title: Anna Stiegler

texts:
 resistance activist Käthe Popall. After 1945 she would work with them both on political issues. When her prison term ended, probably in December 1939 a few months after the outbreak of the Second World War, <mask> was transferred into "protective custody" at the Ravensbrück concentration camp. Afterwards she spoke little about her Ravensbrück experiences until her eightieth birthday, when she shared some of her memories:   she recalled that conditions in the concentration camp had been significantly harsher than they had been in the prison.Under the "divide and control" strategy used to administer the concentration camp she was designated as a "Funktionshäftling", assigned to supervise fellow inmates. She herself recalled that it was because of the strength of her politically grounded conviction that in the end  good would triumph over evil, that she was able to endure the concentration camp life more robustly than others, as a result of which she was able to provide support and comfort to fellow inmates. Several sources mention that as a result of this she was known to some as the "angel of Ravensbrück" ("Engel von Ravensbrück"). In April 1945 20,000 women were sent out of the camp on an "evacuation march" which would become a death march for many. The context was one in which the Soviet army was invading Germany from the east and the German authorities had decided, for various reasons, to empty the concentration camps before the foreign forces arrived, a decision which in the case of Ravensbrück was implemented between 27 April and 3 May 1945. <mask> survived the experience, finding refuge in a farm house, although it was not till January 1946 that she was able to return to Bremen. It was only now that she learned that <mask>, whom she had heard nothing for at least a year, had not survived the concentration camp experience.He was probably killed at Bergen-Belsen. New beginnings after the war
<mask> quickly resumed her political activity. She rounded up remaining former members of the pre-1933 SPD women's groups and set up a cross-party non-denominational Bremen women's committee.

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Anna Stiegler
Carl Stiegler
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title: Anna Stiegler

type: original

texts:
 This became an umbrella organisation to support a range of different groups from all levels of society in the Bremen region. Fellow founding committee members included , <mask> Fischer, Käthe Popall and Irmgard Enderle. Bremen had ended up as part of the British occupation zone and the military authorities were keen to re-establish democratic structures in "their" part of Germany. In October 1946 <mask> stood successfully for election to the re-instated  regional parliament ("Bremische Bürgerschaft"), elected a vice president of the chamber in 1947, and remaining a member of the assembly till shortly before her death in 1962.In 1946, aged 65, she was one of those who, for whatever reason, seemed to find her energy levels enhanced by the new challenges. Returning to themes on which she had spoken out during the Weimar years, <mask> campaigned for relaxation of the abortion laws (§ 118 StGB), advocating free access to contraception and modern effective methods for protecting vulnerable girls. She was energetically committed to women's rights. Mention should also be made of less eulogistic assessments, indicating that towards the end of her life she was not always accommodating to younger colleagues whose approach or tactics might not align unquestioningly with her own, however. There are suggestions of an excessive tendency to promote those colleagues who agreed with her. She was also vociferous in campaigning against West German rearmament, participating effectively in the SPD's successful campaign during the late 1950s to resist the provision of nuclear weapons to the West German army. <mask> died in Bremen on 23 June 1963, a greatly admired and respected doyenne of social democracy in the region and, to some extent, nationally.References

People from the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
Politicians from Bremen
Members of the Bürgerschaft of Bremen
German feminists
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Independent Social Democratic Party politicians
Ravensbrück concentration camp survivors
Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold members
German socialist feminists
1881 births
1963

masks:
Anna Klara
Stiegler
Stiegler
Anna Stiegler


title: Gaetano Catanoso

texts: <mask> (14 February 1879 - 4 April 1963) was an Italian Catholic priest and the founder of the Suore Veroniche del Santo Volto (1934). Catanoso served as a parish priest in two different parishes for his entire ecclesial life and was an ardent devotee of the Face of Jesus which he promoted to the faithful. He also founded the Poor Clerics to encourage vocations to the priesthood while forming the Confraternita del Santo Volto (1920) to spread devotion to the Face of Jesus. He dedicated his pastoral career to bringing the Gospel message to all people and hiked or rode on a mule to reach distant and surrounding mountain villages in order to evangelize to people. His fame for holiness was widespread during his life for people hailed his remarkable qualities and the conduct in which he led his life. The cause for his canonization was introduced on 15 October 1981 and he became titled as a Servant of God while he was later named as Venerable on 3 March 1990 upon the confirmation of his model life of heroic virtue. Pope John Paul II beatified <mask> on 4 May 1997 while Pope Benedict XVI later canonized the late priest in Saint Peter's Square on 23 October 2005.<mask> <mask> was born in 1879 to prosperous landowners in Reggio Calabria as the third of eight children of <mask> and Antonia Tripodi. In October 1889 he began his studies for the priesthood and he arrived with his father in the evening for him to be admitted into it though he had to return home several times due to bouts of ill health. In 1895 he donned the cassock for the first time and gave his first-ever sermon. He received his ordination to the priesthood on 20 September 1902 from Cardinal Gennaro Portanova and served as a parish priest for his entire ecclesial life; from 1902 until March 1904 he served as the prefect of seminarians. His first parish was in the remote hill village of Pentedattilo where he served from March 1904 until 1921. He was passionate about emulating the life

masks:
Gaetano Catanoso
Catanoso
Life Gaetano
Catanoso
Antonio Catanoso


title: Gaetano Catanoso

texts: of Jesus Christ in his service to the poor and would hike or ride on a mule to the distant and surrounding mountain villages to bring the message of the Gospel and hope to isolated people in desperate circumstances. To help him in this cause he founded an order of nuns known as the Suore Veroniche del Santo Volto in December 1934.From 1922 until 1949 he was the spiritual director to seminarians and from 1922 to 1933 was a chaplain at hospitals in the region. From 1921 to 1950 he served as a confessor to religious institutes and to the prison while from 1940 to 1963 he was the canon of the archdiocesan cathedral. The order established schools and also homes for the old in small places like San Lorenzo and Roccaforte as well as Chorio to educate children and care for the old and sick. The goal was to combat ignorance and the Mafia through education and the word of God. <mask> also founded the Poor Clerics to encourage vocations to the priesthood. He was transferred to the larger parish of Santa Maria de la Candelaria in Reggio Calabria on 2 February 1921. Catanoso was a close friend of Annibale Maria di Francia and Luigi Orione whom he had met in 1918.It was Orione who encouraged Catanoso when the latter decided to establish a religious congregation of his own; his order received diocesan approval on 25 March 1958. <mask> had a deep devotion to the Face of Christ and to that end formed the "Confraternita del Santo Volto" in 1919. He also revived Marian and Eucharistic devotions and improved catechesis while also working for the observance of liturgical feasts. Catanoso also worked for cooperation among local priests to provide missions via preaching and hearing confessions in each other's parishes. He often spent long ours in silent reflection before the Tabernacle and he promoted Eucharistic Adoration among the faithful. In 1943 he opened a makeshift orphanage for those children who were orphaned due to World War II. <mask> died on 4

masks: Catanoso Catanoso Catanoso


title: Gaetano Catanoso

texts:
 April 1963 and his final words were recorded as: "In te, Domine, speravi, Gesù, Maria, Giuseppe"; he had become ill and blind before his death though he still welcomed those who came to visit him and seek his counsel.His order in 2008 had 95 nuns in a total of seventeen houses and it would later receive full pontifical approval from Pope John Paul II on 8 December 1980. One American relative - the journalist <mask> from - Greensboro in North Carolina - wrote memoir about Catanoso and the book is titled: "My Cousin the Saint - A Search for Faith, Family and Miracles". Sainthood
The beatification process opened on 15 October 1981 after the Congregation for the Causes of Saints issued the official "nihil obstat" (nothing against) and titled Catanoso as a Servant of God. Documentation was sent to the C.C.S. in Rome who validated the process on 3 March 1989 and received the Positio from cause officials in 1989. Theologians met not long after this and approved the cause on 26 September 1989 as did the cardinal and bishop members of the C.C.S. who approved the dossier's contents on 19 December 1989.On 3 March 1990 he was proclaimed to be Venerable after Pope John Paul II confirmed that Catanoso lived a model life of heroic virtue. For him to be beatified one miracle needed to be investigated and approved; this miracle needed to be a healing that science and medicine were unable to explain. One such case was discovered and investigated in a diocesan process that lasted from 1993 until 1994 when all medical records and witness interrogatories were sent to the C.C.S. who validated the investigation on 10 February 1995. The medical panel of experts approved this miracle on 5 October 1995 as did their consulting theologians on 25 November 1995 and the C.C.S. themselves on 20 February 1996. John Paul II confirmed the healing to be a legitimate miracle on 25 June 1996 and presided over the beatification later on 4 May 1997.The second and final miracle


title: Gaetano Catanoso

texts:
 needed for him to be raised to sainthood was discovered and investigated in 2003 before the documents were sent to Rome and before the C.C.S. validated the process on 14 November 2003. The medical experts approved this healing to be a miracle on 1 April 2004 with the theologians also granting assent on 25 June 2004 as did the C.C.S. on 19 October 2004. John Paul II confirmed this miracle and <mask>'s inevitable sainthood on 20 December 2004. The date for the canonization was formalized at a consistory in the afternoon on 24 February 2005 in which Cardinal Angelo Sodano announced it on the behalf of the ill pope. John Paul II died two months later but his successor Pope Benedict XVI canonized <mask> on 23 October 2005 in Saint Peter's Square.Miracles
The miracle that led to his beatification occurred in Reggio-Calabria but was not investigated until a few decades later. It involved the healing of Sister Pauline who on 3 April 1963 wanted to see <mask> before he died. But the priest died on 4 April she - who suffered from severe asthma - knelt beside his remains and felt healed a few hours later with no breathing difficulties whatsoever. The miracle that led to his canonization occurred in Reggio-Calabria on 9 January 2003 which was the healing of Anna Pangallo from a rare form of meningitis. See also

 Leo Dupont, Apostle of the Holy Face
 Holy Face of Jesus
 Maria Pia Mastena

References

External links
 Hagiography Circle
  Saints SQPN
 Santi e Beati ]
 Find a Grave

1879 births
1963 deaths
19th-century Christian saints
19th-century venerated Christians
19th-century Italian people
20th-century Christian saints
20th-century venerated Christians
20th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
Beatifications by Pope John Paul II
Canonizations by Pope Benedict XVI
Founders of Catholic religious communities
Italian Roman Catholic saints
People from Reggio Calabria
People from the Province of Reggio Calabria
Venerated Catholics by Pope John Paul


