title: Madge Lessing

texts:
<mask> (27 November 1873 – 14 August 1966) was a British stage actress and singer, panto principal boy and postcard beauty of Edwardian musical comedy who had a successful career in the West End in London, Europe and on Broadway from 1890 to 1921 and who made a number of early film appearances in Germany for director Max Mack. Early career

<mask> was born as Margaret O'Donnell in London in 1873 to Irish parents Catherine (née Buckley) and James Patrick O'Donnell, an assurance agent. In interviews she claimed that she had run away from home to go on the stage travelling from London to the United States in about 1890 where she was a chorus girl at Koster and Bial's Music Hall in New York. After only three weeks she was promoted to the title role in the burlesque Belle Helene. Her next role was with the Solomon Opera Company followed by appearances as Chollie Keal in The Passing Show (1894). In May 1896 she opened in the musical revue In Gay New York at the Casino Theatre in New York. It was written by C. M. S. McLellan, who would later become her brother-in-law.An early and successful role was as the principal boy Jack Hubbard in Klaw and Erlanger's "extravaganza in three acts and six scenes" Jack and the Beanstalk which ran for 64 performances at the Casino Theatre in New York in 1896 and in 1898 at the Boston Museum in Boston and the Lafayette Square Opera House in Washington, D.C. Her performance as Jack in 1896 was described as belonging:

...to the class of womanly women. She was as femininely alluring amid the bald disclosures of unblushing fleshings as amid the tantalizing exasperations of swishing draperies. Her beauty was exuberant, voluptuous, pulse-stirring, a laughing, happy face, crowned and encircled with tangled masses of dark brown hair, which made her head almost

masks:
Madge Lessing
Lessing


title: Madge Lessing

type: original

texts:
 too large, to be sure, though size counted for little amid the ravishments of sparkling eyes and kissable dimples that danced in and out on either cheek. Miss <mask> walked through this part of Jack - walking through was all that was demanded of her - with a pretty unaffectedness that met all requirements, and she sang with a voice of considerable sweetness, but of no great power. Still, she has in a mild, inoffensive way some small ability as an actress. In 1899 she played in A Dangerous Maid for 64 performances at the Casino Theatre in New York, while in Boston at Christmas 1899 she appeared as 'Little Boy Blue' in 12 performances of the children's pantomime Little Red Riding Hood which in early January 1900 moved on to the Casino Theatre in New York, the home of the Broadway adult musical, where the production was transformed with additional female actresses added to the cast in scanty costumes and more risqué songs to cater for an adult audience.Next Lessing succeeded Mabelle Gilman as 'Priscilla' in the vaudeville The Rounders (1900) at the Columbia Theatre in Boston. Of her performance in The Rounders a critic wrote:
It is a thankless task, that of successorship which results inevitably in direct comparisons, but Miss Lessing met the test surprisingly well. Without Miss Gilman's strength of personality and less apparent art, Miss Lessing indicated with unmistakable correctness the sentimental atmosphere of prudish modesty, which represents Priscilla as a dramatic character. With memories of Jack and the Beanstalk - they seem inevitable where Miss Lessing is concerned; one was a little bewildered at Priscilla's embarrassment in her ballet costume during the scene in Thea's dressing-room. This bewilderment was due to <mask>'s inability to impersonate. She is always <mask>

masks:
Lessing
Miss Lessing
Madge


title: Madge Lessing

texts:
 Lessing acting, never <mask> Lessing identified with another and wholly different personality; and at the sight of <mask> Lessing embarrassed because she wore tights, one had a right to be bewildered. In 1900 she appeared in the title role in the two act operetta The Lady Slavey by Gustave Kerker and George Dance when that musical farce was revived in Boston and as Anita Tivoli in The Monks of Malabar.Return to Europe

Christmas 1900 saw Lessing make her London début as Princess Beauty in the annual children's pantomime The Sleeping Beauty and the Prince at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane which ran for 134 performances. In 1901 she played Dimples in The Whirl of the Town and Violet Gray in the first revival of The Belle of New York at the Adelphi Theatre in London in 1902. She appeared on the bill at the opening of the London Coliseum Theatre of Varieties on 24 December 1904 on a variety programme in which she sang "Goodbye, Little Girl", "My Irish Molly O" and a number of other popular hits of the time. Her other roles during this period include the title role in Em'ly (an adaptation of David Copperfield) at the Adelphi Theatre (1903), Jill opposite Dan Leno and Herbert Campbell in the pantomime Mother Goose at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane (1902) and appearances in Erminie at the Casino Theatre in New York (1903); Wang (1903) with the DeWolf Hopper Opera Company; Sergeant Brue at the Prince of Wales Theatre in London, (1904); Elsie in 18 matinee performances of the piratical tale Noah's Ark at the Waldorf Theatre in London (1906) in which "Miss <mask> Lessing laughed and danced and sang very charmingly, and seemed to enjoy everything quite as much as the children on the stage or in the front of the house"; The Prince of Pilsen (1907/8) at the Olympia Theatre in Paris, and Halloh!

masks: Madge Madge Madge


title: Madge Lessing

texts:
 (1909) at the Berlin Metropol. Lessing was also the dance partner to Will Bishop in the Berlin Metropol revue Chauffeur-ins Metropol in 1912. While in Berlin she appeared in a number of films for director Max Mack including as Fritzl Lustig in The Blue Mouse (1913), Lolotte in Where Is Coletti?(1913) and Gusti in A World Without Men (1914). She remained at the Metropol for four years until the outbreak of World War I forced her to return to England where she played in the London production of Sleeping Partners and the leading role in The Girl from Ciro's. Latter years
In 1920 she returned to the United States where she played again in Erminie at the Park Theatre in New York in 1921. This was her last known performance on the professional stage. Personal life
She married the London-based American theatrical manager and producer George Brinton McLellan (1867-1932), the brother of playwright C. M. S. McLellan. He was probably best known for the popular play Is Zat So? (1925) which ran for 634 performances at the 39th Street Theatre in New York and opened in the same year at the Adelphi Theatre and who had previously been married to the musical comedy actress Pauline Hall from 1894 to 1902.<mask> <mask> McLellan died in Bournemouth in 1966 aged 92. References

External links

Portraits of <mask> Lessing - National Portrait Gallery, London
Biography for <mask> Lessing - Internet Movie Database
Portrait of Miss <mask> <mask> - The American Vaudeville Museum Archive - Special Collections at the University of Arizona Libraries

1873 births
1966 deaths
English film actresses
English silent film actresses
English stage actresses
English musical theatre actresses
19th-century English actresses
20th-century English actresses
20th-century English women singers
19th-century British women

masks: Madge Lessing Madge Madge Madge Lessing


title: John Vassos

texts:
<mask> (23 October 1898 – 6 December 1985, born <mask>) whose career as an American industrial designer and artist helped define the shape of radio, television, broadcasting equipment, and computers for the Radio Corporation of America for almost four decades. He is best known for both his art deco illustrated books and iconic turnstile for the Perey company, as well as modern radios, broadcast equipment, and televisions for RCA. He was a founder of the Industrial Designers Society of America, in 1965, serving as its first chairman simultaneously with Henry Dreyfuss as its president. <mask>' design philosophy was to make products that were functional for the user. A decorated veteran of World War II, <mask> was chief of the OSS "Spy School" in Cairo, Egypt from 1942-1945. Early years
<mask> was born in Sulina, Romania to Greek parents, and his family moved when he was young to Istanbul, Turkey. He became a deck hand with the Allies during world War I, and survived the torpedoing of a Belgian ship where he was serving.After the war ended, he emigrated to the United States in 1919. <mask> moved to Boston, Massachusetts in 1919, where he attended the Fenway Art School at night. He studied alongside American artist <mask> Sargent and worked as an assistant for Joseph Urban. In 1924 he moved to New York, where he attended the Art Students League of New York, studying under George Bridgman, <mask>, and others. He opened his own studio creating window displays for department stores, like Wanamakers, murals, and advertisements for Saks Fifth Avenue, Bonwit Teller, and Packard Motor Cars in his unique black and white illustrated style. At the same time, he illustrated a series of books by Oscar Wilde for E.P.

masks:
John Vassos
John Plato Vassacopoulos
Vassos
Vassos
Vassos
Career Vassos
John Singer
John Sloan


title: John Vassos

texts: Dutton followed by others including Phobia on which he based his life-long design focus on psychology, his area of expertise as noted by Fortune Magazine's list of top designers in the country.He entered the emergent field of industrial design and was hired by rapidly-growing RCA Victor, under the leadership of David Sarnoff, who discovered Vassos while painting murals at the WCAU skyscraper in Philadelphia. The company had recently acquired Victor Phonograph, built Radio City, and owned NBC Broadcasting, but needed to amplify and modernize their radio manufacturing business. By hiring <mask>, an up-and-coming industrial designer who created their first Styling department, launched Vassos on a four-decade relationship with the company for whom he designed hundreds of items, while also consulting for numerous other clients like Coca-Cola, Waterman, Universal Artists, Remington, and the United States Government. <mask>'s work as an interior designer included the Chrysler Building apartment of photographer Margaret Bourke-White, Nedick's Hot Dog stands, displays for RCA in department stores and the World's Fair, and many others for which he employed modular furniture. He eschewed trendy styles like the extreme-streamlined look, popular in the 1930s, and favored the clean, modern look unadorned with unnecessary elements. He expressed his design philosophy for magazines like Pencil Points and in lectures on modern design and art. Although he was hailed as a top designer in the United States during the 1930s, he slipped away from the spotlight of his industrial design peers like Raymond Loewy, Henry Dreyfuss, and Norman Bel Geddes, largely because he did not open a large firm.Unique among the industrial

masks: Vassos Vassos


title: John Vassos

texts:
 designers of the 20th century, his work was focused on the intersections between interior decorating, furniture design, and the shapes of phonographs, radios and televisions. His contributions include creating a futuristic living room including television, the slide rule dial on radios, emphasis on the haptic experience of media (knobs and buttons), and the "user experience," years before this term was coined. Books

