title: James Larkin

texts:
 ownership of Ireland, moral and material, is vested of right in the people of Ireland" and to "sink all difference of birth property and creed under the common name of the Irish people". In the US - Socialist, Irish Republican and Communist activism (1914–23)

After the lock-out
Exhausted by the demands of organising union work; <mask> fell into bouts of depression, took a declining interest in the now crippled ITGWU, and became increasingly difficult to work with. Speculation had risen during the lock-out that he was planning to leave for America. A speaking tour of the New World had been suggested to <mask> by Bill Haywood in November 1913 and the following month in  the growing speculation prompted the New York Times to publish an editorial simply titled 'Larkin is coming'. This dismayed colleagues in the ITGWU and <mask> felt obliged to deny that he was planning on running away. However, noting the effect that the strain of the lock-out on <mask>, union officials reluctantly concluded that a break would probably be of great benefit to him, and thus following the advice given by 'Big Bill', 'Big Jim' left for America. His decision to leave dismayed many union activists including a large number of his colleagues in the ITGWU.In addition to recuperating from the strain of the lockout and undertaking a tour of the United States, <mask> also intended to raise funds for the union and the fledgling ICA, and to rebuild their headquarters Liberty Hall. Many in the union assumed that <mask>'s trip would be a short one and that he would soon return. However, it quickly became clear that this would not be the case, shortly before his departure he declined a request by the Irish Trades Union Congress to join a two-man mission to raise funds for the Labour

masks: Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin


title: James Larkin

type: original

texts:
 Party, replying that if he went he would be 'going alone and freelance'. His intention was to agitate in America rather than organise, but it is unclear whether he intended to return. <mask> set sail for America on 25 October 1914, leaving long time associate <mask> in charge of the ITGWU and the ICA, the latter of which he would soon utilise as a revolutionary force. Arriving in America - activism and links to espionage

<mask> arrived in New York on 5 November 1914. Following his arrival there were positive initial prospects, the lock-out had been widely reported in America and he was well received by socialists there.He found support from both socialists and Irish-Americans, who were eagerly interested to hear his position on the World War which was by now raging throughout Europe. Opposition to the war was intended to be his main position whilst in America. Upon presenting his credentials to the Socialist Party of America and John Devoy, the Irish leader of Clan na Gael (the leading Irish republican supporting organisation in America), his services were quickly taken up by both and he also became involved in the Industrial Workers of the World union (the Wobblies). Within days of arriving in the country, he addressed a crowd of 15,000 people gathered at Madison Square Garden to celebrate the election of Socialist candidate Meyer London to the United States House of Representatives. Soon after his speech at Maddison Garden he was invited by Devoy to speak to a combined audience of German Uhlans and Irish Volunteers in Philadelphia where he enthusiastically called for money and arms for the Republican cause in Ireland to a cheering crowd. During this speech <mask> showed one of the rifles that had been smuggled into Ireland at Howth which he noted

masks:
Larkin
James Connolly
Larkin
Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts: could be better but still worked (he added that better weapons could be obtained with more money), and compared it with a rifle given to the Irish Volunteers by John Redmond, which was an obsolete weapon for which no new ammunition could be procured, using this to vilify Redmond as a traitor to the Irish people who had had no intention of effectively arming the movement for Irish independence. He also claimed that in the process of receiving and protecting the guns, 100 of his men from the ICA with no ammunition or bayonets had faced and routed 150 of the King's Own Scottish Borderers, who he disparagingly said had been referred to as 'England's best'.He went on to directly attack the First World War, particularly the efforts of the British to get men from Ireland to join their war effort, going on to say that if Ireland was to fight it would be against the British in an effort to create an Irish republic 'Why should Ireland fight for Britain in this war? What has Britain ever done for our people? Whatever we got from her we wrested with struggle and sacrifice. No, men and women of the Irish race, we shall not fight for England. We shall fight for the destruction of the British Empire and the construction of an Irish republic. We shall not fight for the preservation of the enemy, which has laid waste with death and desolation the fields and hills of Ireland for 700 years. We will fight to free Ireland from the grasp of that vile carcase called England'.In a speech to Clan na Gael in November 1914 <mask> promoted his Irish Republican ideals stating 'I assure you that the workers of Ireland are on the side of the dear, dark-haired mother, whose call they never failed to answer yet ... again will the call ring out over hill and dale to the men who have


title: James Larkin

texts: always answered the call of Caithlin-ni-Houlihan. For seven hundred long, weary years we have waited for this hour. The flowing tide is with us ... [and we must be] ready for the Rising of the Moon'. He went on to say, in the same speech, that 'The time is ripe for an active movement. We have waited years for this opportunity, and it could not come at a better time. We have the men and the plans, but only have 5000 rifles and no ammunition. Give us more guns and ammunition and we will not fail you.We have got something better than England ever had — destiny'. His speech was received well by the Clan and other nationalists, and his initial time with the clan was successful being asked to attend other speaking engagements. Divisions began to appear however, largely stemming from his anti-capitalist socialist ideals and pro worker ideology which were fundamentally at odds with many of the views of those in the clan and the Irish-America movement. <mask>'s religious ideals were also at odds with the largely secular American left meaning he effectively alienated himself from both movements and speaking engagements began to dwindle. His speeches had attracted interest from the German embassy and he had been approached by military Attachés shortly after his speech in Philadelphia and offered $200 per week to undertake waterfront sabotage work. <mask> refused on humanitarian grounds and informed them that he was already engaged in organising strikes that would effectively hamper the Allied war effort through restricting American war-related industry, and that he had established the Four Winds Fellowship a society open to all trade unionists and socialists born in the British Empire and who were opposed to the war. Elsewhere he was reported as having said that

masks: Larkin Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts:
 he did not want a German victory, instead preferring a military deadlock leading to workers revolts in the belligerent countries, a desire which in part came true following the Russian Revolution of 1917.This perceived association with German agents further distanced him American socialists, and his reputation as a syndicalist and association with the Industrial Workers of the World was looked down on by the right wing of the Socialist Party of America. <mask> was reported as having helped to disrupt Allied munitions shipments in New York City during World War I. In 1937, he voluntarily assisted US lawyers investigating the Black Tom explosion by providing an affidavit from his home in Dublin. According to British Army Intelligence officer, Henry Landau:

'<mask> testified that he himself never took part in the actual sabotage campaign but, rather, confined himself to the organising of strikes to secure both higher pay and shorter hours for workmen and to prevent the shipment of munitions to the Allies.' <mask>, however, had first hand knowledge of German sabotage operations, supplied them with intelligence and contacts and was involved in the transfer of monies from the Germans to Irish Republican causes. He maintained communication with his German contacts, however they began to tire of his refusals to co-operate with violence and broke contact with him after a rendezvous in Mexico City in 1917. Communism and arrest for 'criminal anarchy'

Following this <mask> briefly worked with the IWW in San Francisco, before settling in New York becoming involved with the Socialist Party of America again.Taking advantage of the growing support for left wing politics, and also of the increasing support for Irish republicanism amongst Irish Americans to gain

masks: Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts: influence amongst its ranks. <mask> was instrumental in the establishment of the New York James Connolly Socialist Club on St Patrick's Day 1918. Whilst in America <mask> had become an enthusiastic supporter of the Soviets and following an address at the club by Jack Reed, who had recently returned from Russia, interest in the Bolsheviks was revitalised and <mask> decided to put all his efforts into reforming the SPA into a communist party. This meant that he had to turn down an offer to lead the St Lawrence Mill Strike in March 1919. The Connolly Club became the national hub of the new communist project, housing the offices of <mask>'s SPA faction's Revolutionary Age and Reed's Voice of Labour. In June 1919 <mask> topped the polls for elections to the national left-wing council, he supported the view that the left of the SPA should attempt to take control at its national convention in August, a minority faction favoured the immediate creation of a new communist party and left in protest. <mask> was expelled from the Socialist Party of America at its national convention along with numerous other sympathisers of the Bolsheviks during the Red Scare of that year.As a result of this exodus, two new parties were formed from the ranks of the SPA's communist former members; the American Communist Party and the Communist Labor Party of America, favouring the latter as he believed the party to be more 'American' (something which <mask> believed was crucial) <mask> joined their ranks. <mask>'s speeches in support of the Soviets, his association with founding members of both the American Communist Party and Communist Labor Party of America, and his radical publications made him a target of the "First Red Scare" that was sweeping the US and he was arrested on 7

masks: Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts:
 November 1919 during a series of anti Bolshevik raids. <mask> was charged with 'criminal anarchy' due to his part in the publishing of the SPA's 'Left wing manifesto' in Revolutionary Age. <mask> was released on 20 November after $15,000 bail was paid, of which John Devoy paid $5,000, he resumed his political activities but was under no illusion of what was to come, expecting to be handed a lengthy jail sentence. New York State Prosecutor Alexander Rourke took advantage of a query from Scotland Yard as to whether <mask> would be allowed to travel to South Africa to turn his allies in the Irish nationalist movement against him, including Devoy. In reality this request did not stem from any association with figures of authority in Britain, but rather a request by Archie Crawford, President of the South African Federation of Labour who wanted <mask> for a speaking tour of the country. A trial took place in which <mask> represented himself, presenting his view that his own beliefs rather than his deeds were on trial, and exhibiting a philosophy incorporating his new found Bolshevism as well as his; Christianity, Socialism, Syndicalism,  Communism and Irish nationalism.Despite many onlookers being of the opinion that he had gained enough sympathy to divide the jury, instead <mask>'s fears were realised and he was found guilty and sentenced to five to ten years, to be served in the notorious Sing Sing prison. Time in prison

