eddie Lang and the jazz- and bluesman Lonnie Johnson, although they both had contributed to the expansion of the guitar's role from the rhythm section to a solo instrument. <mask> stated he wanted his guitar to sound like a tenor saxophone. The French gypsy jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt

masks: Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts: had little influence on him, but <mask> was obviously familiar with some of his recordings. The guitarist Mary Osborne recalled hearing him play Django's solo on "St. Louis Blues" note for note, but then following it with his own ideas.By 1939 there had already been electric guitar soloists—Leonard Ware; George Barnes; Eddie Durham, who had recorded with Count Basie; Floyd Smith, who recorded "Floyd's Guitar Blues" with Andy Kirk in March 1939, using an amplified lap steel guitar; and the Texas Swing pioneer Eldon Shamblin, who was playing with Bob Wills. <mask> paved the way for the modern electric guitar sound that was followed by other pioneers, including T-Bone Walker, Eddie Cochran, Cliff Gallup, Scotty Moore, Franny Beecher, B.B. King, Chuck Berry, Carlos Santana and Jimi Hendrix. For this reason <mask> was inducted in 1990 into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. <mask>'s exposure was so great in the brief period he played with Goodman that he influenced not only guitarists but other musicians as well. The influence he had on "Dizzy" Gillespie, <mask>, Thelonious Monk and Don Byas can be heard on their early bop recordings "Blue 'n' Boogie" and "Salt Peanuts". Other musicians, such as the trumpeter Miles Davis, cited <mask> as an early influence.Indeed, <mask>'s "new" sound influenced jazz as a whole. He reigned supreme in the jazz guitar polls up to two years after his death. Black Sabbath's first manager Jim Simpson describes the band's first song, "A Song for Jim" as an “absolute <mask>

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Christian
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Christian
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Charlie Parker
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Christian
Charlie Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts:
 takeoff.”

Bebop and Minton's Playhouse
Christian was an important contributor to the music that became known as bop, or bebop. Some of the participants in those early after-hours affairs at Minton's Playhouse, where bebop was born, credit <mask> with the name bebop, citing his humming of phrases as the onomatopoetic origin of the term. Private recordings made in September 1939 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, by Jerry Newhouse, a Goodman aficionado, capture the newly hired <mask> while on the road with Goodman and feature Goodman's tenor sax player Jerry Jerome and then-local bassist Oscar Pettiford. Taking multiple solos, <mask> shows much the same improvisational skills later captured on the Minton's and Monroe's recordings in 1941, suggesting that he had already matured as a musician. The Minneapolis recordings include "Stardust", "Tea for Two", and "I've Got Rhythm", the latter a favorite of bop composers and jammers.Further examples of <mask>'s bebop playing can be heard in a series of recordings made at Minton's Playhouse, an after-hours club located in the Hotel Cecil, at 210 West 118th Street in Harlem, by Jerry Newman, a student at Columbia University, on a portable disk recorder in 1941, in which <mask> was accompanied by Joe Guy on trumpet, Kenny Kersey on piano and Kenny Clarke on drums. <mask>'s use of tension and release, a technique employed by Lester Young, Count Basie and later bop musicians, is also present on "Stompin' at the Savoy", included among the Newman recordings. The collection

masks: Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts: also includes recordings made in 1941 at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, another late-night jazz haunt in Harlem, with Oran "Hot Lips" Page. Other recordings include the tenor sax player Don Byas. The Minton's recordings were long rumored to feature "Dizzy" Gillespie and Thelonious Monk, but that has since been proved untrue, although both were regulars at the jam sessions, with Monk a regular in the Minton's house band. Kenny Clarke claimed that "Epistrophy" and "Rhythm-a-Ning" were compositions by <mask>, which <mask> played with Clarke and Thelonious Monk at Minton's jam sessions. The "Rhythm-a-Ning" line is heard on "Down on Teddy's Hill" and behind the introduction on "Guy's Got to Go" from the Newman recordings.It is also a line from Mary Lou Williams's "Walkin' and Swingin'". Clarke said <mask> first showed him the chords to "Epistrophy" on a ukulele. These recordings have been packaged under a number of different titles, including After Hours and The Immortal Charlie Christian. While the recording quality of many of these sessions is poor, they show <mask> stretching out much longer than he could on the Benny Goodman sides. On the Minton's and Monroe's recordings, <mask> can be heard taking multiple choruses on a single tune, playing long stretches of melodic ideas with ease. <mask> was just as adept with understatement as well. His work on the Goodman sextet sides "Soft Winds", "Till Tom Special", and "A Smo-o-o-oth One" show his use of few well-placed melodic notes.His work on the Sextet's


