title: Ansel Adams

texts:
 their work "hard and brittle". <mask> disliked the work of Mortensen and disliked him personally, referring to him as the "Anti-Christ". The purists were friends with prominent historians, and their influence led to the exclusion of Mortensen from histories of photography. <mask> later developed this purist approach into the Zone System.The Zone System

While <mask> and portrait photographer Fred Archer were teaching at the Art Center School in Los Angeles, around 1939–1940, they developed the Zone System for managing the photographic process, which was based on sensitometry, the study of the light-sensitivity of photographic materials and the relationship between exposure time and the resulting density on a negative. The Zone System provides a calibrated scale of brightness, from Zone 0 (black) through shades of gray to Zone X (white). The photographer can take light readings of key elements in a scene and use the Zone System to determine how the film must be exposed, developed, and printed to achieve the desired brightness or darkness in the final image. Although it originated for black-and-white sheet film, the Zone System can be applied to images captured on roll film, both black-and-white and color, negative and reversal, and to digital photography. Photography department at
In 1940, with trustee David H. McAlpin and curator Beaumont Newhall, <mask> helped establish the photography department at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York. was the first major American art museum to establish a photography department. <mask> acted as McAlpin and Newhall's primary advisor; Peter Galassi, the chief curator of the department in later years, said "<mask>'s dedication and boundless energy were vital to the creation


title: Ansel Adams

type: original

texts:
 of the department and to its programs in its early years."For those who had sought institutional recognition for photography as art, the founding of the department was an important moment, marking the medium's recognition as a subject equal to painting and sculpture. On December 31, 1940, the department opened its first exhibition, Sixty Photographs: A Survey of Camera Esthetics, which resembled large survey exhibitions that <mask> and Newhall had previously mounted independently. The exhibition took aesthetic quality as a guiding principle, a philosophy that ran counter to that of many writers and critics, who argued that the medium's more vernacular use as a means of communication should be more fully represented. Photographer Ralph Steiner, writing for PM, remarked "on the whole it [MoMA] seems to regard photography as soft music at high tea rather than as a jazz at a beefsteak supper." Tom Maloney, publisher of U.S. Camera, wrote that the exhibition was "very choice, very pristine, very small, very ultra." According to Newhall, the exhibition was meant to showcase artistic excellence and "not to define but to suggest the possibilities of photographic vision."Environmental protection
In his autobiography, <mask> expressed his concern about Americans' loss of connection to nature in the course of industrialization and the exploitation of the land's natural resources. He stated, "We all know the tragedy of the dustbowls, the cruel unforgivable erosions of the soil, the depletion of fish or game, and the shrinking of the noble forests. And we know that such catastrophes shrivel the spirit of the people... The wilderness is pushed back, man is everywhere. Solitude, so vital to the individual man, is almost nowhere."

masks: Adams Adams


title: Ansel Adams

texts:
 Awards and honors
<mask> received a number of awards during his lifetime and posthumously, and several awards and places have been named in his honor. For his photography, <mask> received an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society in 1976 and the Hasselblad Award in 1981.Two of his photographs, The Tetons and the Snake River and a view of the Golden Gate Bridge from Baker Beach, were among the 115 images recorded on the Voyager Golden Record aboard the Voyager spacecraft. These images were selected to convey information about humans, plants and animals, and geological features of the Earth to a possibly alien civilization. For his conservation efforts, <mask> received the Sierra Club John Muir Award in 1963. In 1968, he was awarded the Conservation Service Award, the highest award of the Department of the Interior. In 1980, President Jimmy Carter awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor, for "his efforts to preserve this country's wild and scenic areas, both on film and on earth. Drawn to the beauty of nature's monuments, he is regarded by environmentalists as a national institution." <mask> received an honorary artium doctor degree from Harvard University and an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from Yale University.He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1966. In 2007, he was inducted into the California Hall of Fame by California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver. The Sierra Club's Ansel Adams Award for Conservation Photography was established in 1971, and the Ansel Adams Award for Conservation was established in 1980 by The Wilderness Society, which also has a large permanent gallery of his work on

masks: Adams Adams Adams Adams


title: Ansel Adams

texts:
 display at its Washington, D.C. headquarters. The Minarets Wilderness in the Inyo National Forest and a  peak therein were renamed the Ansel Adams Wilderness and Mount Ansel Adams, respectively, in 1985. In 1984 <mask> was inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame. Photographs

Color images
<mask> was known mostly for his boldly printed, large-format black-and-white images, but he also worked extensively with color. However, he preferred black-and-white photography, which he believed could be manipulated to produce a wide range of bold, expressive tones, and he felt constricted by the rigidity of the color process.Most of his color work was done on assignments, and he did not consider his color work to be important or expressive, even explicitly forbidding any posthumous exploitation of his color work. Notable photographs
 Lodgepole Pines, Lyell Fork of the Merced River, Yosemite National Park, 1921
 Monolith, the Face of Half Dome, Yosemite National Park, 1927
 Rose and Driftwood, San Francisco, California, 1932
 Georgia O'Keeffe and Orville Cox, Canyon de Chelly National Monument, 1937
 Clearing Winter Storm, Yosemite National Park, 1940
 Moon and Half Dome, Yosemite National Park, California, 1960
 Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico, 1941
 Evening, McDonald Lake, Glacier National Park, 1942
 The Tetons and the Snake River, Grand Teton National Park, 1942
 Winter Sunrise, Sierra Nevada, from Lone Pine, California, 1944
 Aspens, Northern New Mexico, 1958
 El Capitan, Winter Sunrise, 1968

Published works

See also
 Monochrome photography
 Environmental protection

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

Biographies

Photographic books

Young adult and children's books

Documentaries

External


title: Ansel Adams

texts:
 links

 American Memory – <mask> <mask> "Suffering Under a Great Injustice" <mask> <mask> <mask> Photographs 226 high-resolution photographs from National Archives Still Picture Branch. All Ansel Adams Images Online Center for Creative Photography (CCP) CCP at the University of Arizona has released a digital catalog of all <mask> <mask> (Mental Floss)

 Encyclopædia Britannica

1902 births
1984 deaths
20th-century American activists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American photographers
1906 San Francisco earthquake survivors
Activists from San Francisco
American conservationists
American cultural critics
American environmentalists
American male non-fiction writers
American mountain climbers
American social commentators
Art Center College of Design faculty
Environmental writers
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fine art photographers
History of photography
Hypochondriacs
Landscape photographers
Nature photographers
People from Monterey County, California
Photographers from California
Photographers from San Francisco
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
San Francisco Art Institute faculty
Sierra Club awardees
Sierra Club directors
Sierra Nevada (United States)
Social critics
Sustainability advocates
Writers about activism and social change
Yosemite National

masks: Ansel Adams Ansel Adamssel Adams Adamssel Adams


title: Joe Heck

texts:
<mask> (born October 30, 1961) is a United States Army major general, physician, and politician who served as the United States representative for Nevada's 3rd congressional district from 2011 to 2017. <mask>, a Republican, is a board-certified physician and served as a Nevada state senator from 2004 to 2008. He ran for the United States Senate in 2016. Early life, education, and military service
<mask> was born in Jamaica, Queens, a neighborhood of New York City, and was raised in Pennsylvania, where he graduated from Wallenpaupack Area High School in 1979. He graduated from the Pennsylvania State University in 1984 with a degree in health education. He is a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity. He received his Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine in 1988 from the Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine and obtained a residency in emergency medicine in 1992 at the Albert Einstein Medical Center.In 1992, he moved to Clark County, Nevada. He earned a Master of Strategic Studies degree from the U.S. Army War College in 2006. Heck served in the United States Army Reserve since 1991 and was promoted to brigadier general in 2014. He has commanded a Medical Readiness Support Group overseeing more than 2,000 soldiers in six western states, and continues to serve in this capacity while in Congress. He has served in Operation Joint Endeavor, Operation Noble Eagle, and Operation Iraqi Freedom. His last deployment was in January 2008 when he commanded an emergency room in a combat hospital outside Baghdad. He was promoted to the rank of major general in a ceremony at Fort Douglas, Utah, November 7, 2020.Medical career
<mask> was the president, owner, and medical director of Specialized Medical Operations until 2011. The company provided medical training, consulting, and operational support to law enforcement agencies, EMS, and military special operations. Heck has lectured and is published on special operations medical support, the medical response to acts of terrorism, and emergency preparedness and response. From 1998 to 2003, Heck served as the medical director of the Casualty Care Research Center of the Uniformed Services

masks:
Joseph John Heck
Heck
Heck
Heck


title: Joe Heck

texts:
 University of the Health Sciences in Bethesda, Maryland, where he provided medical support for several federal law enforcement agencies and oversight for the medical response to acts of terrorism. Heck started his medical career as a volunteer firefighter and ambulance attendant in rural Pennsylvania. He volunteered as a medical team manager with the Nevada Urban Search & Rescue Team – Task Force 1 and as a member of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Search & Rescue team. He served as a tactical physician with the LVMPD SWAT team.Heck served as a member of the Nevada State Homeland Security Commission Sub-committee on Health, the American Osteopathic Association's Task Force on Bioterrorism, and as the medical director for the Nevada Hospital Association's Hospital Preparedness program. He also served as the medical director for the Southern Nevada Health District's Office of Public Health Preparedness. Nevada Senate
Heck served one four-year term in the Nevada Senate, representing Clark County's 5th district. Elections
<mask> was first elected to the Nevada Senate to represent Clark County's 5th district in 2004, after defeating Senator Ann O'Connell in the Republican primary. Heck narrowly lost re-election in 2008 to Democrat Shirley Breeden by a margin of 47% to 46% and a plurality of 765 votes. Libertarian T. Rex Hagan received 4,754 votes (8%). Committee assignments
He served on the Natural Resources, Human Resources and Education, the Commerce and Labor Committees.He was also the vice-chair of the Transportation and Homeland Security Committee. U.S. House of Representatives

Elections

2010

Although <mask> had earlier announced he would challenge incumbent Republican Jim Gibbons for governor, he decided against it in favor of a run for Nevada's 3rd congressional district. He defeated incumbent Democratic U.S. Congresswoman Dina Titus, 48%–47%, a difference of 1,748 votes. Titus only held the position for one term after she defeated incumbent Republican Jon C. Porter in 2008. 2012