Whilst most of his sentence was served at Sing Sing, <mask> also spent time in other prisons in America, briefly moving to Clinton prison (Dannemora) after only one month at Sing Sing, this move was in order to discourage visitation. A journalist from the New York Call managed to gain an interview with <mask> whilst he was incarcerated

masks: Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts: there, and the reported deterioration of <mask>'s condition led to international protests ultimately resulting in him moving back to Sing Sing later that year. Whilst at Sing Sing Larkin was supplied with books and means to write and communicate with the outside world. Keeping a keen eye on Irish affairs, <mask> sent a 'thunderous denunciation of the Anglo-Irish Treaty to Dublin on 10 December 1921. <mask>'s most famous visitor whilst imprisoned was Charlie Chaplin who noted that he was 'diffident' and 'concerned for his family' who he had heard nothing about since his incarceration, Chaplin sent presents to <mask>'s wife Elizabeth and their children. <mask> was later moved to Great Meadow a comfortable open prison where he was visited by Constance Markievicz who whilst noting his apparent appreciation of his conditions, also sensed his fretfulness at being cut of from politics.On 6 May 1922 <mask> was released before being rearrested shortly afterwards for another charge of criminal anarchy and served with a deportation warrant. <mask> appealed and during his time out of jail he was cabled by Grigory Zinoviev President of the Communist International (Comintern) who gave their 'warmest greetings to the undaunted fighter released from the "democratic" prisons', in February of that year <mask> had been elected to the Moscow Soviet to represent the Moscow International Communist Tailoring Factory by a union of tailors, most of them returnees to Russia from the USA. <mask>'s court appeal failed and he was back in custody by 31 August, despite various plans being discussed, including a potential escape plan raised by Thomas Foran of the ITGWU and numerous legal challenges, <mask> decided to bide his time. During this time it was also arranged for <mask>'s

masks: Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts:
 son <mask> Jnr to visit his father in prison. Release and departure from the United States

The election of Irish-American Al Smith to the position of Governor of New York in November 1922 represented a change in circumstances, and was also a clear indication that the Red Scare had largely abated. Smith granted <mask> a pardon hearing which was set for January 1923, the pardon was granted and he was released from prison. Foran cabled <mask> to convey the ITGWU's satisfaction with the events and to seek the date of his return to Ireland, although <mask> had his mind set on a return to Ireland he had grander plans than a return to union work.The Comintern wrote to <mask> on 3 February to express their 'great joy' at his release and to extend an invitation to visit Soviet Russia at his earliest opportunity to 'discuss a number of burning questions affecting the international revolutionary movement'. <mask> made a number of financial requests to the ITGWU, including asking them to cover the costs of purchasing a steamer ship which he, in characteristic fashion, did not reveal the need for. The unions new leadership began to see him as out of touch, and that if allowed to do so he would attempt to restore his previous near total command over the union. The union had also already spent large sums of money on <mask>'s behalf; making sure his wife Elizabeth was taken care of, covering his medical expenses and covering the costs of <mask>nr's visit to see his father in America, for these reasons the requests for additional financial requests were denied, a decision which begat what would become an intense split of the union movement in Ireland. After lobbying the Secretary for Labor for a deportation order which was granted, he was arrested and charged with

masks:
James
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
James J


title: James Larkin

texts:
 being an alien activist, he was then taken to the British consulate where he was given a passport to travel by ship first to the United Kingdom and then to Ireland with. Although <mask> had hoped to have been allowed to travel to; Germany, Austria and Russia on business matters this request was denied. On 21 April he boarded a ship bound for Southampton and left America for good.Return to Ireland - communist activity and split in Irish trade union movement

Upon his return to Ireland in April 1923, <mask> received a hero's welcome and immediately set about touring the country, meeting trade union members and appealing for an end to the Irish Civil War. However, he soon found himself at variance with William O'Brien, who in his absence had become the leading figure in the ITGWU and the Irish Labour Party and Trades Union Congress. <mask> was still officially general secretary of the ITGWU. The ITGWU leaders (Thomas Foran, William O'Brien, Thomas Kennedy: all colleagues of <mask> during the Lockout) sued him. The bitterness of the court case between the former organisers of the 1913 Lockout would last over 20 years. Formation of the Irish Worker League and involvement with Soviet Union
<mask> agreed with British and Soviet communists to undertake the leadership of communism in Ireland, and in September 1923 <mask> formed the Irish Worker League (IWL), which was soon afterwards recognised by The Communist International (Comintern; a Soviet Union controlled international organisation that advocated world communism) as the Irish section of the world communist movement. The IWL enrolled 500 members on its inauguration, and following the death of Vladimir Lenin on 21 January 1924 <mask> led a march of 6,000 people to mourn his passing.In March 1924 <mask>


title: James Larkin

texts: lost his battle for control of the ITWGU and in May the army prevented his followers from seizing Liberty Hall. In June 1924 <mask> attended the Comintern congress in Moscow and was elected to its Executive Committee. The League's most prominent activity in its first year was to raise funds for imprisoned members of the Anti-Treaty IRA. During <mask> absence from Ireland whilst at the 1924 Comintern Congress in Moscow (and apparently against his instructions), his brother Peter took his supporters out of the ITGWU, forming the Workers' Union of Ireland (WUI). The new union quickly grew, gaining the allegiance of about two-thirds of the Dublin membership of the ITGWU and of a smaller number of rural members. It was affiliated to the Soviet Red International of Labour Unions (Promintern). <mask> sought with Soviet support to remove British unions from Ireland, seeing them as 'outposts of British imperialism', it was also agreed upon that Irish sections of the communist movement would deal directly with Moscow and would have permanent representation there, rather than going through Britain.<mask> later launched a vicious attack on the Tom Johnson who was now leader of the Labour Party and who like <mask>, was Liverpool-born. Johnson had been born to English parents but had spent much of his life in Ireland, <mask> although born to Irish parents had spent as long in the US as he had in Ireland. <mask> said that it was "time that Labour dealt with this English traitor. If they don't get rid of this scoundrel, they'll get the bullet and the bayonet in reward. There's nothing for it, but a dose of the lead which Johnson promises to those who look for work". This implied incitement to murder Johnson in a still-violent post-Civil War country resulted in the

masks: Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts: court awarding Johnson £1000 in libel damages against <mask>. In his 2006 biographical anthology, Donal Nevin noted that his attacks on colleagues in the labour movement, including those the subject of this libel action, meant that Larkin "alienated practically all the leaders of the movement [and] the mass of trade union members".In January 1925, the Comintern sent Communist Party of Great Britain activist Bob Stewart to Ireland to establish a communist party in co-operation with <mask>. A formal founding conference of the Irish Worker League, which was to take up this role, was set for May 1925. A fiasco ensued when the organisers discovered at the last minute that <mask> did not intend to attend. Feeling that the proposed party could not succeed without him, they called the conference off as it was due to start in a packed room in the Mansion House, Dublin. <mask> perceived certain actions undertaken by Stewart as attempts to circumvent his authority, including sending a republican delegation to Moscow, and directing £500 sent by the Russian Red Cross intended to aid the Irish famine relief effort to George Lansbury a left-wing British Labour M.P, rather than to the WUI. Under pressure from Comintern to operate as a political party or risk losing affiliation, <mask> fielded three candidates at the September 1927 general election; himself, his son <mask> Jnr, and WUI President John Lawlor. <mask> ran in Dublin North, and in circumstances that surprised many was elected, becoming the first and only communist to be elected to Dáil Éireann.However, as a result of a libel award against him won by William O'Brien, which he had refused to pay, he was an undischarged bankrupt and could not take up his seat. Between November of that year and March 1928, 6

masks:
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
James Larkin
Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts: students including <mask>'s son <mask> Jnr were sent to Moscow to attend the International Lenin School. In February 1928 <mask> made what would be his penultimate visit to Moscow for the ninth plenum of the Executive Committee of the Communist International, here he departed from his usual subject matter, usually his public speeches in Russia were almost exclusively centred on the need for trade union solidarity and largely avoided comment on communist politics. However now he delivered a lecture on 'Ireland, trade unions and the peasantry' at the Moscow Soviet, and asked the audience to support Josef Stalin. He also endorsed the Comintern line that the Communist Party of Great Britain should adopt a hostile rather than fraternal attitude towards the British Labour Party as well as denouncing the CPGB's refusal to back the removal of British unions from Ireland and their record on trade unions in general. Before leaving <mask> warned Solomon Lozovsky, General Secretary of Profintern that the WUI executive wanted to break with Profintern unless their promises were made good. Relations between <mask> and Moscow would ultimately continue to strain despite occasional apparent promise, and in the time building up to the 1930s the final break was fast approaching, in 1929 in a letter to Moscow <mask> announced his retirement from active political work, however he asked that the Irish at the Lenin School be supported, noting that <mask>nr was 'his own man and an earnest communist'.<mask> would in fact continue to be politically active for all of his life and used the League as a political platform into the 1930s. He did however sever ties with Profintern declaring that they had not given the WUI proper financial support and accusing Lozovsky of intriguing

masks:
Larkin
James Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
James J
Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts: against him. In September 1929 a new communist group became active in Dublin but had orders not to 'disturb the big noise', with Moscow fearing that <mask> would smash its initiatives in the city, whilst also secretly still hoping that <mask> would provide the mass base it desired in Ireland, ultimately <mask> would neither support communist activity or oppose his successors. <mask> unsuccessful attempts to gain a position as a commercial agent in Ireland for the Soviet Union may have contributed to his disenchantment with Stalinism. The Soviets, for their part, had been increasingly impatient with what they saw as his ineffective leadership. From the early 1930s, <mask> drew away from the Soviet Union entirely. While in the 1932 general election, he stood, without success, as a communist and in 1933 and subsequently, he ran as "Independent Labour".The reasons for the eventual collapse in relations between the Soviet Union and <mask> can to some extent be put down to his underlying motivations. His aims according to Emmet O'Connor were to; 'discredit the ITWGU, and Labour Party leadership, drive the British unions out of Ireland, and build an anti-imperialist front with republicans'. His Syndicalist ideology was also largely out of place in a Leninist context, eventually being regarded by Comintern as a 'first generation communist leader' whose ideology had been formed during the period prior to 1914. It is also claimed that by this time he had fallen into a degenerated state of egomania, was 'violently' averse to being accountable to anyone but himself and consequently suspicious of anything that was outside of his own personal control. It could be said that some of <mask>'s suspicions and paranoias were justified, as it was clear that the Communist