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
<mask> (February 19, 1847 – November 14, 1921) was an American archaeologist specializing in Egyptology, one of the founders of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, suffragist and women's rights activist, and a columnist for the Philadelphia Public Ledger. As a scholar, <mask> published books and articles on Egyptology and the material culture of the ancient Near East, as well as a memoir about the reign of Maximilian I of Mexico. She was the first curator of the Egyptian Collection at the Penn Museum and played an important role in acquiring much of the collection itself. As a women's rights activist, she served as the first president of the Equal Franchise Society and the Civic Club of Philadelphia. She was the first woman to receive an honorary degree from the University of Pennsylvania, the first woman to lecture at the Peabody Museum at Harvard University, and the first female member of the Jury of Awards for Ethnology at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Personal life

Childhood and early life
<mask>'s parents were <mask> (December 20, 1798 – 1868) and <mask>, who married in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1834 and who moved to Paris during the 1840s. They both came from established families: her mother's family owned a large cotton plantation and her father was a cotton broker.<mask> was born in Philadelphia and moved to New Orleans to represent the Yorke & Macalister law firm. In Louisiana he was involved in the establishment of the public school system in New Orleans. He became interested in business ventures, including the introduction of gas to Paris, and a

masks:
Sara Yorke Stevenson
Stevenson
Sara Yorke Stevenson
Edward Yorke
Sarah Hanna Yorke
Edward Yorke


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
 trans-isthmian railway in Tehuantepec. He died of paralysis in Vermont in 1868. <mask> was born in Alabama and moved with her family to New Orleans. In addition to <mask>, their youngest child, Edward and <mask> Yorke had four other children:

 <mask>: born in New Orleans; educated in engineering at the École Centrale in Paris; married Jane Heard; died by drowning in 1884. <mask>: born in New Orleans, married Captain Charles Blanchot in 1865.<mask>: born in New Orleans; educated in engineering at the École Centrale in Paris; killed by brigands while working on the Isthmian Railway in 1862. <mask>: born in Paris, France; married Maurice Kingsley. France
<mask> <mask> was born in the Rue de Courcelles in Paris on February 19, 1847. <mask>'s parents moved back to the States when she was only ten, leaving their daughters to attend boarding school in France. She lived in Paris from 1858 through 1862 under the guardianship of M. Achille Jubinal, who inspired <mask>'s early interest in archaeology and Egyptology. During this time she met the Duke of Morny, half-brother of Napoleon and prominent figure in the French Intervention in Mexico, a conflict with which she would soon become profoundly familiar. In 1862, <mask> departed France for Mexico by sea, about which she wrote:

There were only forty passengers on board, and, comparatively speaking, little of the animation that usually precedes the outgoing of an ocean steamer.I found without difficulty the French banker and his Mexican wife who had kindly consented to chaperon me during my lonely journey; and I soon discovered that she and I were the only women passengers on

masks:
Sarah Hanna
Sara
Sarah Hanna
Edward Yorke
Ellen Yorke
Ogden Yorke
Mary Yorke
Sara Letitia
Yorke
Sara
Stevenson
Sara


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
 board. Mexico
In 1862 the Yorke family moved to Tacubaya, a suburb of Mexico City, following the murder of <mask>'s brother Ogden. In Mexico she attended many social gatherings of the newly appointed Empress of Mexico Charlotte of Belgium and her husband Maximilian. <mask>'s first-hand account of the Second Mexican Empire, Maximilian in Mexico: A Woman's Reminiscences of the French Intervention 1862-1867 (New York, 1899), gave great insight into the inner workings of court life during that time. C.M. Mayo commented on this book was the "most lucid, informed, and balanced...of all the English language memoirs of the Second Empire/French Intervention. <mask> <mask> and her mother, <mask> <mask>, appear in Mayo's novel The Last Prince of the American Empire.United States
In 1867, the Yorke family relocated to Vermont. <mask>'s father died only a year later, in 1868, and soon afterwards, at the age of twenty-one, <mask>e moved to Philadelphia to live with two of her uncles and an aunt on the Yorke side of her family. Marriage and family
<mask> married <mask>, a Philadelphia lawyer, on June 30, 1870. <mask> was born in Philadelphia on January 14, 1842, the only son of Adam May and Anna Smith (Philips) <mask>. He served as a private in the First Troop, Philadelphia City Cavalry during the Civil War. <mask> <mask> and <mask> had one child, <mask> <mask> (1878-1922) who married Christine Wetherill Rice. Death

<mask> <mask> died on November 14, 1921.In February 1922, a tribute to <mask> was included in the Pennsylvania Museum Bulletin that described her as follows:To us there will always rise, at the mention of Mrs.

masks:
Sara
Stevenson
Sara Yorke
Stevenson
Sarah Hanna
Yorke
Sara
Sara York
Sara Yorke
Cornelius Stevenson
Cornelius Stevenson
Stevenson
Sara Yorke
Stevenson
Cornelius Stevenson
William Yorke
Stevenson
Sara Yorke
Stevenson
Stevenson


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
 <mask>'s name, the dignified little figure with the black bag out of which she brought, like the unexpected mother in the Swiss Family Robinson, precisely the thing needed at the moment. For wise counsel, for tolerance, for understanding sympathy, we all of us came to her and never were refused. Her counsel was based on an experience of the world which included half a century of real intimacy with brilliant and wise people who sought her as a companion; it was poignant with interludes of the Mexican capital, Parisian days and Egyptian excavations. It was invariably moral and direct, but tempered with a worldliness that was never the counsel of the fear of consequences. Her tolerance, while it seemed almost  universal, balked at glossing over a sham or condoning insincerity. If she did not always suffer fools gladly she was generally able to contrive some amusement from them  to shorten their discourse by a quick turn of wit.The <mask> <mask> papers were removed from the home of Frances Anne Wister and donated to LaSalle University's Connelly Library as a part of the Owen Wister Collection by the David Prince Estate. She is buried at the Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia.Professional and civic life

Civic societies
<mask> played a leading role in several local civic societies (aka civil societies, or groups of community of citizens often linked by collective interests and activities) including serving as the founder and first president of the Equal Franchise Society of Philadelphia, co-founder and two-term president of the Civic Club of Philadelphia (a group of women who advocated for civic reform and improvement),

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Stevenson
Sara Yorke
Stevenson
Stevenson


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
 the president of the Acorn Club for 25 years, president of the Contemporary Club, and chair of the French War Relief Committee of the Emergency Aid of Pennsylvania. She also served on the Women's Centennial Committee of the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876, which created an exhibition known as the "Women's Building" that showcased "for the first time, at an international exposition, the intimate bonds, shared values, and material achievements of women" and was hailed as a milestone in the women's movement of the 19th century. The Furness-Mitchell Coterie

Stevenson was part of a group of internationally known Philadelphia elite scholars, known as the Furness-Mitchell Coterie, who were a driving force in many areas, especially anthropology, during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The group included musicians, physicians, writers, scholars, anthropologists, and educators and was "unusual in its acceptance of accomplished women as intellectual equals". Because of her involvement in the coterie, <mask> was able to form close relationships and work collaboratively with other members of the group, including Horace Howard Furness, Owen Wister, S. Weir Mitchell, Talcott Williams, and Agnes Irwin. The Equal Franchise Society of Philadelphia

<mask> established the Equal Franchise Society of Pennsylvania, in recognition of the difficulties women faced in obtaining the right to vote. She served as president until 1910 and first vice president until the Federal Suffrage Amendment passed in 1920.In 1910, the Equal Franchise Society of Philadelphia republished the speech entitled "Shall Women Have the

masks: Stevenson Stevenson


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts: Right to Vote? ", originally delivered by Wendell Philipps in Worcester, MA in 1851. In the forward of the publication, <mask> (signed only as 'S.Y.S. '), reflected on the ongoing struggle for women's suffrage, writing:A Chinese philosopher, a disciple of Laotse, once said: “Man is like a child born at midnight who when he sees the sunrise, thinks there was no yesterday.” There are many persons in the community even today, who regard the present movement in favor of equal suffrage as a transitory, hysterical agitation of a demagogic nature, of which the impulse has been received in the United States from the outbreaks of militant partisans in England. In the minds of these persons, the movement in the past is vaguely associated with eccentric clothing and more or less ridicule; in the present, with the restlessness of what is regarded as an unwomanly demonstration. While believers in equal suffrage in this country have taken advantage of the interest aroused in every part of the world by the news from the militant suffragists of England, the movement can claim a respectable history and a fairly long pedigree. If in the last century the pioneers in the demand for “Women's Rights” in England found strength in the support of such men as John Stuart Mill, their American sisters found among others an outspoken champion in another clear thinker— Wendell Phillips.The principle of equality is generally admitted—the question of expediency still faces us. In reprinting Wendell Phillips’ admirable address, the intention therefore, is to make clear the relation of the present movement to its historical background. While listening


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
 to the words of a strong man who, in 1851, had the courage to support an unpopular cause in the interest of justice and fair play, it is hoped that encouragement will be given to those who today are fighting in the ranks. - S. Y. SWith regard to her active role in the women's rights movement, <mask> said the following: "The days of useless martyrdom are over, also those of heroic sacrifice where it is not needed. What we need to do today is not to slaughter men and parties who do not happen to think as we do … but to educate them, teach them to see, to know, to love, to feel, to grow." Career