After redistricting, <mask> decided to run in the newly redrawn 3rd district, which Obama won in 2008 with 54% of the vote. On

masks: Heck Heck Heck


title: Joe Heck

texts:
 November 6, he defeated Speaker of the Nevada Assembly John Oceguera 50%–43%. 2014

<mask> won reelection easily, beating Democrat Erin Bilbray by a margin of 61 percent to 36 percent.Tenure
<mask> was one of three freshmen named to the House Republican Steering Committee in the 112th Congress. He was re-elected to the Republican Steering Committee in both 2012 and 2014. <mask> was ranked as the 74th most bipartisan member of the U.S. House of Representatives during the 114th United States Congress (and the most bipartisan member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Nevada) in the Bipartisan Index created by The Lugar Center and the McCourt School of Public Policy that ranks members of the United States Congress by their degree of bipartisanship (by measuring the frequency each member's bills attract co-sponsors from the opposite party and each member's co-sponsorship of bills by members of the opposite party). Energy and environmental policy
In 2010, he signed the Americans for Prosperity's No Climate Tax pledge. He supports an "all of the above" energy policy which includes natural gas, domestic oil production, and alternative energy sources such as wind, solar, hydropower, geothermal and nuclear. In 2011, as a representative, Heck voted to prevent the EPA from regulating greenhouse gases. In 2012, when asked about climate change and regulating carbon dioxide, he stated: "When you start looking at trying to regulate something like carbon dioxide, which is a natural, biological process, you start running into areas of confusion" and "I think certainly over the millennia, we've seen changes in our climate both ways, and I think throughout the future millennia we will continue to see climate change that goes both ways.But the issue for this election is not what's going to be happening in the next 200 years, it's going to be what's happening in the next 12 months." He is in favor of the Keystone XL Pipeline. Heck voted to ease the exploration and extraction of minerals and energy resources from Native American lands, and restrict the ability of non-resident tribal members to vote on these issues. Economic policy
Heck


title: Joe Heck

texts:
 supports an audit of the Federal Reserve and a balanced budget amendment to the Constitution. Heck voted against increasing the debt limit in 2011, stating "Raising the debt ceiling without significant spending cuts will only prolong the uncertainty preventing an economic recovery". In 2011, Heck called Social Security a "pyramid scheme". The remark aroused a political controversy in Nevada, and Heck clarified that he meant to refer to it as an "inverted pyramid".He has suggested that today's young people may need to retire later to keep the program fiscally viable. In 2015, Heck voted to eliminate the estate tax. In 2010, he signed the Taxpayer Protection Pledge by Americans for Tax Reform. He has been critical of Governor Brian Sandoval's Commerce Tax. He is opposed to raising the federal minimum wage in favor of leaving the decision to local governments. Education policy
Heck supports the use of education vouchers for use in private or public schools. He voted for a budget bill which called for a 10-year freeze to the maximum Pell Grant award to college students.He favors expanding refinancing options for student loans, enhancing income-based repayment plans, and providing loan forgiveness for civil service. Foreign policy and veterans affairs
In 2011, Heck voted for the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012. In 2011, Heck voted not to withdraw American troops from the war in Afghanistan. Heck opposed United States involvement in Libya, saying, "We are already engaged in military operations on two fronts, and Libya opened a third. We cannot afford the troops or taxpayer dollars—especially without a national security objective." Heck opposes the Iran nuclear deal framework, calling it unenforceable, and has voted to censure and block President Obama's nuclear treaty with Iran. Heck has voted for the Patriot Act and has endorsed the indefinite military incarceration of alleged terrorists.He voted to end the bulk collection of metadata from phone calls by the NSA. In 2015, <mask> cosponsored a bill with Democrat Tulsi Gabbard that would award a Congressional Gold Medal to Filipinos who fought in World War


title: Joe Heck

texts:
 II, who now live in the Philippines and the United States. Heck authored the Vulnerable Veterans Housing Reform Act which prevents disabled veterans who receive in-home care from the VA from having their housing benefits reduced. The bill became law in 2016. Gun policy
<mask> opposes most laws which restrict the sale of firearms. He is in favor of expanded and perhaps universal background checks. Following the Isla Vista massacre, <mask> co-sponsored an amendment to increase funding for criminal background checks.He voted against restricting gun sales to those on terror watch lists. He voted to prevent Washington D.C. from implementing many provisions of gun control. Health policy
<mask> was an original co-sponsor of the attempt to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. His stated priorities include protecting the patient-physician relationship, reducing health care costs, and working to protect Medicare for Nevada's seniors and preserving it for future generations; by training more physicians and increasing the use of health savings accounts. Immigration policy
In August 2014, <mask> broke ranks with the Republican Party and voted against a bill that would have dismantled the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals. In 2015, he voted to more strenuously police immigration from Syria and Iraq. Social policy
In 2011, he voted to prohibit federal funding of National Public Radio, and to support the continuing use of federal funds for NASCAR sponsorships.In 2012, he voted to reauthorize the expiring Violence Against Women Act. During his time in the House, <mask> has voted in favor of prohibiting federal funding of abortion, and prohibiting the use of federal funds for health services at Planned Parenthood. Campaign finance policy
<mask> is opposed to the DISCLOSE Act, which would require funders of political ads to put their names on advertisements. He is a supporter of the Citizens United v. FEC U.S. Supreme Court decision. Sponsored legislation
The following is a partial list of legislation that was directly sponsored by <mask>. Three Kids Mine Remediation and Reclamation Act (H.R. 697; 113th Congress) – a

masks: Heck Heck Heck Heck Heck Heck Heck


title: Joe Heck

texts:
 bill that would authorize the sale of approximately 950 acres of federal land to the city of Henderson, Nevada.The land used to be a mine and now needs significant environmental remediation and reclamation. Vulnerable Veterans Housing Reform Act of 2013 (H.R. 1742; 113th Congress) – a bill that would change the way the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) calculates a veterans' income to exclude some aid that some veterans receive from the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). The bill would also change utility allowances. Good Samaritan Search and Recovery Act of 2013 (H.R. 2166; 113th Congress) – a bill that would require the federal government to issue the appropriate permits within 48 hours to volunteer search and rescue groups to allow them to search federal lands for missing persons. Committee assignments
 Committee on Armed Services
 Subcommittee on Military Personnel
 United States House Armed Services Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations (Chair)
 Committee on Education and the Workforce
 Subcommittee on Higher Education and Workforce Training
 Subcommittee on Health, Employment, Labor, and Pensions
 Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence
 United States House Intelligence Subcommittee on Technical and Tactical Intelligence (Chair)

2016 U.S. Senate campaign

In July 2015, <mask> announced that he would run for the U.S. Senate seat left open due to Harry Reid's retirement.The Republican and Democratic primaries, which were both contested, took place on June 14, 2016. Heck easily defeated primary opponent Sharron Angle, who had narrowly lost to Harry Reid in 2010. <mask>'s campaign received millions of dollars of indirect support from the Koch brothers, according to the New York Times. The Kochs paid for ads on his behalf and for millions of dollars of ads against his rival, and whose organizations have 30 paid staff members working in Nevada. Heck was, in the 3rd quarter of 2016, the House member receiving the largest amount of political donations. His opponents, including organized labor and environmental groups, spent significant sums on advertising against him.

masks: Heck Heck


title: Joe Heck

texts:
 Heck supported Donald Trump's candidacy for president until the Donald Trump and Billy Bush recording controversy of October 2016.<mask> then withdrew his support. In a recording of <mask> at a private event in October 2016, he said he believed Trump may hurt other Republicans' electoral bids. Prior to the election, he did not say whether or not he would vote for Trump. <mask> lost to Catherine Cortez Masto in the 2016 general election, held on November 8, 2016. He carried 16 of Nevada's 17 counties and county equivalents. However, he could not overcome an 82,000-vote deficit in Clark County. Personal life
<mask> resides in Henderson, Nevada, with his wife, <mask> (née Mattiello).They have three children. Lisa is a registered nurse. <mask> is a Roman Catholic. He believes that employers have the right to deny health coverage for contraception if they have moral objections to it. He is active with the American Legion Paradise Post 149, the Knights of Columbus Council 13456, and Catholic War Veterans Post 1947. He is also a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One. Electoral history

Awards and decorations
Heck has received the following awards:

See also
 Physicians in the United States Congress

References

External links

 Senator <mask> official Nevada Legislature site (2007 session)

|-

1961 births
Living people
21st-century American politicians
American healthcare managers
United States Army Medical Corps officers
United States Army personnel of the Iraq War
American osteopathic physicians
Candidates in the 2016 United States elections
Catholics from New York (state)
Catholics from Nevada
Members of the Nevada Assembly
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Nevada
Military personnel from Nevada
Nevada state senators
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Politicians from Carson City, Nevada
People from Henderson, Nevada
People from Jamaica, Queens
Physicians from Nevada
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
United States Army War College alumni
United States Army generals
United States Army reservists
Philadelphia College of Osteopathic

masks:
Heck
Heck
Heck
Heck
Lisa Heck
Heck
Joe Heck


title: Gerard of Cremona

texts:
<mask> of Cremona (Latin: <mask>remonensis; c. 1114 – 1187) was an Italian translator of scientific books from Arabic into Latin. He worked in Toledo, Kingdom of Castile and obtained the Arabic books in the libraries at Toledo. Some of the books had been originally written in Greek and, although well known in Byzantine Constantinople and Greece at the time, were unavailable in Greek or Latin in Western Europe. <mask> of Cremona is the most important translator among the Toledo School of Translators who invigorated Western medieval Europe in the twelfth century by transmitting the Arabs' and ancient Greeks' knowledge in astronomy, medicine and other sciences, by making the knowledge available in Latin. One of <mask>'s most famous translations is of Ptolemy's Almagest from Arabic texts found in Toledo. Confusingly there appear to have been two translators of Arabic text into Latin known as <mask> of Cremona, the one active in the 12th century who concentrated on astronomy and other scientific works, and another active in the 13th century who concentrated on medical works. Life
<mask> was born in Cremona in northern Italy.Dissatisfied with the philosophies of his Italian teachers, <mask> went to Toledo. There he learned Arabic, initially so that he could read Ptolemy's Almagest, which had a traditionally high reputation among scholars, but which, before his departure to Castile, was not yet known in Latin translation. The first Latin translation was made, from the Greek around 1160 in Sicily. Although we do not have detailed information of the date when <mask> went to

masks:
Gerard
Gerardus C
Gerard
Gerard
Gerard
Gerard
Gerard
Gerard


title: Gerard of Cremona

texts:
 Castile, it was no later than 1144. Toledo, which had been a provincial capital in the Caliphate of Cordoba and remained a seat of learning, was safely available to a Catholic like <mask>, since it had been conquered from the Moors by Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085. Toledo remained a multicultural capital, insofar as its rulers protected the large Jewish and Muslim quarters, and kept their trophy city an important centre of Arab and Hebrew culture. One of the great scholars associated with Toledo was Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra, <mask>'s contemporary.The Muslim and Jewish inhabitants of Toledo adopted the language and many customs of their conquerors, embodying Mozarabic culture. The city was full of libraries and manuscripts, and was one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture. In Toledo <mask> devoted the remainder of his life to making Latin translations from the Arabic scientific literature. <mask>'s translations