<mask> gained acclaim as an illustrator prior to his rise as an industrial designer. Between 1927–1935, <mask> illustrated many books, including Salome, Ballad of Reading Gaol, and The Harlot's House and Other Poems – three literary works by Oscar Wilde published by E.P. Dutton. <mask>'s iconic subjective illustrations were influenced by cinema and reflected cubist and constructivist, geometrical styles. They were often in black and white gouache (opaque watercolor) and well suited for reproduction in mass media.Contempo (1929) written by his wife <mask> with images by Vassos launched career as a modernist artist. Contempo is best understood as an exploration of American society during a moment of great transformation in which the American tempo is celebrated as "a certain sharp staccato rhythm almost like a riveting machine that exists nowhere else in the world," as <mask> wrote. The book also critiques the institutions of mass culture and commercial society. Phobia was his most influential book – inspired by his friend Freudian psychoanalyst Harry Stack Sullivan. It reflects a modern landscape through the perspective of those who suffer from phobias and shaped <mask>'s industrial design philosophy. It was performed as a dance by choreographers Gluck Sandor and Felicia Sorel with sets

masks:
Vassos
Vassos
Vassos
Ruth Vassos
Ruth Vassos
Vassos


title: John Vassos

texts:
 designed by <mask> and had a limited run of 1,000 books. Articles derived from it were published in Esquire Magazine.Ultimo (1930) presented a dystopic vision of a future underground society using streamlined motifs and was a response to debates about an urban landscape dominated by skyscrapers by writers like Lewis Mumford. This was followed by: Humanities (1934), Dogs Are Like That, (1941), Beatrice the Ballerina (under the pseudonym Ivan Vassilovitch, 1943), Rex and Lobo (1946), and illustrations for A Proverb for It: 1510 Greek Sayings (1945). Renewed interest in art deco and in <mask> brought new interest in his illustrated work. In 1976, Dover Books published Contempo, Phobia and Other Graphic Interpretations with a foreword by P.K. Thomajan. In 2009, Dover Books republished Phobia with an introduction by David A Berona. Industrial design

In 1924, <mask> created his first industrial design product, a lotion bottle popular as a hip flask during Prohibition.In 1933 he designed the widely popular Perey turnstile still used in many subway stations. Other notable designs included a streamlined paring knife, Hohner accordions and harmonicas, computers, an electron microscope for the RCA company, corporate logos, and Remington shotguns. These highly functional and visually striking designs include major forms of media in the 20th century. His strengths in designing media tools for consumers and professionals alike set him apart from other industrial designers. <mask> designed numerous radios, phonograph players, the Constellation jukebox for the Mills Company, and total environments for movie theaters, international expositions, and restaurants. <mask>'s contributions to public projects, like the

masks:
Vassos
Vassos
Vassos
Vassos
John Vassos


title: John Vassos

texts: famous RCA Building for the 1939/1940 New York World's Fair, have been overlooked for decades. <mask> considered RCA, NBC, United Artists, Waterman Pens, Coca-Cola, Wallace Silver, Nedick's, Mills Industries, and the United States Government among its scores of national clients.<mask> designed the cabinets of the RCA Corporation's first commercially available television sets. For the 1939 New York World's Fair he created a novel TV cabinet in transparent Lucite plastic as well as the company's first mass-produced television sets – the TRK12, TRK-9, and TRK-5. These sets were sold at major department stores in the New York metropolitan area. The TRK-12 is noted as one of the most significant mass-produced designs of the 20th century and held in many major museum collections including the Smithsonian. <mask> also created envisioned the interior spaces for television. His "Musicorner" for America at Home Pavilion or "Living Room of the Future" as it was known was displayed 1939/1940 New York World's Fair, and was among the designer led creation of an integrated media-centered room which combined radio, television, and record player housed within a single cabinet. In 1941, <mask> designed the RCA 621TS television set, which was slated to be sold the following year as a 1942 model.However, after Pearl Harbor and America's entry into World War II, manufacture of most consumer goods (including radio and television sets) was prohibited for the duration of the war, so the design was withheld until the end of the war, when it was brought out in 1946 as a limited run model until the post-war designs were fully ready. His industrial design contributions at RCA spanned over 40 years and included the designs for

masks:
John Vassos
Vassos
Vassos
Vassos


title: John Vassos

texts:
 microphones, broadcast equipment, transmitter buildings, RCA's first color television camera which became the standard in the field, and the RCA 501 solid-state computer among many other hundreds of products for the company. In the post war years, he designed pavilions for U.S. Trade Fairs (Karachi, New Delhi), for RCA at the Brussel's World's Fair and the 1964 New York World's Fair, modernized movie theaters for the United Artists Company including Grauman's Egyptian Theater in Los Angeles, export radios, radar equipment, televisions cameras, and boom stands for RCA, and designed shotguns for Remington Arms among other jobs. In 1960, he created an "advance design center" or think tank for RCA bringing together architects and designers like Paul Rudolph and Melanie Kahane to envision portable computers and television screens, a visionary proposition when computers were only used for businesses. Record players and microphones he designed can sell for thousands of dollars each at auction. His portable aluminum record players ca.1937, the RCA Victor Special, are in the collections of the Brooklyn Museum, Yale University Art Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and many other collections, regarded as iconic of modernistic design. Like many of <mask>' designs of media technologies, they are devoid of direct references to streamlined vehicles and inspired by the spare aesthetics of the Bauhaus School.His papers are collected at Syracuse University and at the Archives of American Art, Smithonian Institution in Washington DC. Industrial design profession
<mask> was a founder of the industrial design profession in the United States and strived for excellence in the field.

masks:
Vassos
John Vassos


title: John Vassos

texts:
 He became the president of the American Designers' Institute (later Industrial Designers Institute) in 1938 - 1941 leading and growing the organization, adding members like Kem Weber, Eva Zeisel, Walter von Nessen, Alfons Bach, and Belle Kogan. In 1952, <mask> along with fellow American Design Institute colleagues Alexander Kostellow, László Moholy-Nagy and others, developed a prototype for a four-year industrial design education, which was grounded in the Bauhaus School design principles. This set the standard for collegiate industrial design education. <mask> was instrumental in the formation of the Industrial Designer's Society of America (IDSA), a merger between the Industrial Designers Institute and the Society of Industrial Designers, and was its first Chairman of the Board with Henry Dreyfuss as its first President. He insisted that designers should be concerned with the legal status of their profession, and helped establish educational and licensing requirements.World War II, Wartime Honors and Legacy with the Office of Strategic Services (OSS)
<mask> enlisted into the United States Army when World War II began and went to war as captain in the Engineering Corps in charge of camouflage for the 3rd Air Force Headquarters. He was identified as a prime asset for America's newly-created intelligence service founded by William J. Donovan: the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). Due to his extraordinary leadership, cleverness, unsurpassed skill-set and knowledge of the Mediterranean, as well as his fluency in Greek and Turkish, he was assigned to the 'Secret Intelligence' (SI) and 'Special Operations' branches (SO) of the Office of Strategic Services and promoted to major and put in charge of the

masks:
Vassos
Vassos
John Vassos


title: John Vassos

texts:
 secluded ‘Spy School’ in Cairo, Egypt. This clandestine training center was a Camp X-type facility, situated in a remote, upper-class suburb of Cairo along the Nile River, known as "Area A." It was a palace owned by the brother-in-law of King Farouk of Egypt, and rented to the OSS, called Ras el Kanayas. Major <mask> was the Commanding Officer (CO) of the ‘Spy School’ for the duration of the war. Under <mask>' tutelage, many agents were trained and sent on missions behind enemy lines: primarily to Greece, the Balkans, and Italy.<mask>' detailed drawings, for the OSS training manuals and films, were used by prospective agents and attest to his unique artistic talent. For his meritorious service, <mask> was promoted to the rank of colonel at the war's conclusion by the Office of Strategic Services and the United States Army. Considered by Vassos to be the highest honor he had received was from Greece: the Gold Cross of the Order of the Phoenix () in 1966. It is bestowed upon individuals of non-royal status who have elevated Greece's international prestige, and was signed by King Constantine II of Greece for his "contribution to the Allied triumph over Nazi Germany while exemplifying the Hellenic paradigm of excellence." Personal
<mask> lived in Greenwich Village and the Upper West Side of New York City with his wife, <mask>, and settled in the Silvermine neighborhood in Norwalk, Connecticut in the 1930s. He was an influential leader of the Silvermine Guild and an avid hunter. His offices were in Camden, New Jersey, Manhattan and at his home.Death
<mask> died in Norwalk, Connecticut in 1985. Design Work
<mask> designed groundbreaking products of 20th-century America, particularly for media technologies.

masks:
Vassos
Vassos
Vassos
Vassos
Vassos
Ruth Vassos
John Vassos
John Vassos


title: John Vassos

texts:
 York City
Pavilions for the United States Trade Fairs in Karachi and New Delhi, led to RCA introducing television there for the first time. RCA Pavilion for the Brussels World's Fair
RCA Pavilion interior for the 1964 New York World's Fair
RCA 501 Solid State computer (1958)
Marchesa Piano Accordion for Hohner (1960-1970)

References

Sources
 John Vassos New York Times obituary, published 10 Dec. 1985
 John Vassos Papers: Syracuse University
 John Vassos papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution
 "Television in the World of Tomorrow," by Iain Baird, ECHOES, Winter, 1997
 Illustrators: John Vassos, JVJ Publishing
 John Vassos: Industrial Design for Modern Life, Spring 2016, University of Minnesota Press, Danielle Shapiro. Corrado Farina (IT), Psicoanalisi nero su bianco.<mask> e le fobie dell'umanità, "Charta", Padova, n. 95, 2008, pp. 50–54. External links
<mask>: Industrial Design for Modern Life, Spring 2016, University of Minnesota Press, Danielle Shapiro. New Technologies: <mask> and Television Design, Smithsonian Magazine
<mask> Papers, Archives of American Art
Roughly Speaking Podcast: <mask> and the Shape of Things to Come
Major <mask>, Chief Training Officer for the Middle East Theatre for the OSS, 1944-1945
 The Training of Agent and Radio Operator Middle East Theater, circa 1940
 The OSS Society
 Trained to be an OSS Spy by Helias Doundoulakis/Gabriella Gafni
 Smithsonian Channel, World War II Spy School
 OSS Society Donovan Award Dinner 2015