title: Charlie Christian

texts:
 recordings of the ballads "Stardust", "Memories of You", "Poor Butterfly", "I Surrender Dear" and "On the Alamo" and his work on "Profoundly Blue" with the Edmond Hall Celeste Quartet (1941) show hints of what was later called cool jazz. Although credited for very few, <mask> composed many of the original tunes recorded by the Benny Goodman Sextet. Health and death
In the late 1930s <mask> contracted tuberculosis, and in early 1940 he was hospitalized for a short period in which the Goodman group was on hiatus because of Goodman's back trouble. Goodman was hospitalized in the summer of 1940 after a brief stay at Santa Catalina Island, California, where the band stayed when they were on the West Coast. <mask> returned home to Oklahoma City in late July 1940 and returned to New York City in September 1940. In early 1941, <mask> resumed his hectic lifestyle, heading to Harlem for late-night jam sessions after finishing gigs with the Goodman Sextet and Orchestra in New York City. In June 1941 he was admitted to Seaview, a sanitarium on Staten Island in New York City.He was reported to be making progress, and Down Beat magazine reported in February 1942 that he and Cootie Williams were starting a band. After a visit to the hospital that same month by the tap dancer and drummer Marion Joseph "Taps" Miller, <mask> declined in health. He died March 2, 1942, at the age of 25. He was buried in an unmarked grave in Bonham, Texas. A Texas State Historical Commission Marker and headstone were placed in Gates Hill

masks: Christian Christian Christian Christian Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts:
 Cemetery in 1994. The location of the historical marker and headstone was disputed, and in March 2013, Fannin County, Texas, recognized that the marker was in the wrong spot and that <mask> is buried under the concrete slab. Instruments
 Epiphone Deluxe guitar (an acoustic archtop guitar), 1934–1937
 Gibson ES-150 guitar (sunburst finish, with dot inlays on the fingerboard), and EH-150 amplifier, 1937 or 1939 – April 1940
 Gibson ES-250 guitar (custom built by Gibson with a natural finish, a Super 400 tailpiece, and bowtie inlays on the fingerboard), April 1940 – February 1941.This instrument was re-discovered in 2002. Gibson ES-250 guitar (custom built by Gibson with a natural finish, an L-7 style neck, and custom inlays on the fingerboard), February 1941 – March 1942
 Gibson L-5 guitar (custom built by Gibson with a "Charlie Christian pickup" instead of a P-90). This guitar was delivered to <mask> just prior to his death in March 1942. It was later owned by Tony Mottola. The bar-style pickup used on the ES-150 and ES-250 became known as the "<mask> pickup." Discography
<mask> never recorded as a leader. Compilations have been released of his sessions as a sideman in which he is a featured soloist, of practice and warm-up recordings for these sessions, and some lower-quality recordings of <mask>'s own groups performing in nightclubs, by amateur technicians.With Benny Goodman
 <mask> with the Benny Goodman Sextet and Orchestra (Columbia)
 Solo Flight: The Genius of <mask> (Columbia, 1972)
 The Genius

masks:
Christian
Christian
Charlie Christian
Christian
Christian
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian


title: Charlie Christian

texts:
 of the Electric Guitar (Columbia, 1939–1941 recordings)
 Solo Flight, with the Benny Goodman Sextet (Vintage Jazz Classics, 2003)
 Electric, with the Benny Goodman Sextet and the <mask> Quartet (Uptown, 2011)