<mask> of Cremona's Latin translation of the Arabic version of Ptolemy's Almagest made c. 1175 was the most widely known in Western Europe before the Renaissance. Unbeknownst to <mask>, an earlier translation of the Almagest had already been made in Sicily from the original Greek c. 1160 under the aegis of Henricus Aristippus, although this version was not as widely used in the Middle Ages as <mask>'s version. George of Trebizond and then Johannes Regiomontanus retranslated it from the Greek original in the fifteenth century. The Almagest formed the basis for Western astronomy until it was

masks: Gerard Gerard Gerard Gerard Gerard Gerard Gerard


title: Gerard of Cremona

texts:
 eclipsed by the theories of Copernicus.<mask> edited for Latin readers the Tables of Toledo, the most accurate compilation of astronomical data ever seen in Europe at the time. The Tables were partly the work of Al-Zarqali, known to the West as Arzachel, a mathematician and astronomer who flourished in Cordoba in the eleventh century. Al-Farabi, the Islamic "second teacher" after Aristotle, wrote hundreds of treatises. His book on the sciences, Kitab lhsa al Ulum, discussed classification and fundamental principles of science in a unique and useful manner. <mask> rendered it as De scientiis (On the Sciences). <mask>’s Geometry and Alfraganus's Elements of Astronomy. <mask> also composed original treatises on algebra, arithmetic and astrology.In the astrology text, longitudes are reckoned both from Cremona and Toledo. In total, <mask> of Cremona translated 87 books from the Arabic language, including such originally Greek works as Ptolemy's Almagest, Archimedes' On the Measurement of the Circle, Aristotle's On the Heavens, and Euclid's Elements of Geometry; and such originally Arabic works as al-Khwarizmi's On Algebra and Almucabala,  Jabir ibn Aflah's Elementa astronomica, and works by al-Razi (Rhazes). <mask> of Cremona was also creator of anatomical terms. The Latin translation of the Calendar of Córdoba, entitled Liber Anoe, has also been attributed to <mask>. A second <mask>onensis

Some of the works credited to <mask> of Cremona are probably the work of a later <mask>onensis, working in the thirteenth century, who was also known as <mask> Sabloneta (Sabbioneta).

masks:
Gerard
Gerard
Gerarduclid
Gerard
Gerard
Gerard
Gerard
Gerard Crem
Gerard
Gerard Crem
Gerard de


title: Gerard of Cremona

texts:
 The later <mask> focused on translating medical texts rather than astronomical texts, but the two translators have understandably been confused with one another. His translations from works of Avicenna are said to have been made by order of the emperor Frederick II.Other treatises attributed to the "Second Gerard" include the Theoria or Theorica planetarum, and versions of Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine— the basis of the numerous subsequent Latin editions of that well-known work — and of the Almansor of al-Razi ("Rhazes" in Latin-speaking Europe). The attribution of the Theorica to <mask> of Sabbionetta is not well supported by manuscript evidence and should not be regarded as certain. See also
Latin translations of the 12th century

Notes

References

 Campbell, Donald (2001). Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages. Routledge. (Reprint of the London, 1926 edition).  .
 Haskins, Charles Homer. The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century.Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr., 1927. See especially chapter 9, "The Translators from Greek and Arabic". Katz, Victor J. (1998). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Addison Wesley. .External links

1110s births
1187 deaths
Writers from Cremona
12th-century Latin writers
Italian translators
Arabic–Italian translators
Arabic–Latin translators
Medieval Italian astrologers
Medieval Italian astronomers
Translators from Arabic
12th-century astrologers
12th-century astronomers
Medieval Arabists
Medieval orientalists
Medieval linguists
12th-century Italian scientists
Medieval writers
12th-century Italian writers
12th-century

masks: Gerard Gerard


title: Edward Temperley Gourley

texts:
<mask>  (8 June 1826 – 15 April 1902) was a coal fitter, shipowner and politician born in Sunderland, England. He was knighted for his political work. Early life

<mask> - known as E.T<mask> - was the eldest son of shipowner <mask> and his wife, <mask>. Born on the banks of the River Wear on 8 June 1826, he left school at 13 and served his apprenticeship as a coalfitter with John Halcro. The Halcro office was one of the largest commercial businesses then in Sunderland and, under the supervision of John Halcro, <mask> acquired the rudiments of business and successful commerce. His job took him to the Netherlands and Germany, where he studied foreign trade, and, after finishing his apprenticeship, he was rewarded with a percentage of the firm's profits.Business life
At the age of 22, <mask> went into business for himself as a ship-chandler. He was not satisfied, however, with this profession and went on to become a ship owner. His father, <mask>, joined him in the business, as did his uncle, <mask>. Working from an office in Villiers Street, <mask> expanded his business to include the exportation of coal and the importation of timber. Such was his apitutude for the business that, within a few years, he had acquired several fine ships, which were used in the Indian trade. The Sunderland Echo later reported: "The Crimean War appears to have afforded him a fine opportunity for developing his business. At that time, when a wretched and niggardly government was starving the Tommy Atkins of that day in the trenches before Sebastopol, Sir <mask> had a number of vessels engaged as transports."<mask> went on an extended Continental

masks:
Sir Edward Temperley Gourley
Edward Temperley Gourley
. Gourley
John Young Gourley
Mary Temperley
Gourley
Gourley
John Gourley
Edward Temperley
Gourley
Edward
Gourley


title: Edward Temperley Gourley

texts:
 tour during this period, visiting Turkey, the Crimea and Spain. It was this journey which persuaded him to favour steamers over sailing ships and, on his return, he invested heavily in steam shipping and became one of the leading shipowners in Sunderland. 1868 brought <mask> a run of bad luck, when he lost several steamers. When the bad luck and disasters continued, the politician Samuel Plimsoll brought serious charges against the "fair fame of Sir <mask>" in an appeal on behalf of "Our seamen." These charges were subsequently the subject of investigation in the law courts. But the people of Sunderland, however, backed <mask> over Plimsoll, and voted for him as their MP that same year. From 1883 to 1892 he was a director of the Imperial Tramways Company and its subsidiary the Corris Railway.After entering Parliament, <mask> retired from the active management of his business, but always kept at least a few ships of his own. He was also a large shareholder in steamers and this interest in shipping remained with him until his death in 1902. Political life
<mask> first took an active interest in politics in 1857, when he became a town councillor. It was a role he was to continue until 1865, just three years before he became a Member of Parliament for Sunderland. The Sunderland Echo reported at the time: "It was his pleasing duty to make his first speech in the local Parliament in moving a resolution, the outcome of which was the Havelock statue, which now stands in Mowbray Park. The services rendered by the great Sir Henry Havelock to this country were a theme which many an orator might covet for his maiden speech, and Sir

masks: Gourley Edward Gourley Gourley Gourley


title: Edward Temperley Gourley

texts: <mask> had the satisfaction of seeing his resolution carried. Sunderland was eager to do honour to her most illustrious son."Donations for the statue poured in from around the country and, when it was finally erected, Sir Henry's son, Sir Henry Havelock-Allan, paid his first visit to Sunderland and met <mask>. The pair would, just a few years later, jointly represent in Parliament. As a Town Councillor, <mask> was diligent, energetic and popular. He was "imbued with thoroughly progressive and democratic tastes," according to the Echo. Indeed, such was his popularity among fellow councillors and townspeople that, in 1864, he was unanimously elected Mayor. He was re-elected to the Mayoralty the following year and, in his second term of office, he had to guard the town against rinderpest and cholera. "Under his directing every possible precaution was taken and the result was that a single case of cattle plague occurred in the borough," the Echo reported."The cholera, which was then raging in Holland, fortunately did not attack Sunderland. Under the Mayor's guidance, the lower parts of the town were cleansed, and these precautionary measures were blessed with success." <mask>'s other political work at this time included being appointed as chief magistrate for Sunderland and working as an Alderman for the town. He was also a shipowners' representative on the River Wear Commission, a borough magistrate, a justice of the peace for the county, and a Deputy-Lieutenant. He also joined forces with Samuel Storey, a Liberal councillor, to become one of the founder members of the Sunderland Echo in 1873. It was in 1868 that <mask> took

masks: Edward Gourley Gourley Gourley Gourley


title: Edward Temperley Gourley

texts:
 his biggest step forward in politics, when he was elected as a Liberal MP for the town. He served in this post until 1900, when he retired, and was an early convert to Home Rule for Ireland.The Echo reported after his death: "He never lost sight of the fact that he was a representative of a shipping centre, and whenever the opportunity offered his abilities were devoted to the good of that industry. He sought to benefit not only the shipowners, but the sailors, and much of his energy was devoted to the interests of the seafaring class. "He was probably the most persistent questioner in the House of Commons, and much of his work there consisted in interrogating the Government on points on which he desired information or with the object of exposing an abuse. The subject of the royal yachts was one in which he manifested an especially keen interest, as he did also in the condition of the mercantile marine, in connection with which he constantly impressed the necessity of having
the vessels manned as much as possible with Britishers, so that they could be depended upon in the event of war." Volunteering
<mask> was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel in command of the 3rd (Sunderland Rifles) Durham Rifle Volunteer Corps on 10 November 1865. When he retired from this position he was appointed Honorary Colonel of the unit on 10 July 1869. Most unusually, when his successor resigned he reverted to active command of the battalion in 1873.He retired a second time and was re-appointed Hon Colonel on 19 January 1881. He was awarded the Volunteer Decoration (VD). Religious life
<mask> was a Congregationalist and, in early life, he attended

masks: Gourley Gourley


title: Edward Temperley Gourley

texts:
 Bethel Chapel in Villiers Street, conducting a Sunday school there. For several years, he acted as one of the secretaries of the local Sunday School Union and was "often to be found on the platform when the great Sunday school gathering took place." In later life, he was also a keen advocate of temperance and, for some time, he was secretary of the Sunderland Temperance Society. Personal life
<mask> had one brother, William, and three sisters, Margaret, Mary Jane and Elizabeth. William was a captain in one of his father's boats as a young man, but he later left the North and died at Bournemouth.Of <mask>'s sisters, one died unmarried and another married Joseph Lumsden, a Sunderland chain and anchormaker. After her death, Lumsden took her sister for his second wife. <mask> himself remained a bachelor until his death on 15 April 1902. He was a Freemason, being initiated into Palatine Lodge No.97, in Sunderland, on 10 October 1861. References