Anthropology and egyptology

In the 1880s anthropology was still emerging as an established academic discipline, and universities were beginning to develop and formalize their anthropology departments. <mask> became involved in Egyptological pursuits through her membership in the American branch of the Egypt Exploration Fund, which was founded in 1882 by Amelia Edwards.Throughout her career, <mask> made several trips overseas, although she never carried out her own archaeological fieldwork. She contributed to the collections of what is now the University of Pennsylvania' Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology as the first curator of the Egyptian and Mediterranean section, a position to which she was appointed in 1890. "Anthropological Work in America", an article in the July 1892 issue of Popular Science Monthly,  declared that <mask> "is perhaps [America's] only lady Egyptologist. Her lectures in Egyptian subjects have made a sensation." She mentored with Frederick Ward Putnam, who had just established Harvard's anthropology

masks: Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts: department, along with Franz Boas, Zelia Nuttall, and Alice Fletcher. <mask>'s interests were very wide and ranged from cultural diffusion to cultural evolution. In 1892 Putnam supported <mask>'s appointment to the Jury of Awards for Ethnology during the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.A special act had to be passed to allow a woman to serve this position; <mask> was elected vice president of the jury. In 1894 <mask> was the first woman to speak at the Peabody Museum on "Egypt at the Dawn of History". She was president of the Oriental Club of Philadelphia, the Contemporary Club, president and secretary Pennsylvania Chapter of the Archaeological Institute of America, and was founder and officer of the University Archaeological Association, the American Folk-Lore Society, and the American Exploration Society. She was also a member of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia and in 1895 was one of the first two women admitted to the American Philosophical Society. <mask> also joined the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1884 and was nominated a Fellow in 1895. In 1894, <mask> was the first woman to receive an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Pennsylvania. She also received an honorary degree from Temple University, and medals from the National Institute of Social Sciences Association.Of <mask>'s role, Langdon Warner stated: "“If women today find no difficulty in being recognized as scholars, and if their counsel is demanded in Museums, it is due to Mrs. <mask> in a far greater measure than our casual generation will ever know." University of Pennsylvania Museum of

masks: Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
 Archaeology and Anthropology
<mask> played a pivotal role in the establishment of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Penn Museum). In 1891, <mask>, William Pepper, Talcott Williams, and Joseph Coates were appointed by the University Archaeological Association to create the Department of Archaeology and Paleontology. <mask> then served on the governing board from its start (1892) until 1905 (secretary 1894-1904; president 1904-05). During her tenure, she contributed to the building of the "Free Museum of Science and Art", which was first dedicated in 1899 and which eventually became the Penn Museum. She served as the curator of the Egyptian and Mediterranean section of the museum from 1890 to 1905. In her position as curator, <mask> was concerned with collections acquisitions and in 1898 she travelled to Egypt and purchased 42 cases of artifacts for the American Exploration Society, mostly from the ancient site of Dendereh, including the Penn Museum's first papyrus.In 1905, <mask>, along with more than 125 supporters, resigned from her position at the museum following controversy surrounding Herman Hilprecht's personal appropriations and fraudulent publication of antiquities. Hilprecht was cleared of charges but <mask> never returned to her position at the museum. As noted in her Penn Museum biography: "As one of the principal founders of the University Museum, one whose contributions to the building program of the Museum was essential to its success, <mask> set a powerful example for generations of women to follow." Journalism
<mask> wrote as a columnist for the Philadelphia Public


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
 Ledger under the pen names Peggy Shippen ("Peggy Shippen's Diary") and Sally Wistar ("Sally Wistar Says") until 1920. As Peggy Shippen, <mask> wrote a society column for Philadelphia's elite, and her pseudonym paid homage to Peggy Shippen, a Philadelphian and a prominent figure during the Revolutionary War who was married to Benedict Arnold. Education and museum studies
Following her departure from the Penn Museum in 1905, <mask> developed one of the first college-level courses in training museum professionals in the United States, which she taught at the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, now known as The University of the Arts (Philadelphia). Her lectures covered topics ranging from "The Modern Museum and its Functions" to "The Diseases of Objects and Remedies."She also became a curator in the museum now known as the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Scholarly publications
"On Certain Symbols used in the Decoration of some Potsherds from Daphnae and Naukratis, now in the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania," Proceedings of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia for 1890–91, 1892. "The Tomb of King Amenhotep," Papers on Egyptian Archaeology, 1892. "Mr. Petrie's Discoveries at Tel el-Amarna," Science Vol. 19; Nos. 480–482, 510. "An Ancient Egyptian Rite Illustrating a Phase of Primitive Thought," International Congress of Anthropology, Memoirs, Chicago, 1894, 298–311."Some Sculptures from Koptos in Philadelphia," American Journal of Archaeology 10 (1895), 347–351. "The Feather and the Wing in Early Mythology," Oriental Studies of the Oriental Club of Philadelphia, 1894, 202–241. "On the


title: Sara Yorke Stevenson

texts:
 Remains of Foreigners Discovered in Egypt by Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie, 1895, now in the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. XXXV. Maximilian in Mexico: A Woman's Reminiscences of the French Intervention. New York, 1899.Egypt and Western Asia in Antiquity by Ferdinand Justi, Morris Jastrow Jr., and <mask><mask>, Philadelphia, 1905. References

External links

 Biography of <mask> <mask> at the  at the http://www.archives.upenn.edu/ University Archives
 Phillips, W., C. Catt, & National American Woman Suffrage Association Collection. 1910. [Philadelphia: Republished by The Equal Franchise Society of Pennsylvania] [Pdf] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/93838344/
 Fleischman, A. 2013. "Women Archaeologists in the Early Days of the Museum" Expedition Magazine 54.3: n. pag. Expedition Magazine.Penn Museum. http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/?p=10589
 O'Connor, D. 1979. "The University Museum in Egypt" Expedition Magazine 21.2: n. pag. Expedition Magazine. Penn Museum. http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/?p=4402
 Anonymous. 1979."The Museum in the Field" Expedition Magazine 21.2: n. pag. Expedition Magazine. Penn Museum. http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/?p=14630
 Pezzati, A. 2015. "Gold Medals & Grand Prizes" Expedition Magazine 57.1: n. pag. Expedition Magazine.Penn Museum. http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/?p=22582
 <mask>e <mask> Collections at Social Networks and Archival Context (SNAC) http://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6jx941m

1847 births
1921 deaths
Archaeologists from Paris
Writers from

masks:
Sara Y
. Stevenson
Sara Yorke
Stevenson
Sara York
Stevenson


title: Yoshihiro Akiyama

texts:
, also known as , is a Japanese mixed martial artist and judoka who won the gold medal at the 2001 Asian Championships for South Korea and for Japan at the 2002 Asian Games. A fourth-generation Japanese of Korean descent, he acquired Japanese nationality in 2001. He is the former K-1 HERO's Light Heavyweight Grand Prix Tournament Champion. Judo career
Before his professional mixed martial arts career, <mask> was a decorated judoka. He began training in judo at the age of three. He has also trained Karate, Boxing, Kickboxing, Wrestling and also submission fighting with Greg Jackson. 2001 Asian championships
Representing South Korea, Choo won the gold medal at the 2001 Asian Judo Championships.2002 Asian Games
Representing Japan, <mask> won the gold medal at the 2002 Asian Games defeating Ahn Dong-Jin of South Korea in the finals. 2003 World Judo Championships controversy
<mask> defeated three opponents from France, Mongolia and Turkey to reach the semi-finals of the 81 kg Light Middleweight division. However, all three opponents claimed that <mask> had a slippery judogi. Wearing a reserve gi, <mask> lost two games in a row (semifinal and 3rd-place match) and missed the medal. International Judo Federation referee director Juan Carlos Barcos said an examination of the gi found that the slippery texture was due to high humidity which prevailed in Osaka and a detergent used to wash the uniform. "At any moment, we did not have any doubt about fair play in the case. We are absolutely sure that Mr. <mask> is correct," since he changed the jacket at the request of the jury, Barcos said.<mask> was also accused of wearing slippery gear by former world and Olympic champion Kenzo Nakamura when they fought at the world championship trials in 2002. Mixed martial arts

masks: Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama


title: Yoshihiro Akiyama

texts:
 career

HERO'S
Akiyama's mixed martial arts debut was in the K-1 Premium 2004 Dynamite event on December 31, 2004, where he defeated boxer Francois Botha by armbar submission in the first round. His first defeat was to Jerome LeBanner, who knocked him out with knees in his second fight at the HERO'S 1 event on March 26, 2005, although LeBanner is a heavyweight that came into the fight at 262 pounds (119 kg), while <mask> came into the fight at 189.5 pounds (86 kg). He has notable wins against Tokimitsu Ishizawa, Taiei Kin, Kestutis Smirnovas and Melvin Manhoef. <mask> defeated Melvin Manhoef at the Hero's light-heavyweight Grand Prix 2006 final round, and gained the champion belt. In K-1 Premium 2006 Dynamite, <mask> fought the legendary Kazushi Sakuraba in the main event. During the match, Sakuraba called to the referee saying "[Akiyama is] Slippery!"<mask> went on to win the match with a referee stoppage. This created a controversy amongst MMA fans in Japan, assuming <mask> was using some sort of body oil or lubricant, banned in K-1 rules. But at this moment, <mask> answered to questions about the oil in the interview as follows: "I have no idea why Sakuraba felt slippery. It may be my sweat, as I sweat a lot always and it often drips off my body." On January 11, <mask> and FEG (the parent company of K-1) held a press conference during which <mask> said he used Olay lotion prior to the fight claiming that the lotion was used to treat a worn gi. Pre-fight footage also showed <mask> casually applying six bottles of lotion to his body in his locker room. As a result, <mask> was disqualified and his prize money was suspended.<mask> himself was suspended indefinitely from HERO'S competition six days later. Public outcry against <mask> did not cease however,

masks: Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama


title: Yoshihiro Akiyama

texts:
 and Nike was swamped with complaints when <mask> was featured on a television commercial in Japan. Though <mask> has admitted to applying cream to his skin, he has said that the purpose was not to gain an unfair advantage but to treat his dry skin. The fight was ruled a "No Contest". <mask> was cleared from his FEG-induced suspension and FEG announced that <mask> would return to K-1 Hero's in Seoul, on October 28, 2007. His opponent was Denis Kang, who was the finalist of PRIDE Bushido Grand Prix 2006 and making his debut in Hero's. Though he was an underdog, <mask> beat Kang by KO in the first round.Yarennoka! fight
On December 31, 2007, <mask> faced Kazuo Misaki at Yarennoka!. The rules of the match stated that kicks to the head of a downed opponent would not be allowed. Late in the first round Misaki knocked down <mask> with left hook, and as <mask> struggled to his feet, Misaki delivered a lunging kick to the face which knocked <mask> out. The match was ruled a knockout victory for Misaki, but <mask> contended that one or both of his hands were on the mat at the time of the kick, which would make the kick a foul under the Yarennoka! rules. After reviewing video of the knockout, the Yarennoka!executive committee agreed; the official result was changed to a no contest. Ultimate Fighting Championship
On February 24, 2009 it was announced on the official UFC website that <mask> had signed a deal with the company. Even though he suffered a broken orbital bone during the start of round two, <mask> went on to beat UFC veteran Alan Belcher at UFC 100 on July 11 by split decision (30–27, 28–29, 29–28). It was the 1st fight in <mask>'s career that went to the judges' score cards. The bout was also awarded "Fight of the Night" honors, granting both fighters a