title: James Larkin

texts: Party of Great Britain frequently attempted to circumvent <mask> in liaising with the IRA and the Worker's Party behind his back. Additionally its Minority Movement blatantly ignored Profintern instructions in refusing to honour the agreement on the withdrawal of British unions from Ireland, which resulted in <mask> directing much of his irritation on the matter towards Profintern. One of <mask>'s primary ambitions from his association with the Soviet Union was to finance his new trade union, and thus many of the same issues that had arisen from his time with <mask> arose again.That being the hyperfocus on union activity, with political mobilisation an after thought, the Labour Party had suffered from this diversion of attention and so consequently did the IWL. <mask> had advocated revolutionary socialism, however neither <mask> nor Connolly had focused on building a revolutionary party,  frequently seeing political developments as only ‘an echo’ of the industrial battle, and played down the need for a party that had a consistent and clear ideology and view of the world, thinking mass unionisation would be enough. At the height of the 1913 lock-out when the men were at the height of their popularity they made no particular concerted effort to recruit workers to a socialist party, this allowed other political parties to take advantage of much of their work, despite not having supported workers during the lock-out. Through a combination of a lack of cohesion and co-operation, an opportunity for a successful communist movement in Ireland in a time where a revolutionary mentality still remained was missed. Perhaps a movement which only <mask> could have achieved, as an obvious figurehead who still remained widely popular amongst the Irish left, and with

masks:
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
James Connolly
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts:
 an Irish Labour movement which had swung towards Syndicalism. Communism in Ireland at this time also had a distinct lack of controversy surrounding it, with the IRA sending delegations to Moscow and maintaining a widespread and open association with Profintern. Following the Catholic Church's rallying against Communism from 1929 onwards, the mood quickly changed.In 1934 <mask> gave important evidence on the 1916 Black Tom explosion to John J. McCloy, allowing a case for damages against Germany to be reopened; presumably because of Germany's new Nazi government. During this period he also engaged in a rapprochement with the Catholic Church, from whom he had become distant from after the Church's vehement ostracisation of communism which followed a resurgence of Catholic social power stemming from the centenary celebrations of catholic emancipation in 1929, and the publishing of Quadragesimo anno in 1931. In 1936, he regained his seat on Dublin Corporation. He then regained his Dáil seat at the 1937 general election but lost it again the following year. In that period, the Workers' Union of Ireland also entered the mainstream of the trade union movement, being admitted to the Dublin Trades Council in 1936, but the Irish Trades Union Congress would not accept its membership application until 1945. Return to Labour Party
In 1941, a new trade union bill was published by the Government. Inspired by an internal trade union restructuring proposal by William O'Brien, it was viewed as a threat by the smaller general unions and the Irish branches of British unions (known as the 'amalgamated unions').<mask> and the WUI played a leading role in the unsuccessful campaign against the bill. After its passage into law, he and his supporters successfully applied for


title: James Larkin

texts:
 admission to the Labour Party, where they were now regarded with more sympathy by many members. O'Brien in response disaffiliated the ITGWU from the party, forming the rival National Labour Party and denouncing what he claimed was communist influence in Labour. <mask> later served as a Labour Party deputy in Dáil Éireann from 1943 to 1944. Death

In late 1946 <mask> fell through a floor whilst supervising repairs to the Worker's Union of Ireland's Thomas Ashe Hall in Dublin, he suffered serious internal injuries and was rushed to hospital. Despite surviving the accident, he would never recover from his injuries and died in his sleep in the Meath Hospital on 30 January 1947. Fr Aloysius Travers, OFM (who had administered last rites to <mask> in 1916) also administered extreme unction to <mask>.His funeral mass was celebrated by the Catholic Archbishop of Dublin, John Charles McQuaid, who had visited him in hospital before he died, and thousands lined the streets of the city as the hearse passed through on the way to Glasnevin Cemetery, escorted by the Irish Citizen Army in its last public appearance. Religion and personal life
<mask> is said to have been a Christian Socialist. <mask> remained a Catholic throughout his life, and asserted there was no inherent conflict between his religious views and his politics:

<mask> was married to Elizabeth Brown, with whom he had four sons; <mask> Jnr, <mask>, Fintan <mask> and <mask>. Two of whom (<mask>nr and Denis) followed their father into socialist politics and trade unionism, serving in political parties and unions established by their father and serving terms in Dáil Éireann. <mask> Jnr represented both Dublin South and Dublin South-Central, and <mask> represented one of his fathers' previous

masks:
Larkin
Larkin
James Connolly
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
James Larkin
Denis Larkin
Larkin
Bernard Larkin
James J
James Larkin
Denis Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts:
 constituencies Dublin North-East and also later served a term as Lord Mayor of Dublin from 1955 to 1956. <mask>'s sister Delia <mask> was also a prominent trade unionist and a founder of the Irish Women Workers' Union. <mask> separated from his wife Elizabeth, and did not live with her again following his return from America, although her death in 1945 is said to have affected him a great deal.Allegations of Antisemitism
Allegations of Antisemitism have been levelled at <mask>, and has been accused of running antisemitic verses in the Irish Worker paper. One told of a "Jewess" (female Jew) who was demanding back the price of her pushy son's theatre ticket when, rushing to get the best seat in the house, he fell to his death from a balcony. He soon republished the same caricature. <mask> ran a cartoon aimed at a particular group of Jewish immigrants which were described as "foreigners masquerading under Irish names", the cartoon used stereotypical physical characteristics, as well as mock-immigrant pronunciation and "ikey", said to be regarded as a derogatory nickname for Jews. <mask>'s The Jew's Shilling has been provided as another example by Colum Kenny. Commemoration

Literature
<mask> has been the subject of poems by Brendan Behan, Patrick Kavanagh, Frank O'Connor, Donagh MacDonagh and Lola Ridge; his character has been central in plays by Daniel Corkery, George Russell (Æ), and Seán O'Casey; and he is a heroic figure in the background of <mask>'s novel Strumpet City and Lyn Andrews' Where the Mersey Flows. Strumpet City was later developed into a television mini-series in which <mask> was portrayed by British-Irish actor Peter O'Toole.Songs
<mask> was memorialised by the New York Irish rock band Black 47, in their song The Day They Set <mask>

masks:
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
James Plunkett
Larkin
James Larkin
Jim Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts:
 Free, and Donagh MacDonagh's The Ballad of <mask>rkin was recorded by Christy Moore and also the Dubliners. Paddy Reilly sings a song simply entitled <mask> that describes the lot of the worker and their appreciation of the changes made by <mask> and Connolly. The song The Lockout by Joe O' Sullivan describes <mask>'s organisation of workers which led to the Dublin Lockout of 1913. Monument

Today a statue of "Big Jim" stands on O'Connell Street in Dublin. Completed by Oisín Kelly, and unveiled in 1979, the inscription on the front of the monument is an extract in French, Irish and English from one of his famous speeches:

Les grands ne sont grands que parce que nous sommes à genoux: Levons-nous. Ní uasal aon uasal ach sinne bheith íseal: Éirímis. The great appear great because we are on our knees: Let us rise.The slogan, first used on the 18th century French radical paper Révolutions de Paris, also appeared on the masthead of the Workers' Republic, founded by <mask> in Dublin in August 1898. Originally the organ of the Irish Socialist Republican Party, this periodical later became the official organ of the Communist Party of Ireland, which was founded in 1921. The original slogan is usually attributed to Camille Desmoulins (1760–1794), the French revolutionary; but it appears, only slightly modified, in an essay written by Étienne de La Boétie (1530–1563) and first published in 1576. On the west side of the base of the Larkin monument is a quotation from the poem Jim Larkin by Patrick Kavanagh:

On the east side of the monument there is a quotation from Drums under the Windows by Seán O'Casey:

... He talked to the workers, spoke as only <mask> could speak, not for an assignation with peace, dark obedience, or placid resignation, but trumpet-tongued

masks:
James La
Jim Larkin
Larkin
Larkin
James Connolly
Jim Larkin


title: James Larkin

texts:
 of resistance to wrong, discontent with leering poverty, and defiance of any power strutting out to stand in the way of their march onward. Roads
A coastal road in Raheny, north Dublin, is named after him. A road in L4 1YQ, Kirkdale, in his home city of Liverpool, just off Scotland Road, is called <mask> Way.Liverpool Irish Festival 2008
To celebrate Liverpool's year as European Capital of Culture, the Liverpool Irish Festival held a <mask>rkin Evening at the 'Casa' bar-the dockers' pub in central Liverpool. This was attended by Francis Devine who wrote the general history of the trade union movement in Dublin and the formation of SIPTU. It was introduced by Liverpool Irishman Marcus Maher, who travelled from Dublin to present a specially commissioned painting by Finbar Coyle to <mask>'s last remaining Liverpool nephew, <mask>. The painting reflects on one side Dublin and on the other side the Liver Bird and his home city of Liverpool. People
The Transport and General Workers' Union activist Jack Jones, whose full name was <mask> Jones, was named in honour of his fellow Liverpudlian. See also