Further reading
 Sunderland Daily Echo: April 1902, 21 January 1881, 1 July 1895
 The Durham Thirteen: Published April 1874
 Parliamentary Representation of the Six Northern Counties: By W.W.Bean
 The Alderman: Published 8 April 1876
 Wearside Review: Local notabilities, published 1886
 Sunderland Times: 11 November 1871
 Clive Dunn, The Fighting Pioneers: the Story of the 7th Durham Light Infantry, Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2015, . External links

1826 births
1902 deaths
Councillors in Tyne and Wear
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1880–1885
UK MPs 1885–1886
UK MPs 1886–1892
UK MPs 1892–1895
People from Sunderland
Knights Bachelor
Durham Light Infantry

masks: Gourley Gourley Gourley


title: John Dingell

texts: <mask>. (July 8, 1926 – February 7, 2019) was an American politician who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1955 until 2015. A member of the Democratic Party, he holds the record for longest-serving member of Congress in American history, representing Michigan for more than 59 years. He most recently served as the representative for Michigan's 12th congressional district. A longtime member of the House Energy and Commerce Committee, Dingell was the chairman of the committee from 1981 to 1995 and 2007 to 2009. Born in Colorado Springs, Colorado, he attended Georgetown University as an undergraduate and law student. Dingell began his congressional career by succeeding his father, <mask>., as representative for  on December 13, 1955; his father had held the seat for 22 years. He left office on January 3, 2015.Having served for over 59 years, he has the longest congressional tenure in U.S. history. Together with Jamie Whitten and Joseph Gurney Cannon, he served in the House under more presidents than anyone else: 11. He was also the longest-serving Dean of the U.S. House of Representatives, who remained in the capacity from 1995 to 2015, and Dean of the Michigan congressional delegation. Dingell was one of the final two World War II veterans to have served in Congress; the other was Texas Representative Ralph Hall, who also left Congress in 2015. During his time in Congress in addition to protecting the automobile industry important to his district, Dingell was instrumental in passage of the Medicare Act, the Water Quality Act of 1965, Clean Water Act of 1972, the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Clean Air Act of 1990, and the Affordable Care Act, among others. He was most proud of his work on the Civil Rights Act of 1964. <mask> announced on February 24, 2014, that he would not seek reelection to a 31st term in Congress.His wife, <mask>, ran to succeed him and defeated Republican Terry Bowman in the general election on November 4, 2014. President Barack Obama awarded him

masks:
John David Dingell Jr
John Dingell Sr
Dingell
Debbie Dingell


title: John Dingell

texts:
 the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2014. Early life, education, and early career
Dingell was born on July 8, 1926, in Colorado Springs, Colorado, the son of Grace (née Bigler) and <mask> Sr. (1894–1955). His father was the son of Polish immigrants, and his mother had Swiss and Scots-Irish ancestry. The Dingells were in Colorado in search of a cure for <mask> Sr.'s tuberculosis. The Dingell surname had been Dzieglewicz, and was "Americanized" by <mask> Sr.'s father. The family moved back to Michigan, and in 1932, <mask> Sr. was elected the first representative of Michigan's newly created 15th District.In Washington, D.C., <mask>. attended Georgetown Preparatory School and then the House Page School when he served as a page for the U.S. House of Representatives from 1938 to 1943. He was on the floor of the House when President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave his famous speech after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. In 1944, at the age of 18, <mask> joined the United States Army. He rose to the rank of second lieutenant and received orders to take part in the first wave of a planned invasion of Japan in November 1945; the Congressman said that President Harry S. Truman's decision to use the atomic bomb to end the war saved his life. <mask> attended Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., where he earned a Bachelor of Science in chemistry in 1949 and a Juris Doctor in 1952. He was a lawyer in private practice, a research assistant to U.S. District Court judge Theodore Levin, a congressional employee, a forest ranger, and assistant prosecuting attorney for Wayne County until 1955. U.S. House of Representatives

Elections

In 1955, <mask>. died and <mask>. won a special election to succeed him.He won a full term in 1956 and was reelected 29 times, including runs in 1988 and 2006 with no Republican opponent. Dingell received less than 62% of the vote on only two occasions. In 1994 when the Republican Revolution swept the Republicans into the majority in the House of Representatives for the first time since 1954,

masks:
John Dingell
Dingell
John Dingell
Dingell
John Jr
Dingell
Dingell
John Sr
John Jr


title: John Dingell

texts:
 Dingell received 59% of the vote. In 2010 when the Republicans re-took control of the House of Representatives, Dingell received 57% of the vote. Between them, he and his father represented the southeastern Michigan area for 80 years. His district was numbered as the 15th District from 1955 to 1965, when redistricting merged it into the Dearborn-based 16th District; in the primary that year, he defeated 16th District incumbent <mask> Jr. In 2002, redistricting merged Dingell's 16th District with the Washtenaw County and western Wayne County-based 13th District, represented by fellow Democratic Representative Lynn Rivers, whom Dingell also bested in the Democratic primary.The 15th District for the 109th Congress included Wayne County suburbs generally southwest of Detroit, the Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti areas in Washtenaw County, and all of Monroe County. For many years, Dingell represented much of western Detroit itself, though Detroit's declining population and the growth of its suburbs has pushed all of Detroit into the districts of fellow Democratic representatives, including <mask>. Dingell always won re-election by double-digit margins, although the increasing conservatism of the mostly white suburbs of Detroit since the 1970s led to several serious Republican challenges in the 1990s. With the retirement of Jamie L. Whitten, the death of William Natcher, and the defeat of Texas Representative Jack Brooks at the start of a new Congress in January 1995, he became the Dean of the United States House of Representatives. (Fellow Representative Sidney Yates had entered the House earlier and, at that time, had served almost five years longer than Dingell, but Yates's service had been interrupted when he ran unsuccessfully for Senate in 1962.) He was one of four people to serve in the House for 50 years, the others being Whitten, Carl Vinson, and Conyers, the last of whom had worked in Dingell's congressional office. Tenure

<mask> was generally classified as a moderately liberal member of the Democratic Party

masks:
John Lesinski
John Conyers
Dingell


title: John Dingell

texts:
 and throughout his career he was a leading congressional supporter of organized labor, social welfare measures and traditional progressive policies.At the beginning of every Congress, Dingell introduced a bill providing for a national health insurance system, the same bill that his father proposed while he was in Congress. Dingell also strongly supported Bill Clinton's managed-care proposal early in his administration. In October 1998, President Clinton began a Roosevelt Room appearance "by thanking Senator Jay Rockefeller of West Virginia and Congressman Dingell for their steadfast support of Medicare and their participation in our Medicare Commission." On some issues, though, he reflected the values of his largely Catholic and working-class district. He supported the Vietnam War until 1971. While he supported all of the civil rights bills, he opposed expanding school desegregation to Detroit suburbs via mandatory busing. He took a fairly moderate position on abortion.He worked to balance clean air legislation with the need to protect manufacturing jobs. An avid sportsman and hunter, he strongly opposed gun control, and was a former board member of the National Rifle Association. For many years, Dingell received an A+ rating from the NRA. Dingell helped make firearms exempt from the 1972 Consumer Product Safety Act so that the Consumer Product Safety Commission had no authority to recall defective guns. Dingell's wife, Representative <mask>, introduced legislation in 2018 to remove this exemption from the law. Michael Barone wrote of Dingell in 2002:

On December 15, 2005, on the floor of the House, Dingell read a poem sharply critical of, among other things, Fox News, Bill O'Reilly, and the so-called "War on Christmas". Along with <mask>, in April 2006, Dingell brought an action against George W. Bush and others alleging violations of the Constitution in the passing of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005.The case (Conyers v. Bush) was ultimately dismissed for lack of standing. After winning re-election in

masks:
Debbie Dingell
John Conyers


title: John Dingell

texts:
 2008 for his 28th consecutive term, Dingell surpassed Whitten's record for having the longest tenure in the House on February 11, 2009. In honor of the record, Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm declared February 11, 2009, to be <mask> Day. On June 7, 2013, Dingell became the longest serving member of Congress, surpassing the late Senator Robert Byrd's combined House and Senate service of 20,995 days. By the time <mask> retired on January 3, 2015, he had served 21,571 days in Congress, all of it in the House of Representatives. As of January 3, 2015, Dingell had served with 2,453 different U.S. Representatives in his career.Energy and Commerce chairman
<mask> was well known for his approach to congressional oversight of the executive branch. He subpoenaed numerous government officials to testify before the committee and grilled them for hours. He insisted that all who testified before his committee do so under oath, thus exposing them to perjury charges if they did not tell the truth. He and his committee uncovered numerous instances of corruption and waste, such as the use of $600 toilet seats at the Pentagon. He also claimed that the committee's work led to resignations of many Environmental Protection Agency officials, and uncovered information that led to legal proceedings that sent many Food and Drug Administration officials to jail. After serving as the committee's ranking Democratic member for 12 years, Dingell regained the chairmanship in 2007. According to Newsweek, he had wanted to investigate the George W. Bush Administration's handling of port security, the Medicare prescription drug program and Dick Cheney's energy task force.Time magazine has stated that he had intended to oversee legislation that addresses global warming and climate change caused by carbon emissions from automobiles, energy companies and industry. <mask> lost the chairmanship for the 111th Congress to Congressman Henry Waxman of California in a Democratic caucus meeting on November 20, 2008. Waxman mounted a challenge