masks: Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama


title: Yoshihiro Akiyama

texts: record-setting $100,000 bonus each. On May 30, 2009 <mask> opened a new gym in Tokyo, Japan. The 'Akiyama Dojo' has Judo and MMA halls, 30 tatami mats and three octagonal cages.<mask> joined Xtreme Couture for the month of October 2009 to work on his striking skills. <mask> was expected to face MMA legend and former PRIDE Middleweight Champion Wanderlei Silva on February 21, 2010 at UFC 110, but Silva instead faced British striker Michael Bisping on the card, winning via unanimous decision. At the Post-fight conference, UFC President Dana White stated that <mask> had requested to fight Silva for a while and has refused to fight other opponents, after which both fighters verbally agreed to fight. <mask> was expected to face Silva on July 3, 2010 at UFC 116. Wanderlei had to pull out on June 22, 2010 due to fractured ribs suffered in training. Chris Leben was chosen as a replacement. Despite controlling the majority of the fight with effective strikes and solid Judo takedowns, <mask> became fatigued after the first round and lost via triangle choke with just twenty seconds left in the third round.His loss to Leben was his first official loss in five years. <mask> lost to Michael Bisping on October 16, 2010 at UFC 120 by unanimous decision. In preparation for his fight with Bisping, <mask> switched to Jackson’s Submission Fighting in Albuquerque, New Mexico. It is unclear whether the switch is permanent. Even though <mask> lost to Bisping, he rocked him in the first round. He earned his third "Fight of the Night" honors. He has now earned "Fight of the Night" honors for all three of his UFC appearances.<mask> was briefly scheduled to face Chael Sonnen on March 19, 2011 at UFC 128, but, due to Sonnen's suspension, the fight was scrapped. <mask> was later

masks: Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama


title: Yoshihiro Akiyama

texts: scheduled to face Nate Marquardt at the same event, but pulled out due to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and was replaced by Dan Miller. <mask> was defeated by Vitor Belfort at UFC 133 via KO (Punches) in the first round. This defeat marked the third straight loss for <mask> in the UFC. Following the fight, Dana White stated that <mask> most likely would not be cut from the organization if he agrees to move down to welterweight. As of September 3, 2011, <mask> has stated he will move down a weight class, allowing him to stay in the UFC. On November 3, 2011, a picture of <mask> had circled the web of his body frame as a welterweight.<mask> faced Jake Shields on February 26, 2012 at UFC 144. He lost the fight via unanimous decision (30-27, 30-27, 30-27). During the bout, <mask> was able to utilize multiple judo techniques which was praised as the main highlights of the fight; despite losing the decision. <mask> was expected to face Thiago Alves on July 21, 2012 at UFC 149. However, <mask> was forced out of the bout with an injury. <mask> had made an appearance alongside UFC featherweight Hatsu Hioki during the Q&A session for UFC on Fuel TV 8. During the Q&A, <mask> stated he was thinking about returning for another bout as long as he has a free schedule as well as being matched against a well-known opponent that would interest fans.<mask> also stated he still has interest in fighting Wanderlei Silva, a bout scheduled for UFC 116 but was changed when Silva had to pull out of the fight due to injury. After over two and a half years away from the sport, <mask> returned from his self-imposed hiatus on September 20, 2014 at UFC Fight Night 52. He was originally scheduled to face Kyle Noke on the card. However, Noke was forced out of the bout with a knee


title: Yoshihiro Akiyama

texts:
 injury and replaced by Amir Sadollah. <mask> won the fight via unanimous decision. After another year away from the sport, <mask> returned to face Alberto Mina on November 28, 2015 at UFC Fight Night 79. He lost the back-and-forth fight via split decision.ONE Championship
After three years from his previous bout, <mask> announced his contract with ONE Championship. <mask> faced Agilan Thani in a co-headliner bout at ONE Championship: Legendary Quest on June 20, 2019. He lost the bout via unanimous decision

<mask> faced Sherif Mohamed at ONE Championship 109: King of the Jungle on February 28, 2020. <mask> won the fight via knockout in the first round, his first stoppage via strikes in nearly 13 years. <mask> was initially scheduled to face Mohammad Karaki at ONE on TNT 3 on April 21, 2021. However, the bout was cancelled and <mask> was supposed to face Eduard Folayang at ONE on TNT 4 on April 28, 2021. But due to suffering an injury during training camp, <mask> pulled out of the fight and the bout was subsequently scrapped.<mask> is scheduled to face Shinya Aoki at ONE Championship: X on March 26, 2022. Fighting style
As a former gold medalist in the sport, <mask> stands out in MMA for his style of judo. His usage of it is mainly defensive, as he rarely indulges in the art's signature throws. Instead, <mask> focuses mostly on defending takedowns in order to brawl with his opponent or getting top position on the mat to perform ground and pound. However, he has shown skill with harai goshi, kosoto gake and ouchi gari/osoto gari combinations, as well as the more complex uchi mata. Also, thanks to his knowledge of grip fighting, he is often successful in catching low kicks and following with sharp counterpunching. Personal life
Choo Sung-hoon's


title: Yoshihiro Akiyama

texts:
 great-grandfather, Choo Jeong-won, was born in Jeju County, Jeollanam-do, Korean Empire (now Jeju City).During the Imperial Japanese occupation of Korea, Choo Jeong-won and his family sailed to Japan and adopted Japanese names to help settle in. In March 2009, <mask> married famous Japanese fashion model Shiho Yano (also known as SHIHO in Japan) whom he had been dating since January 2007. The couple have a daughter, Choo Sarang, who was born on October 24, 2011. <mask> and Sarang starred in the reality show, The Return of Superman, covering their father-daughter relationship. He names Heavyweight Champion boxer Mike Tyson as his hero and holds a University degree in Commerce. He is close friends with South Korean actor Jang Keun-suk. In September 2015, <mask> also appeared as a guest on 2 Days & 1 Night.|
| align=center | 1
| align=center | 7:48
| Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Win
| align=center | 10–1 (1)
| Denis Kang
| KO (punch)
| Hero's 2007 in Korea
|
| align=center | 1
| align=center | 4:45
| Seoul, South Korea
|
|-
| NC
| align=center | 9–1 (1)
| Kazushi Sakuraba
| NC (overturned)
| K-1 Premium 2006 Dynamite!! |
| align=center | 1
| align=center | 1:54
| Osaka, Japan
|

Judo competition record

See also
 List of current ONE fighters
 List of male mixed martial artists

References

External links

 DREAM Profile

1975 births
Living people
Asian Games medalists in judo
Japanese male mixed martial artists
Middleweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing judo
Mixed martial artists utilizing Gaidojutsu
Japanese male judoka
Sportspeople from Osaka
Japanese people of Korean descent
Zainichi Korean people
Naturalized citizens of Japan
Judoka at the 2002 Asian Games
Asian Games gold medalists for Japan
Medalists at the 2002 Asian

masks: Akiyama Akiyama Akiyama


title: Viola Roggenkamp

texts:
<mask> is a German journalist-commentator and, more recently, book-author. The themes to which she most often returns are those surrounding Feminism and Judaism in Germany during and following the brutish middle years of the twentieth century. Although these topics have been much revisited by scholars and critics throughout her lifetime, several of <mask>'s own perspectives and conclusions are well outside the mainstream. Her output includes (but is not limited to) literary portraits, essays, opinion pieces and novels. Life and works
<mask> was born and grew up in Hamburg. Although she has relocated abroad at several points during her adult life, it is to Hamburg that she has always returned, despite having a somewhat conflicted and at times alienated relationship with the city. It was in Hamburg that her parents had ended up "following the liberation" in 1945, having lived "illegally" in Polish Silesia during the wartime Polish occupation.After her father died (but while her mother was still alive) she explored her parents' lives during the war years in her 2011 semi-novel, "Tochter und Vater". Discussing the book with an interviewer she later explained that "the daughter is not me, but the father in the novel is my father. My father did all the courag[e]ous and unbelievable things [as a secret member of the Polish resistance in Krakow] that Paul, the father in the novel, did". She studied Psychology, Philosophy and Music and then set out on her travels. During the later 1970s she visited India where she stayed for seven or eight months, living under the simplest of conditions and producing reports and stories about her surroundings for a German readership. She

masks:
Viola Roggenkamp
Roggenkamp
Viola Roggenkamp


title: Viola Roggenkamp

texts: than 400 pages and has been translated into a number of different languages. The narrator-protagonist is a 13 year-old child called Fania.Fania is the younger of the parents' two daughters. The narrative deals with the daily life of a German-Jewish family living in Hamburg in 1967. In her powerfully positive review of the book in Der Spiegel, Jana Hensel provides a little context:  "For three decades <mask>mp kept her project for a novel to herself. The result, now, is an almost eerily perfect book ... All the characters in it are perfectly defined with great dramatic clarity, replete with their psychological contradictions". The relationship between holocaust survivors and their children in Germany was the underlying theme both of "Familienleben" and of Roggenkamp's next book, "Die Frau im Turm" ("The woman in the tower") which appeared in 2009. "Tochter und Vater" (2011) again incorporated as its starting point and at its core, the author's own experiences, and what she had discerned of her parents' lives in Silesia during the war. Her mother was dead by the time she started writing this third book, and had, with tact but also evident difficulty, refrained from asking questions about the earlier work, "Familienleben" after <mask> had admitted that she was writing it.Nevertheless, the author sent her mother a copy in the mail and was surprised by the reaction:  "After she read the book, she told me she was surprised to discover that I was aware of the trauma she carried with her. She always thought she protected me and my sister from all that." The three books driven by her own experiences of growing up as the child of holocaust survivors in Hamburg only came after