Families in the Oireachtas

References

Notes

Sources

1876 births
1947 deaths
Burials at Glasnevin Cemetery
Catholic socialists
Catholicism and far-left politics
Comintern people
Executive Committee of the Communist International
Independent TDs
Industrial Workers of the World members
Irish Citizen Army members
Irish anti-capitalists
Irish Christian socialists
Irish Comintern people
Irish socialists
Irish communists
Irish republicans
Irish trade unionists
Labour Party (Ireland) TDs
Members of the 6th Dáil
Members of the 9th Dáil
Members of the 11th Dáil
People deported from the United States
Politicians from Liverpool
Recipients of

masks:
James Larkin
James La
James Larkin
Tom Larkin
James Larkin


title: Glen P. Robinson

texts:
<mask>, Jr. (September 10, 1923 – January 16, 2013), called the "father of high-tech industry in Georgia", was an American businessman and founder of Scientific Atlanta, now a subsidiary of Cisco Systems. <mask> was the first employee of Scientific Atlanta, where he remained CEO then Chairman of the company until he retired. Initially a ham radio enthusiast and subsequently a graduate of the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) with both bachelor's and master's degrees in physics, <mask> worked at the Georgia Tech Research Institute and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory before founding Scientific Atlanta. Later in life, he founded and invested in numerous Atlanta-based science-related companies. <mask> was named an IEEE Fellow and held at least 39 patents in fields including solar energy devices and antenna systems. For his contributions, he was named Georgia's Small Businessman of the Year in 1965, the Georgia Business and Industry Association's Entrepreneur of the Year in 1981, and was elected to the Georgia Technology Hall of Fame in 1993. In 2003, Georgia Tech awarded him an honorary Ph.D. in Physics, and in 2007, half of Georgia Tech's Molecular Science and Engineering Building was named the <mask> P. <mask>, Jr. Tower in his honor.Early life and education
<mask> was born on September 10, 1923, in Crescent City, Florida, an outskirt of Jacksonville, to <mask>e and Laura Mae (Lewis) <mask>. His family moved to Valdosta, Georgia, in 1937. After attending high school at Marion Military Institute in Alabama, <mask> opened a small machine shop in Valdosta. He sold industrial products and metal tools to local industry. In 1942, with the encouragement of his father, <mask> enrolled as a student at the Georgia Institute of Technology to study chemical engineering. However, his education was interrupted by his enlistment into the Naval Signal Corps and service in the Pacific Theatre of World War II where he installed telephones on recaptured American possessions during the war. <mask> returned from the conflict as a junior and in 1948 he changed his

masks:
Glen Parmelee Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Glen
Robinson
Robinson
Glen Parmele
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson


title: Glen P. Robinson

texts:
 major to physics, as the School of Physics started its degree program that year.He received a Bachelor of Science in Physics in 1948, and a Master of Science in Physics (also from Georgia Tech) in 1950. <mask> was also a member of Georgia Tech's prestigious secret society, ANAK. <mask> had been a ham radio operator enthusiast since the age of 14, and started a radio repair service to provide additional income while he was a student at Georgia Tech. One of <mask>'s professors, James E. Boyd, convinced him to give up the radio repair business and work as a research assistant at the Georgia Tech Research Institute (then known as the Engineering Experiment Station, or EES). One of his ham radio friends was actually his boss's boss and EES director, Gerald Rosselot. Working after hours at EES, <mask> built a television set in the lab, which he and others claim was the first to be built in the state of Georgia. In 1950, <mask> went to Tennessee to work in nuclear engineering for Oak Ridge National Laboratory, servicing radiology-related equipment at local hospitals.Scientific Atlanta
Robinson and six other Georgia Tech researchers (including <mask>'s former professor James E. Boyd and EES director Gerald Rosselot) each contributed $100 (for a total of $700) and founded Scientific Associates on October 31, 1951, with the initial goal of marketing antenna structures being developed by the radar branch of the EES to the U.S. military. <mask> worked as the unpaid general manager for the first year. The relations between Scientific Associates and the EES were initially strained due to an unrelated dispute over station finances between EES director Gerald Rosselot and Georgia Tech vice president Cherry Emerson. Specifically, Emerson believed that surplus funds realized through research contracts should be returned to Georgia Tech, while the Georgia Tech Research Corporation and Rosselot felt they should be retained to foster additional research. A strict conflict of interest policy was enacted, and researchers were forced to choose between the two entities; the

masks: Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson


title: Glen P. Robinson

texts: initial investors had all kept their faculty jobs, and most returned to them. After the fledgling company's first contract resulted in a $4,000 loss, <mask> bought out all but one of the original investors and paid them each back their original $100. <mask> left EES and became president and CEO of the new company, which was renamed Scientific Atlanta.Boyd stayed on as a member of the board of directors; <mask>'s friend Larry Clayton, previously involved in <mask>'s radio business and now having graduated from Georgia Tech with a degree in physics, became the head of the new company's research and development. Years later, the school would promote Scientific Atlanta's origins at Georgia Tech, and Scientific Atlanta has been a longtime financial contributor to Georgia Tech. Scientific Atlanta's first business focus was antennas for military and industrial use. Finances were tight at the fledgling firm. When they could not afford an automatic antenna pattern recorder, of which there was only one such machine on the market, <mask> decided to build his own. When word in the industry spread companies began contacting Scientific Atlanta. Within six months of the development of the device, <mask> sold units to Western Electric, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, General Electric, Convair, American Machine and Foundry, and many other large corporations of the era.Within eight years of operating, the firm had captured 60% of the global market share of electronic instruments for testing and designing antennas, had broken ground on a 25-acre facility in Northeast Atlanta, and had 240 employees on the payroll including 40 engineers. Scientific Atlanta helped NASA establish ground stations for communication with astronauts during the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo projects. When <mask> became the first American to orbit the Earth in 1962 on Mercury-Atlas 6, his voice was transmitted and received by radio antennas designed and equipment built by Scientific Atlanta. In the 1970s, <mask> recognized the potential combination of communications satellites and cable television.

masks:
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
John Glenn
Robinson


title: Glen P. Robinson

texts:
 Ted Turner purchased one of Scientific Atlanta's first satellite systems, which formed the basis of Turner's "Super Station" that was broadcast around the country to other cable providers. In 1975, HBO and TelePrompTer used Scientific Atlanta equipment to transmit the first live satellite-delivered cable event, the "Thrilla in Manila" heavyweight boxing championship bout between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier. Scientific Atlanta is perhaps best known for pioneering television cable set-top boxes and equipment worldwide and the development of satellite Earth stations.<mask> remained CEO of Scientific Atlanta for 20 years, and chairman of the board for an additional eight years, until he retired from the company in 1979. Scientific Atlanta grew dramatically; it earned $3.1 million in revenue in 1962, approximately $200 million in 1979, and $1.9 billion in yearly revenue by 2005. Scientific Atlanta served as a regional business incubator, with hundreds of companies tracing their roots back to it. Later career
<mask> founded E-Tech in 1978, which developed heat pump technology and high-technology related to energy conservation, energy conversion, and solar energy. When interviewed about E-Tech's founding, <mask> said "I like to pioneer new fields, to start small businesses." E-Tech acquired Scientific Atlanta's Special Products Division, which included staff, research contracts, patented products in solar energy, and specialized equipment. Its first product was an electric heat pump water heater, the Efficiency II, that reduced water heating bills by 50% and provided an equipment payback of three years.E-Tech worked on a range of United States Department of Energy contracts in the field of solar energy. In 1986, E-Tech merged with Crispaire Corporation, which specialized in cooling equipment for telecommunications systems, school classrooms, and commercial/industrial structures. The merger resulted in <mask> taking over the new entity, which also operated under the trade name Marvair. Crispaire Corporation/Marvair later joined with RV Products to form a new

masks: Robinson Robinson Robinson Robinson


title: Glen P. Robinson

texts: company, Airxcel, Inc. <mask> retired from this venture in 1997. In 1994, <mask> funded and co-founded LaserCraft, which focused on applications of LIDAR such as radar guns and traffic enforcement cameras, and in 2006 was the world's largest manufacturer of laser products for law enforcement. LaserCraft was acquired by Public Safety Equipment in June 2006, which was in turn acquired by Stirling Square Capital Partners and Diamond Castle Holdings in February 2007. <mask> was an angel investor, particularly in the fields of digital communications and biotechnology.In 1999, he funded OmniMetrix and Mission Communications, two companies focused on AMPS cellular digital control channel and wireless SCADA communications. Omnimetrix was acquired by Acorn Energy in 2012. Mission is currently the leading provider of cellular SCADA for water and wastewater in North America. In 2000, he invested $1.5 million in Genomic Solutions Inc, which was acquired by Digilab, Inc. in 2007. Most recently, <mask> was an investor in and co-founder of the 2007 VentureLab startup, C2 Biofuels, which attracted additional funding from Chevron and aims to build several $100 million cellulosic ethanol plants throughout the United States. <mask> held positions on numerous boards, including: Chairman of the Georgia Science and Technology Commission; Chairman of the Georgia Tech Research Corporation; Trustee of The Georgia Tech Foundation; Member of the Board of Visitors of Emory University; Director of the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce; Director of the Georgia Tech Alumni Association, advisory board of the Georgia Institute of Technology College of Engineering, board member of Georgia State's School of Business, and director of the Georgia Business and Industry Association. <mask> was a member of the Defense Science Board, an advisory committee of the United States Department of Defense on scientific and technical matters.He was a presenting member of the White House Conference on the Industrial World Ahead, a meeting of the nation's top business leaders to discuss technological

masks:
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Legacy Robinson
Robinson


title: Glen P. Robinson

texts:
 advancement, social change, manpower utilization, Cold War competition and the state of American enterprise. Arranged by Richard Nixon and Secretary of Commerce Maurice Stans, it was the first such meeting ever held that focused solely on American business and the future. <mask> was elected an IEEE Fellow in 1977 and given the award of Outstanding Engineer of Region III by IEEE in 1978. <mask> was selected as Georgia's Small Businessman of the Year in 1965, the Georgia Business and Industry Association's (now the Georgia Chamber of Commerce) Entrepreneur of the Year in 1981, and was elected to the Georgia Technology Hall of Fame in 1993. Since 1995, Scientific Atlanta has sponsored scholarships in <mask>'s name for children of its employees. In March 1998, <mask> donated to create two endowed chairs at Georgia Tech: the $1.5 million <mask><mask> Chair in Non-Linear Science (in the School of Physics), currently held by <mask> Cvitanović, and the $1.5 million <mask>. <mask> Chair in Electro-Optics (in GTRI). In 2003, Georgia Tech awarded him an honorary Ph.D. in physics, and in 2006 he was awarded the Joseph Mayo <mask>t Alumni Distinguished Service Award.In 2007, half of Georgia Tech's Molecular Science and Engineering Building was named the <mask> P. <mask>, Jr. Tower in his honor, due in part to his $5 million donation towards its construction. <mask> continued working with startups and technology businesses throughout his later career. Near the end of his life, he and his wife, Jan Musgrove <mask>, had 5 children, 12 grandchildren, and 3 great-grandchildren and lived in Atlanta. On Wednesday, January 16, 2013, <mask> died of apparent heart failure. The funeral was held at St. Anne's Episcopal Church in Atlanta, and he was cremated by H.M. Patterson & Son, Arlington Chapel. References