masks:
John Dingell
Dingell
Dingell
Dingell


title: John Dingell

texts:
 against Dingell on grounds that Dingell was stalling certain environmental legislation, which would have tightened vehicle emissions standards—something that could be detrimental to the Big Three automobile manufacturers that constitute a major source of employment in Dingell's district. Dingell was given the title of Chairman Emeritus in a token of appreciation of his years of service on the committee, and a portrait of him is in the House collection. Baltimore case
In the 1980s, Dingell led a series of congressional hearings to pursue alleged scientific fraud by Thereza Imanishi-Kari and Nobel Prize-winner David Baltimore. The National Institutes of Health's fraud unit, then called the Office of Scientific Integrity, charged Imanishi-Kari in 1991 of falsifying data and recommended that she be barred from receiving research grants for 10 years. She appealed the decision and the Department of Health and Human Services appeals panel dismissed the charges against Imanishi-Kari and cleared her to receive grants.The findings and negative publicity surrounding them made David Baltimore decide to resign as president of Rockefeller University (after Imanishi-Kari was cleared he became president of the California Institute of Technology). The story of the case is described in Daniel Kevles' 1998 book The Baltimore Case, in a chapter of Horace Freeland Judson's 2004 book The Great Betrayal: Fraud In Science, and in a 1993 study by Serge Lang, updated and reprinted in his book Challenges. Robert Gallo claims
From 1991 to 1995 <mask>'s staff investigated claims that Robert Gallo had used samples supplied to him by Luc Montagnier to fraudulently claim to have discovered the AIDS virus. The report concluded that Gallo had engaged in fraud and that the NIH covered up his misappropriation of work by the French team at the Institut Pasteur. The report contended that:

The report was never formally published as a subcommittee report because of the 1995 change in control of the House from Democratic to Republican. Other


title: John Dingell

texts:
 Energy and Westinghouse led to an extraordinary, and pathetic, waste of taxpayer money. All we have to show for $500 million is a 20-year delay and the opportunity to risk another $1 billion to make a problematic process work." In July 2007, Dingell indicated he planned to introduce a new tax on carbon usage in order to curtail greenhouse gas emissions. The policy has been criticized by some, as polling numbers show voters may be unwilling to pay for the changes. A Wall Street Journal editorial claimed that vehicle emissions standards that he supported will not yield any substantial greenhouse gas emissions savings. As one of his final votes, Dingell voted against the Keystone XL pipeline on November 13, 2014. Private sector ties
Dingell was closely tied to the automotive industry, as he represented Metro Detroit, where the Big Three automakers of General Motors, Chrysler, and the Ford Motor Company, are headquartered.Dingell encouraged the companies to improve fuel efficiency. During the automotive industry crisis of 2008–10, Dingell advocated for the bailout the companies received. During the electoral span of 1989 through 2006, intermediaries for the aforementioned corporations contributed more than $600,000 to Dingell's campaigns. Dingell also held an unknown quantity, more than $1 million in 2005, in assets through General Motors stock options and savings-stock purchase programs; his wife, <mask>, is a descendant of one of the Fisher brothers, founders of Fisher Body, a constituent part of General Motors. She worked as a lobbyist for the corporation until they married. She then moved to an administrative position there. As of June 2007, <mask> was executive director of Global Community Relations and Government Relation at GM and vice chair of the General Motors Foundation.Committee assignments

 Committee on Energy and Commerce
 Subcommittee on Commerce, Manufacturing and Trade
 Subcommittee on Communications and Technology
 Subcommittee on Energy and Power (ex officio)
 Subcommittee on Environment

masks:
Debbie Dingell
Debbie Dingell


title: John Dingell

texts:
 and Economy
 Subcommittee on Health
 Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations (ex officio)

Caucus memberships
 Congressional Cement Caucus

Personal life
Dingell had four children from his first marriage to Helen Henebry, an airline stewardess. They married in 1952 and divorced in 1972. <mask>'s son Christopher D. Dingell served in the Michigan State Senate and is a judge on the Michigan Third Circuit Court. In 1981, Dingell married Deborah "Debbie" Insley, his second wife, who was 27 years his junior. In November 2014, <mask> won the election to succeed her husband as U.S. Representative for Michigan's 12th congressional district. She took office in January 2015. She is the first non-widowed woman to immediately succeed her husband in Congress.Dingell had surgery in 2014 to correct an abnormal heart rhythm, and the next year had surgery to install a pacemaker. He was hospitalized after a fall in 2017. On September 17, 2018, Dingell suffered an apparent heart attack and was hospitalized at Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit. In his later years, Dingell became an active Twitter user, and earned over 250,000 followers for his witty and sarcastic posts attacking Republicans, particularly Donald Trump. He earned the nickname "the Dean of Twitter". In 2018, Dingell was diagnosed with prostate cancer, which had metastasized. He chose to forgo treatment, and entered hospice care.<mask> died on February 7, 2019, at his home in Dearborn, Michigan. On the day of his death, Dingell authored a column discussing his "last words" for the country, which was published in The Washington Post. Legacy
The <mask><mask> Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act, named in his honor and signed into law on March 12, 2019, permanently reauthorized the Land and Water Conservation Fund and established multiple areas of land protection. He received the Walter P. Reuther Humanitarian Award from Wayne State University in 2006. A road traversing Detroit Airport is named after Dingell. On December 18, 2019, a day after

masks:
Dingell
Debbie Dingell
Dingell
John D
. Dingell


title: John Dingell

texts:
 Dingell's wife Rep. <mask>, who succeeded her husband as the member of the House of Representatives for Michigan's 12th district, voted yes to both articles of Donald Trump's first impeachment, Trump attacked <mask> at a rally. Recounting a phone call with Dingell's widow in which she thanked the President for his support for a military flyover of her husband's funeral, Trump claimed Rep. Debbie Dingell told him  "'<mask> would be so thrilled.He's looking down. He would be so thrilled. Thank you so much sir'" Trump continued to the rally attendees "I said that's okay don't worry about it. Maybe he's looking up, I don't know. I don't know, maybe. Maybe. But let's assume he's looking down.", the implication being that the president believed <mask> was in Hell. This drew a strong criticism from several Democratic and some Republican politicians, several of whom offered praise for <mask>'s legacy. Politicians from both sides offered support to his widow and some Republican lawmakers apologized for the president's comments. References

Further reading

External links

 Arlington National Cemetery

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1926 births
2019 deaths
People from Colorado Springs, Colorado
21st-century American politicians
United States Army personnel of World War II
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American people of Swiss-German descent
American politicians of Polish descent
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Georgetown Preparatory School alumni
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Dingell family
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan
Michigan Democrats
Michigan lawyers
Military personnel from Colorado
Military personnel from Detroit
Politicians from Colorado Springs, Colorado
Politicians from Detroit
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
United States Army officers
Deaths from cancer in Michigan
Deaths from prostate cancer
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Deans of the United States House of

masks:
Debbie Dingell
John Dingell
John
John Dingell
John Dingell


title: William Lindsay (footballer)

texts:
<mask> (3 August 1847 – 15 February 1923) was an English amateur footballer who, generally playing as a full back, helped the Wanderers win the FA Cup in 1876, 1877 (when he scored the winning goal) and 1878 and made one appearance for England in 1877. He also played cricket for Surrey between 1876 and 1882. Career

Early life and education
<mask> was born in Benares, India, the son of Major <mask> of the 10th Regiment. His father and most of his family were killed during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 at the Siege of Cawnpore. In 1858 he was admitted to Winchester College as one of three boys orphaned by the Indian Mutiny and remained at the college until 1865. At school he was a keen sportsman and played cricket for the Commoners XI between 1862 and 1864, as well as for the school football team. In 1860, he won the school wide jump competition and was second in the 100 yards.In 1863, he won both the high jump and the wide jump, followed by the high jump with pole in 1864 and the sack race the following year. Football career
<mask> subsequently represented the Old Wykehamists before joining the Wanderers in 1875, now aged 28. <mask> played for Scotland in all five of the unofficial internationals against England in 1870, 1871 and 1872, which were played at Kennington Oval before the first official international match played on 30 November 1872. He qualified for Scotland as his father was born in Dundee in 1810; his grandfather had been Provost of Dundee. His first appearance for the Wanderers was against Clapham Rovers on 2 October 1875 and he went on to make eight appearances that season, including five in the FA Cup run, where Wanderers reached the Cup Final played against Old Etonians at the Oval on 11 March 1876. The match finished 1–1 after extra time. John Hawley Edwards scored for Wanderers;  Alexander Bonsor got Old Etonians' equalising goal.Wanderers won the replay 3–0, with two goals from Thomas Hughes and one by Charles Wollaston. The following season he again turned out regularly for the

masks:
William Lindsay
Lindsay
William Lindsay
Lindsay
Lindsay


title: William Lindsay (footballer)

texts: Wanderers, making a total of seven appearances, including three matches in another successful FA Cup campaign, as Wanderers again reached the final to be played against Oxford University. Three weeks prior to the Cup Final he was one of seven debutants in the England team to play Scotland at the Kennington Oval on 3 March 1877. According to Philip Gibbons, in the 1870s the England side "tended to be chosen on availability rather than skill alone" The change in the England line-up made little difference to England's performance against the Scots who won the game 3–1, with England's consolation goal coming from Alfred Lyttelton; the Scots thus inflicted England's first international defeat on home soil in the sixth appearance between the two countries. <mask>, along with four of the international debutants, was never selected again for international honours. In the 1877 FA Cup Final, played against Oxford University at the Oval on 24 March, Arthur Kinnaird conceded an own goal to enable Oxford University to take the lead. A few minutes from time, the Wanderers equalised when Jarvis Kenrick slotted home a goal after a pass from Hubert Heron.The game finished level after 90 minutes; in extra time, Wanderers proved too strong for their opponents when <mask>'s initial shot was headed back to him by an Oxford defender. Following in, <mask> was able to steer the ball past the keeper for the winning goal. In 1877–78, <mask> appeared for Wanderers in the later stages of their FA Cup campaign, as they reached the final for the third consecutive year, and the fifth time in the first seven years of the competition. The Final against the Royal Engineers was played at the Kennington Oval on 23 March. Wanderers won 3–1, with two goals by Jarvis Kenrick and one by Arthur Kinnaird. Wanderers were thus the cup winners for the third consecutive year; as a result, the Football Association awarded the Wanderers the cup outright – the offer was declined in a "highly sporting and honourable gesture" on condition that it could

masks: Lindsay Lindsay Lindsay Lindsay


title: William Lindsay (footballer)

texts:
 never be won outright. <mask> continued to turn out occasionally for the Wanderers until January 1880, when he was part of the side who were defeated 3–0 by Old Etonians in what turned out to be the Wanderers final FA Cup appearance.During his football career, he also played for Crystal Palace, Civil Service, Gitanos and South Norwood as well as playing representative football for Surrey. Cricket career
At Winchester, he played for the school cricket eleven in 1864 and 1865. He joined Surrey in 1876, and in his seven seasons with the county he scored 987 runs at an average of 17.31. His highest innings was 74 against Middlesex at the Oval in 1877. He also played cricket for Devon. Life outside sport