1898 births
1985 deaths
American industrial designers
Romanian people of Greek descent
American people of Greek descent
Espionage
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army colonels
People of the Office of

masks:
John Vassos
John Vassos
John Vassos
John Vassos
John Vassos
John Vassos


title: Stephen Patrick DeMaine Kelly

texts:
<mask> (born November 21, 1994 in Lutherville, Maryland) is an American lacrosse player who plays for Archers Lacrosse Club of the Premier Lacrosse League (PLL). <mask> plays as a midfielder and face-off specialist and scored the first goal in PLL history in 2019. <mask> was selected to play in the 2021 PLL All Star Game in San Jose, California. Prior to joining the Archers, <mask> played for the Chesapeake Bayhawks in the Major League Lacrosse (MLL). He was selected to the MLL All-Star Team in 2018, and helped lead them to an overtime victory over Team USA. <mask> attended University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (UNC) from 2014 to 2017 where he played college lacrosse. In 2016, <mask> was named co-MVP of the National Championship team and was awarded the Turnbull Trophy.In 2017, <mask> was named team captain and helped lead UNC to an ACC Championship. <mask> is ranked 2nd in all-time face-off wins (718) and 3rd in all-time most ground balls (378) at UNC. <mask> played high school lacrosse at Calvert Hall College High School where he was a two-time high school All-American and helped lead Calvert Hall to an MIAA championship in 2012. He was the youngest member of the 2012 USA Under 19 Lacrosse Team, helping the team win the gold medal at the FIL World Championship in Turku, Finland. Bio

Early years
<mask> was born at the Greater Baltimore Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland, to Gayle and <mask> III. He started playing lacrosse at age 6 at the Lutherville-Timonium Rec Council (LTRC). <mask> also played for the Fellowship of Christian Athletes (FCA) National Team which won the 2009 US Lacrosse U15 National Championship and he was named to the

masks:
Stephen Patrick DeMaine Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Stephen Kelly
Frank Kelly
Kelly


title: Stephen Patrick DeMaine Kelly

texts:
 All-Tournament Team.<mask> continued playing lacrosse at Calvert Hall College High School, where he was a four-year letterman playing as a midfielder and face-off specialist. He was named team captain his Senior year. <mask> also captained the football team at Calvert Hall where he was a three-year starter. He helped lead the team to their first football championship in 28 years. <mask> was named first-team All-MIAA as a running back and All-State as a defensive back in 2012. College career
<mask> played college lacrosse at UNC where he was a four-year starter at face-off and team captain his senior year. <mask> was awarded the Holmes Harden Sr. Memorial Award all four years for leading the team in ground balls and was a two-time All-American.He ranks second in all time faceoff wins and third in all-time most ground balls in UNC Lacrosse history. Professional career

MLL - Chesapeake Bayhawks
<mask> was one of the six UNC players to be selected in the MLL Draft as a sixth round draft pick (#48) Midfielder/Face-off Specialist for the Bayhawks in 2017. <mask> was selected to play in the 2018 MLL All-Star game against Team USA. PLL - Archers
On March 4, 2019 the PLL released their six team roster with <mask> as one of the Archer's Face-off Specialist. <mask> quickly made history on the League opening game (June 1, 2019 at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts) against the Chrome Lacrosse Club winning the first face-off, first ground ball, and scoring the first goal in PLL history eleven seconds into the game. He currently ranks (July 2019) third in League History for Ground Balls. Career statistics

Collegiate

MLL

PLL

Awards and honors

High

masks:
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Kelly
Stephen Kelly
Kelly
Stephen Kelly
Kelly


title: Stephen Patrick DeMaine Kelly

texts:
 school lacrosse
 4 year letterman: midfielder and face-off specialist
 2013 Under Amour All-American
Inside Lacrosse Magazine: No.2 ranked No. <mask> currently lives in Atlanta, Georgia working as a Director of Corporate Development at OneDigital Health and Benefits. He is a co-owner of k-2 Lacrosse Training with his brother, <mask>. Some of his interests outside of lacrosse are golf, tennis and hiking. <mask> has 3 siblings; Frankie IV, Jackie Lee, and JK. He is engaged to marry Caroline Dilli. References

1994 births
Living people
Premier Lacrosse League players
North Carolina Tar Heels men's lacrosse players
Major League Lacrosse players
People from Lutherville, Maryland
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
Calvert Hall College High School alumni
Sportspeople from Baltimore County, Maryland
Chesapeake Bayhawks

masks:
Kelly
Frankie Kelly
Kelly


title: Lew Tendler

texts:
"Lefty" <mask> (September 28, 1898, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – November 5, 1970, in Atlantic City, New Jersey) was an American boxer. He is generally considered one of the best boxers to never have won a world title, though he was a top rated contender for both the world light and welterweight championships. Statistical boxing website BoxRec lists <mask> as the #10 ranked lightweight of all time, while The Ring Magazine founder Nat Fleischer placed him at #9. He is a member of the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame, the Ring Magazine Hall of Fame, the World Boxing Hall of Fame,  and the International Boxing Hall of Fame. Early life and career
<mask> was born in the South Philadelphia Jewish ghetto on September 28, 1898. His father died of a long illness only two years after he was born,  leaving the family in desperate financial straits. At only six, he started selling newspapers on a city street corner, using his fists to defend his territory against tough competition.He began boxing as an amateur around twelve, often competing in tournaments at local burlesque houses. Turning pro in 1913 at the age of fifteen, he began his career as a bantamweight. His first bout on November 6, 1918, against Mickey Brown, was arranged by Phil Glassman and the Philadelphia Newsboy Association. In an important early career win, <mask> decisively defeated future world bantamweight champion Pete Herman on February 28, 1916, in six rounds, repeatedly scoring points with his right. Herman had difficulty mounting an effective defense, and bled from his nose through much of the bout where he caught frequent rights from <mask>. Herman would take the world bantamweight championship the following year and hold it

masks:
Lew Tendler
Tendler
Lew Tendler
Tendler
Tendler


title: Lew Tendler

texts:
 almost continuously for four years. Close bouts with champion Johnny Dundee, 1917
On October 1, 1917, <mask> defeated future world junior lightweight champion Johnny Dundee in a close six-round newspaper decision in Philadelphia.<mask> took the lead in most of the fighting, used his reach advantage to dominate at long range, and landed more blows to take the decision. He finished strong in the sixth. On March 26, 1917, <mask> had previously defeated Dundee in another very close six-round newspaper decision of two Philadelphia papers, though one reporter felt the power of Dundee's blows to the head and body should have won him the decision. Future world lightweight champion Rocky Kansas fell to <mask> on October 29, 1917 in a somewhat decisive six-round newspaper decision in Philadelphia according to a decision of the Philadelphia Record. <mask> scored with straight lefts, upper cuts and right crosses, and had the better of much of the fighting. In a closer first round, Kansas landed a powerful right to <mask>'s ear. In two other meetings with Kansas, <mask> won a ten-round newspaper decision on New Years Day, 1919, but dropped a fifteen-round points decision on October 21, 1921 at New York's  Madison Square Garden.<mask> first decisively defeated Willie Jackson, a leading contender for the lightweight title in a six-round newspaper decision in Philadelphia, on January 7, 1918. <mask> forced the fighting from the opening round, showed better defense, and gave Jackson a beating in nearly every round. Jackson was able to score only when coming out of clinches at close range. <mask> defeated Jackson again that year in a fifteen-round points decision in New Haven, and continued to gain victory over Jackson

masks: Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler


title: Lew Tendler

texts:
 in Philadelphia and Milwaukee by newspaper decisions once a year from 1919 to 1921. George "KO" Chaney first fell to <mask> on September 18, 1918 in a six-round newspaper decision in Philadelphia. <mask> knocked down Chaney for a count of six in the third round. <mask> scored best in the first three and final rounds.<mask> would also defeat Chaney in a first-round knockout on June 4, 1919 at Philadelphia's Shibe Park. A left to the jaw preceded by a hard right to the same spot put Chaney down for the count only 1:12 into the first round. Chaney was one of <mask>'s more skilled early opponents. <mask> first defeated fellow Jewish boxer Frankie Callahan, another leading contender for the lightweight title, on July 6, 1918 in an eight-round newspaper decision in Atlantic City. In three other meetings, <mask> won a six-round newspaper decision in Philadelphia, a ninth-round technical knockout in Boston where Callahan broke his wrist, and a rough fifth-round technical knockout at an open-air arena in Lawrence, Massachusetts, on September 18, 1920, where Callahan told his manager he had broken a rib in the second round. Callahan fought through three more rounds, but was unable to answer the bell for the sixth. Attempts at lightweight championship against Benny Leonard, 1922-3
On July 27, 1922, <mask> fell to fellow Jewish boxer Benny Leonard in a twelve-round newspaper decision in Jersey City in a lightweight world title match, that may have been the most remarkable bout of <mask>'s career.Before a record audience of over 60,000 enthralled fans, Leonard won five rounds, <mask> four, with three even. <mask> may have led in the first five rounds, as Leonard could not adjust to or penetrate his unique Southpaw

masks: Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler


title: Lew Tendler

texts: stance, style, and defense. In the eighth, <mask> crashed a terrific left to the midsection which had followed a left to the head, and Leonard held on to <mask> as he sank to one knee. Then Leonard rose and distracted <mask> by mumbling a few words, then going to a clinche to rest for much of the remainder of the round. <mask> never delivered the follow up knockout blow, and Leonard, getting time to recover, dominated the next seven rounds. In their last meeting on July 24, 1923, Leonard won a unanimous fifteen-round decision at Yankee Stadium before an extraordinary crowd of 58,000. The bout took place in the Bronx in another lightweight world title match.Leonard excelled in the speed and precision of his attack, while still managing to ward off most of his opponent's blows, particularly <mask>'s strong left. Leonard demonstrated his mastery of ring tactics against an opponent who became sluggish, and was unable to mount the offensive he had shown in their bout the previous July. By one account, Leonard managed to land three blows for every one of <mask>'s, demonstrating his speed and mastery of tactics. With the huge crowd, Leonard's take home pay exceeded $130,000, an extraordinary sum for the era. <mask> first defeated Sailor Friedman, a highly rated lightweight, on December 16, 1921, in an eight-round newspaper decision at New York's Madison Square Garden. <mask> floored Friedman four times in the second round in the Garden. Friedman came back hard in the fourth, staggering <mask> with a left to the jaw, and performed well in the fifth.The combatants went back and forth in the following rounds, though Friedman continued do land a few solid blows as late as the twelfth and fourteenth. In three

masks: Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler


title: Lew Tendler

texts:
 previous meetings that year, on September 13, August 24, and February 28, <mask> won in newspaper decisions in Milwaukee, and Philadelphia. <mask> defeated reigning world light heavyweight champion Pinky Mitchell in their last meeting on February 18, 1924 in a close ten-round newspaper decision in Milwaukee. The Wisconsin State Journal considered the non-title bout slow and wrote that <mask>'s blows lacked steam. Had Mitchell been two pounds lighter, and been knocked out, <mask> would have taken the junior welterweight championship. <mask> had defeated Mitchell in a previous meeting on May 19, 1920 in another ten-round newspaper decision in Milwaukee. <mask> got his range in the final seven rounds, and won points for taking the offense through most of the bout.His defense was exceptional, though Mitchell's defense kept him from harm and he benefited somewhat from greater reach. Attempt at welterweight championship against Mickey Walker, 1924