1923 births
2013 deaths
Scientific Atlanta
Georgia Tech Research Institute people
Georgia Tech alumni
Marion Military Institute alumni
American business executives
Fellow Members of the IEEE
People from Crescent City, Florida
Amateur radio people
United States Navy

masks:
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Glen P
. Robinson
Predrag
Glen P
Robinson
Petti
Glen
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson
Robinson


title: John Neal (writer)

texts: <mask> (August 25, 1793 – June 20, 1876) was an American writer, critic, editor, lecturer, and activist. Considered both eccentric and influential, he delivered speeches and published essays, novels, poems, and short stories between the 1810s and 1870s in the United States and Great Britain, championing American literary nationalism and regionalism in their earliest stages. <mask> advanced the development of American art, fought for women's rights, advocated the end of slavery and racial prejudice, and helped establish the American gymnastics movement. The first American author to use natural diction and a pioneer of colloquialism, <mask> is the first to use the phrase son-of-a-bitch in a work of fiction. He attained his greatest literary achievements between 1817 and 1835, during which time he was the first American published in British literary journals, author of the first history of American literature, America's first art critic, a children's literature pioneer, and a forerunner of the American Renaissance. As one of the first men to advocate women's rights in the US and the first American lecturer on the issue, for over fifty years he supported female writers and organizers, affirmed intellectual equality between men and women, fought coverture laws against women's economic rights, and demanded suffrage, equal pay, and better education for women. He was the first American to establish a public gymnasium in the US and championed athletics to regulate violent tendencies with which he himself had struggled throughout his life.A largely self-educated man who attended no schools after the age of twelve, <mask> was a child laborer who left self-employment in

masks:
John Neal
Neal
John Neal
Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts:
 dry goods at twenty-two to pursue dual careers in law and literature. By middle age <mask> had attained comfortable wealth and community standing in his native Portland, Maine, through varied business investments, arts patronage, and civic leadership. <mask> is considered an author without a masterpiece, though his short stories are his highest literary achievements and ranked with the best of his age. Rachel Dyer is considered his best novel, "Otter-Bag, the Oneida Chief" and "David Whicher" his best tales, and The Yankee his most influential periodical. His "Rights of Women" speech (1843) at the peak of his influence as a feminist had a considerable impact on the future of the movement. Biography

Childhood and early employment

<mask> and his twin sister Rachel were born in the town of Portland in the Massachusetts District of Maine on August 25, 1793, the only children of parents <mask> and Rachel Hall <mask>. The senior <mask>, a school teacher, died a month later.<mask>'s mother, described by former pupil Elizabeth Oakes Smith as a woman of "clear intellect, and no little self-reliance and independence of will", made up the lost family income by establishing her own school and renting rooms in her home to boarders. She also received assistance from the siblings' unmarried uncle, <mask>, and others in their Quaker community. <mask> grew up in "genteel poverty" attending his mother's school, a Quaker boarding school, and the public school in Portland. <mask> claimed his lifelong struggle with a short temper and violent tendencies originated in the public school, at which he was bullied and physically abused by classmates and the schoolmaster. To reduce

masks:
Neal
Neal
John Neal
John Neal
Neal
John Neal
Neal
James Neal
Neal
Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts:
 his mother's financial burden, <mask> left school and home at the age of twelve for full-time employment. As an adolescent haberdasher and dry goods salesman in Portland and Portsmouth, <mask> learned dishonest business practices like passing off counterfeit money and misrepresenting merchandise quality and quantity. Laid off multiple times due to business failures resulting from US embargoes against British imports, <mask> traveled through Maine as an itinerant penmanship instructor, watercolor teacher, and miniature portrait artist.At twenty years of age in 1814, he answered an ad for employment with a dry goods shop in Boston and moved to the larger city. In Boston, <mask> established a partnership with <mask> and Pierpont's brother in-law, whereby they exploited supply chain constrictions caused by the War of 1812 to make quick profits smuggling contraband British dry goods between Boston, New York City, and Baltimore. They established stores in Boston, Baltimore, and Charleston before the recession following the war upended the firm and left Pierpont and <mask> bankrupt in Baltimore in 1816. Though the "Pierpont, Lord, and Neal" wholesale/retail chain proved to be short-lived, <mask>'s relationship with Pierpont grew into the closest and longest-lived friendship of his life. <mask>'s experience in business riding out the multiple booms and busts that eventually left him bankrupt at age twenty-two made him into a proud and ambitious young man who viewed reliance on his own talents and resources as the key to his recovery and future success. Building a career in Baltimore

<mask>'s time in Baltimore between his business failure in 1816 and his departure

masks:
Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal
John Pierpont
Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts: for London in 1823 was the busiest period of his life as he juggled overlapping careers in editorship, journalism, poetry, novels, law study, and later, law practice. During this period he taught himself to read and write in eleven languages, published seven books, read law for four years, completed an independent course of law study in eighteen months that was designed to be completed in seven-to-eight years, earned admission to the bar in a community known for rigorous requirements, and contributed prodigiously to newspapers and literary magazines, two of which he edited at different points.Two months after <mask>'s bankruptcy trial, he submitted his first contribution to The Portico and quickly became the magazine's second-most prolific contributor of poems, essays, and literary criticism, though he was never paid. Two years later he took over as editor for what ended up being the last issue. The magazine was closely associated with the Delphian Club, which he founded in 1816 with Dr. Tobias Watkins, <mask>, and four other men. <mask> felt indebted to this "high-minded, generous, unselfish" association of "intellectual and companionable" people for many of the happy memories and employment connections he enjoyed in Baltimore. While writing his earliest poetry, novels, and essays he was studying law as an unpaid apprentice in the office of William H. Winder, a fellow Delphian. <mask>'s business failure had left him without enough "money to take a letter from the post-office", so <mask> "cast about for something better to do... and, after considering the matter for ten minutes or so, determined to try my hand at a novel." When he wrote his first book,

masks:
Neal
John Pierpont
Neal
Neal
Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts: fewer than seventy novels had been published by "not more than half a dozen [American] authors; and of these, only Washington Irving had received more than enough to pay for the salt in his porridge."<mask> was nevertheless inspired by Pierpont's financial success with his poem The Airs of Palestine (1816) and encouraged by the reception of his initial submissions to The Portico. He resolved that "there was nothing left for me but authorship, or starvation, if I persisted in my plan of studying law". Composing his first and only bound volume of poetry was <mask>'s nighttime distraction from laboring sixteen hours a day, seven days a week, for more than four months to produce an index for six years of weekly publications of Hezekiah Niles's Weekly Register magazine, which Niles admitted was "the most laborious work of the kind that ever appeared in any country". In 1819 he published a play, took his first paying job as a newspaper editor, and wrote three-quarters of History of the American Revolution, otherwise credited to Paul Allen. <mask>'s substantial literary output earned him the moniker  from his Delphian Club associates. By these means <mask> was able to pay his expenses while completing his apprenticeship and independently studying law. He was admitted to the bar and started practicing law in Baltimore in 1820.<mask>'s final years in Baltimore were his most productive as a novelist. He published one novel in 1822 and three more the following year, eventually rising to the status of James Fenimore Cooper's chief rival for recognition as America's leading novelist. In this turbulent period he quit the Delphian Club on bad terms and accepted

masks: Neal Neal Neal Neal Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts:
 excommunication from the Society of Friends after his participation in a street brawl. In reaction to insults against prominent lawyer William Pinkney published in Randolph just after Pinkney died, his son Edward Coote Pinkney challenged <mask> to a duel. Having established himself six years earlier as an outspoken opponent of dueling, <mask> refused and the two engaged in a battle of printed words in the fall of that year. <mask> became "weary of the law—weary as death", feeling that he spent those years in "open war, with the whole tribe of lawyers in America". "Ironically,... at precisely the moment when [<mask>] was endeavoring to establish himself as the American writer, <mask> was also alienating friends, critics, and the general public at an alarming rate."By late 1823, <mask> was ready to relocate away from Baltimore. According to him, the catalyst to move to London was a dinner party with an English friend who quoted Sydney Smith's 1820 then-notorious remark, "in the four quarters of the globe, who reads an American book?". Whether it had more to do with Smith or Pinkney, <mask> took less than a month after that dinner date to settle his affairs in Baltimore and secure passage on a ship bound for the UK on December 15, 1823. Writing in London