In 1867 he started work as a junior clerk in the store department of the India Office and from 1877 to 1881 was private secretary to the Under-secretary of State, and in 1882 became Senior Clerk. He was private secretary to Lord George Hamilton, Hon.Edward Stanhope, the Marquess of Lansdowne and Viscount Enfield before he retired in 1900. He was married to Emily (who was four years older than he was), and they had a daughter, Lilias, and a son, <mask>. <mask> died at his home in Rochester, Kent on 15 February 1923. Sporting honours
Wanderers
FA Cup winners: 1876, 1877 and 1878

See also
 List of England international footballers born outside England
 List of English cricket and football players

References

External links
England profile at www.englandstats.com
Profile at www.englandfootballonline.com
Wisden obituary
Profile on cricketarchive
Cricinfo profile

1847 births
1923 deaths
People educated at Winchester College
English footballers
Wanderers F.C. players
Crystal Palace F.C. (1861) players
Civil Service F.C. players
England international footballers
English cricketers
Surrey cricketers
Devon cricketers
England v Scotland representative footballers (1870–1872)
Association football defenders
English people of Scottish descent
Sportspeople from Varanasi
FA Cup Final players
British people in colonial

masks: Lindsay William Lindsay


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts:
<mask> (9 March 1737 – 4 February 1781) was a Czech composer who contributed to the formation of late eighteenth-century classicism in music. <mask> provided his younger friend Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart with significant compositional models in the genres of symphony, Italian serious opera, and violin concerto; both Wolfgang and his father Leopold Mozart considered him an intimate friend from the time of their first meetings in Bologna in 1770 until he betrayed their trust over the promise of an operatic commission for Wolfgang to be arranged with the management of the Teatro San Carlo in Naples. His closeness to the Mozart family resulted in frequent references to him in the Mozart correspondence. Biography

<mask> was born in Prague, one of twin sons of a prosperous mill owner, and studied philosophy at Charles-Ferdinand University before following in the footsteps of his father. No documentation exists to support claims that he was actually born in Horní Šárka, a rural district to the north and west of Prague in the early eighteenth century. He achieved the rank of master miller in 1761, but gave up the family profession in order to pursue musical studies. In Prague, he studied composition with Franz Habermann and <mask> in the early 1760s.His ambitions led him to travel to Venice in 1763 to study with Giovanni Pescetti. His travel to Italy was subsidized in part from family wealth, in part from the Bohemian nobleman Vincenz von Waldstein. In Italy he

masks:
Josef Mysliveček
Mysliveček
Mysliveček
Josef Seger


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts: became known as Il Boemo ("the Bohemian") and also Venatorino ("the little hunter"), a literal translation of his name. Reports that he was known as Il divino Boemo ("the Divine Bohemian") during his lifetime are false. The nickname originated from the title of a romanetto about the composer by Jakub Arbes that was first published in 1884. He was made a member of the Accademia Filarmonica di Bologna in 1771. Mysliveček prized freedom of movement and was never employed directly by any noble, prelate, or ruler, unlike most of his contemporaries.He earned his living through teaching, performing, and composing music, and frequently received gratuities from wealthy admirers. Financially irresponsible throughout his life, he died destitute in Rome in 1781. He is buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Lucina, where a memorial placed by latter-day Czech admirers can be seen. No trace has ever been found of a memorial in marble supposedly erected shortly after his death by James Hugh Smith Barry, a wealthy English student of Mysliveček who paid for his funeral expenses. After his arrival in Italy in 1763, <mask> never left the country except for a visit to Prague in 1767–68, a short visit to Vienna in 1773, and an extended stay in Munich between December 1776 and April 1778. His return to Prague led to the production of several of his operas. He was invited to Munich by the musical establishment of the Elector Maximilian III Joseph to compose an opera for the


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts:
 carnival season of 1777 (Ezio).<mask>'s first opera, Semiramide, was performed at Bergamo in 1766 (there is no evidence that a putative production at Parma of an opera titled Medea ever took place). His Il Bellerofonte was a great success in Naples after its first performance at the Teatro San Carlo on 20 January 1767, and it led to a number of commissions from Italian theaters. Ever after, his productions would almost always feature first-rate singers in the leading roles. Almost all of his operas were successful until a disastrous production of Armida that took place at the Teatro alla Scala in Milan for the carnival season of 1780. One of the many honors that came to him for his talents as a composer of opera was a commission to provide the music for the opening of a new opera theater in Pavia in 1773 (his first setting of Metastasio's libretto Demetrio). Other than a reputation for promiscuity recorded in the Mozart correspondence, nothing is known of <mask>'s love life. The composer never married, and no names of lovers are recorded.There is no documentation to support reports of romantic liaisons with the singers Caterina Gabrielli and Lucrezia Aguiari; no mention of love affairs with these singers pre-dates the publication of the fifth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1954). Relationship with Mozart
In 1770 Mysliveček met the young Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in Bologna. He was close to the Mozart family until 1778, when

masks: Mysliveček Mysliveček


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts: contacts were broken off after he failed to make good on a promise to arrange an opera commission for Mozart at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples. Earlier, the Mozarts found his dynamic personality irresistible. In a letter to his father Leopold written from Munich on 11 October 1777, Mozart described his character as "full of fire, spirit and life." Similarities in his musical style with the earlier works of Mozart have often been noted. Additionally, Mozart used musical motifs drawn from various Mysliveček compositions to help fashion opera arias, symphonic movements, keyboard sonatas, and concertos.He also made an arrangement of <mask>'s aria "Il caro mio bene" (from the opera Armida of 1780). The old text was replaced with the new text "Ridente la calma", KV 152 (210a), in a scoring for soprano with piano accompaniment. According to the same letter of Wolfgang Mozart written from Munich on 11 October 1777, an incompetent surgeon burned off Mysliveček's nose while trying to treat a mysterious illness. A letter of Leopold Mozart to his son of 1 October 1777 refers to the illness as something shameful for which Mysliveček was deserving of social ostracism. <mask>'s reputation for sexual promiscuity, Leopold's insinuations, and the reference to facial disfigurement in Wolfgang's letter hint unmistakably at the symptoms of tertiary syphilis. <mask>'s explanation for his condition to Wolfgang – bone cancer caused by a carriage accident — seems

masks: Mysliveček Mysliveček Mysliveček


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts:
 preposterous. The concern Mozart revealed to his father at this time for Mysliveček's sufferings was very touching.In the entire Mozart correspondence, no individual outside the Mozart family was ever the cause for so much outpouring of emotion as what is found in Wolfgang's letter of 11 October 1777. Compositions

In all, he wrote twenty-six opere serie, including the aforementioned Il Bellerofonte. Nearly all were successful at their first performances until the disaster of Armida at La Scala during carnival of 1780. Some of the irregularities that doomed this production were not <mask>'s fault, such as the interruption of performances caused by the lying-in of the prima donna Caterina Gabrielli, who gave birth, out of wedlock, in the middle of the run, at the age of 49. During the period of his activity as a composer of operas (1766–1780), Mysliveček succeeded in having more new opere serie brought into production than any other composer in Europe. It is noteworthy that in this same period more of his works were performed at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples, the most prestigious venue in Italy at that time for productions of serious opera, than those of any other composer. Nonetheless his contributions to Italian operatic culture of the 1760s and 1770s have been almost universally ignored by opera historians.<mask> and Gluck were the first Czechs to become famous as operatic composers, but their output exhibits few, if any, Czech characteristics.


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts: <mask>'s operas were very much rooted in a style of Italian opera seria that prized above all the vocal artistry to be found in elaborate arias. Among his other pieces were oratorios, symphonies, concertos, and chamber music, including the Op. 2 string quintets which were almost certainly the earliest string quintets with two violas ever published. Additionally, he was a pioneer in the composition of music for wind ensemble, the outstanding examples of which are his three wind octets. It may be fair to say that his greatest composition is the oratorio Isacco figura del Redentore, first performed in Florence in 1776. His violin concertos are perhaps the finest composed between the generation of Vivaldi and the Mozart violin concertos of 1775.He was also one of the most gifted and most prolific composers of eighteenth-century symphonies, although his contributions to this genre have been ignored by musicologists in western Europe and North America almost as completely as his operas have been. Nearly all of <mask>'s symphonies are cast in three movements without a minuet, following Italian traditions that originated in opera overtures. His opera overtures are also cast in three movements and were frequently performed as independent instrumental pieces. In the 1770s, he was the finest symphonist resident in Italy, and the esteem he enjoyed is reflected in the issuance of a set of symphonies (originally opera overtures) published by Ranieri del Vivo in


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts:
 Florence that was the first anthology of symphonies ever printed in Italy. Mysliveček's compositions evoke a gracious, diatonic style typical of Italian classicism in music. His best works are characterized by melodic inventiveness, logical continuity, and a certain emotional intensity that may be attributable to his dynamic personality. Works

Instrumental works

Mysliveček's instrumental music includes divertimenti, sonatas, symphonies, etc.Lost and questionable works have been omitted from this list, but they are inventoried fully in Freeman, <mask>ček, which also provides a complete list of recordings and early and modern editions of the composer's music. The listings here do not report all manuscript and printed sources, rather key eighteenth-century sources and catalogs that offer clues to chronology. Works for solo keyboard