<mask> fell to Mickey Walker in a ten-round unanimous decision on June 2, 1924 in an attempt at the National Boxing Association (NBA) world welterweight championship. The Pittsburgh Post gave Walker five rounds with only the seventh and eighth to Tendler. In a fast and exciting bout, <mask> drove Walker from rope to rope in the seventh with rights and lefts to the body and head, looking like he might take the decision. Walker had an edge in the final two rounds, however, as <mask> tired, and scored most frequently with blows to the body. <mask> was knocked out only once in his career on January 19, 1925 against Jack Zivic in Pittsburgh. In the fifth round, a left by Zivic sent <mask> spinning to the floor for a count of nine.Another left hurt <mask>, and than a

masks: Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler


title: Lew Tendler

texts:
 barrage of lefts and rights sent him to the canvas again. <mask>'s manager Phil Glassman threw in the towel ending the fight. In a rematch, however, in Philadelphia five months later before 30,000 fans, <mask> dominated in a ten-round unanimous decision at Shibe Park. The Pittsburgh Gazette Times gave <mask> seven of ten rounds, particularly the last half of the bout, and wrote that he "outboxed, outslugged, and outpunched" Zivic, particularly in the closing rounds. In one of his last bouts with a top talent on July 16, 1925, <mask> drew with future world welterweight champion Joe Dundee by decision, in ten fast and hard-fought rounds before 10,000 at Shibe Park in Philadelphia. <mask> was rocked several times by the younger Dundee's rapid right, and took a serious beating in several rounds. Dundee caught <mask> off balance in the ninth with a left hook, and he fell briefly to his hands.The more skilled ring veteran <mask> was forced to clinch at times. The Philadelphia Inquirer believed Dundee had the better of the bout, and many in the audience felt the same. <mask> mounted an effective defense, however, and often went on the offensive during the fast bout. Life after boxing

After retiring from boxing in 1928, <mask> opened a restaurant in Philadelphia in 1932 which specialized in steaks, known as Tendler's Tavern. He later opened branches in Atlantic City and Miami Beach. Around 1911, he married Celia Lasker, with whom he had three sons. <mask> and Celia remained married throughout his life.<mask> died on November 7, 1970 at Shore Memorial Hospital in Somers Point, a suburb of Atlantic City, New Jersey, of an arterial clot. His memorial service was in Philadelphia, and he was buried in nearby

masks: Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Tendler Lew Tendler


title: Lew Tendler

texts:
 Roosevelt Memorial Park in Trevose, Pennsylvania, a Philadelphia suburb. He left nine grandchildren. Notable bouts

See also
List of select Jewish boxers

References

External links

International Boxing Hall of Fame - <mask> Tendler
Cyber Boxing Zone - <mask> Tendler

1898 births
1970 deaths
Boxers from Philadelphia
Lightweight boxers
Welterweight boxers
Jewish American boxers
Jewish boxers
American male boxers
20th-century American

masks: Lew Lew


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: <mask> (8 July 1836 – 2 July 1914) was a British statesman who was first a radical Liberal, then, after opposing home rule for Ireland, a Liberal Unionist, and eventually served as a leading imperialist in coalition with the Conservatives. He split both major British parties in the course of his career. He was father, by different marriages, of Nobel Peace Prize winner <mask> and of Prime Minister <mask>. <mask> made his career in Birmingham, first as a manufacturer of screws and then as a notable mayor of the city. He was a radical Liberal Party member and an opponent of the Elementary Education Act 1870 on the basis that it could result in subsidising Church of England schools with local ratepayers' money. As a self-made businessman, he had never attended university and had contempt for the aristocracy. He entered the House of Commons at 39 years of age, relatively late in life compared to politicians from more privileged backgrounds.Rising to power through his influence with the Liberal grassroots organisation, he served as President of the Board of Trade in Gladstone's Second Government (1880–85). At the time, <mask> was notable for his attacks on the Conservative leader Lord Salisbury, and in the 1885 general election he proposed the "Unauthorised Programme", which was not enacted, of benefits for newly enfranchised agricultural labourers, including the slogan promising "three acres and a cow". <mask> resigned from Gladstone's Third Government in 1886 in opposition to Irish Home Rule. He helped to engineer a Liberal Party split and became a Liberal Unionist, a party which included a bloc of MPs based in and around Birmingham. From the 1895 general election the Liberal Unionists were in coalition with the Conservative Party, under <mask>'s former

masks:
Joseph Chamberlain
Austen Chamberlain
Neville Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 opponent Lord Salisbury. In that government <mask> promoted the Workmen's Compensation Act 1897. He served as Secretary of State for the Colonies, promoting a variety of schemes to build up the Empire in Asia, Africa, and the West Indies.He had major responsibility for causing the Second Boer War (1899–1902) in South Africa and was the government minister most responsible for the war effort. He became a dominant figure in the Unionist Government's re-election at the "Khaki Election" in 1900. In 1903, he resigned from the Cabinet to campaign for tariff reform (i.e. taxes on imports as opposed to the existing policy of free trade with no tariffs). He obtained the support of most Unionist MPs for this stance, but the Unionists suffered a landslide defeat at the 1906 general election. Shortly after public celebrations of his 70th birthday in Birmingham, he was disabled by a stroke, ending his public career. Despite never becoming Prime Minister, he was one of the most important British politicians of his day, as well as a renowned orator and municipal reformer.Historian David Nicholls notes that his personality was not attractive: he was arrogant and ruthless and much hated. He never succeeded in his grand ambitions. However, he was a highly proficient grassroots organiser of democratic instincts, and played the central role in winning the Second Boer War. He is most famous for setting the agenda of British colonial, foreign, tariff and municipal policies, and for deeply splitting both major political parties. Early life, business career and marriage
<mask> was born in Camberwell to <mask> (1796–1874), a successful shoe manufacturer, and Caroline (1806–1875), daughter of cheese (formerly beer) merchant Henry Harben. His younger brother was <mask>, later

masks:
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Joseph Chamberlain
Richard Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: also a Liberal politician. Raised at Highbury, a prosperous suburb of North London, he was educated at University College School 1850–1852, excelling academically and gaining prizes in French and mathematics.The elder <mask> was not able to provide advanced education for all his children, and at the age of 16 <mask> was apprenticed to the Worshipful Company of Cordwainers and worked for the family business (their warehouse having been at Milk Street, London for three generations) making quality leather shoes. At 18 he joined his uncle's screw-making business, Nettlefolds of Birmingham, in which his father had invested. The company became known as Nettlefold and Chamberlain when <mask> became a partner with <mask>. During the business's most prosperous period it produced two-thirds of all metal screws made in England, and by the time of <mask>'s retirement from business in 1874 it was exporting worldwide. In July 1861, <mask> married Harriet Kenrick, the daughter of holloware manufacturer Archibald Kenrick, of Berrow Court, Edgbaston, Birmingham; they had met the previous year. Their daughter <mask> was born in May 1862. Harriet, who had had a premonition that she would die in childbirth, became ill two days after the birth of their son Austen in October 1863, and died three days later.<mask> devoted himself to business, while the children were brought up by their maternal grandparents. In 1868 <mask> married Harriet's cousin Florence Kenrick, daughter of Timothy Kenrick. <mask> and Florence had four children: the future Prime Minister Neville in 1869, Ida in 1870, Hilda in 1871 and Ethel in 1873. The teaching of these four children was taken on by their elder half sister Beatrice who was destined to make her mark as an educationalist. On 13 February

masks:
Chamberlain
Joseph
Chamberlain
Joseph Nettlefold
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Beatrice Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 1875 Florence gave birth to their fifth child, but she and the child died within a day. Though a Unitarian during his lifetime, the experiences <mask> endured with losing both wives in childbirth resulted in him losing personal faith, rejecting religious creeds and not requiring religious adherence of any of his children. In 1888 <mask> married for the third time in St. John's Episcopal Church, New York.His bride was Mary Crowninshield Endicott (1864–1957), daughter of the US Secretary of War, William Crowninshield Endicott. They had no children, but she eased his acceptance into upper-class society in the second half of his career. Early political career

Calls for reform
<mask> became involved in Liberal politics, influenced by the strong radical and liberal traditions among Birmingham shoemakers and the long tradition of social action in <mask>'s Unitarian church. There was pressure to redistribute parliamentary seats to cities and to enfranchise a greater proportion of urban men. In 1866, Earl Russell's Liberal administration submitted a Reform Bill to create 400,000 new voters, but the Bill was opposed by the "Adullamite" Liberals for disrupting the social order, and criticised by Radicals for not conceding the secret ballot or household suffrage. The Bill was defeated and the government fell. <mask> was one of the 250,000, including the Mayor, who marched for Reform in Birmingham on 27 August 1866; he recalled that "men poured into the hall, black as they were from the factories...the people were packed together like herrings" to listen to a speech by John Bright.Lord Derby's minority Conservative administration passed a Reform Act in 1867, nearly doubling the electorate from 1,430,000 to 2,470,000. The Liberal Party won the 1868 election.