<mask>'s relocation to London figured into three professional goals that guided him through the 1820s: to supplant Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper as the leading American literary voice, to bring about a new distinctly American literary style, and to reverse the British literary establishment's disdain for American writers. He followed Irving’s precedent of using temporary residence in London to

masks: Neal Neal Neal Neal Neal Neal Neal Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts: earn more money and notoriety from the British literary market. London publishers had already pirated Seventy-Six and Logan, but <mask> hoped those companies would pay him to publish Errata and Randolph if he were present to negotiate. They refused.<mask> brought enough money to survive for only a few months on the assumption that "if people gave any thing  for books here, they would not be able to starve me, since I could live upon air, and write faster than any man that ever lived." His financial situation had become desperate when William Blackwood asked <mask> in April 1824 to become a regular contributor to Blackwood's Magazine. For the next year and a half, <mask> was "handsomely paid" to be one of the magazine's most prolific contributors. His first Blackwood's article, a profile on the 1824 candidates for US president and the five presidents who had served to that point, was the first article by an American to appear in a British literary journal and was quoted and republished widely throughout Europe. As the first written history of American literature, the American Writers series was <mask>'s most noteworthy contribution to the magazine. Blackwood provided the platform for <mask>'s earliest written works on gender and women's rights and published Brother Jonathan, but a back-and-forth over manuscript revisions in autumn 1825 soured the relationship and <mask> was once again without a source of income. After a short time earning much less money writing articles for other British periodicals, thirty-two year-old <mask> met seventy-seven year-old utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham through the London Debating Societies.In late 1825 Bentham offered

masks:
Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal
John Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts:
 him rooms at his "Hermitage" and a position as his personal secretary. <mask> spent the next year and a half writing for Bentham's Westminster Review. In spring 1827, Bentham financed <mask>'s return to the US. He left the UK having caught the attention of the British literary elite, published the novel he brought with him, and "succeeded to perfection" in educating the British about American institutions, habits, and prospects. Yet Brother Jonathan was not received as the great American novel and it failed to earn <mask> the level of international fame he had hoped for, so he returned to the US no longer Cooper's chief rival. Return to Portland, Maine
<mask> returned to the United States from Europe in June 1827 with plans to settle in New York City, but stopped first in his native Portland to visit his mother and sister. There he was confronted by citizens offended by his derision of prominent citizens in the semi-autobiographical Errata, the way he depicted New England dialect and habits in Brother Jonathan, and his criticism of American writers in Blackwood's Magazine.Residents posted broadsides, engaged in verbally and physically violent exchanges with <mask> in the streets, and conspired to block his admission to the bar. <mask> defiantly resolved to settle in Portland instead of New York. Verily, verily,' said I, 'if they take that position, here I will stay, till I am both rooted and grounded—grounded in the graveyard, if nowhere else. <mask> became a proponent in the US of athletics he had practiced abroad, including Friedrich Jahn's early Turnen gymnastics and boxing and fencing techniques he learned in Paris, London, and Baltimore. He opened

masks: Neal Neal Neal Neal Neal Neal Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts: Maine's first gymnasium in 1827, making him the first American to establish a public gym in the US. He offered lessons in boxing and fencing in his law office. The same year he started gyms in nearby Saco and at Bowdoin College.The year before he had published articles on German gymnastics in the American Journal of Education and urged Thomas Jefferson to include a gymnastics school at the University of Virginia. <mask>'s athletic pursuits modeled "a new sense of maleness" that favored "forbearance based on strength" and helped him regulate the violent tendencies with which he struggled throughout his life. In 1828, <mask> established The Yankee magazine with himself as editor, and continued publication through the end of 1829. He used its pages to vindicate himself to fellow Portlanders, critique American art and drama, host a discourse on the nature of New Englander identity, advance his developing feminist ideas, and encourage new literary voices, most of them women. <mask> also edited many other periodicals between the late 1820s and the mid 1840s and was during this time a highly sought-after contributor on a variety of topics. <mask> published three novels from material he produced in London and focused his new creative writing efforts on a body of short stories that represents his greatest literary achievement. <mask> published an average of one tale per year between 1828 and 1846, helping to shape the relatively new short story genre.He began traveling as a lecturer in 1829, reaching the height of his influence in the women's rights movement in 1843 when he was delivering speeches before large crowds in New York City and reaching wider audiences


title: John Neal (writer)

texts:
 through the press. This period of juggling literary, activist, athletic, legal, artistic, social, and business pursuits was captured by <mask>'s law apprentice James Brooks in 1833:

<mask> was... a boxing-master, and fencing-master too, and as a printer's devil came in, crying "copy, more copy," he would race with a huge swan's quill, full gallop, over sheets of paper as with a steam-pen, and off went one page, and off went another, and then a lesson in boxing, the thump of glove to glove, then the mask, and the stamp of the sandal, and the ringing of the foils. Family and civic leadership

In 1828, <mask> married his second cousin Eleanor Hall and together they had five children between 1829 and 1847. The couple raised their children in the house he built on Portland's prestigious State Street in 1836. Also in 1836 he received an honorary master's degree from Bowdoin College, the same institution at which <mask> made a living as a self-employed teenage penmanship instructor and that later educated the more economically privileged Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. After the 1830s, <mask> became less active in literary circles and increasingly occupied with business, activism, and local arts and civic projects, particularly after receiving inheritances from two paternal uncles that dramatically reduced his need to rely on writing as a source of income. <mask> died in 1832 and <mask> in 1836, but the second inheritance was held up until 1858 in a legal battle involving Stephen's daughter, suffragist <mask> Dennett.In 1845 he became the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company's first agent in Maine, earning enough in commissions that he

masks:
Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal
James Neal
Stephen Neal
Lydia Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts: decided to retire from the lecture circuit, law practice, and most writing projects. <mask> began developing and managing local real estate, operating multiple granite quarries, developing railroad connections to Portland, and investing in land speculation in Cairo, Illinois. He led the movement to incorporate Portland as a city and build the community's first parks and sidewalks. He became interested in architecture, interior design, and furniture design, developing pioneering, simple, and functional solutions that influenced other designers outside his local area. Many of his literary contemporaries interpreted <mask>'s change in focus as a disappearance. Hawthorne wrote in 1845 of "that wild fellow, <mask>", who "surely has long been dead, else he never could keep himself so quiet." James Russell Lowell in 1848 claimed he had "wasted in Maine the sinews and cords of his pugilist brain".Friend and fellow Portland native Henry Wadsworth Longfellow described <mask> in 1860 as "a good deal tempered down but fire enough still". After years of vaguely affiliating with Unitarianism and universalism, <mask> converted to Congregationalism in 1851. Through deepened religiosity he found new moral arguments for women's rights, potential release from his violent tendencies, and inspiration for seven religious essays. <mask> collected these "exhortations" in One Word More (1854), which "rambles passionately for two hundred pages and closes with breathless metaphor" in an effort to convert "the reasoning and thoughtful among believers". At the urging of Longfellow and other friends, <mask> returned to novel writing late in life, publishing True Womanhood in 1859. To

masks:
Neal
Neal
John Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal
John Neal


title: John Neal (writer)

texts:
 fill a gap in his income between 1863 and 1866 he wrote three dime novels. In 1869 he published his "most readable book, and certainly one of the most entertaining autobiographies to come out of nineteenth-century America".Reflecting on his life this way inspired <mask> to amplify his activism and assume regional leadership roles in the women's suffrage movement. His last two books are a collection of pieces for and about children titled Great Mysteries and Little Plagues (1870), and a guidebook for his hometown titled Portland Illustrated (1874). By 1870, in his old age, he had amassed a comfortable fortune, valued at $80,000. His last appearance in the public eye was likely an 1875 syndicated article from the Portland Advertiser about an eighty-one year-old <mask> physically overpowering a man in his early twenties who was smoking on a non-smoking streetcar. <mask> died on June 20, 1876 and was buried in the <mask> family plot in Portland's Western Cemetery. Writing
<mask>'s body of literary work spans almost sixty years from the end of the War of 1812 to a decade following the Civil War, though he achieved his major literary accomplishments between 1817 and 1835. His writing both reflects and challenges shifting American ways of life over those years.He started his career as an American reading public was just beginning to emerge, working immediately and consistently within the nation's developing "complex web of print culture". Throughout his adult life, especially in the 1830s, <mask> was a prolific contributor to newspapers and magazines, writing essays on a wide variety of topics including but not limited to art criticism, literary criticism,

masks:
Neal
Neal
John Neal
Neal
Neal
Neal


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 phrenology, women's rights, early German gymnastics, and slavery. His efforts to subvert the influence of the British literary elite and to develop a rival American literature were largely credited to his successors until more recent twenty-first century scholarship shifted that credit to <mask>. His short stories are "his highest literary achievement" and are ranked with those of Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, and Rudyard Kipling. <mask> is often considered an influential American literary figure with no masterpiece of his own. Style

Defying the rigid moralism and sentimentality of his American contemporaries Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper, <mask>'s early novels between the late 1810s and 1820s depict dark, physically-flawed, conflicted Byronesque heroes of great intellect and morals. His brand of Romanticism reflected an aversion for self-criticism and revision, relying instead on "nearly automatic writing" to define his style, enhance the commercial viability of his works, and craft a new American literature.As a pioneer of "talk[ing] on paper" or "natural writing", <mask> was "the first in America to be natural in his diction" and his work represents "the first deviation from... Irvingesque graciousness" in which "not only characters but also genres converse, and are interrogated, challenged, and transformed." <mask> declared that he "never shall write what is now worshipped under the name of classical English", which was "the deadest language I ever met with or heard of". <mask>'s voice was one of many following the War of 1812 calling for an American literary nationalism, but <mask> felt his colleagues' work

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 relied too much on British conventions. By contrast, he felt that "to succeed..., I must be unlike all that have gone before me" and issue "another Declaration of Independence, in the great Republic of Letters." To achieve this he exploited distinctly American characters, settings, historical events, and manners of speech in his writing. This was a "caustic assault" on British literary elites viewed as aristocrats writing for personal amusement, in contrast to American authors as middle class professionals plying a commercial trade for sustenance. By mimicking the common and sometimes profane language of his countrymen in fiction, <mask> hoped to appeal to a broader readership of minimally educated book buyers, thereby intending to guarantee the existence of an American national literature by ensuring its economic viability.Starting in the late 1820s, <mask> shifted his focus from nationalism to regionalism to challenge the rise of Jacksonian populism in the US by showcasing and contrasting coexisting regional and multicultural differences within the United States. The collection of essays and stories he published in his magazine The Yankee "lays the groundwork for reading the nation itself as a collection of voices in conversation" and "asks readers to decide for themselves how to manage the multiple and contending sides of a federal union." To preserve variations in American English he feared might disappear in an increasingly nationalist climate, he became one of the first writers to employ colloquialism and regional dialects in his writing. Literary criticism
<mask> used literary criticism in magazines and novels to encourage desired changes in the