 Six Easy Divertimentos for the Harpsichord or Piano-Forte. London: Longman & Broderip, 1777. [F major, A major, D major, B-flat major, G major, C major]
 Six Easy Lessons for the Harpsichord. Edinburgh: Corri & Sutherland, 1784. [C major, B-flat major, A major, G major, F major, D major]
 1 undated sonata in C major in the Archivio e Museo della Badia of the Basilica Benedettina di San Pietro, Perugia

Violin sonatas

 5 sonatas for violin and a bass line preserved in manuscripts in the library of the Conservatorio di Musica Niccolò Paganini in Genoa, perhaps from the 1760s
 Six Sonatas for the Piano Forte or Harpsichord


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts:
 Symphony in G major preserved in an undated manuscript in the Biblioteca Estense in Modena

Overtures

 Overtures are preserved for all of the Mysliveček operas and oratorios that survive in score, most of them disseminated in manuscript and printed form to be performed as separate instrumental pieces. A complete listing of sources is presented in Freeman, <mask>ček. The most significant print of overtures is the Sei sinfonie da orchestra published by Ranieri del Vivo in Florence c. 1777, the first anthology of symphonic works ever known to have been published in Italy. Operas
See List of operas by <mask>ček. Miscellaneous secular dramatic works

 Il Parnaso confuso (c. 1765), dramatic cantata
 Elfrida (1774), play with choruses (lost)
 Das ausgerechnete Glück (1777), children's operetta (lost)
 Theodorich und Elisa (c. 1777), melodrama

Oratorios
 Il Tobia (Padua, 1769)
 I pellegrini al sepolcro (Padua, 1770)
 Giuseppe riconosciuto (Padua, c. 1770) - lost
 Adamo ed Eva (Florence, 1771)
 La Betulia liberata (Padua, 1771) - lost
 La passione di Nostro Signore Gesù Cristo (Florence, 1773)
 La liberazione d'Israele (1773 – c. 1774) - lost, perhaps composed in Naples, first recorded performance in Prague in 1775
 Isacco figura del redentore (Florence, 1776; revised for a performance in Munich in March 1777 known to Mozart under the title Abramo ed Isacco)

Other vocal works
Secular cantatas
 Cantata per S.E.Marino Cavalli (1768) - lost
 Narciso al fonte

masks:
Josef Mysve
Josef Myslive


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts:
 (1768) - lost
 Cantata a 2 (by 1771)
 Enea negl'Elisi (1777) - lost
 Armida
 Ebbi, non ti smarir
 Non, non turbati, o Nice
 6 birthday cantatas written between 1767 and 1779 during his stays in Naples - lost

Arias
 Ah che fugir … Se il ciel mi chi rida;
 3 duetti notturni (2 vv, insts)

Sacred works
 Veni sponsa Christi (1771)
 Lytanie laurentanae
 Offertorium Beatus Bernardy

Recordings
 Opera Il Medonte. L'Arte del Mondo. cond. Werner Ehrhardt, dhm, 2011
 Opera Il Bellerofonte. Prague Chamber Orchestra cond. Zoltán Peskó, Supraphon, 2003
 Oratorio Adamo ed Eva. Il Gardellino dir.Peter Van Heyghen

Cinema

A documentary film about the genesis of the 2013 Prague production of <mask>'s opera L'Olimpiade, produced by Mimesis Film and directed by Petr Václav, was released in 2015 under the title Zpověď zapomenutého (Confession of the Vanished). It was a winner of the Trilobit Beroun award of 2016. A full-length biopic devoted to <mask>ek is scheduled to be produced by Jan Macola of Mimesis Film with a planned release date of 2017. Notes

See also
 Mozart in Italy

References
  Freeman, Daniel E. <mask>, 'Il Boemo'. Sterling Heights, Mich.: Harmonie Park Press, 2009. Evans, Angela, and Robert Dearling. <mask> (1737–1781): a Thematic Catalogue of His Instrumental and Orchestral Works.Munich and Salzburg: Katzbichler, 1999. <mask>
 Mozart Contemporaries: Myslivecek, Joseph
 Karadar Classical Music Dictionary Includes full libretto of  <mask>'s Il Gran

masks:
Mysliveček
Josef Mysliveč
Josef Mysliveček
Josef Mysliveček
Josef Mysliveček
Mysliveček


title: Josef Mysliveček

texts:
 Tamerlano, 1772. W.A.Mozart and <mask>ek Discussion begins about halfway down page. More at the same site Links to several other language pages. External links

 A variety of vocal and instrumental music in manuscript, including eight complete operas, available for viewing and downloading at http://www.internetculturale.it (Subcategory:  Digital Contents)

18th-century classical composers
18th-century male musicians
Classical-period composers
18th-century Bohemian musicians
Czech classical composers
Czech male classical composers
Italian classical composers
Italian male classical composers
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
Czech expatriates in Italy
Musicians from Prague
1737 births
1781 deaths
Twin musicians
Twin people from the Czech


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts:
<mask> "Sanya" <mask> or Shapiro (in Russian: Александр "Саня" Моисеевич Шапиро; 1882 or 1883 – December 5, 1946) was a Russian anarcho-syndicalist activist. Born in southern Russia, <mask> left Russia at an early age and spent most of his early activist years in London. During the Russian Revolution, Schapiro returned to Russia and aided the Bolsheviks in their seizure of power during the October Revolution. Following the Russian Civil War and the Kronstandt Uprising, anarchists were suppressed in the Soviet Union, and <mask> escaped to Western Europe, eventually settling in New York City. Schapiro lived in exile for the remainder of his life. Schapiro associated with many other prominent anarchists throughout his life, including Emma Goldman, <mask>, and Peter Kropotkin. When Kropotkin died, Schapiro was one of the organizers of his funeral.<mask> collaborated with Goldman and Berkman on anarchist pamphlets denouncing the Soviet state for its authoritarianism and suppression of anarchism. Early life
<mask> was born in 1882 or 1883 in Rostov-on-Don in southern Russia. He grew up in Constantinople because his father Moses, a member of the secret revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya, which assassinated Tsar <mask> II in 1881, was forced to flee the Russian Empire. There, he attended the French school. Schapiro grew up speaking Yiddish, Russian, French, and Turkish, and would later learn German and English. In the mid-1890s, <mask> converted to anarchism and by age eleven <mask> started studying the works of anarchist theorists like Peter Kropotkin, Jean Grave and Élisée Reclus. In the late 1890s, the <mask> family moved to London and came

masks:
Alexander
Moiseyevich Schapiro
Schapiro
Schapiro
Alexander Berkman
Schapiro
Alexander Schapiro
Alexander
Moses Schapiro
Alexander Schapiro
Schapiro


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts:
 into contact with the milieu of Jewish anarchists behind the journal Arbeyter Fraynd.After finishing school, <mask> moved to Sofia, Bulgaria in 1899 to study mathematics and physics. In August 1900, he moved to Paris to attend the Sorbonne and possibly to participate in an international anarchist congress, which in the end was banned by the authorities. He started studying either engineering or biology with the intention of embarking on a career in medicine, but was forced to drop out for financial reasons. In Paris, he came to know many of the city's leading anarchists and became a member of Étudiants socialistes révolutionnaires internationalistes, an anarcho-syndicalist group involved in the preparations for the banned international congress. Syndicalism was an international movement which first emerged in France and the General Confederation of Labor and then spread to many other countries. The movement fought for a revolution to abolish the state and capitalism and conceived of this revolution as being based on the general strike. London

In 1900 or 1901, at Kropotkin's suggestion, Schapiro moved to London.Like his father, he became an active member of London's anarchist movement. At the time the movement was predominantly Russian Jewish. Its leading figure was Rudolf Rocker, a non-Jewish German exile, but the city's best-known anarchist was Kropotkin. In London, Schapiro worked as an assistant for the physiologist Augustus Waller, the inventor of the electocardiagram. Schapiro is listed as an author on several publications from Waller's lab, but the job also allowed him to devote a lot of his time to the anarchist movement. Schapiro was


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts: a member of the Arbeter Fraynd collective. The collective was split on the question of participation in trade unions.<mask> was opposed because he feared anarchist principles could be compromised by unionism. According to Sam Dreen, another member, he was intelligent and capable, but also a stubborn and overbearing intellectual who was not in touch with workers' issues. Fermin Rocker, the son of Rudolf Rocker, another member of Arbeter Fraynd, liked <mask> and considered him well-educated and intelligent, but dogmatic, intolerant, and self-important. <mask> was also a member of the Jewish Anarchist Federation, a group of Eastern European anarchist immigrants. He was in charge of the federation's Jubilee Street Club, which was established in 1906. It was mostly a library and a center for adult education where workers could learn about art and the humanities. The club used Yiddish but it was open to all workers.It became a forum for workers, anarchists, and socialists of different nationalities and political views and introduced many people to the world of the labor movement and politics. In 1906 and 1907, <mask> helped publish Listki Chleb i Volja, a series of pamphlets written by Kropotkin. In the years after the Russian Revolution of 1905, Russian anarchists were the targets of severe government repression. Hundreds were executed or sentenced to long prison terms and many fled to the West. In 1907, anarchist exiles established the Anarchist Red Cross to protest the Russian Empire's treatment of anarchists and in order to help imprisoned activists. It was headquartered in London and New York and had branches in several European and North

masks: Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts: American cities. It organized lectures and collected money and clothing for Russian prisoners.Along with Kropotkin, Varlam Cherkezov, and Rocker, <mask> directed the London headquarters. In August 1907, <mask> was the delegate of the Jewish Anarchist Federation at the International Anarchist Congress in Amsterdam, the largest anarchist meeting ever, and one of the organizers of the event. Syndicalism was one of the main points of discussion. The French anarchist Pierre Monatte was the primary advocate of syndicalism, while the Italian Errico Malatesta criticized it. The congress helped form links between syndicalists in various countries and spread the movement. The congress decided to form an International Bureau which also became known as the Anarchist International. <mask>, Rocker, and Malatesta were chosen as the bureau's secretaries.<mask> became the editor of the Bureau's journal, the Bulletin de l'Internationale  Anarchiste, which he published in French from London until 1910. The Bulletin disseminated information about anarchist and syndicalist movements between countries. For about a year, it appeared almost every month, but then died off slowly. <mask> wrote that the lack of enthusiasm of the international anarchist movement for the Anarchist International and the Bulletin was due to "the fear that organisation might be the way whereby centralisation and authoritarianism could sneak into the anarchist movement". Rocker praised the patience, intelligence, and talent <mask> exhibited in his work for the Anarchist International. In 1909, <mask>, Rocker, Malatesta, and John Turner repeatedly called for a follow-up congress, but their