masks:
Viola Roggenka
Viola


title: Viola Roggenkamp

texts: years of soul searching and quiet enquiry about the experiences of German Jews who had grown up in Germany as the children of holocaust survivors. By the end of the twentieth century there had been plenty published by then children of parents who had perpetrated holocaust killings and other acts of persecution -  or simply quietly colluded, taking care not to follow up the rumours of what was going on in the camps. But there had been virtual silence from the children in Germany of holocaust survivors who simply wanted to forget, and lived under the shadow of a deeply entrenched terror that somehow, it could all happen again one day. There were, in any case, not too many holocaust survivors who had ended up bringing up children still living in Germany. From the perspective of a writer with insights to share, as <mask> has told at least one interviewer, her "family suffered, but [she is] lucky to have [her] non-typical background."But her experiences are nevertheless in many respects far from unique:  before publishing the three books based on her own childhood experiences she had already, in 2002, published "Tu mir eine Liebe. Meine Mamme" (loosely, "Be a love...  My mummy"). The subtitle is more enlightening than the main title:  "Jüdische Frauen und Männer in Deutschland sprechen von ihrer Mutter" ("Jewish women and men in Germany talk about their mothers"). The volume is based on 26 interview-portraits in which higher-profile Germans talk about their mothers, all of whom are holocaust survivors. The interviewees include Stefan Heym, Esther Dischereit, Wladimir Kaminer, Rachel Salamander, Stefanie Zweig, and Michael Wolffsohn. Most of these are members of Roggenkamp's


title: Viola Roggenkamp

texts:
 own generation or younger, and so unable to remember the holocaust on their own account:  yet all of them have had their lives defined by the holocaust, primarily through the effect the experiences of it had on their mothers. Survivor guilt is, perhaps, the most frequently recurring of the Leitmotiven identified in the interviews.Prior to the volume's publication the interview-portraits had already been published individually in Jüdische Allgemeine. Erika Mann controversy
In 2005 <mask> published a lengthy essay - some identify it as a short book - on Erika Mann, a daughter - probably her father's favourite daughter - of Thomas Mann. The essay was entitled "Erika Mann. Eine jüdische Tochter":  it reignited the smouldering controversy about Erika Mann's own attitude to her mother's Jewish ancestry. For many people Thomas Mann was the greatest German language writer of the twentieth century. <mask>'s contribution concerning his attitude to his wife's Jewish provenance was bound to attract attention. <mask> asserted that although much had been written about Thomas and Katia Mann, Katia's Jewish ancestry had been very little delved into, beyond bald statements recording the fact that she had, like her mother and like her children, been baptised (as a Christian).Roggenkamp was particularly critical, in this respect, of so-called "Mann-experts" such as Heinrich Breloer, as well as Inge and Walter Jens. Roggenkamp contended that the tendency of the Mann family (along with their many admirers and other researchers) to ignore the Jewish roots of Thomas Mann's wealthy father-in-law, Alfred Pringsheim amounted to denial and was deeply damaging. From California, the scholar (and

masks:
Viola Roggenkamp
Roggenkamp
Roggenkamp


title: Viola Roggenkamp

texts:
 Vienna-born holocaust survivor) Ruth Klüger summarized <mask>'s position for readers of Die Welt:
  "According to Roggenkamp Erika Mann consistently denied her Jewish provenance on her mother's side, in the sense that she never classified herself as Jewish. This denial came close to becoming a piece of psychological repression in a Freudian sense, which then worked itself out destructively - or at least negatively - in Erika's life, her writing and her thinking. You can, to be sure, pick out and question individual details on this hastily written polemical little book, but the author is certain correct to feel the need to raise questions if the daughter of a prominent and only partially assimilated [Jewish] family (Katia - Erika's mother - had been baptised into Christianity, but Old-man Pringsheim had not), during a period of very great persecution of Jews to which she might easily have fallen victim, should have set aside her Jewish heritage. ....so this highly gifted woman gradually became Thomas Mann's daughter, and nothing more. Her exceptionally close relationship to an exceptionally self-centred father blocked her own path to a life of her own".Klüger is strongly positive about Roggenkamp's imputations as to Erika Mann's inner thoughts and beliefs. Her insistence that much of the book's explosive impact comes from a wider context, in which discussion of the fate of German Jewry during the post-war period has been suppressed, is a judgement that Roggenkamp self-evidently shares. The summary to her review is overwhelmingly supportive:
  "Roggenkamp irritates and provokes. But it is difficult to resist the urgency and topicality of the irritations. By sharing her


title: Viola Roggenkamp

texts:
 insights and conclusions on the German-Jewish relationship within the cultural élite, the author has shown no small courage in opening up a hornets' nest. Another expatriate observer, Manfred Koch, writing in the Neue Zürcher Zeitung, was less sympathetic:
  "The writer's judgmental attitude is astonishing. From the outset, she does not shy away from placing anyone who might criticise her case under suspicion of antisemitism.Roggenkamp eulogises a vague 'essentialism of Jewishness', which spares her the necessity of coming up with any more precise historical analysis. .... At the launch of the German empire almost two thirds of Germany's Jews were part of an economic and cultural elite;  they had left religious constraints and lifestyles behind. .... The lack of interest in their Jewish heritage that the Pringsheims, like many others like them, took is not the result of some pathological repression or betrayal. Erika Mann fought against antisemitism whenever she encountered it. That she thought of herself not as a Jew but as a democratic humanist like any other ... who should blame her?" Commentators piled in on both sides.(Some were even content to try colonizing the middle ground.) <mask>'s public profile, along with appreciation of her insights, were permanently raised and enhanced. Roland H. Wiegenstein applied a little psychological interpretation of his own in Die Berliner Literaturkritik, suggesting that Roggenkamp's decision to share her conclusions on Erika Mann's denial of her Jewishness was,
   "... certainly all of a piece with the historical illuminations that the author has previously shared in her novels of family life. .... For <mask>mp, Erika Mann

masks:
Viola Roggenkamp
Viola rogka


title: Roger Parker

texts:
<mask> (born London United Kingdom, 2 August 1951) is an English musicologist and, since January 2007, has been Thurston Dart Professor of Music at King's College London. His work has centred on opera. Between 2006 and 2010, while Professor of Music at Gresham College, London, <mask> presented four series of free public lectures, one example being "Verdi and Milan" in 2007 which is available on video. In addition to teaching, <mask> has been active as joint editor in the preparation of critical editions of the work of 19th-century Italian composer Gaetano Donizetti for the Milan publishing house Ricordi. He also acts as Repertory Consultant to the UK's specialised recording company, Opera Rara, which has commissioned performances and recordings of rare Donizetti operas such as Belisario in 2012 and Les Martyrs in 2014. Additionally, <mask> has presented talks on UK radio on aspects of opera, including his talk  "Verdi 200: Viva Verdi" on BBC Radio 3 on 6 January and 13 October 2013. Education and academic work
He studied at the University of London, first at Goldsmiths' College, and then at King's College London from which he obtained his PhD in 1981.In 1982, he moved to Cornell University in upstate New York, where he was assistant professor and then associate professor. Returning to England to become a lecturer in music (later professor) and fellow of St Hugh's College, Oxford, in 1999 he became professor of music at Cambridge University, where he was a fellow of St John's College. Between 2005 and 2006, he was the chair of the School of Arts and Humanities. <mask> became the Visiting Ernest Bloch Lecturer at the University of California, Berkeley in 2002 and, in 2007, he was a visiting scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. Preparation of critical editions of operas
<mask>'s focus has been in the area of Italian opera of the nineteenth century. For ten years he was founding co-editor (with Arthur Groos) of the Cambridge Opera Journal, and

masks:
Roger Parker
Parker
Parker
Parker
Parker
Roger Parker


title: Roger Parker

texts:
 he continues as General Editor of The Critical Edition of the Operas of Gaetano Donizetti published it Italy by Casa Ricordi of Milan and in the United States by the University of Chicago Press under the auspices of the Fondazione Donizetti. His co-editor is Gabriele Dotto, who led Ricordi's editorial department from 1992 to 2001.Other critical editions of Donizetti's operas on which <mask> has worked include Linda di Chamounix in 2007 as well as those titles which appear on the Donizetti Society's list of works completed by <mask> alone, such as Lucrezia Borgia (1998) and Adelia. Additionally, along with Dotto, he has co-authored the critical edition of Lucia di Lammermoor which was presented at the Royal Opera House, London in 2003. <mask> is also credited as editor of the critical edition of Puccini's opera, Manon Lescaut published by Ricordi in 2013. A major revival of a never-completed Donizetti opera, Le duc d'Albe, was given in 2012 by the Vlaamse Opera from a critical edition prepared by <mask>. He has written about the work involved in its preparation. Involvement with performances
For the preparation, recording, and presentation of the Opera Rara recording of Donizetti's Belisario in 2012, it has been noted that the opera was "performed in the edition by Sir Mark Elder, <mask> and Jürgen Selk, based on the 2010 edition by Ottavio Sbragia." For that event, <mask> coordinated and presented an afternoon-long public symposium on the opera.In a similar fashion, when Donizetti's Les Martyrs was presented by the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment in London in November 2014, <mask> was part of an introductory panel which also included Dr Flora Willson (who prepared the critical edition) and author and Donizetti biographer Jonathan Keates. Awards and appointments
He received the "Premio Giuseppe Verdi" in 1986, was a Guggenheim Fellow in 1986–87, and in 1991 was awarded the Dent Medal of the Royal Musical Association. 2008 saw his election as Fellow of the

masks:
Parker
Parker
Roger Parker
Parker
Roger Parker
Parker
Roger Parker


title: Roger Parker

texts:
 British Academy, while, in 2014, he was appointed member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music. Recent publications
 "Verdi the revolutionary? Let's separate fact from fiction", The Guardian (London), 7 October 2013
 Giacomo Puccini, Manon Lescaut, Milan: Ricordi, 2013. Editor, critical edition. A History of Opera (with Carolyn Abbate), London: Penguin Books, Ltd.; New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc., 2012
 The New Grove Guide to Verdi and his Operas, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007
 Remaking the Song: Operatic Visions and Revisions from Handel to Berio, Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2006
 "The Opera Industry", in Jim Samson, ed., The Cambridge History of Nineteenth-Century Music, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp.87–117
 "Philippe and Posa Act II: The Shock of the New", Cambridge Opera Journal, 14/1-2 (2002), pp. 133–47
 Gaetano Donizetti, Le convenienze ed inconvenienze teatrali, in Le opere di Gaetano Donizetti. Milan: Ricordi, 2002; vocal score, 2003. Joint editor of the critical edition with Anders Wiklund. Pensieri per un maestro: Studi in onore di Pierluigi Petrobelli, Turin: Einaudi, 2002. Joint editor with Stefano La Via

Personal life
Married to concert cellist Lynden Cranham, has three children and eight grandchildren. See also
Musicologist Philip Gossett (General Editor of critical editions of Giuseppe Verdi and Gioachino Rossini's operas.)References
Notes