masks: Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: <mask> was active in the election campaign, praising Bright and George Dixon, a Birmingham MP. <mask> was also influential in the local campaign in support of the Irish Disestablishment bill. In the autumn of 1869 a deputation headed by William Harris invited him to stand for the Town Council; and in November he was elected to represent St. Paul's Ward. <mask> and Jesse Collings had been among the founders of the Birmingham Education League in 1867, which noted that of about 4.25 million children of school age, 2 million children, mostly in urban areas, did not attend school, with a further 1 million in uninspected schools. The government's aid to Church of England schools offended Nonconformist opinion.<mask> favoured free, secular, compulsory education, stating that "it is as much the duty of the State to see that the children are educated as to see that they are fed", and attributing the success of the US and Prussia to public education. The Birmingham Education League evolved into the National Education League, which held its first Conference in Birmingham in 1869 and proposed a school system funded by local rates and government grants, managed by local authorities subject to government inspection. By 1870, the League had more than one hundred branches, mostly in cities and peopled largely by men of trades unions and working men's organisations. William Edward Forster, Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education, proposed an Elementary Education Bill in January 1870. Nonconformists opposed the proposal to fund church schools as part of the national educational system through the rates. The NEL was angered by the absence of school commissions or of free, compulsory education. <mask> arranged for a delegation of 400 branch members and 46


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 MPs to visit the prime minister William Ewart Gladstone at 10 Downing Street on 9 March 1870, the first time the two men had met.<mask> impressed the Prime Minister with his lucid speech, and during the Bill's second reading Gladstone agreed to make amendments that removed church schools from rate-payer control and granted them funding. Liberal MPs, exasperated at the compromises in the legislation, voted against the government, and the Bill passed the House of Commons with support from the Conservatives. <mask> campaigned against the Act, and especially Clause 25, which gave school boards of England and Wales the power to pay the fees of poor children at voluntary schools, theoretically allowing them to fund church schools. The Education League stood in several by-elections against Liberal candidates who refused to support the repeal of Clause 25. In 1873 a Liberal majority was elected to the Birmingham School Board, with <mask> as chairman. Eventually, a compromise was reached with the church component of the School Board agreeing to make payments from rate-payer's money only to schools associated with industrial education. <mask> espoused enfranchisement of rural workers and a lower cost of land.In an article written for the Fortnightly Review, he coined the slogan of the "Four F's: Free Church, Free Schools, Free Land and Free Labour". In another article, "The Liberal Party and its Leaders", <mask> criticised Gladstone's leadership and advocated a more Radical direction for the party. Mayor of Birmingham
In November 1873, the Liberal Party swept the municipal elections and <mask> was elected mayor of Birmingham. The Conservatives had denounced his Radicalism and called him a "monopoliser and a dictator" while the Liberals had campaigned against

masks: Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: their High Church Tory opponents with the slogan "The People above the Priests". The city's municipal administration was notably lax with regards to public works, and many urban dwellers lived in conditions of great poverty. As mayor, <mask> promoted many civic improvements, promising the city would be "parked, paved, assized, marketed, gas & watered and 'improved'". The Birmingham Gas Light and Coke Company and the Birmingham and Staffordshire Gas Light Company were locked in constant competition, in which the city's streets were continually dug up to lay mains.<mask> forcibly purchased the two companies on behalf of the borough for £1,953,050, even offering to purchase the companies himself if the ratepayers refused. In its first year of operations the new municipal gas scheme made a profit of £34,000. The city's water supply was considered a danger to public health – approximately half of the city's population was dependent on well water, much of which was polluted by sewage. Piped water was only supplied three days per week, compelling the use of well water and water carts for the rest of the week. Deploring the rising death rate from contagious diseases in the poorest parts of the city, in January 1876, <mask> forcibly purchased Birmingham's waterworks for a combined sum of £1,350,000, creating Birmingham Corporation Water Department, having declared to a House of Commons Committee that "We have not the slightest intention of making profit...We shall get our profit indirectly in the comfort of the town and in the health of the inhabitants". Despite this noticeable executive action, <mask> was mistrustful of central authority and bureaucracy, preferring to give local communities the responsibility to act on their own initiative. In July 1875,

masks: Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: <mask> tabled an improvement plan involving slum clearance in Birmingham's city centre.<mask> had been consulted by the Home Secretary, Richard Assheton Cross during the preparation of the Artisan's and Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875, during Disraeli's social improvement programme. <mask> bought 50 acres (200,000 m2) of property to build a new road, (Corporation Street), through Birmingham's overcrowded slums. Over-riding the protests of local landlords and the Commissioner of the Local Government Board's inquiry into the scheme, <mask> gained the endorsement of the President of the Local Government Board, George Sclater-Booth. <mask> raised the funds for the programme, contributing £10,000 himself. However, the Improvement Committee concluded that it would be too expensive to transfer slum-dwellers to municipally built accommodation, and so the land was leased as a business proposition on a 75-year lease. Slum dwellers were eventually rehoused in the suburbs and the scheme cost local government £300,000. The death-rate in Corporation Street decreased dramatically – from approximately 53 per 1,000 between 1873 and 1875 to 21 per 1,000 between 1879 and 1881.During <mask>'s tenure of office, public and private money was used to construct libraries, municipal swimming pools and schools. Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery was enlarged and a number of new parks were opened. Construction of the Council House was begun, while the Victoria Law Courts were built on Corporation Street. The mayoralty helped make <mask> a national as well as local figure, with contemporaries commenting upon his youthfulness and dress, including "a black velvet coat, jaunty eyeglass in eye, red neck-tie drawn through a ring". His contribution to the city's improvement

masks: Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 earned <mask> the allegiance of the so-called "Birmingham caucus" for the rest of his public career. His biographer states:
Early in his political career, <mask> constructed arguably his greatest and most enduring accomplishment, a model of "gas-and-water" or municipal socialism widely admired in the industrial world. At his ceaseless urging, Birmingham embarked on an improvement scheme to tear down its central slums and replace them with healthy housing and commercial thoroughfares, both to ventilate the town and to attract business.This scheme, however, strained the financial resources of the town and undermined the consensus in favour of reform. National politics

Member of Parliament and the National Liberal Federation
The Sheffield Reform Association, an offshoot of the Liberal Party in the city, invited <mask> to stand for election as an MP soon after the beginning of his tenure as Mayor of Birmingham. <mask>'s first Parliamentary campaign (the 1874 general election) was a fierce one; opponents accused him of republicanism and atheism, and even threw dead cats at him on the speaking platform. <mask> came in third place, a poor result for a leading urban Radical. <mask> eventually rejected the possibility of standing in Sheffield again, and when George Dixon retired from his Birmingham seat in May 1876, <mask> was returned unopposed (17 June 1876) for the Birmingham constituency, after a period of anxiety following his nomination in which he denounced the Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, accusing him of being 'a man who never told the truth except by accident.' After <mask> came under heavy attack for the insult he apologised publicly. When elected, <mask> resigned as mayor of Birmingham, and was introduced to the House of Commons by John

masks: Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: Bright and <mask>, an M.P.for Newcastle upon Tyne. Almost immediately, <mask> began to organise the Radical MPs, intending to displace Whig dominance of the Liberal Party. On 4 August 1876, <mask> made his maiden speech in the House of Commons during a debate on elementary schools. He spoke for twenty minutes on the maintenance of clause 25, while Disraeli was present, and using his experience on the Birmingham School Board to make an impressive speech. Many of <mask>'s other speeches were on the subject of free public education and female teachers, and on alcohol licensing and army discipline. Early difficulties in creating a coherent Radical group convinced <mask> of the need to establish a more effective organisation for the Liberal Party as a whole, especially in the localities. <mask> hoped to harness the public agitation against Turkey's Bulgarian atrocities for a Radical agenda.<mask> closed ranks with Gladstone to profit from the returned Liberal leader's increasing popularity. With the Liberal Party actively opposing Disraeli's foreign policy during the Russo-Turkish War, Gladstone addressed approximately 30,000 people at Bingley Hall on 31 May 1877 to found the National Liberal Federation, a federation of the country's Liberal Associations. The body was dominated by Birmingham politicians, with <mask> himself as president. The Federation was designed to tighten party discipline and campaigning, and it subsequently enlisted new party members, organised political meetings and published posters and pamphlets. Contemporary commentators made (often disparaging) comparisons between the techniques of the Federation and those employed in American politics. The Federation enhanced <mask>'s influence in the Liberal Party and gave him a nationwide

masks:
Joseph Cowen
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain
Chamberlain


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 platform to promote Radicalism. <mask> criticised Disraeli's forward foreign policy for diverting attention from domestic reform.Unlike many Liberals, <mask>'s was not an anti-imperialist, for although he berated the government for its Eastern policy, the Second Afghan War of 1878 and the Zulu War of 1879, he had supported Disraeli's purchase of Suez Canal Company shares in November 1875. At this stage of his career, <mask> was eager to see the protection of British overseas interests, but placed greater emphasis on a conception of justice in the pursuit of such interests. <mask> joined the Liberal denunciations of the Conservative Party's foreign policy in the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as Prime Minister with assistance from the NLF. President of the Board of Trade
Despite having sat in Parliament for only four years, <mask> hoped for a cabinet position, and told Sir William Harcourt that he was prepared to lead a revolt and field Radical candidates in borough elections. Although Gladstone did not regard the NLF highly, he recognised the part it had played in winning the 1880 election, and was eager to reconcile <mask> and other Radicals to the mainly Whig cabinet. Having taken the counsel of Bright, Gladstone invited <mask> on 27 April 1880 to become President of the Board of Trade. <mask>'s scope for manoeuvre was restricted between 1880 and 1883 by the Cabinet's preoccupation with Ireland, Transvaal Colony and Egypt, but he was able to introduce the Grain Cargoes Bill, for the safer transportation of grain, an Electric Lighting Bill, enabling municipal corporations to establish electricity supplies, and a Seaman's Wages Bill, which ensured a fairer system of payment for seamen.After 1883, <mask> was more productive. A Bankruptcy