masks: Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts: calls received no replies. A second congress was finally planned to take place in London in August 1914.<mask> was heavily involved in the preparations and published a bulletin to facilitate communication in the run-up to the congress. It focused on anti-militarism, syndicalism, and organizational questions. Anarchists from several countries pledged to attend and <mask> was optimistic the congress would be a success. However, after World War I broke out, it had to be canceled. <mask> took part in the First International Syndicalist Congress in London in 1913. He did not represent any organization, but was one of two translators, with Christiaan Cornelissen the other.The German delegates praised <mask>'s objective approach, while Alfred Rosmer deemed him the only participant who did not lose his poise. There were numerous disputes at the congress, but it ultimately passed a Declaration of Syndicalist Principles calling for the abolition of the state and capitalism.By the time World War I broke out, <mask> was an important organizer in the international anarchist movement, although he was never as well-known an activist as the likes of Emma Goldman or <mask> as he was usually preoccupied with behind-the-scenes work for the movement. The outbreak of war became an incisive moment for the international anarchist movement and the broader radical left. The milieu of anarchist exiles in London was divided by the war. Several anarchists supported their respective home nations in the war. In October 1914, Kropotkin declared his support for the Allies. He argued that German militarism was to blame for the war, that Germany was the primary supporter of

masks:
Schapiro
Schapiro
Schapiro
Schapiro
Schapiro
Alexander Berkman


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts: reaction in Europe, that France and Belgium had to be freed from German attack, and that the German working class was as bad as the German ruling class. Kropotkin's views put him in the minority in the anarchist movement, although Cherkesov, the French anarchist Jean Grave, and the American Benjamin Tucker agreed with him.The question split the movement. <mask> was immediately and sternly opposed to the war. In the fall, <mask>, Malatesta, Rocker, and others who opposed the war debated the issue with Cherkesov who presented Kropotkin's views. In March 1915, about 40 anarchists, including <mask>, Malatesta, and the Americans Emma Goldman and <mask> signed the International Anarchist Manifesto on the War. The manifesto denounces the war as "the most frightful butchery that history has ever recorded" and a consequence of capitalism's drive for profit and power. Anarchists' role, according to the signatories, "is to summon the slaves to revolt against the masters" and they therefore have no business rooting for one side or the other. The pro-war side in the anarchist debate responded with a manifesto of its own, the Manifesto of the Sixteen, which was mostly written by Kropotkin.It was also signed by Cherkezov, Grave, Cornelissen and several others and argues that opposition to the war only served to weaken the Allies. Most anarchists broke with Kropotkin over his views on the war. <mask> and Rocker were among the few who maintained their friendship with him. Rocker, however, was interned as enemy alien in December 1914. <mask> became the editor of the Arbeter Fraynd journal and worked with Rocker's partner Milly Witkop to keep it running. In

masks:
Schapiro
Schapiro
Schapiro
Alexander Berkman
Schapiro
Schapiro


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts:
 1916, Witkop was also interned, <mask> was imprisoned for his opposition to the war, and the journal was shut down by the authorities. After <mask>'s release and the February Revolution in Russia, he campaigned for Russian exiles being allowed to return to their home country.He was a member of a committee headed by Georgy Chicherin, the later Soviet People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs. Russia

Revolution
<mask> returned to Russia, arriving in Petrograd on May 31, 1917. He was one of several anarcho-syndicalists returning from exile including Vladimir Shatov, Maksim Raevskii, and Volin. The three had been on the editorial board of the syndicalist journal Golos Truda (Voice of Labor), the organ of the Union of Russian Workers of the United States and Canada. They brought the journal with them back to Russia. The syndicalists formed the Union of Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda and Golos Truda became its mouthpiece. Schapiro joined the editorial staff of Golos Truda.The journal began appearing in August 1917. It published articles on French syndicalism and the theory of the general strike. <mask> was the driving force behind Golos Trudas'''s publishing house, which released Russian translations of works by Western syndicalist theorists like Fernand Pelloutier, Émile Pouget, or Cornelissen. The group sought the abolition of the state and its replacement by a federation of "peasant unions, industrial unions, factory committees, control commissions, and the like in the localities all over the country." It supported the soviets emerging in the revolutionary process, but was most excited about the factory committees, which arose after the February


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts: Revolution as vehicles of workers' control over production. Golos Truda considered these committees "the cells of the future socialist society". In an article in Golos Truda in September, Schapiro called for "complete decentralization and the very broadest self-direction of local organizations" to keep the soviets from becoming a new form of political coercion.In another article, <mask> criticized the upcoming elections of the Constituent Assembly, calling for "the abolition of all power, which only impedes and smothers revolutionary creativity" and criticizing the idea that parliaments can create a free society. During the Provisional Government, there was some convergence between Lenin and the Bolsheviks on the one side and anarchists on the other, as both called for the government's removal and several radical statements by Lenin led anarchists to believe he had adopted their views on revolutionary struggle. Yet, when the Bolsheviks gained majorities in the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets, the anarchists, including <mask>, became apprehensive. The Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee, was dominated by Bolsheviks, but also included four anarchists, Shatov among them. On October 25, it overthrew the Provisional Government, the event that became known as the October Revolution. Elated by the revolution, Golos Truda was also pleased when the Bolsheviks mandated workers' control in all enterprises with at least five employees in November, but control over factories was soon transferred to the state after workers' control led to economic chaos. The 1918–1921 Civil War split the anarchist movement.Most syndicalists viewed the Bolshevik

masks: Schapiro Schapiro


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts:
 government as the lesser evil, because they feared a White Army victory. Details on <mask>'s activities are scarce, but he collaborated more openly with the Bolshevik government than most syndicalists. He worked for the Commissariat of Jewish Affairs, part of the Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, which was headed by Chicherin whom <mask> had come to know in London. For the Commissariat, he produced Yiddish periodicals that promoted the Revolution but were not specifically Bolshevik. By 1920, he was working as a translator for the Commissariat of Foreign Affairs. At one point he held a high post in the Moscow rail workers' labor union. While he worked for the Bolshevik regime, Schapiro continued to criticize it, in a measured way according to both supporters and critics of Bolshevik rule.Suppression
In 1918, the Bolshevik government initiated a wave of repression towards the anarchist movement. In May, Golos Truda was shut down. <mask> turned his attention to pushing back against this repression and helping anarchist prisoners. In 1920, syndicalists from several western countries came to Moscow to attend the second congress of the Comintern. They knew little about conditions in Russia. While in Moscow, several syndicalists including Augustin Souchy, Ángel Pestaña, Armando Borghi, and Bertho Lepetit visited anarchists like Emma Goldman, <mask>, both of them Russian-born anarchists who returned from the United States in 1919, Kropotkin, who had also returned to Russia, and <mask>. Schapiro relayed to them Russian syndicalists' critique of the regime and their fears of persecution.Some of those syndicalists then raised these issues with the

masks:
Schapiro
Schapiro
Schapiro
Alexander Berkman
Schapiro


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts: Bolshevik leadership. After the congress, Alfred Rosmer, a French syndicalist who became a communist and a member of the Executive of the Comintern, stayed in Russia. Rosmer contacted <mask> and met him at the Golos Truda printing house. The Russian syndicalists had written a letter of protest and hoped it would receive attention if Rosmer submitted it to the Comintern. Rosmer and <mask> discussed the issue and Rosmer was optimistic it could be resolved. The defiant tone of the letter the Russian syndicalists then drew up surprised Rosmer and he refused to submit their declaration unless they softened it. Eventually, Shapiro and Gregori Maximoff, another member of Golos Truda, rewrote the letter and Rosmer submitted it in February 1921.They never received a reply, as the Kronstadt uprising put an end to attempts at reconciliation between the Bolshevik leadership and the anarchist movement. <mask>, like several other anarchists, had regularly visited Kropotkin. While carefully avoiding the question of the war, they had long discussions on the situation in Russia. In January 1921, Kropotkin, almost eighty years old and living in Dmitrov, a suburb of Moscow, contracted pneumonia. <mask>, with Goldman and Nikolai Ivanovich Pavlov, took a train to visit him, but their train was delayed and they arrived an hour after he died on February 8. <mask> and Berkman were part of a commission formed by the country's anarchist groups to organize Kropotkin's funeral. The funeral drew 20,000 anarchists and was the last anarchist demonstration in communist Russia.In early 1921, the government started to ban syndicalist and anarchist writings. After the Kronstadt

masks: Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro


title: Alexander Schapiro

texts: uprising in March, the Bolshevik government began rounding up anarchists. <mask>'s critique of the regime, which had been fairly moderate, turned into fundamental opposition. In May, <mask> was one of several signatories to an open letter to Lenin and the Bolshevik leadership circulated in the West. It protested the persecution of Russian anarchists in the wake of Kronstadt. In June 1921, <mask>, along with Goldman, Berkman, and fellow anarchist Alexei Borovoi, anonymously wrote a pamphlet entitled The Russian Revolution and the Communist Party, which was smuggled to Germany and published by Rocker. They argued that anarchists had refrained from protesting the repression leveled against them in Russia as long as the Civil War was being fought so as not "to aid the common enemy, world imperialism".The end of the war, however, had made it clear that the biggest threat to the revolution "was not outside, but within the country: a danger resulting from the very nature of the social and economic arrangements which characterize the present 'transitory stage'." Although wary of the persecution of syndicalists in Russia, representatives of syndicalist organizations from several Western countries attended the founding congress of the Red International of Labor Unions (RILU), which the Bolsheviks convened in July 1921. Disputes between syndicalists and communists over tactical issues dominated the congress. The Bolshevik suppression of the anarchist movement also became an issue. The day before the congress began, thirteen imprisoned Russian anarchists entered a hunger strike. Goldman, Berkman, the anarchist-turned-Bolshevik Victor Serge, and above all

masks: Schapiro Schapiro Schapiro