Sources
Prof. <mask>'s past lectures on music at Gresham College. Available as audio/video files and as transcripts. Retrieved 23 December 2013. Curriculum vitae of <mask>, published by The Academy of Europe on www.ae-info.org

1951 births
Living people
Alumni of King's College London
Cornell University faculty
Academics of King's College London
Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
Fellows of St Hugh's College, Oxford
Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge
British musicologists
Opera scholarship
Professors of Gresham

masks:
Roger Parker
Roger Parker


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: <mask> (; , ) was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from the year 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of Jesus and later ordered his crucifixion. <mask>'s importance in modern Christianity is underscored by his prominent place in both the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. Due to the Gospels' portrayal of <mask> as reluctant to execute Jesus, the Ethiopian Church believes that <mask> became a Christian and venerates him as a martyr and saint, a belief historically shared by the Coptic Church. Although <mask> is the best-attested governor of Judaea, few sources on his rule have survived. Nothing is known for certain about his life before he became governor of Judaea, nor of the circumstances that led to his appointment to the governorship. A single inscription from <mask>'s governorship has survived, the so-called <mask> stone, as have coins that he minted.The Jewish historian Josephus, philosopher Philo of Alexandria and the Gospel of Luke all mention incidents of tension and violence between the Jewish population and <mask>'s administration. Many of these involve <mask> acting in ways that offended the religious sensibilities of the Jews. The Christian Gospels record that <mask> ordered the crucifixion of Jesus at some point during his time in office; Josephus and the Roman historian Tacitus later also recorded this information. According to Josephus, <mask>'s removal from office occurred because he violently suppressed an armed Samaritan movement at Mount Gerizim. He was sent back to Rome by the legate of

masks:
Pontius Pilate
Pilate
Pilate
Pilate
Pilate
Pilate
Pilate
Pilate
Pilate
Pilate
Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: Syria to answer for this before Tiberius, though the emperor died before <mask> arrived. Nothing is known about what happened to him after this. On the basis of a mention in the second-century pagan philosopher Celsus and Christian apologist Origen, most modern historians believe that <mask> simply retired after his dismissal.Modern historians have differing assessments of <mask> as an effective ruler; while some believe he was a particularly brutal and ineffective governor, others argue that his long time in office means he must have been reasonably competent. According to one prominent post-war theory, <mask> was motivated by antisemitism in his treatment of the Jews, but this theory has been mostly abandoned. In Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, <mask> became the focus of a large group of New Testament apocrypha expanding on his role in the Gospels, the Pilate cycle. Attitudes split by region: In texts from the Eastern Roman Empire, <mask> was portrayed as a positive figure. He and his wife are portrayed as Christian converts and sometimes martyrs. In Western Christian texts, he was instead portrayed as a negative figure and villain, with traditions surrounding his death by suicide featuring prominently. <mask> was also the focus of numerous medieval legends, which invented a complete biography for him and portrayed him as villainous and cowardly.Many of these legends connected <mask>'s place of birth or death to particular locations around Western Europe, such as claiming his body was buried in a particularly dangerous or cursed local area. <mask> has frequently been a subject of

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 artistic representation. Medieval art frequently portrayed scenes of <mask> and Jesus, often in the scene where he washes his hands of guilt for Jesus's death. In the art of the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, <mask> is often depicted as a Jew. The nineteenth century saw a renewed interest in depicting <mask>, with numerous images made. He plays an important role in medieval passion plays, where he is often a more prominent character than Jesus. His characterization in these plays varies greatly, from weak-willed and coerced into crucifying Jesus to being an evil person who demands Jesus's crucifixion.Modern authors who feature <mask> prominently in their works include Anatole France, Mikhail Bulgakov, and Chingiz Aitmatov, with a majority of modern treatments of <mask> dating to after the Second World War. <mask> has also frequently been portrayed in film. Life

Sources
Sources on <mask> <mask> are limited, although modern scholars know more about him than about other Roman governors of Judaea. The most important sources are the Embassy to Gaius (after the year 41) by contemporary Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria, the Jewish Wars (c. 74) and Antiquities of the Jews (c. 94) by the Jewish historian Josephus, as well as the four canonical Christian Gospels, Mark (composed between 66 and 70), Luke (composed between 85 and 90), Matthew (composed between 85 and 90), and John (composed between 90 and 110). Ignatius of Antioch mentions him in his epistles to the Trallians, Magnesians, and Smyrnaeans (composed between 105 and 110). He is also briefly mentioned in Annals of the Roman historian

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pontius Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 Tacitus (early 2nd c.), who simply says that he put Jesus to death. Two additional chapters of Tacitus's Annals that might have mentioned Pilate have been lost.Besides these texts, dated coins in the name of emperor Tiberius minted during <mask>'s governorship have survived, as well as a fragmentary short inscription that names <mask>, known as the Pilate Stone, the only inscription about a Roman governor of Judaea predating the Roman-Jewish Wars to survive. The written sources provide only limited information and each has its own biases, with the gospels in particular providing a theological rather than historical perspective on <mask>. Early life
The sources give no indication of <mask>'s life prior to his becoming governor of Judaea. His praenomen (first name) is unknown; his cognomen Pilatus might mean "skilled with the javelin ()," but it could also refer to the  or Phrygian cap, possibly indicating that one of <mask>'s ancestors was a freedman. If it means "skilled with the javelin," it is possible that <mask> won the cognomen for himself while serving in the Roman military; it is also possible that his father acquired the cognomen through military skill. In the Gospels of Mark and John, <mask> is only called by his cognomen, which Marie-Joseph Ollivier takes to mean that this was the name by which he was generally known in common speech. The name <mask> suggests that an ancestor of his came from Samnium in central, southern Italy, and he may have belonged to the family of Gavius <mask> and Pontius Telesinus, two leaders of the Samnites in the third and first centuries respectively, before

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pontius Pontius


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 their full incorporation to the Roman Republic.Like all but one other governor of Judaea, <mask> was of the equestrian order, a middle rank of the Roman nobility. As one of the attested Pontii, <mask> Aquila, an assassin of Julius Caesar, was a tribune of the plebs, the family must have originally been of plebeian origin. They became ennobled as equestrians. <mask> was likely educated, somewhat wealthy, and well-connected politically and socially. He was probably married, but the only extant reference to his wife, in which she tells him not to interact with Jesus after she has had a disturbing dream (Matthew 27:19), is generally dismissed as legendary. According to the cursus honorum established by Augustus for office holders of equestrian rank, <mask> would have had a military command before becoming prefect of Judaea; Alexander Demandt speculates that this could have been with a legion stationed at the Rhine or Danube. Although it is therefore likely <mask> served in the military, it is nevertheless not certain.Role as governor of Judaea

<mask> was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, during the reign of the emperor Tiberius. The post of governor of Judaea was of relatively low prestige and nothing is known of how <mask> obtained the office. Josephus states that <mask> governed for 10 years (Antiquities of the Jews 18.4.2), and these are traditionally dated from 26 to 36/37, making him one of the two longest-serving governors of the province. As Tiberius had retired to the island of Capri in 26, scholars such as E. Stauffer have argued that <mask> may have actually been appointed

masks: Pilate Pontius Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: by the powerful Praetorian Prefect Sejanus, who was executed for treason in 31. Other scholars have cast doubt on any link between <mask> and Sejanus. Daniel R. Schwartz and Kenneth Lönnqvist both argue that the traditional dating of the beginning of <mask>'s governorship is based on an error in Josephus; Schwartz argues that he was appointed instead in 19, while Lönnqvist argues for 17/18. This redating has not been widely accepted by other scholars.<mask>'s title of prefect implies that his duties were primarily military; however, <mask>'s troops were meant more as a police than a military force, and <mask>'s duties extended beyond military matters. As Roman governor, he was head of the judicial system. He had the power to inflict capital punishment, and was responsible for collecting tributes and taxes, and for disbursing funds, including the minting of coins. Because the Romans allowed a certain degree of local control, <mask> shared a limited amount of civil and religious power with the Jewish Sanhedrin. <mask> was subordinate to the legate of Syria; however, for the first six years in which he held office, Syria's legate Lucius Aelius Lamia was absent from the region, something which Helen Bond believes may have presented difficulties to <mask>. He seems to have been free to govern the province as he wished, with intervention by the legate of Syria only coming at the end of his tenure, after the appointment of Lucius Vitellius to the post in 35 AD. Like other Roman governors of Judaea, Pilate made his primary residence in Caesarea, going to Jerusalem mainly for major feasts in order to

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: maintain order.He also would have toured around the province in order to hear cases and administer justice. As governor, <mask> had the right to appoint the Jewish High Priest and also officially controlled the vestiments of the High Priest in the Antonia Fortress. Unlike his predecessor, Valerius Gratus, <mask> retained the same high priest, Joseph ben Caiaphas, for his entire tenure. Caiaphas would be removed following <mask>'s own removal from the governorship. This indicates that Caiaphas and the priests of the Sadducee sect were reliable allies to <mask>. Moreover, Maier argues that <mask> could not have used the temple treasury to construct an aqueduct, as recorded by Josephus, without the cooperation of the priests. Similarly, Helen Bond argues that <mask> is depicted working closely with the Jewish authorities in the execution of Jesus.Jean-Pierre Lémonon argues that official cooperation with <mask> was limited to the Sadducees, noting that the Pharisees are absent from the gospel accounts of Jesus's arrest and trial. Daniel Schwartz takes the note in the Gospel of Luke (Luke 23:12) that <mask> had a difficult relationship with the Galilean Jewish king Herod Antipas as potentially historical. He also finds historical the information that their relationship mended following the execution of Jesus. Based on John 19:12, it is possible that <mask> held the title "friend of Caesar" (, ), a title also held by the Jewish kings Herod Agrippa I and Herod Agrippa II and by close advisors to the emperor. Both Daniel Schwartz and Alexander Demandt do not think this especially likely. Incidents with the