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: Bill established a Board of Trade Bankruptcy Department for inquiring into failed business deals. A Patents Bill subjected patenting to Board of Trade supervision. <mask> also sought to end the practice of ship owners overinsuring their vessels – 'coffin ships' – while under-manning them, ensuring a healthy profit whether the ship arrived safely or sank. Despite being endorsed by Tory Democrats Lord Randolph Churchill and John Eldon Gorst, the Liberal government was unwilling to grant <mask> its full support and the Bill was withdrawn in July 1884. <mask> took a special interest in Ireland. The Irish Land League promoted fair rents, fixity of tenure and free sale for Irish Catholic peasants, in opposition to (often absentee) Anglo-Irish landlords.<mask> agreed with suggestions that a Land Bill would counter agitation in Ireland and Fenian outrages in the British Isles and would quieten demands for Irish Home Rule, which he opposed strongly, reasoning that it would lead to the eventual break up of the British Empire. He opposed the Chief Secretary for Ireland, W.E. Forster's policy of coercion, believing that coercive tactics before a land settlement would provoke Irish malcontents. In April 1881, Gladstone's government introduced the Irish Land Act, but in response, Charles Stewart Parnell, leading the Irish nationalists, encouraged tenants to withhold rents. As a result, Parnell and other leaders, including John Dillon and William O'Brien, were imprisoned in Kilmainham Gaol on 13 October 1881. <mask> supported their imprisonment rather than further concessions, and used their incarceration to bargain with them in 1882. In the ensuing 'Kilmainham Treaty', the government agreed to release Parnell in return for his co-operation in making the Land Act


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 work.Forster resigned and the new Chief Secretary, Lord Frederick Cavendish, was killed by members of the Irish National Invincibles - a small radical faction of the Irish Republican Brotherhood - on 6 May 1882, leaving the 'Kilmainham Treaty' almost useless. Many, including Parnell, believed that <mask>, having brokered the agreement, would be offered the Chief Secretaryship, but Gladstone appointed Sir George Trevelyan instead. Nevertheless, <mask> maintained an interest in Irish affairs, and proposed to the Cabinet an Irish Central Board that would have legislative powers for land, education and communications. This was rejected by the Whigs in Cabinet on 9 May 1885. Called a dangerous "Jack Cade"
After his success in municipal politics, <mask> was frustrated at his inability to introduce more creative legislation at the Board of Trade. Early into the Gladstone ministry, <mask> suggested without success that the franchise should be extended, with the Prime Minister arguing that the matter should be deferred until the end of the Parliament's lifespan. In 1884, the Liberals proposed a Third Reform Bill, which would give hundreds of thousands of rural labourers the vote.<mask> earned a reputation for provocative speeches during the period, especially during debate on the 1884 County Franchise Bill, which was opposed by the Whig Liberals Lord Hartington and George Goschen, as well as the Conservative leader Lord Salisbury, who argued that the Bill gave the Liberals an unfair electoral advantage and was prepared to block the Bill in the House of Lords unless it was accompanied by redistribution of seats into the suburbs. At Denbigh, on 20 October 1884, <mask> famously declared in a speech that Salisbury was "himself the spokesman of a class – a class to


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 which he himself belongs, who toil not neither do they spin." In response, Salisbury branded <mask> a "Sicilian bandit" and Stafford Northcote called him "Jack Cade". When <mask> suggested that he would march on London with thousands of Birmingham constituents to protest against the House of Lords' powers, Salisbury remarked that "Mr. <mask> will return from his adventure with a broken head if nothing worse." Radical Programme of July 1885
The Third Reform Act of 1884 was followed by a Redistribution Act in 1885, negotiated by Gladstone and Lord Salisbury. <mask> campaigned to capture the newly enfranchised voters for Radicalism with public meetings, speeches and, notably, articles written in the Fortnightly Review by <mask>'s associates, including Jesse Collings and John Morley. <mask> wrote the preface to the Radical Programme (July 1885), the first campaign handbook of British political history.It endorsed land reform, more direct taxation, free public education, the disestablishment of the Church of England, universal male suffrage, and more protection for trade unions. It was much inspired by his friend Frederick Maxse's 1873 pamphlet The Causes of Social Revolt. <mask>'s utopian vision fell foul of practical politics, as in the education question. <mask> proposed to separate the goal of free education for every child from the religious question. His policy was rejected by groups on all sides, who were using education as a political weapon, including the National Liberal Federation, Nonconformists, Catholics and more generally, the taxpayers. The Radical Programme earned the scorn of Whigs and Conservatives alike. <mask> had written to Morley that with Radical solidarity 'we will utterly destroy the Whigs, and have a Radical government before


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 many years are out.'Seeking a contest with the Whigs, <mask> and Sir Charles Dilke presented their resignations to Gladstone on 20 May 1885, when the Cabinet rejected <mask>'s scheme for the creation of National Councils in England, Scotland and Wales and when a proposed Land Purchase Bill did not have any provision for the reform of Irish local government. The resignations were not made public, and the opportunity for <mask> to present his Radicalism to the country was only presented when the Irish Parliamentary Party endorsed a Conservative amendment to the budget on 9 June, which passed by 12 votes. The Gladstone ministry resigned, and Salisbury formed a minority administration. Liberal split
In August 1885, the Salisbury ministry asked for a dissolution of Parliament. At Hull on 5 August, <mask> began his election campaign by addressing an enthusiastic crowd in front of large posters declaring him to be "Your coming Prime Minister". Until the campaign's end in October, <mask> denounced opponents of the "Radical Programme" and endorsed the cause of rural labourers and offered to make smallholdings available to workers by funds from local authorities, using the slogan "Three Acres and a Cow". <mask>'s campaign attracted large crowds and enthralled the young Ramsay MacDonald and David Lloyd George, but disconcerted leading Liberals like Goschen who called it the "Unauthorised Programme".The Conservatives denounced <mask> as an anarchist, with some even comparing him to Dick Turpin. In October 1885, <mask> and Gladstone met at Hawarden Castle to reconcile their respective electoral programmes. The meeting, although good natured, was largely unproductive, and Gladstone neglected to tell <mask> of his negotiations with Parnell over proposals to grant


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: Home Rule to Ireland. <mask> discovered the existence of such negotiations from Henry Labouchere, but unsure of the precise nature of Gladstone's offer to Parnell, did not press the issue, although he had already stated his opposition to Home Rule, declaring that "I cannot admit that five millions of Irishmen have any greater right to govern themselves without regard to the rest of the United Kingdom than the five million inhabitants of the metropolis (i.e. London)". The Liberals won the general election in November 1885, but fell just short of an overall majority against the Conservatives and the Irish Nationalists, the latter holding the balance between the two parties. On 17 December, Herbert Gladstone revealed that his father was prepared to take office to implement Irish Home Rule, an action termed "flying the Hawarden Kite" by the press.At first, <mask> was reluctant to anger his Radical followers by joining forces with the anti-Home Rule Whigs and Conservatives. He awaited the development of events while saying little about the topic publicly, but <mask> privately damned Gladstone and the concept of Home Rule to colleagues, believing that maintaining the Conservatives in power for a further year would make the Irish question easier to settle. The Liberals returned to power in January 1886, after a Radical-inspired amendment by Collings was carried by 79 votes in the House of Commons, although Hartington, Goschen and 18 Liberals had voted with the Conservatives. <mask> declined Gladstone's offer of the office of First Lord of the Admiralty. Gladstone rejected <mask>'s request for the Colonial Office and eventually appointed him President of the Local Government Board. A dispute over the amount to be paid to Collings, <mask>'s Parliamentary


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts:
 Secretary, worsened relations between Gladstone and <mask>, although the latter still hoped that he could alter or block Gladstone's Home Rule proposal in Cabinet, so that his programme of Radicalism could be given more attention. <mask>'s renewed scheme for National Councils was not discussed in Cabinet, and only on 13 March were Gladstone's proposals for Ireland revealed.<mask> argued that the details of the accompanying Land Purchase Bill should be made known in order for a fair judgment to be made on Home Rule. When Gladstone stated his intention to give Ireland a separate Parliament with full powers to deal with Irish affairs, <mask> resolved to resign, writing to inform Gladstone of his decision two days later. In the meantime, <mask> consulted with Arthur Balfour, Salisbury's nephew, over the possibility of concerted action with the Conservatives, and contemplated similar co-operation with the Whigs. His resignation was made public on 27 March 1886. Liberal Unionist Association
Chamberlain in March 1886 launched a ferocious campaign against Gladstone's Irish proposals. His motivations combined imperial, domestic, and personal themes. Imperial, because they threatened to weaken Parliament's control over the United Kingdom; domestic, because they downplayed his own programme; and personal because they weakened his own standing in the party.<mask>'s immediate chances of attaining the leadership of the Liberal Party had declined dramatically and in early May, the National Liberal Federation declared its loyalty to Gladstone. On 9 April, <mask> spoke against the Irish Home Rule Bill in its first reading before attending a meeting of Liberal Unionists, summoned by Hartington, hitherto the subject of <mask>'s anti-Whig declarations on 14 May. From

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 this meeting arose the Liberal Unionist Association, originally an ad hoc alliance to demonstrate the unity of anti-Home Rulers. Meanwhile, to distinguish himself from the Whigs, <mask> founded the National Radical Union to rival the NLF; it faded away by 1888. During the second reading on 8 June, the Home Rule Bill was defeated by 30 votes, by the combined opposition of Conservatives, Chamberlainite radicals and Whigs. In all 93 Liberals, including <mask> and Hartington, voted against Gladstone. Liberal Unionist
Parliament was dissolved, and in the ensuing 1886 general election, the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists agreed to an alliance.<mask>'s position was more awkward than Hartington's, for the former was intensely mistrusted by, and unable to influence, the Conservatives, while he was despised by the Gladstonians for voting against Home Rule. Gladstone himself observed that "There is a difference between Hartington and <mask>, that the first behaves like and is a thorough gentleman. Of the other it is better not to speak." With the general election dominated by Home Rule, <mask>'s campaign was both Radical and intensely patriotic. The Conservatives and Liberal Unionists took 393 seats in the House of Commons and a comfortable majority. <mask> did not enter the Unionist government, aware that the hostility to him in the Conservative ranks meant that an agreement with them could extend merely to Ireland and not wishing to alienate his Radical support base. The Liberal mainstream cast <mask> as a villain, shouting "Judas!"and "Traitor!" as he entered the House of Commons chamber. Unable to associate himself decisively with either party, <mask> sought concerted action with a kindred spirit from the Conservative Party, Lord Randolph Churchill. In


