title: Marie Curie

texts:
 wanted a religious service.Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit. They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, <mask> had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend. New elements

In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood. In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power. He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.She used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electric charge. Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself. This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible. In 1897, her daughter Irène was born.To support her family, Curie began teaching at the École


title: Marie Curie

type: original

texts: Normale Supérieure. The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to ESPCI. The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments. Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite). Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active.She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium. She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive. <mask> was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her. She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication.Her paper,


title: Marie Curie

texts:
 discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business. Nobel Prizes

In December 1903 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded <mask>, <mask>, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel." At first the committee had intended to honour only <mask> and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, <mask>'s name was added to the nomination. <mask>e was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize. Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill. As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905.The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant. Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory. Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906. In December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève. She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.

masks:
Pierre Curie
Marie Curie
Pierre Curie
Marie
Marie Curi


title: Marie Curie

texts: On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed in a road accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, fracturing his skull and killing him instantly.Curie was devastated by her husband's death. On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for her late husband and offer it to <mask>. She accepted it, hoping to create a world-class laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris. Curie's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris. The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute.Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute. In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the curie. Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences failed, by one or two votes, to elect her to membership in the Academy. Elected instead was


title: Marie Curie

texts: Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph. It was only over half a century later, in 1962, that a doctoral student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy. Despite Curie's fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish. During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press as a foreigner and atheist.Her daughter later remarked on the French press's hypocrisy in portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but portraying her as a French heroine when she received foreign honours such as her Nobel Prizes. In 1911 it was revealed that Curie was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of <mask>'s, a married man who was estranged from his wife. This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker. When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, Camille Marbo. International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This award was "in


title: Marie Curie

texts: United States, and the First Lady praised her as an example of a professional achiever who was also a supportive wife. Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused. In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine. She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia. Led by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and her son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-<mask>.Eventually it became one of the world's four major radioactivity-research laboratories, the others being the Cavendish Laboratory, with Ernest Rutherford; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner. In August 1922 <mask> became a member of the League of Nations' newly created International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. She sat on the committee until 1934 and contributed to League of Nations' scientific coordination with other prominent researchers such as Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, and Henri Bergson. In 1923 she wrote a biography of her late husband, titled Pierre Curie. In 1925 she visited Poland to participate in a ceremony laying the foundations for Warsaw's Radium Institute. Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; the Institute opened in 1932, with her sister Bronisława its director. These distractions from her

masks:
Curie
Marie Curie


title: Marie Curie

texts:
 awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her. She and her husband often refused awards and medals. Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame.Honours and tributes

As one of the most famous scientists, <mask>e has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of pop culture. In 1995, she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon, Paris. In a 2009 poll carried out by New Scientist, she was voted the "most inspirational woman in science". Curie received 25.1 percent of all votes cast, nearly twice as many as second-place Rosalind Franklin (14.2 per cent). On the centenary of her second Nobel Prize, Poland declared 2011 the Year of <mask>e; and the United Nations declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry. An artistic installation celebrating "Madame Curie" filled the Jacobs Gallery at San Diego's Museum of Contemporary Art. On 7 November, Google celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special Google Doodle.On 10 December, the New York Academy of Sciences celebrated the centenary of <mask>'s second Nobel Prize in the presence of Princess Madeleine of Sweden. <mask> was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. Awards that she received include:
 Nobel Prize in Physics (1903, with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel)
 Davy Medal (1903, with Pierre)
 Matteucci Medal (1904, with Pierre)
 Actonian Prize (1907)
 Elliott

masks:
Marie Curi
Marie Curi
Marie Curie
Marie Curie


title: Marie Curie

texts:
 Cresson Medal (1909)
 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911)
 Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society (1921)

She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world. In Poland, she received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic (1912), Poznań University (1922), Kraków's Jagiellonian University (1924), and the Warsaw Polytechnic (1926). In 1920 she became the first female member of The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. In 1921, in the U.S., she was awarded membership in the Iota Sigma Pi women scientists' society. In 1924, she became an Honorary Member of the Polish Chemical Society.<mask>'s 1898 publication with her husband and their collaborator Gustave Bémont of their discovery of radium and polonium was honoured by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris in 2015. Entities that have been named in her honour include:

 The curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre Curie (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, <mask>owska-Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her. In 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies. Polish nuclear research reactor Maria is named after her.The 7000 Curie asteroid is also named after her. A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCC) is named in her honour. In 2011, a new Warsaw bridge over the Vistula River was named in her honour. In January 2020,

masks:
Marie Curie
Mariekod


title: Marie Curie

texts:
 Satellogic, a high-resolution Earth observation imaging and analytics company, launched a ÑuSat type micro-satellite; ÑuSat 8, also known as <mask>, was named in her honour. The Marie-Curie station, a planned underground Réseau express métropolitain (REM) station in the borough of Saint-Laurent in Montreal is named in her honour. A nearby road, Avenue Marie Curie, is also named in her honour. Several institutions presently bear her name, including the two Curie institutes which she founded: the Maria Sklodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology in Warsaw, and the Institut Curie in Paris.The Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, in Lublin, was founded in 1944; and the Pierre and Marie Curie University (also known as Paris VI) was France's pre-eminent science university, which would later merge to form the Sorbonne University. In Britain, the Marie Curie charity was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill.
Two museums are devoted to <mask>e. In 1967, the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum was established in Warsaw's "New Town", at her birthplace on ulica Freta (Freta Street). Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the Musée Curie, open since 1992. Curie's likeness has appeared on banknotes, stamps and coins around the world. She was featured on the Polish late-1980s 20,000-złoty banknote as well as on the last French 500-franc note, before the franc was replaced by the euro. Curie-themed postage stamps from Mali, the Republic of Togo, Zambia, and the Republic of Guinea actually show a picture of <mask> Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder.Her likeness or name has appeared on several artistic works. In 1935, Michalina Mościcka, wife