With Lionel Hampton
 The Complete RCA Victor Recordings, 1937–1949 (Bluebird, 1995)

With others
 Guitar Wizard (LeJazz, 1993)

Filmography
 2005  Solo Flight: The Genius of <mask>
 2007  <mask>- The Life & Music of the Legendary Jazz Guitarist (Grossman Guitar Workshop)

Notes

References
 Broadbent, Peter  (2002). <mask>, Solo Flight: The Story of the Seminal Electric Guitarist. Hal Leonard. .
 Centlivre, Kevin (1994). "Interview with Jerry Jerome"
 Centlivre, Kevin (1999). "Revisiting <mask>". Feather, Leonard (reprint, 1977). Inside Jazz.Da Capo. .
 Goins, Wayne E.; McKinney, Craig (2005). A Biography of <mask>, Jazz Guitar's King of Swing. .
 Lee, Amy (1940) "<mask> Tried to Play Hot Tenor!" Metronome. McKinney, Craig. <mask>: Musician. Savage, William W., Jr. (1983). Singing Cowboys and All That Jazz: A Short History of Popular Music in Oklahoma.Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pp. 48–51. .
 Spring, Howard (1980). The Improvisational Style of <mask>. York University. Valdes, Leo (1997). Solo Flight: The Charlie Christian Newsletter Leo Valdes. External links

<mask>, Style Analysis and Solo Examples
Deep Deuce History and photos
<mask>, a biography by C.J Shearn
Gates Hill Cemetery

1916 births
1942 deaths
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
20th-century American

masks:
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian
Charles Christian
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian
Charlie Christian


title: Thio Li-ann

texts:
<mask> (born 10 March 1968) is a Singaporean law professor at the National University of Singapore. She was educated at the University of Oxford, Harvard Law School and the University of Cambridge. In January 2007, she was appointed a Nominated Member of Parliament (NMP) in Singapore's 11th Parliament. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Singapore on 10 March 1968. Her mother is Dr. <mask> (née Huang) Su Mien, former Dean of the Faculty of Law of the National University of Singapore (NUS) and presently Senior Executive Director of TSMP Law Corporation; her brother, <mask>, is Joint Managing Director of the same law firm. <mask> was educated at the Singapore Chinese Girls' School (1975–1984) and Hwa Chong Junior College (1984–1986), at the latter on a Humanities Award from the Ministry of Education. She took a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.(Hons.)) in Jurisprudence at Keble College, Oxford between 1987 and 1990. At Oxford she was awarded the Law Moderations Book Prize (Constitutional Law, Criminal Law and
Roman Law) in 1988. She was called to the Bar as a barrister at Gray's Inn in 1991. Academic career
Thio joined the Faculty of Law of the NUS as a Senior Tutor in 1991, and was appointed Lecturer in 1992. That same year she embarked on postgraduate law studies at Harvard Law School on a National University of Singapore Overseas Graduate Scholarship, and obtained a Master of Laws (LL.M.) in 1993.She returned to NUS, where in 1997 she was appointed an assistant professor. Between 1997 and 2000 she carried out PhD research at the University of Cambridge on another NUS Overseas Graduate Scholarship, and was duly conferred this degree in 2000. Her PhD dissertation, entitled Managing Babel: The International Legal Protection of Minorities in the Twentieth Century, was subsequently published by Martinus Nijhoff Publishers in 2005. In June 2000 she was appointed an associate professor, and achieved the rank of full Professor in July 2006.

masks:
Thio Li ann
Thio Li ann
Thio
Thio Shen Yi
Thio


title: Thio Li-ann

texts:
 Her research interests are the following:

Constitutionalism and human rights in Asia. Domestic and comparative perspectives of constitutional law and administrative law. International human rights law and the rights of peoples.Law and religion. Public international law, its history and theory. <mask> was Young Asian Scholar at the Melbourne University Law School in 1997, was ranked as an NUS Excellent Teacher in 2001–2002 and 2002–2003, and was given a Young Researcher Award by NUS in 2004. In March 2006, she was a Visiting Lecturer at the Faculty of Law of the University of Hong Kong, where she was one of the academics teaching a course on "National Protection of Human Rights". In September of that year she returned to the University of Melbourne as a Senior Fellow of its Graduate Law Programme to teach a course entitled "Constitutionalism in Asian Societies". Thio served as Chief Editor of the Singapore Journal of International & Comparative Law between 2000 and 2003, and since 2005 has been General Editor of the Asian Yearbook of International Law. She is also on the editorial or advisory boards of the Singapore Yearbook of International Law, the New Zealand Yearbook of International Law (since 2003), the University of Bologna Law Review (since 2016), and Human Rights & International Legal Discourse (since 2006), and is Corresponding Editor (Singapore) for Blaustein & Flanz's Constitutions of the Countries of the World (since 2001) and the International Journal of Constitutional Law (since 2001).Since 2001 she has also been a contributor on constitutional and administrative law to the Singapore Academy of Law Annual Review of Singapore Cases. Thio was also a consultant to a delegation of the House of Representatives of Japan (30 September 2002) and to the University of Warwick on academic freedom issues (2005). NYU Law School controversy
Thio was to be a visiting human rights professor at New York University School of Law in the


title: Thio Li-ann

texts:
 fall of 2009 until she withdrew her acceptance in July 2009. Many noted the irony in her appointment, and prompted calls for condemnation of her "anti-gay hate speech" before Parliament. The university's gay and lesbian law student group, NYU OUTLaw, released a statement calling for the condemnation. NYU Law School's Dean Richard Revesz issued a memorandum stating "the Law School categorically rejects the point of view expressed in Professor <mask>'s speech, as evidenced by our early and longstanding commitment to end discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation." Students at NYU Law School have issued statements as well.<mask> then sent an 18-point defense memo to the entire NYU Law faculty. On 22 July 2009, she informed the school of her withdrawal from the appointment, citing hostility by its community towards her views and low enrollment. It was reported that only 9 students applied for her course on Human Rights and 5 for her other course on Constitutionalism. Political career

From 18 January 2007, <mask> was appointed a Nominated Member of Parliament of the 11th Session of the Parliament of Singapore for a two-and-a-half-year term. In October 2007, during a review by the Parliament of Singapore on the Penal Code, it decided not to repeal section 377A of the Code and thus continued to criminalise sexual activity between males. In the course of the debate in Parliament, Thio gave a speech to support the continued criminalisation of sexual activity between males, and likened gay sex to "shoving a straw up your nose to drink." She claimed to have support from a majority of Singaporeans, and stated she spoke "at the risk of being burned at the stake by militant activists."At the same time, <mask> mentioned the existence of an active gay agenda that seeks to lobby the government and radically change sexual norms. The Internet subsequently saw a flood of websites heavily rebutting <mask>'s speech, most of which focused on her

masks: Thio Thio Thio Thio Thio


title: Thio Li-ann

texts:
 lurid straw-up-the-nose analogy. Local journalist Janadas Devan, in a feature article in The Straits Times on 27 October, titled "377A debate and the rewriting of pluralism", the pointed out that the speech was heavily laced with phrases and imagery from the Dominionist movement. Another Straits Times writer, Chua Mui Hoong, also wrote an article titled "Rules of Engagement for God and Politics" on 16 November 2007. In it, Chua acknowledged Thio's position in her speech that secularism could challenge religion. However, Chua disagreed that religion has been antagonised in Singapore, and encouraged that specific explanation be given as to how the repeal of a law would in reality harm the Singaporean society. <mask>'s speech also drew the criticism of Michael Kirby, then a judge of the High Court of Australia, who referenced it in a speech he delivered in Brisbane on 16 November 2007.The content of his speech was subsequently published in The Sydney Morning Herald on 19 November 2007. During the debate, <mask> revealed that playwright Alfian Sa'at had sent her a short email saying, among other things, that "I hope I outlive you long enough to see the repeal of 377A and on that day I will piss on your grave." Sa'at later took responsibility for the email, saying it was sent in a moment of folly in response to the rumour that Thio had called the police to complain about a "Pink Picnic" some members of the gay community were organising in the Botanic Gardens. Thio later denied the allegation, and Sa'at apologised. Subsequently, in November 2007, Thio was alerted by the media to an anonymous threatening letter addressed to her stating: "We know where you work, we'll send people there to hunt you down". Thio made a police report the same day. Question regarding support from the majority
Thio's strong position towards retaining the code drew much protest from some Singaporeans.Two issues were constantly raised. The first issue was the