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: November 1886, Churchill announced his own 'Unauthorised Programme' at Dartford, the content of which had much in common with <mask>'s own recent manifesto, including smallholdings for rural labourers and greater local government. Next month, Churchill resigned as Chancellor of the Exchequer over military spending, and when the Conservative mainstream rallied around Salisbury, Churchill's career was effectively ended, along with <mask>'s hope of creating a powerful cross-party union of Radicals. The appointment of Goschen to the Treasury isolated <mask> further and symbolised the good relationship between non-Radical Liberal Unionists and the Conservatives. After January 1887, a series of Round Table Conferences took place between <mask>, Trevelyan, Harcourt, Morley and Lord Herschell, in which the participants sought an agreement about the Liberal Party's Irish policy.<mask> hoped that an accord would enable him to claim the future leadership of the party and that he would gain influence over the Conservatives simply from the negotiations occurring. Although a preliminary agreement was made concerning land purchase, Gladstone was unwilling to compromise further, and negotiations ended by March. In August 1887, Lord Salisbury invited <mask> to lead the British delegation in a Joint Commission to resolve a fisheries dispute between the United States and Newfoundland. The visit to the USA renewed his enthusiasm for politics, and enhanced his standing with respect to Gladstone. In November, <mask> met 23-year-old Mary Endicott, the daughter of President Grover Cleveland's Secretary of War, William C. Endicott, at a reception in the British legation. Before he left the United States in March 1888, <mask> proposed to Mary, describing her as 'one of the


title: Joseph Chamberlain

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 brightest and most intelligent girls I have yet met'. In November 1888, <mask> married Mary in Washington, D.C., wearing white violets, rather than his trademark orchid.Mary became a faithful supporter of his political ambitions. The Salisbury ministry was implementing a number of Radical reforms that pleased <mask>. Between 1888 and 1889, democratic County Councils were established in Great Britain. By 1891, measures for the provision of smallholdings had been made, and the extension of free, compulsory education to the entire country. <mask> wrote that "I have in the last five years seen more progress made with the practical application of my political programme than in all my previous life. I owe this result entirely to my former opponents, and all the opposition has come from my former friends." The Liberal Association in Birmingham could no longer be relied upon to provide loyal support, so <mask> created the Liberal Unionist Association in 1888, associated with the National Radical Union, having extracted his supporters from the old Liberal organisation.1892 election
In the 1892 general election, the Liberal Unionists did well in Birmingham and made gains in neighbouring towns in the Black Country. By now, <mask>'s son, Austen, had also entered the House of Commons unopposed for East Worcestershire. However the national returns showed the limits of the Liberal Unionist Party's strategy. In an age of increasingly well-organised, mass politics it was reduced to only 47 seats. <mask>'s standing was accordingly weakened. Gladstone returned to power and did not want <mask> back. The Liberal Unionists realized that they needed a closer relationship with the Conservatives.When Hartington took his seat in the House of Lords as the Duke of Devonshire,


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: <mask> assumed the leadership of the Liberal Unionists in the House of Commons, resulting in a productive relationship with Balfour, leader of the Conservatives in the Commons. Obliged to compromise with the Irish Nationalists, Gladstone introduced the Second Home Rule Bill in February 1893. Although the Bill passed the House of Commons, the Lords rejected Home Rule by a huge margin. With his party divided, Gladstone prepared to dissolve Parliament on the issue of the House of Lords' veto, but was compelled to resign in March 1894 by his colleagues. He was replaced by Lord Rosebery, who neglected the topic of Home Rule. <mask> continued to form alliances with the Conservatives. <mask> worried about the threat of socialism, even though the Independent Labour Party had only one MP, Keir Hardie.<mask> warned of the dangers of socialism in his unpublished 1895 play The Game of Politics, characterising its proponents as the instigators of class conflict. In response to the socialist challenge, he sought to divert the energy of collectivism for the good of Unionism, and continued to propose reforms to the Conservatives. In his 'Memorandum of a Programme for Social Reform' sent to Salisbury in 1893, <mask> made a number of suggestions, including old age pensions, the provision of loans to the working class for the purchase of houses, an amendment to the Artisans' Dwellings Act to encourage street improvements, compensation for industrial accidents, cheaper train fares for workers, tighter border controls and shorter working hours. Salisbury was guardedly sympathetic to the proposals. On 21 June 1895, the Liberal Government was defeated on a motion that criticised the Secretary of State for War, Henry Campbell-Bannerman, for shortages of cordite, and Salisbury


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 was invited to form a government. Statesman

Colonial Secretary

Having agreed to a set of policies, the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists formed a government on 24 June 1895. Salisbury offered four Cabinet posts to Liberal Unionists.Devonshire became Lord President of the Council, and Salisbury and Balfour offered <mask> any Cabinet position except Foreign Secretary, which Salisbury wanted for himself, or Leader of the House of Commons. To their surprise he declined the Exchequer, unwilling to be constrained by conservative spending plans, and also refused the office of Home Secretary, instead asking for the Colonial Office. <mask> had adjusted his political strategy after losing a dispute over a seat at Leamington Spa, agreeing to enter the cabinet in a subordinate role and putting his program of social reform on the back burner. Unexpectedly, he used the Colonial Office to become one of the dominant figures in politics. <mask> used the Colonial Office to gain international recognition amidst European competition for territory and popular imperialism. He wanted to expand the British Empire in Africa, the Americas and Asia, reorder imperial trade and resources, and foster closer relations between Britain and the settler colonies. He envisioned a remodelled empire as a federation of Anglo-Saxon nations; in this he had support from Conservative backbenchers.<mask> had once been an outspoken anti-imperialist but now he reversed course. In 1887 he declared that "I should think our patriotism was warped and stunted indeed if it did not embrace the Greater Britain beyond the seas". Much had been proposed with regard to an imperial federation, a more coherent system of imperial defence and preferential tariffs, yet by 1895 when <mask> arrived at the


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 Colonial Office, little had been achieved. His own proposals met resistance from Canada and other settler colonies and went nowhere. <mask> took formal charge of the Colonial Office on 1 July 1895, with victory assured in the 1895 general election. He had control of numerous colonies, but not of India nor Canada. He had once been an anti-imperialist but now strongly advocated imperial unity and promoted development projects.Believing that positive government action could bind the empire's peoples closer to the crown, <mask> stated confidently that "I believe that the British race is the greatest of the governing races that the world has ever seen... It is not enough to occupy great spaces of the world's surface unless you can make the best of them. It is the duty of a landlord to develop his estate." Accordingly, <mask> advocated investment in the tropics of Africa, the West Indies and other underdeveloped possessions, a policy that earned him the nickname "<mask> Africanus" among the press. Reform projects
He was instrumental in recognising the need to handle the unfamiliar tropical diseases that ravaged Britain's subject peoples. In 1899, with <mask>'s support, Patrick Manson founded the world's second medical facility dedicated to tropical medicine (the Liverpool School having been established the previous year). The London School of Tropical Medicine was located in Albert Dock Seamen's Hospital, which itself had opened in 1890 and would later become known as the Hospital for Tropical Diseases.<mask> had not abandoned his dedication to social reforms designed to help the working man. He was instrumental in adapting Bismarck's German model to set up a system of compensation for injuries on the job. His Workmen's Compensation Act 1897 was a key

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 domestic achievement of the Unionists at the end of the century. It cost the Treasury nothing since compensation was paid for by insurance that employers were required to take out. The system operated from 1897 to 1946. <mask> also tried to design an old age pension programme, but it was too expensive to meet with Conservative approval. He came to realize that a new source of revenue, such as tariffs on imports, would be required.Further opposition came from friendly societies, which were funded by their own pension program for their members. Jameson Raid

Cecil Rhodes, Prime Minister of the Cape Colony and managing director of the British South Africa Company, was eager to extend British dominion to all of South Africa, and encouraged the disenfranchised Uitlanders of the Boer republics to resist Afrikaner domination. Rhodes hoped that the intervention of the company's private army, assembled in the Pitsani Strip (part of the Bechuanaland Protectorate and bordering the Transvaal, which had been ceded to the British South Africa Company by the Colonial Office, officially for the protection of a railway through the territory, in November 1895), could initiate an Uitlander rebellion and the overthrow of the Transvaal government. <mask> informed Salisbury on Boxing Day that a rebellion was expected, but was not sure when the invasion would be launched. The subsequent Jameson Raid resulted in the surrender of the invaders. <mask>, at Highbury, received a secret telegram from the Colonial Office on 31 December informing him of the beginning of the Raid. <mask>, sympathetic to the ultimate goals but uncomfortable with the timing, remarked that "if this succeeds it will ruin me.I'm going up to London to crush it". <mask> ordered Sir Hercules Robinson,


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 Governor-General of the Cape Colony, to repudiate the actions of Leander Starr Jameson and warned Rhodes that the company's Charter would be in danger if it was discovered that the Cape Prime Minister was involved in the Raid. The prisoners were returned to London for trial, and the Transvaal government received considerable compensation from the company. During the trial of Jameson, Rhodes' solicitor, Bourchier Hawksley, refused to produce cablegrams that had passed between Rhodes and his agents in London in November and December 1895. According to Hawksley, these demonstrated that the Colonial Office 'influenced the actions of those in South Africa' who embarked on the Raid, and even that <mask> had transferred control of the Pitsani Strip to facilitate an invasion. Nine days before the Raid, <mask> had asked his Assistant Under-Secretary to encourage Rhodes to 'Hurry Up' because of the deteriorating Venezuelan situation. In June 1896, <mask> offered his resignation to Salisbury, having shown the Prime Minister one or more of the cablegrams implicating him in the Raid's planning.Salisbury refused to accept the offer, possibly reluctant to lose the government's most popular figure. Salisbury reacted aggressively in support of <mask>, endorsing the Colonial Secretary's threat to withdraw the company's charter if the cablegrams were revealed. Accordingly, Rhodes refused to reveal the cablegrams, and as no evidence was produced, the Select committee appointed to investigate the Jameson Raid had no choice but to absolve <mask> of responsibility. West Africa
<mask> believed that West Africa had great economic potential, and shared Salisbury's suspicions of the French, who were Britain's principal rival in the region. <mask> sanctioned the conquest of the