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texts: field and to uplift new writers, most of them women. Noted for his "critical vision", <mask> expressed judgments that were widely accepted in his lifetime. "My opinion of other [people's] writings", he said, "has never been ill received; and in every case... my judgment has been confirmed, sooner or later, without a single exception." Fred Lewis Pattee corroborated this statement seventy years after <mask>'s death: "Where he condemned, time has almost without exception condemned also."As an American literary nationalist, he called for "faithful representations of native character" in literature that utilize the "abundant and hidden sources of fertility... in the northern, as well as the southern Americas". His American Writers essay series in Blackwood's Magazine (1824) is the earliest written history of American literature, and was reprinted as a collection in 1937. <mask> dismissed almost all of the 120 authors he critiqued in that series as derivative of their British predecessors. <mask> used his role as critic, particularly in the pages of his magazine The Yankee, to draw attention to newer writers in whose work he saw promise. <mask> Whittier, Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow all received their first "substantial sponsorship or praise" in the magazine's pages. When submitting poetry to <mask> for review, Whittier made the request, "if you don't like it, say so privately; and I will quit poetry, and everything also of a literary nature". Poe was <mask>'s most historically impactful discovery and when he quit poetry for short stories it was likely due to <mask>'s influence.Poe thanked <mask> for "the very first words

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 of encouragement I ever remember to have heard". After Poe's death two decades later, <mask> defended his legacy against attacks in Rufus Wilmot Griswold's unsympathetic obituary of Poe, labeling Griswold "a Rhadamanthus, who is not to be bilked of his fee, a thimble-full of newspaper notoriety". Short stories
<mask>'s short stories are "his highest literary achievement". He published an average of one tale per year between 1828 and 1846, helping to shape the relatively new short story genre, particularly early children's literature. Considered his best short stories, "Otter-Bag, the Oneida Chief" (1829) and "David Whicher" (1832) "overshadow the less inspired efforts of his more famous contemporaries and add a dimension to the art of storytelling not to be found in Irving and Poe, rarely in Hawthorne, and rarely in American fiction until Melville and Twain decades later (and Faulkner a century later) began telling their tales." Ironically, "David Whicher" was published anonymously and not attributed to <mask> until the 1960s. "The Haunted Man" (1832) is noteworthy as the first work of fiction to utilize psychotherapy."The Old Pussy-Cat and the Two Little Pussy-Cats" and "The Life and Adventures of Tom Pop" (1835) are both considered pioneering works of children's literature. Like his magazine essays and lectures, <mask>'s stories challenged American socio-political phenomena that grew in the period leading up to and including Andrew Jackson's terms as US president (1829–1837): manifest destiny, empire building, Indian removal, consolidation of federal power, racialized citizenship, and the Cult of Domesticity. "David Whicher" challenged a body of popular

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 literature that converged in the 1820s around a "divisive and destructive insistence on frontiersman and the Indian as implacable enemies". "Idiosyncrasies" is a "manifesto for human rights" in the face of "hegemonic patriarchalism". His stories in this period also used humor and satire to address social and political phenomena, most notably "Courtship" (1829), "The Utilitarian" (1830), "The Young Phrenologist" (1836), "Animal Magnetism" (1839), and "The Ins and the Outs" (1841). Novels
With the exception of True Womanhood (1859), <mask> published all of his novels between 1817 and 1833. The first five he wrote and published in Baltimore: Keep Cool (1817), Logan (1822), Seventy-Six (1823), Randolph (1823), and Errata (1823).He wrote Brother Jonathan in Baltimore, but revised and published it in London in 1825. He published Rachel Dyer (1828), Authorship (1830), and The Down-Easters (1833) while living in Portland, Maine, but all are reworkings of content he wrote in London. Keep Cool, <mask>'s first novel, made him "the first in America to be natural in his diction" and the "father of American subversive fiction". Generally regarded as a failure, the book shows that "the gulf between <mask>'s prophetic vision of a native literature and his own capacity to fulfill that vision is painfully apparent". The productivity of <mask>'s Baltimore days is "hard to believe — until one reads the novels" and notices the haste with which they were written. Logan, a Family History is a "gothic tapestry" of "superstition, supernatural suggestions, brutality, sensuality, colossal hatred, delirium, rape, insanity, murder... incest and cannibalism". By "elevating emotional

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texts: effect over coherence, the novel excites its readers to death."It challenged the national narrative of American Indians' foreordained disappearance in the face of White Americans' territorial expansion and collapsed racial boundaries between the two groups. Seventy-Six was <mask>'s favorite of his novels. When it was released in 1823, <mask> was at the height of his prominence as a novelist, being at the time the chief rival of leading American author, James Fenimore Cooper. Inspired by Cooper's The Spy, <mask> based his story on historical research compiled a few years earlier while helping his friend Paul Allen write his History of the American Revolution. Seventy-Six was criticized at the time for its use of profanity and was recognized later as the first work of American fiction to use the phrase son-of-a-bitch. Brother Jonathan: or, the New Englanders was the most "complex, ambitious, and demanding" American novel until Cooper's Littlepage Manuscripts trilogy twenty years later. As "one of the most emphatic, even shrill examples of U.S. nationalistic literature", it is "positively bristling with regional accents, from the New England twang of its protagonists through to bursts of patois in Virginian, Georgian, Scottish, Penobscot Indian, and Ebonics".Running counter to <mask>'s purported nationalist theme, "the diverse linguistic styles" used in the novel "subvert the fiction of a unified, national whole" in the US. The novel's "greatest achievement [is] its faithful if irreverent representation of American customs and American speech" that nevertheless "was read by American reviewers as outright slander" against the US and "aroused a terrible storm...


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 in Portland [where] he was denounced with great indignation." Rachel Dyer: a North American Story (1828) is widely considered to be <mask>'s most successful novel, most readable for a modern audience, and most successful at manifesting his desire for a national American literature. Along with Brother Jonathan and The Down-Easters, it is notable for depicting peculiar American folkways, accents, and slang. One hundred years later it provided source material for the Dictionary of American English. A historical fiction like many of <mask>'s other novels, it is the first hardcover novel based on the Salem witch trials and influenced <mask> Whittier and Nathaniel Hawthorne to include witchcraft in their creative writing. Art criticism and patronage
<mask> was the first American art critic, though he did not receive this recognition until the twentieth century.Starting in 1819 with articles in Baltimore newspapers, he expanded to a much wider audience with Randolph (1823), which communicated his opinions through the thin veil of the novel's protagonist. Though he continued work in this field at least as late 1869, his chief impact was in the 1820s. <mask> around this time regularly visited Rembrandt Peale's Peale Museum, courted his daughter Rosalba Carriera Peale, and sat for portraits with his niece Sarah Miriam Peale. <mask>'s approach to art criticism in the early 1820s was intuitive and showed disdain for connoisseurship, which he viewed as aristocratic and incompatible with American democratic ideals. <mask> shows some initial influence from August Wilhelm Schlegel's Course of Lectures in Dramatic Art and Literature and Sir Joshua Reynolds's Discourses, but

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texts: largely broke with those sensibilities over the course of the decade. By the late 1820s he came to dismiss history painting and show preference for "the unadulterated truth of the American locality and nature" he found in portraits and landscapes, anticipating the rise of the Hudson River School. The positive attention <mask> paid to American portrait painters trained in the "humbler contingencies" of sign painting and applied arts was accompanied by his acknowledgment of the artist's often conflicting priorities: preserving likeness of the subject without offending the customer.<mask> was also unique in his effort in this period to raise the status of engraving as fine art. Reynolds's approach to art criticism would remain dominant in both the US and UK until <mask>'s Modern Painters was published in 1843, though <mask>'s "Landscape and Portrait-Painting" (1829) anticipated many of those Ruskinesque changes by distinguishing between "things seen by the artist" and "things as they are". After <mask> had accumulated sufficient wealth and influence toward the middle of the nineteenth century, he began patronizing and uplifting artists in the Portland, Maine area. Painter Charles Codman and sculptor Benjamin Paul Akers both became steadily patronized as a result of <mask>'s encouragement, patronage, and connections. <mask> also helped guide the work and careers of Franklin Simmons, <mask> Tilton, and Harrison Bird Brown. Brown became Portland's most successful artist of the nineteenth century. Comparatively constant is <mask>'s taste for bold, unlabored approaches to painting that utilize "an offhand, free, sketchy style, without high finish".The same could be

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 said of <mask>'s "fantastic mixture of common sense and absurdity, of intelligent observation and dross" that portrays <mask> the art critic as "melodramatic, addicted to exaggeration, superficial, inconsistent, ill-informed, naive". These descriptors apply less to his final essays on art (1868 and 1869) that conspicuously lack the qualities of <mask>'s boastful, confident, and passionate style in the 1820s. His opinions from that earlier period "to a remarkable degree... have stood the trying test of time." Poetry
The bulk of <mask>'s poetry was published in The Portico while studying law in Baltimore. His only bound collection of poems is Battle of Niagara, A Poem, without Notes; and Goldau, or the Maniac Harper, published in 1818. Though Battle of Niagara brought him little fame or money, it is considered the best poetic description of Niagara Falls up to that time. Poems by <mask> are also featured in Specimens of American Poetry edited by Samuel Kettell (1829), The Poets and Poetry of America edited by Rufus Wilmot Griswold (1850), and American Poetry from the Beginning to Whitman edited by Louis Untermeyer (1931).Drama and theatrical criticism
<mask> authored two plays, neither of which were ever produced on stage: Otho: A Tragedy, in Five Acts (1819) and Our Ephraim, or The New Englanders, A What-d’ye-call-it?—in three Acts (1835). <mask> wrote Otho hoping it would see production with Thomas Abthorpe Cooper in the lead, but Cooper showed no interest. Written in verse and heavily inspired by the works of Lord Byron, <mask> considered the play too dense and wrote to <mask> that it needed "a sky-light or two" cut into it. It was also described as "at