masks: Thio Thio


title: Thio Li-ann

texts:
 question of the real existence of a majority against repeal of the code. The second issue was the question of whether a stance against homosexual behavior would equate to wanting a code to criminalize the act of sodomy. Concerns were also raised by a law professor on whether it was realistically possible to enforce such a code, whether it would lead to dangers of entrapment, and whether the informal position of the government not to enforce the code would reverse overnight. Personal life
<mask> was born to <mask> Gim Hock and <mask> Su Mien, former the Dean of the Faculty of Law of the National University of Singapore. Her maternal grandfather is Reverend Huang Yang Ying, first principal of Anglican High School. She has a brother, <mask> Shen Yi, a senior counsel.AWARE Takeover by <mask> Su Mien

In 2009, a group of conservative Christian women from the Church of Our Savior, under the leadership of Josie Lau and orchestrated by <mask>'s mother, <mask> Su Mien, took over the executive council of the group alleging AWARE, a non-governmental organization in Singapore concerned with promoting gender equality. 6 of the 11 newly elected executive committee were church members who had only joined the group 3 months prior to the election, and 80 of the 120 attendees of the meeting were similarly new members from the church. The old guard called for a no-confidence vote and the new council was voted out of office on 2 May 2009. Of the 2,175 people who voted at the meeting, 1,414 voted for the no-confidence. Deputy Prime minister Wong Kan Seng commented that "a group of conservative Christians, all attending the same church, which held strong views on homosexuality, had moved in and taken over AWARE because they disapproved of what AWARE had been doing", and called for tolerance, cautioning that religion and politics must be kept separate. On 26 May 2009, during <mask>'s first speech in parliament since the event, Thio accused the local

masks: Thio Thio Thio Thio Thio Thio Thio Thio


title: Thio Li-ann

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 press of biased reporting on the events surrounding the attempted takeover. Han Fook Kwang, then editor of The Straits Times, responded in an editorial and expressed his sadness at the vindictiveness of "critics and the length to which they are prepared to go to attack our professionalism" and integrity, detailing the sequence of events and how their journalists had investigated and reported on the proceedings.Religious affiliation
<mask> is a Christian. In an interview with the local daily The Straits Times on 2 November 2007, <mask> shared her personal story of how she converted from a "very, very arrogant" atheist to a Christian in 1987. Having entered Oxford University to read jurisprudence, she attended a Christian Union talk then and claimed to be "stopped" by a voice. "I basically had a sense that God was talking to me. I had stood up to walk out and I heard someone say, 'Stop'. And no one was around me. Everybody was busy doing their own thing.I was one of only one or two Chinese girls in this whole room of ang mohs. And then I just had the sense that I had encountered God, that he knew my name and I was shocked." <mask> was quoted as saying in the interview. She added, "I don't know what right wing is. This is funny because I was always considered a political leftie and now I'm a rightie." Selected works

Representative articles
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Books
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References

References
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. External links

 Official website of the Faculty of Law, National University of Singapore

1968 births
Academics of the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law
Alumni of Keble College, Oxford
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Harvard Law School alumni
International law scholars
Living people
Scholars of administrative law
Scholars of constitutional law
Singaporean Christians
Singaporean Nominated Members of Parliament
Singaporean people of Chinese descent
Singaporean women in