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: Ashanti in 1895, with Colonel Sir Francis Scott successfully occupying Kumasi and annexing the territory to the Gold Coast. Using the emergency funds of the colonies of Lagos, Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast, he ordered the construction of a railway for the newly conquered area. The Colonial Office's bold strategy brought it into conflict with the Royal Niger Company, chaired by Sir George Goldie, which possessed title rights to large stretches of the River Niger.Interested in the area as an economic asset, Goldie had yet to assume governing responsibilities, leaving the territory open to incursion by the French, who sent small garrisons to the area with the intention of controlling it. Though Salisbury wished to subordinate the needs of West Africa to the requirement of establishing British supremacy on the River Nile, <mask> believed that every territory was worth competing for. <mask> was dismayed to learn in 1897 that the French had expanded from Dahomey to Bussa, a town claimed by Goldie. Further French growth in the region would have isolated Lagos from territory in the hinterland, thereby limiting its economic growth. <mask> therefore argued that Britain should "even at the cost of war – to keep an adequate Hinterland for the Gold Coast, Lagos & the Niger Territories." Influenced by <mask>, Salisbury sanctioned Sir Edmund Monson, British Ambassador in Paris, to be more assertive in negotiations. The subsequent concessions made by the French encouraged <mask>, who arranged for a military force, commanded by Frederick Lugard, to occupy areas claimed by Britain, thereby undermining French claims in the region.In a risky 'chequerboard' strategy, Lugard's forces occupied territories claimed by the French to counterbalance the establishment of French


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 garrisons in British territory. At times, French and British troops were stationed merely a few yards from each other, increasing the risk of war. Nevertheless, <mask> assumed correctly that French officers in the region were ordered to act without fighting the British, and in March 1898, the French proposed to settle the issue – Bussa was returned to Britain, and the French were limited to the town of Bona. <mask> had successfully imposed British control over the Niger and the inland territories of Sokoto, later joining them together as Nigeria. Sierra Leone
In 1896 Britain extended its rule inland from the coastal colony of Sierra Leone. It imposed a hut tax; the Mende and Temne tribes responded with the Hut Tax War of 1898. <mask> appointed Sir David Chalmers as a special commissioner to investigate the violence.Chalmers blamed the tax, but <mask> disagreed, saying African slave traders instigated the revolt. <mask> used the revolt to promote his aggressive "constructive imperialism" in West Africa. Anglo-German Alliance negotiations: first attempt
On 29 March 1898, Hermann von Eckardstein, who had described <mask> as "unquestionably the most energetic and enterprising personality of the Salisbury ministry", arranged a meeting between the Colonial Secretary and the German Ambassador in London, Paul von Hatzfeldt. The conversation was strictly unofficial, being nominally about colonial matters and the subject of China. <mask> surprised Hatzfeldt by assuring him that Britain and Germany had common interests, that the rupture over the Jameson Raid and the Kruger Telegram was an abnormality and that a defensive alliance should be formulated between the two countries, with specific regards to China. This was difficult for Hatzfeldt, for the Reichstag


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 was scrutinising Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz's First Navy Bill, which characterised Britain as a threat to Germany. The Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Bernhard von Bülow, did not believe that Britain would be a reliable ally because any future Cabinet could reverse the diplomatic policy of its predecessors, and because Parliament and public opinion often made difficulties about Britain's alliance commitments.Von Bülow preferred the co-operation of Russia in China to that of Britain. Hatzfeldt was instructed to make an agreement appear likely without ever conceding to <mask>. No commitments were made, and on 25 April Hatzfeldt asked for colonial concessions from <mask> as a precursor to a better relationship. <mask> rejected the proposal, thereby terminating the first talks for an Anglo-German alliance. Though Salisbury was unsurprised by the German attitude, <mask> was disappointed, and spoke publicly of Britain's diplomatic predicament at Birmingham on 13 May, saying that "We have had no allies. I am afraid we have had no friends ... We stand alone." Samoa and Anglo-German Alliance negotiations: second attempt
An 1888 treaty established an Anglo-US-German tripartite protectorate of Samoa, and when King Malietoa Laupepa died in 1898, a contest over the succession ensued.The German candidate, Mataafa, was strongly opposed by the Americans and the British, and civil war began. Salisbury rejected a German suggestion that they ask the US to withdraw from Samoa. Meanwhile, <mask>, smarting from the dismissal of his alliance proposal with Germany, refused the suggestion that Britain withdraw from Samoa in return for compensation elsewhere, remarking dismissively to Eckardstein "Last year we offered you everything. Now it is too late." Official and public


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: German opinion was incensed by Britain's bullishness, and <mask> worked hard to improve Anglo-German relations by facilitating a visit to Britain by Kaiser Wilhelm II. Salisbury's decision to attend to his sick wife allowed <mask> to assume control of British policy in July 1899. In November, an agreement was made with the Germans about Samoa in which Britain agreed to withdraw in return for Tonga and the Solomon Islands, and the ending of German claims to British territory in West Africa.On 21 November 1899, at a banquet in St. George's Hall, Windsor Castle, <mask> reiterated his desire for an agreement between Britain and Germany to Wilhelm II. The Kaiser spoke positively about relations with Britain but added that he did not want to exacerbate relations with Russia, and indicated that Salisbury's traditional strategy of reneging on peacetime commitments made any Anglo-German agreement problematic. <mask>, rather than Salisbury whose wife had just died, visited von Bülow at Windsor Castle. <mask> argued that Britain, Germany and the USA should combine to check France and Russia, yet von Bülow thought British assistance would be of little use in a war with Russia. Von Bülow suggested that <mask> should speak positively of Germany in public. <mask> inferred from von Bülow's statement that he would do the same in the Reichstag. The day after the departure of the Kaiser and von Bülow, on 30 November, <mask> grandiloquently spoke at Leicester of "a new Triple Alliance between the Teutonic race and the two great trans-Atlantic branches of the Anglo-Saxon race which would become a potent influence on the future of the world."Though the Kaiser was complimentary, Friedrich von Holstein described <mask>'s speech as a "blunder" and the Times attacked <mask> for

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 using the term "alliance" without inhibition. On 11 December, von Bülow spoke in the Reichstag in support of the Second Navy Bill, and made no reference to an agreement with Britain, which he described as a declining nation jealous of Germany. <mask> was startled but von Hatzfeldt assured him that von Bülow's motivation was to fend off opponents in the Reichstag. Although <mask> was irritated by von Bülow's behaviour, he still hoped for an agreement. South Africa

<mask> and the British government had long wished for the federation of South Africa under the British crown, but it appeared that the growing wealth of the Transvaal would ensure that any future union of Southern African states would be as a Boer dominated republic outside the British Empire. <mask> sought British domination of the Transvaal and Orange Free State by endorsing the civil rights of the disenfranchised Uitlanders. Britain also exerted steady military pressure.In April 1897, <mask> asked the Cabinet to increase the British garrison in South Africa by three to four thousand men – consequently, the quantity of British forces in the area grew during the next two years. The government appointed Sir Alfred Milner to the posts of High Commissioner and Governor-General of the Cape in August 1897 to pursue the issue more decisively. Within a year, Milner concluded that war with the Transvaal was inevitable, and he worked with <mask> to publicise the cause of the Uitlanders to the British people. A meeting between President Kruger and Milner at Bloemfontein in May 1899 failed to resolve the Uitlander problem – Kruger's concessions were considered inadequate by Milner, and the Boers left the conference convinced that the British were determined to settle the future of South Africa by


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 force. By now, British public opinion was supportive of a war in support of the Uitlanders, allowing <mask> to ask successfully for further troop reinforcements. By the beginning of October 1899, nearly 20,000 British troops were based in the Cape and Natal, with thousands more en route. On 12 October, following a Transvaal ultimatum (9 October) demanding that British troops be withdrawn from her frontiers, and that any forces destined for South Africa be turned back, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State declared war.Boer War: early defeat and false dawn

<mask> was in charge of the war from his base in the Colonial Office. The Prime Minister rubber-stamped his decisions. Boer regular army units outnumbered the British 3:1 on the front lines and quickly besieged the towns of Ladysmith, Mafeking and Kimberley. Some ten thousand Cape Afrikaners joined the Boers. In mid-December 1899, during 'Black Week', the British Army suffered reverses at Stormberg, Magersfontein and Colenso. <mask> was critical privately of the British Army's military performance and was often vexed by the attitude of the War Office. When the Boers bombarded Ladysmith with Creusot ninety-four pounder siege guns, <mask> asked for the dispatch of comparable artillery to the war, but was exasperated by the Secretary of State for War, Lord Lansdowne's argument that such weapons required platforms that needed a year of preparation, even though the Boers operated their "Long Tom" without elaborate mountings.<mask> made a number of speeches to reassure the public, and worked to strengthen bonds between Britain and the self-governing colonies, gratefully receiving over 30,000 troops from Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The slogan One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue expressed their loyalty


title: Joseph Chamberlain

texts: to the Empire, although they each had some Opposition to the Second Boer War. In particular, the contributions of mounted men from these settler colonies helped fill the British Army's shortfall of mounted infantry, vital in fighting the mobile Boers (who were an entirely mounted force of skilled marksmen). <mask> managed the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act through the House of Commons, hoping that the newly established federation would adopt a positive attitude towards imperial trade and fighting the war. Wishing to reconcile the British and Afrikaner populations of the Cape, <mask> was resistant to Milner's desire to suspend the constitution of the colony, an act that would have given Milner autocratic powers. <mask>, as the government's foremost defender of the war, was denounced by many prominent anti-war personalities, including David Lloyd George, a former admirer of the Colonial Secretary. When in January 1900 the government faced a vote of censure in the House of Commons concerning the management of the war, <mask> conducted the defence.On 5 February, <mask> spoke effectively in the Commons for over an hour while referring to very few notes. He defended the war, espoused the virtues of a South African federation and promoted the empire; speaking with a confidence which earned him a sympathetic hearing. The vote of censure was subsequently defeated by 213 votes. British fortunes changed after January 1900 with the appointment of Lord Roberts to command British forces in South Africa. Bloemfontein was occupied on 13 March, Johannesburg on 31 May and Pretoria on 5 June. When Roberts formally annexed the Transvaal on 3 September, the Salisbury ministry, emboldened by the apparent victory in South Africa, asked for the dissolution of