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 once both mystifying and trite". <mask> brought the script with him to London with plans to revise it and have it produced for the stage while he was there, but he never achieved that goal. Our Ephraim was commissioned in 1834 by actor James Henry Hackett, who asked <mask> to "squat right down & in your ready style in two or three days conjure me together something 'curious nice. Hackett rejected the play upon receipt as unsuitable for production: too many roles requiring a rural Maine accent, unrealistic set requirements, and too much scheduled improvisation.The play nevertheless represents "a significant advance in early American theatrical realism" and is the "fullest detailing of Yankee dialect" of any work <mask> produced. <mask>'s most noteworthy work of theatrical criticism is his five-installment essay "The Drama" (1829). Condemning stilted dialogue, <mask> contended that "when a person talks beautifully in his sorrow, it shows both great preparation and insincerity" and urged that playwrights should, "avoid poetry whenever the characters are much in earnest." Sixty years later William Dean Howells was considered innovative for saying the same thing. Editing

<mask> found his first two positions as editor through fellow members of the Delphian Club in Baltimore. His longest stint as editor was for The Yankee, which he founded only a few months after returning from London in 1827. Maine's first literary periodical, it ran weekly until, for financial reasons, it merged with a Boston magazine and was renamed The Yankee and Boston Literary Gazette as a monthly publication.It merged with Ladies' Magazine when it ceased publication at the end of 1829.

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 When starting his last stint as editor, he declared, "Having ten or fifteen minutes to spare, we have made up our minds to edit a newspaper." After <mask> left in a huff few weeks later, the next editor announced, "<mask> has retired from the editorship of the Transcript, the fifteen minutes having expired." Despite professing allegiance to Benthamian Utilitarianism in The Yankee, <mask> dedicated much more space in its pages to reinforcing Northern New England's standing on the national stage and championing American regionalism. His regionalism was distinct from those later in the century "who tended to portray regional spaces in nostalgic or sentimental terms as 'enclaves of tradition' that were posed against an increasingly urban and industrial nation." Instead, "<mask> remained committed to imagining regions as dynamic, future-oriented spaces whose identities would—and should—remain elusive." Controversial at the time for its lack of association with any political party or other interest group, The Yankee was free to cover "every thing  from church to state, from the tallest tome, no matter how thick, down to the smallest affairs, of tokens and souvenirs and lady-actress's feet—of poets and dogs, of paintings and side-walks, of Bentham and Jeffrey, and sleigh-rides and huskings, of politics and religion, and 'courting' and 'blackberrying.The magazine's greatest impact on literature was uplifting new voices like <mask> Whittier, Edgar Allan Poe, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Elizabeth Oakes Smith, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Most of the new writers whose works he published and wrote about in The Yankee were women. Lecturing

Between 1829 and 1848, <mask>

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 supplemented his income as a lecturer. Traveling on the lyceum circuit, he covered topics such as "literature, eloquence, the fine arts, political economy, temperance, poets and poetry, public-speaking, our pilgrim-fathers, colonization, law and lawyers, the study of languages, natural-history, phrenology, women's-rights, self-education, self-reliance, and self-distrust, progress of opinion, &c., &c., &c.". When asked without notice to address the theme of freedom in Portland, Maine on Independence Day 1832, <mask> accepted and gave an unprepared speech that was his first on women's rights. He used the principles of the American Revolution to attack slavery as an affront to liberty, and female disfranchisement and coverture as taxation without representation. Women's rights became a favorite topic of his frequent lecture engagements between 1832 and 1843 throughout the northeastern states.Because they were almost always published afterward and often covered in newspaper reviews, these events broadened <mask>'s sphere of influence and made his ideas accessible to readers not necessarily aligned with his views. Margaret Fuller admired <mask>'s "magnetic genius", "lion heart", and "sense of the ludicrous" as a lecturer, though she poked fun at his "exaggeration and coxcombry". His most well-attended and influential address was the 1843 "Rights of Women" speech at New York City's largest auditorium at the time, the Broadway Tabernacle. Activism
Using magazine and newspaper articles, short stories, novels, lectures, political organizing, and personal relationships, <mask> throughout his adult life addressed issues including feminism, women's rights, slavery,


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 rights of free Black Americans, rights of American Indians, dueling, temperance, lotteries, capital punishment, militia tax, insolvency law, and social hierarchy. Of these, "women's rights were the cause for which he fought longer and more consistently than for any other." Much of <mask>'s writing and lecturing on these topics demonstrated "a basic distrust of institutions and a continuing plea for self-examination and self-reliance". Additionally, <mask> was heavily involved in William Henry Harrison's 1840 presidential campaign, which almost resulted in his appointment as a district attorney.He also promoted pseudoscience movements like phrenology, animal magnetism, spiritualism, and clairvoyance. Feminism
<mask> was America's first women's rights lecturer and one of the first male advocates of women's rights and feminist causes in the US. At least as early as 1817 and late as 1873, he used journalism, fiction, lectures, political organizing, and personal relationships to advance feminist issues in the US and UK, reaching the height of his influence in this field circa 1843. <mask> supported female writers and organizers, affirmed intellectual equality between men and women, fought coverture laws against women's economic rights, and demanded suffrage, equal pay, and better education for women. <mask>'s early focus on female education was primarily influenced by Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman as well as works by Catharine Macaulay and Judith Sargent Murray. His early feminist essays from the 1820s fill an intellectual gap between eighteenth-century feminists and their pre-Seneca Falls Convention successors Sarah Moore Grimké,

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texts: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Margaret Fuller. As a male writer insulated from many forms of attack leveled against earlier female feminist thinkers, <mask>'s advocacy was crucial to bringing the field back into published discourse in the US and UK after a lull at the turn of the century.From the "feminist undertones" in his first novel (1817) through the illustrations of "patriarchal cruelty" in Errata (1823) and "Idiosyncrasies" (1843) to the vindication of independent, unmarried women in True Womanhood (1859), <mask> broke with writers of his generation by consciously and consistently including women and women's issues throughout his career as a writer of fiction. "Idiosyncrasies" explored the male feminist perspective through the character Lee who said, "we men... imprison the soul of woman, and set a seal upon her faculties—... allowing her no share whatever in... governing ourselves: Having found the cause,... and believing in my heart... that where the evil was, there the remedy must be sought for, I went to work". "Men and Women" (1824), his first feminist essay, recalls the eighteenth-century priority of female education: "Wait until women are educated like men—treated like men—and permitted to talk freely, without being put to shame, because they are women". At that future time, he posited that the greatest of male writers "will be equalled by women". Going further than his predecessors on intellectual equality, he "maintain[ed] that women are not inferior to men, but only unlike men, in their intellectual properties" and "would have women treated like men, of common sense." The article more fully explores the concept he raised in "Essay on

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 Duelling" (1817), in which when he urged women to use "the reason that Heaven has apportioned so equally between her, and her brother" to rid the world of duels. Over the 1820s, <mask> shifted his focus from educational and intellectual ideas to political and economic issues like coverture and suffrage.In an 1845 letter to activist Margaret Fuller, he said

I tell you there is no hope for woman, till she has a hand in making the law — no chance for her till her vote is worth as much as a mans  vote. When it is — woman will not be fobbed off with a six-pence a day for the very work a man would get a dollar for... All you and others are doing to elevate woman, is only fitted to make her feel more sensibly the long abuse of her own understanding, when she comes to her senses. You might as well educate slaves — and still keep them in bondage. <mask> delivered America's first women's rights lecture as an Independence Day address in Portland, Maine in 1832. He declared that under coverture and without suffrage, women were victims of the same crime of taxation without representation that caused the Revolutionary War. He reached the peak of his influence on feminist issues at the time of his "Rights of Women" speech (1843) before a crowd of 3,000 people in New York City. He attacked the concept of virtual representation in government that suffrage opponents argued women could enjoy through men: "Just reverse the condition of the two sexes: give to Women all the power now enjoyed by Men... What a clamour there would be then, about equal rights, about a privileged class, about being taxed without their own consent, and virtual representation, and all that!"The


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texts: "Rights of Women" speech was widely covered, albeit dismissed, by the press, and <mask> printed it later that year in the pages of Brother Jonathan magazine, of which he was editor. He used that magazine in 1843 to publish his own essays calling for equal pay and better workplace conditions for women, and to host a printed debate of correspondence on the merits of women's suffrage between himself and Eliza W. Farnham. Looking back more than forty years later, the second volume of the History of Woman Suffrage (1887) remembered that the lecture "roused considerable discussion..., was extensively copied, and... had a wide, silent influence, preparing the way for action. It was a scathing satire, and men felt the rebuke." For twenty years following his work with Brother Jonathan magazine, <mask> wrote about women almost exclusively in fiction but only occasionally about feminist issues in periodicals. He mused about crossdressing and the performative nature of gender in "Masquerading" (1864), "one of the most interesting essays of his career". He followed this with two women's rights essays for the American Phrenological Journal (1867), the women's rights chapter of his autobiography (1869), and twelve articles in The Revolution (1868–1870).<mask> became prominently involved as an organizer in the women's suffrage movement following the Civil War, finding influence in local, regional, and national organizations. When the American Equal Rights Association split in 1869 over the Fifteenth Amendment, <mask> regretted the division of efforts, but lent his support to the subsequent National Woman Suffrage Association because of its insistence upon immediate