masks: Thio Thio Thio


title: Patti LuPone

texts: <mask> (born April 21, 1949) is an American actress and singer best known for her work in stage musicals. She has won two Tony Awards, two Olivier Awards, two Grammy Awards, and was a 2006 inductee to the American Theater Hall of Fame. <mask> began her professional career with The Acting Company in 1972 and made her Broadway debut in Three Sisters in 1973. She received the first of seven Tony Award nominations for the 1975 musical The Robber Bridegroom. She won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her role as Eva Perón in the 1979 original Broadway production of Andrew Lloyd Webber's Evita. She played Fantine in the original London cast of Les Misérables and Moll in The Cradle Will Rock, winning the 1985 Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her work in both. She won a second Tony Award for her role as Rose in the 2008 Broadway revival of Gypsy and a second Olivier Award in 2019, winning Best Supporting Actress in a Musical for her role as Joanne in the West End revival of Stephen Sondheim's Company.She has two Grammy Awards for the recording of the 2007 Los Angeles Opera production of Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny. Other stage musical performances include her Tony-nominated role as Reno Sweeney in the 1987 Broadway revival of Anything Goes, her Olivier-nominated role as Norma Desmond in the 1993 original production of Sunset Boulevard in London, her Tony-nominated role as Mrs. Lovett in the new 2005 Broadway production of Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, her Tony-nominated role as Lucia in the 2010 original Broadway production of Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown, and her Tony-nominated role as Helena Rubenstein in the 2017 original Broadway production of War Paint. She is currently starring in the Broadway

masks:
Patti Ann LuPone
LuPone


title: Patti LuPone

texts:
 transfer of the successful West End revival of Company alongside Katrina Lenk. On television, she starred in the drama series Life Goes On (1989–1993) and received Emmy Award nominations for the TV movie The Song Spinner (1995) and her guest role in the sitcom Frasier (1998). She also had appeared in three Ryan Murphy series, American Horror Story: Coven (2013–2014), and Pose (2019) both  on FX, and Hollywood (2020) on Netflix. She guest starred in Penny Dreadful (2014–2016) before returning in a lead role. She voices the character Yellow Diamond in the animated series Steven Universe (2013–2019) and Steven Universe Future (2019–2020).She also appeared on The CW comedy Crazy Ex-Girlfriend as Rabbi Shari (2017). Her film appearances include Steven Spielberg's 1941 (1979), Spike Lee's Summer of Sam (1999), Peter Weir's Witness (1985), as well as Driving Miss Daisy (1989), State and Main (2000), and The Comedian (2016). Early life and training
<mask> was born on April 21, 1949, in Northport, New York, on Long Island, the daughter of Angela Louise (née <mask>), a library administrator at the C.W. Post Campus of Long Island University, and Orlando Joseph <mask>, a school administrator and English teacher at Walt Whitman High School in Huntington, Long Island. Her great-great aunt was 19th-century opera singer Adelina <mask>. Her older brother <mask> is a Tony-nominated actor, dancer, and director who originated the role of Zach, the director, in A Chorus Line. <mask> is Italian-American and Roman Catholic.<mask> was part of the first graduating class of Juilliard's Drama Division (1968–1972: Group 1), which also included actors Kevin Kline and David Ogden Stiers. She graduated from Juilliard in 1972 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. <mask> has a mezzo-soprano vocal

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Robert LuPone
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title: Patti LuPone

texts:
 range, and she is famous for her strong/high "Broadway" belt singing voice. In a 2008 interview, she maintained that she was "an actor who sings", and thankful she "had a voice". Career

Theatre

1970s: Early career
In 1972, <mask> became one of the original members of The Acting Company, formed by John Houseman. The Acting Company is a nationally touring repertory theater company. <mask>'s stint with the company lasted from 1972 to 1976, and she appeared in many of their productions, such as The Cradle Will Rock, The School for Scandal, Women Beware Women, The Beggar’s Opera, The Time of Your Life, The Lower Depths, The Hostage, Next Time I’ll Sing to You, Measure for Measure, Scapin, Edward II, The Orchestra, Love’s Labours Lost, Arms and the Man, and The Way of the World.She made her Broadway debut in the play The Three Sisters as Irina in 1973. For her work in The Robber Bridegroom (1975) she received her first Tony Award nomination, for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. The Acting Company honored <mask> on March 12, 2012 in an event called "Patti's Turn" at the Kaye Playhouse. In 1976, producer David Merrick hired <mask> as a replacement to play Genevieve, the title role of the troubled pre-Broadway production of The Baker's Wife. The production toured at length but Merrick deemed it unworthy of Broadway and it closed out of town. Since 1977, <mask> has been a frequent collaborator with David Mamet, appearing in his plays The Woods, All Men Are Whores, The Blue Hour, The Water Engine (1978), Edmond and The Old Neighborhood (1997). The New York Times reviewer wrote of <mask> in The Old Neighborhood, "Those who know Ms. LuPone only as a musical comedy star will be stunned by the naturalistic fire she delivers here.As Jolly, a part inspired by Mr. Mamet's