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 Jews

Various disturbances during <mask>'s governorship are recorded in the sources. In some cases, it is unclear if they may be referring to the same event, and it is difficult to establish a chronology of events for <mask>'s rule.Joan Taylor argues that <mask> had a policy of promoting the imperial cult, which may have caused some of the friction with his Jewish subjects. Schwartz suggests that <mask>'s entire tenure was characterized by "continued underlying tension between governor and governed, now and again breaking out in brief incidents." According to Josephus in his The Jewish War (2.9.2) and Antiquities of the Jews (18.3.1), <mask> offended the Jews by moving imperial standards with the image of Caesar into Jerusalem. This resulted in a crowd of Jews surrounding <mask>'s house in Caesarea for five days. <mask> then summoned them to an arena, where the Roman soldiers drew their swords. But the Jews showed so little fear of death, that <mask> relented and removed the standards. Bond argues that the fact that Josephus says that <mask> brought in the standards by night, shows that he knew that the images of the emperor would be offensive.She dates this incident to early in <mask>'s tenure as governor. Daniel Schwartz and Alexander Demandt both suggest that this incident is in fact identical with "the incident with the shields" reported in Philo's Embassy to Gaius, an identification first made by the early church historian Eusebius. Lémonon, however, argues against this identification. According to Philo's Embassy to Gaius (Embassy to Gaius 38), <mask> offended against Jewish law by bringing

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: golden shields into Jerusalem, and placing them on Herod's Palace. The sons of Herod the Great petitioned him to remove the shields, but <mask> refused. Herod's sons then threatened to petition the emperor, an action which <mask> feared that would expose the crimes he had committed in office. He did not prevent their petition.Tiberius received the petition and angrily reprimanded <mask>, ordering him to remove the shields. Helen Bond, Daniel Schwartz, and Warren Carter argue that Philo's portrayal is largely stereotyped and rhetorical, portraying <mask> with the same words as other opponents of Jewish law, while portraying Tiberius as just and supportive of Jewish law. It is unclear why the shields offended against Jewish law: it is likely that they contained an inscription referring to Tiberius as  (son of divine Augustus). Bond dates the incident to 31, sometime after Sejanus's death in 17 October. In another incident recorded in both the Jewish Wars (2.9.4) and the Antiquities of the Jews (18.3.2), Josephus relates that <mask> offended the Jews by using up the temple treasury () to pay for a new aqueduct to Jerusalem. When a mob formed while <mask> was visiting Jerusalem, <mask> ordered his troops to beat them with clubs; many perished from the blows or from being trampled by horses, and the mob was dispersed. The dating of the incident is unknown, but Bond argues that it must have occurred between 26 and 30 or 33, based on Josephus's chronology.The Gospel of Luke mentions in passing Galileans "whose blood <mask> had mingled with their sacrifices" (Luke 13:1). This reference has been variously


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 interpreted as referring to one of the incidents recorded by Josephus, or to an entirely unknown incident. Bond argues that the number of Galileans killed does not seem to have been particularly high. In Bond's view, the reference to "sacrifices" likely means that this incident occurred at Passover at some unknown date. She argues that "[i]t is not only possible but quite likely that <mask>'s governorship contained many such brief outbreaks of trouble about which we know nothing. The insurrection in which Barabbas was caught up, if historical, may well be another example." Trial and execution of Jesus

At the Passover of most likely 30 or 33, <mask> <mask> condemned Jesus of Nazareth to death by crucifixion in Jerusalem.The main sources on the crucifixion are the four canonical Christian Gospels, the accounts of which vary. Helen Bond argues that
the evangelists' portrayals of <mask> have been shaped to a great extent by their own particular theological and apologetic concerns. [...] Legendary or theological additions have also been made to the narrative [...] Despite extensive differences, however, there is a certain agreement amongst the evangelists regarding the basic facts, an agreement which may well go beyond literary dependency and reflect actual historical events. <mask>'s role in condemning Jesus to death is also attested by the Roman historian Tacitus, who, when explaining Nero's persecution of the Christians, explains: "Christus, the founder of the name, had undergone the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius, by sentence of the procurator <mask> <mask>, and the pernicious superstition

masks: Pilate Pontius Pilate Pilate Pilate Pontius Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: was checked for a moment..." (Tacitus, Annals 15.44). Josephus also mentioned Jesus's execution by <mask> at the request of prominent Jews (Antiquities of the Jews 18.3.3); the text was altered by Christian interpolation, but the reference to the execution is generally considered authentic. Discussing the paucity of extra-biblical mentions of the crucifixion, Alexander Demandt argues that the execution of Jesus was probably not seen as a particularly important event by the Romans, as many other people were crucified at the time and forgotten. In Ignatius's epistles to the Trallians (9.1) and to the Smyrnaeans (1.2), the author attributes Jesus's persecution under Pilate's governorship.Ignatius further dates Jesus's birth, passion, and resurrection during <mask>'s governorship in his epistle to the Magnesians (11.1). Ignatius stresses all these events in his epistles as historical facts. Bond argues that Jesus's arrest was made with <mask>'s prior knowledge and involvement, based on the presence of a 500-strong Roman cohort among the party that arrests Jesus in John 18:3. Demandt dismisses the notion that <mask> was involved. It is generally assumed, based on the unanimous testimony of the gospels, that the crime for which Jesus was brought to <mask> and executed was sedition, founded on his claim to be king of the Jews. <mask> may have judged Jesus according to the cognitio , a form of trial for capital punishment used in the Roman provinces and applied to non-Roman citizens that provided the prefect with greater flexibility in handling the case. All four gospels also mention that <mask> had the

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: custom of releasing one captive in honor of the Passover festival; this custom is not attested in any other source.Historians disagree on whether or not such a custom is a fictional element of the gospels, reflects historical reality, or perhaps represents a single amnesty in the year of Jesus's crucifixion. The Gospels' portrayal of <mask> is "widely assumed" to diverge greatly from that found in Josephus and Philo, as <mask> is portrayed as reluctant to execute Jesus and pressured to do so by the crowd and Jewish authorities. John P. Meier notes that in Josephus, by contrast, "<mask> alone [...] is said to condemn Jesus to the cross." Some scholars believe that the Gospel accounts are completely untrustworthy: S. G. F. Brandon argued that in reality, rather than vacillating on condemning Jesus, <mask> unhesitatingly executed him as a rebel. Paul Winter explained the discrepancy between <mask> in other sources and <mask> in the gospels by arguing that Christians became more and more eager to portray <mask> <mask> as a witness to Jesus' innocence, as persecution of Christians by the Roman authorities increased. Bart Ehrman argues that the Gospel of Mark, the earliest one, shows the Jews and <mask> to be in agreement about executing Jesus (Mark 15:15), while the later gospels progressively reduce <mask>'s culpability, culminating in <mask> allowing the Jews to crucify Jesus in John (John 19:16). He connects this change to increased "anti-Judaism."Raymond E. Brown argued that the Gospels' portray of <mask> cannot be considered historical, since <mask> is always described in other sources (The Jewish

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pontius Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 War and Antiquities of the Jews of Josephus and Embassy to Gaius of Philo) as a cruel and obstinate man. Brown also rejects the historicity of <mask> washing his hands and of the blood curse, arguing that these narratives, which only appear in the Gospel of Matthew, reflect later contrasts between the Jews and Jewish Christians. Others have tried to explain <mask>'s behavior in the Gospels as motivated by a change of circumstances from that shown in Josephus and Philo, usually presupposing a connection between <mask>'s caution and the death of Sejanus. Yet other scholars, such as Brian McGing and Bond, have argued that there is no real discrepancy between <mask>'s behavior in Josephus and Philo and that in the Gospels. Warren Carter argues that <mask> is portrayed as skillful, competent, and manipulative of the crowd in Mark, Matthew, and John, only finding Jesus innocent and executing him under pressure in Luke. N. T. Wright and Craig A. Evans argue that <mask>'s hesitation was due to the fear of causing a revolt during Passover, when large numbers of pilgrims were in Jerusalem. Removal and later life
According to Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews (18.4.1–2), <mask>'s removal as governor occurred after <mask> slaughtered a group of armed Samaritans at a village called Tirathana near Mount Gerizim, where they hoped to find artifacts that had been buried there by Moses.Alexander Demandt suggests that the leader of this movement may have been Dositheos, a messiah-like figure among the Samaritans who was known to have been active around this time. The Samaritans, claiming not to have been armed,


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: complained to Lucius Vitellius the Elder, the governor of Syria (term 35–39), who had <mask> recalled to Rome to be judged by Tiberius. Tiberius however, had died before his arrival. This dates the end of <mask>'s governorship to 36/37. Tiberius died in Misenum on 16 March 37, in his seventy-eighth year (Tacitus, Annals VI.50, VI.51). Following Tiberius's death, <mask>'s hearing would have been handled by the new emperor Caligula: it is unclear whether any hearing took place, as new emperors often dismissed outstanding legal matters from previous reigns. The only sure outcome of <mask>'s return to Rome is that he was not reinstated as governor of Judaea, either because the hearing went badly, or because <mask> did not wish to return.J. P. Lémonon argues that the fact that <mask> was not reinstated by Caligula does not mean that his trial went badly, but may simply have been because after ten years in the position it was time for him to take a new posting. Joan Taylor, on the other hand, argues that <mask> seems to have ended his career in disgrace, using his unflattering portrayal in Philo, written only a few years after his dismissal, as proof. The church historian Eusebius (Church History 2.7.1), writing in the early fourth century, claims that "tradition relates that" <mask> committed suicide after he was recalled to Rome due to the disgrace he was in. Eusebius dates this to 39. Paul Maier notes that no other surviving records corroborate <mask>'s suicide, which is meant to document God's wrath for <mask>'s role in the crucifixion, and that Eusebius explicitly states that "tradition" is his

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 source, "indicating that he had trouble documenting <mask>'s presumed suicide". Daniel Schwartz, however, argues that Eusebius's claims "should not lightly be dismissed." More information on the potential fate of <mask> <mask> can be gleaned from other sources.The second-century pagan philosopher Celsus polemically asked why, if Jesus was God, God had not punished <mask>, indicating that he did not believe that <mask>us, the Christian apologist Origen, writing c. 248, argued that nothing bad happened to <mask>, because the Jews and not <mask> were responsible for Jesus' death; he therefore also assumed that <mask> did not die a shameful death. <mask>'s supposed suicide is also left unmentioned in Josephus, Philo, and Tacitus. Maier argues that "[i]n all probability, then, the fate of <mask> <mask> lay clearly in the direction of a retired government official, a pensioned Roman ex-magistrate, than in anything more disastrous." Taylor notes that Philo discusses <mask> as though he were already dead in the Embassy to Gaius, although he is writing only a few years after <mask>'s tenure as governor. Archaeology and minted coins

A single inscription by <mask> has survived in Caesarea, on the so-called "Pilate Stone". The (partially reconstructed) inscription is as follows:

Vardaman "freely" translates it as follows: "Tiberium [?of the Caesareans?]<mask> <mask>, Prefect of Judea [ .. has given?]". The fragmentary nature of the inscription has led to some disagreement about the correct reconstruction, so that "apart from <mask>'s name and title the inscription is unclear." Originally, the inscription

masks: Pilate Pontius Pilate Pilate Pilatels Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pontius Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pontius Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 would have included an abbreviated letter for <mask>'s praenomen (e.g., T. for Titus or M. for Marcus). The stone attests <mask>'s title of prefect and the inscription appears to refer to some kind of building called a Tiberieum, a word otherwise unattested but following a pattern of naming buildings about Roman emperors. Bond argues that we cannot be sure what kind of building this referred to. G. Alföldy argued that it was some sort of secular building, namely a lighthouse, while Joan Taylor and Jerry Vardaman argue that it was a temple dedicated to Tiberius. A second inscription, which has since been lost, has historically been associated with <mask> <mask>.It was a fragmentary, undated inscription on a large piece of marble recorded in Ameria, a village in Umbria, Italy. The inscription read as follows:

(CIL XI.2.1.4396)

The only clear items of text are the names "Pilate" and the title quattuorvir ("IIII VIR"), a type of local city official responsible for conducting a census every five years. The inscription was formerly found outside the church of St. Secundus, where it had been copied from a presumed original. At the turn of the twentieth century, it was generally held to be fake, a forgery in support of a local legend that <mask> <mask> died in exile in Ameria. The more recent scholars Alexander Demandt and Henry MacAdam both believe that the inscription is genuine, but attests to a person who simply had the same cognomen as <mask> <mask>. MacAdam argues that "[i]t is far easier to believe that this very fragmentary inscription prompted the legend of <mask> <mask>'s association with the

masks: Pilate Pilate Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: Italian village of Ameria [...] than it is to posit someone forging the inscription two centuries ago—quite creatively, it would seem—to provide substance for the legend." As governor, <mask> was responsible for minting coins in the province: he appears to have struck them in 29/30, 30/31, and 31/32, thus the fourth, fifth, and sixth years of his governorship.The coins belong to a type called a "perutah", measured between 13.5 and 17mm, were minted in Jerusalem, and are fairly crudely made. Earlier coins read  on the obverse and  on the reverse, referring to the emperor Tiberius and his mother Livia (Julia Augusta). Following Livia's death, the coins only read . As was typical of Roman coins struck in Judaea, they did not have a portrait of the emperor, though they included some pagan designs. Attempts to identify the aqueduct that is attributed to <mask> in Josephus date to the nineteenth century. In the mid twentieth century, A. Mazar tentatively identified the aqueduct as the Arrub aqueduct that brought water from Solomon's Pools to Jerusalem, an identification supported in 2000 by Kenneth Lönnqvist. Lönnqvist notes that the Talmud (Lamentations Rabbah 4.4) records the destruction of an aqueduct from Solomon's Pools by the Sicarii, a group of fanatical religious Zealots, during the First Jewish-Roman War (66-73); he suggests that if the aqueduct had been funded by the temple treasury as recorded in Josephus, this might explain the Sicarii's targeting of this particular aqueduct.In 2018, an inscription on a thin copper-alloy sealing ring that had been discovered at Herodium was uncovered using

masks: Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 modern scanning techniques. The inscription reads  (), meaning "of Pilate". The name Pilatus is rare, so the ring could be associated with <mask> <mask>; however, given the cheap material, it is unlikely that he would have owned it. It is possible that the ring belonged to another individual named <mask>, or that it belonged to someone who worked for <mask> <mask>. Apocryphal texts and legends
Due to his role in Jesus' trial, <mask> became an important figure in both pagan and Christian propaganda in late antiquity. Perhaps the earliest apocryphal texts attributed to <mask> are denunciations of Christianity and of Jesus that claim to be <mask>'s report on the crucifixion. According to Eusebius (Church History 9.2.5), these texts were distributed during the persecution of Christians conducted by the emperor Maximinus II (reigned 308–313).None of these texts survive, but Tibor Grüll argues that their contents can be reconstructed from Christian apologetic texts. Positive traditions about <mask> are frequent in Eastern Christianity, particularly in Egypt and Ethiopia, whereas negative traditions predominate in Western and Byzantine Christianity. Additionally, earlier Christian traditions portray <mask> more positively than later ones, a change which Ann Wroe suggests reflects the fact that, following the legalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (312), it was no longer necessary to deflect criticism of <mask> (and by extension of the Roman Empire) for his role in Jesus's crucifixion onto the Jews. Bart Ehrman, on the other hand, argues that the tendency in the Early Church

masks: Pontius Pilate Pilate Pontius Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 to exonerate <mask> and blame the Jews prior to this time reflects an increasing "anti-Judaism" among Early Christians. The earliest attestation of a positive tradition about <mask> comes from the late first-, early second-century Christian author Tertullian, who, claiming to have seen <mask>'s report to Tiberius, states <mask> had "become already a Christian in his conscience." An earlier reference to <mask>'s records of Jesus's trial is given by Christian apologist Justin Martyr around 160. Tibor Grüll believes that this could be a reference to <mask>'s actual records, but other scholars argue that Justin has simply invented the records as a source on the assumption that they existed without ever having verified their existence.New Testament Apocrypha
Beginning in the fourth century, a large body of Christian apocryphal texts developed concerning <mask>, making up one of the largest groups of surviving New Testament Apocrypha. Originally, these texts served both to unburden <mask> of guilt for the death of Jesus as well as to provide more complete records of Jesus's trial. The apocryphal Gospel of Peter completely exonerates <mask> for the crucifixion, which is instead performed by Herod Antipas. Moreover, the text makes explicit that while <mask> washes his hands of guilt, neither the Jews nor Herod do so. The Gospel includes a scene in which the centurions who had been guarding Jesus' tomb report to <mask> that Jesus has been resurrected. The fragmentary third-century Manichaean Gospel of Mani has <mask> refer to Jesus as "the Son of God" and telling his centurions to "[k]eep this secret". In

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts: the most common version of the passion narrative in the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus (also called the Acts of Pilate), <mask> is portrayed as forced to execute Jesus by the Jews and as distraught at having done so.One version claims to have been discovered and translated by a Jewish convert named Ananias, portraying itself as the official Jewish records of the crucifixion. Another claims that the records were made by <mask> himself, relying on reports made to him by Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea. Some Eastern versions of the Gospel of Nicodemus claim that <mask> was born in Egypt, which likely aided his popularity there. The Christian Pilate literature surrounding the Gospel of Nicodemus includes at least fifteen late antique and early medieval texts, called the "Pilate cycle", written and preserved in various languages and versions and dealing largely with <mask> <mask>. Two of these include purported reports made by <mask> to the emperor (the Anaphora Pilati to Emperor Tiberius and the Letter of Pilate to Claudius to Claudius) on the crucifixion, in which <mask> recounts Jesus' death and resurrection, blaming the Jews. Another purports to be an angry reply by Tiberius, condemning <mask> for his role in Jesus' death, the Letter of Tiberius to <mask>. Another early text is an apocryphal letter attributed to "Herod" (a composite character of the various Herods in the Bible), which claims to respond to a letter from <mask> in which <mask> spoke of his remorse for Jesus' crucifixion and of having had a vision of the risen Christ; "Herod" asks <mask> to pray for him.In the so-called Book of the

masks: Pilate Pilate Pilate Pontius Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 Cock, a late-antique apocryphal passion Gospel only preserved in Ge'ez (Ethiopic) but translated from Arabic, <mask> attempts to avoid Jesus's execution by sending him to Herod and writing further letters arguing with Herod not to execute Jesus. <mask>'s family become Christians after Jesus miraculously cures <mask>'s daughters of their deaf-muteness. <mask> is nevertheless forced to execute Jesus by the increasingly angry crowd, but Jesus tells <mask> that he does not hold him responsible. This book enjoys "a quasi-canonical status" among Ethiopian Christians to this day and continues to be read beside the canonical gospels during Holy Week. <mask>'s death in the apocrypha

Seven of the Pilate texts mention <mask>'s fate after the crucifixion: in three, he becomes a very positive figure, while in four he is presented as diabolically evil. A fifth-century Syriac version of the Acts of Pilate explains <mask>'s conversion as occurring after he has blamed the Jews for Jesus' death in front of Tiberius; prior to his execution, <mask> prays to God and converts, thereby becoming a Christian martyr. In the Greek Paradosis Pilati (5th c.), <mask> is arrested for the crime of executing Jesus, although he has since converted to be a follower of Christ.His beheading is accompanied by a voice from heaven calling him blessed and saying he will be with Jesus at the Second Coming. The Evangelium Gamalielis, possibly of medieval origin and preserved in Arabic, Coptic, and Ge'ez, says Jesus was crucified by Herod, whereas <mask> was a true believer in Christ who was martyred for his faith; similarly, the Martyrium


title: Pontius Pilate

texts:
 Pilati, possibly medieval and preserved in Arabic, Coptic, and Ge'ez, portrays <mask>, as well as his wife and two children, as being crucified twice, once by the Jews and once by Tiberius, for his faith. In addition to the report on <mask>, Grüll notes three Western apocryphal traditions about <mask>'s suicide. In the Cura sanitatis Tiberii (dated variously 5th to 7th c.), the emperor Tiberius is healed by an image of Jesus brought by Saint Veronica, Saint Peter then confirms <mask>'s report on Jesus's miracles, and <mask> is exiled by the emperor Nero, after which he commits suicide. A similar narrative plays out in the Vindicta Salvatoris (8th c.). In the Mors Pilati (perhaps originally 6th c., but recorded c. 1300), <mask> was forced to commit suicide and his body thrown in the Tiber. However, the body is surrounded by demons and storms, so that it is removed from the Tiber and instead cast into the Rhone, where the same thing happens.Finally, the corpse is taken to Lausanne in modern Switzerland and buried in an isolated lake (perhaps Lake Lucerne? ), where demonic visitations continue to occur. Later legends

Beginning in the eleventh century, more extensive legendary biographies of <mask> were written in Western Europe, adding details to information provided by the bible and apocrypha. The legend exists in many different versions and was extremely widespread in both Latin and the vernacular, and each version contains significant variation, often relating to local traditions. Early "biographies"
The earliest extant legendary biography is the De Pilato of c. 1050, with three further Latin

masks: Pilate Pilatebius Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate Pilate