masks: LuPone LuPone LuPone LuPone LuPone LuPone


title: Patti LuPone

texts:
 real-life sister and his realized female character, Ms. <mask> finds conflicting layers of past and present selves in practically every line. She emerges as both loving matriarch and wounded adolescent, sentimental and devastatingly clear-eyed." In 1978, she appeared in the Broadway musical adaptation of Studs Terkel's Working, which ran for only 24 performances. In 1979 <mask> starred in the original Broadway production of Evita, the musical based on the life of Eva Perón, composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice, and directed by Harold Prince. Although <mask> was hailed by critics, she has since said that her time in Evita was not an enjoyable one. In a 2007 interview, she stated " 'Evita' was the worst experience of my life," she said. "I was screaming my way through a part that could only have been written by a man who hates women.And I had no support from the producers, who wanted a star performance onstage but treated me as an unknown backstage. It was like Beirut, and I fought like a banshee." Despite the trouble, <mask> won her first Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. It was not until she had reprised the role in a production in Sydney when she had finally enjoyed the part and felt comfortable singing the score. <mask> and her co-star, Mandy Patinkin, remained close friends both on and off the stage. 1980s
In May 1983, founding alumni of The Acting Company reunited for an off-Broadway revival of Marc Blitzstein's landmark labor musical The Cradle Will Rock at the American Place Theater. It was narrated by John Houseman with <mask> in the roles of Moll and Sister Mister.and Kent, Connecticut. In February 2022, Lupone tested positive for COVID-19. In 2009 <mask>'s 1985 recording of "I Dreamed a Dream" reached #45 on the UK Singles Chart It also

masks: LuPone LuPone LuPone LuPone LuPone LuPone LuPone


title: Patti LuPone

texts:
 reached the Billboard magazine Hot Digital Songs and Hot Singles Recurrents charts in the US. <mask> recorded a duet with Seth MacFarlane (who was in character as Glenn Quagmire) on the 2005 album Family Guy: Live In Vegas. A live concert special film, An Evening with <mask>, was filmed in July 2012 and released in November 2012 on SethTv.com with 104 minutes of <mask>one songs and stories with host Seth Rudetsky. A new CD of one of her shows, The Lady with the Torch, was released in 2006 on Sh-K-Boom Records. In December she released bonus tracks for that CD only available on iTunes and the Sh-K-Boom website.Bibliography
<mask> wrote a memoir recounting her life and career from childhood to the present, which was released in September 2010. It was simply titled <mask>one: A Memoir, which was, according to <mask>, the winner of the competition she held to name the book. Awards and nominations

References

External links

 <mask> on IOBDB

 <mask> Interview
 InnerVIEWS with Ernie Manouse: <mask> (TV Interview)
 <mask> – Downstage Center interview at American Theatre Wing.org
 University of the Arts Show Music Magazine Database
 <mask>one concert special on SethTV.com. Filmed July, 2012. <mask> Papers at the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New York, NY

1949 births
Living people
American women singers
American film actresses
American musical theatre actresses
American television actresses
American mezzo-sopranos
American Roman Catholics
Drama Desk Award winners
Grammy Award winners
American people of Italian descent
Juilliard School alumni
People from Northport, New York
Laurence Olivier Award winners
Tony Award winners
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from New York (state)
People from Edisto

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Patti LuPone
Patti LuP
LuPone
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LuPone
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Patti LuP
Patti LuPone