masks:
Marie
Marie Curi
Susan Marie


title: Marie Curie

texts:
 of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki, unveiled a statue of <mask>e before Warsaw's Radium Institute; during the 1944 Second World War Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation, the monument was damaged by gunfire; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal. Her name is included on the Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations, erected in Hamburg, Germany in 1936. In 1955 Jozef Mazur created a stained glass panel of her, the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Medallion, featured in the University at Buffalo Polish Room. In 2011, on the centenary of <mask>'s second Nobel Prize, an allegorical mural was painted on the façade of her Warsaw birthplace. It depicted an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanated the elements that she would discover as an adult: polonium and radium. In popular culture
Numerous biographies are devoted to her, including:
 Ève Curie (<mask>e's daughter), Madame Curie, 1938.Françoise Giroud, <mask>e: A Life, 1987. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of <mask>e, 2005. Lauren Redniss, Radioactive: <mask> and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout, 2011, adapted into the 2019 British film. <mask>e has been the subject of a number of films:
 1943: Madame Curie, a U.S. Oscar-nominated film by Mervyn LeRoy starring Greer Garson. 1997: Les Palmes de M. Schutz, a French film adapted from a play of the same title, and directed by Claude Pinoteau. <mask> is played by Isabelle Huppert. 2016: <mask>e: The Courage of Knowledge, a European co-production by <mask> starring Karolina Gruszka.2019: Radioactive, a British film by Marjane Satrapi starring Rosamund Pike.

masks:
Marie Curi
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Curi
Marie Curi
Marie
Marie Curi
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Noëlle


title: Marie Curie

texts:
 Curie is the subject of the 2013 play, False Assumptions, by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life. Curie has also been portrayed by <mask> Frontczak in her play, Manya: The Living History of <mask>, a one-woman show which by 2014 had been performed in 30 U.S. states and nine countries. See also

 Charlotte Hoffman Kellogg, who sponsored <mask>'s visit to the US
 Eusapia Palladino: Spiritualist medium whose Paris séances were attended by an intrigued Pierre Curie and a skeptical <mask>e
 <mask>e Medal
 Genius, television series depicting Einstein's life
 List of female Nobel laureates
 List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize
 List of multiple discoveries (1898 discovery of thorium radioactivity)
 List of Poles (Chemistry)
 List of Poles (Physics)
 List of Polish Nobel laureates
 Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum, Warsaw, Poland
 <mask> Gargoyle (1988), at University of Oregon
 Poles
 Timeline of women in science
 Treatise on Radioactivity, by <mask>e
 Women in chemistry

Notes

References

Further reading

Nonfiction

  translated by Lydia Davis. Fiction
  A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska-Curie, neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, and his Salpêtrière patient "Blanche" (<mask>). The English translation was published in

masks:
Susan Marie
Marie Curie
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Curi
Marie Curie
Marie Curi
Marie Wittman


title: Pauline Markham

texts:
<mask> (born Margaret Hall or  Hale, May 1847 – March 20, 1919) was an Anglo-American dancer and contralto singer active on burlesque and vaudeville stages during the latter decades of the 19th century. She began by performing juvenile rôles in Manchester, made her debut on the London stage at 20 and a year later New York as a member of the British Blondes which introduced Victorian burlesque to America, where for a few years she would find phenomenal success before her career settled into a long steady decline. The critic Richard Grant White once described <mask>'s singing as vocal velvet and her arms as the lost arms of the Venus de Milo. <mask> had studied singing with Manuel García at the Royal Academy of Music in London. Early life and career
<mask> was born in England and began her acting career at an early age playing principle boy parts at the Princess Theatre, Manchester. She made her London debut, not too many years later, on November 15, 1867, at the Queen's Theatre in Wigan's The First Night playing Rose, the intended debutant. In late June, 1868 she appeared at the Queen's Theatre in another Wigan play, Time and the Hour, of which one London critic said, “It is by no means good, and by no means bad.”

British Blondes

Later in that year she accompanied Lydia Thompson to New York as a member of her British Blondes, opening at Wood's Museum (Broadway at 30th Street) on September 28, in the burlesque of "Ixion, or the Man at the Wheel".In the piece <mask> plays the goddess Venus who is seduced by King Ixion (Thompson). Ixion had a combined run of 102 matinee and evening performances before closing on December 26, 1868. The following February <mask> began a long run at Niblo's Garden in Forty Thieves, Thompson's burlesque of  Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves. At the Union Square Theatre (then the Grand Theatre Tammany) in August 1869 she played the central rôle Florizel in The Queen of Hearts, or Harlequin; the Knave of Hearts, that Stole the Tarts, and the Old Woman Who

masks:
Pauline Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham


title: Pauline Markham

texts: Lived in the Shoe, a production that at least one New York Herald critic considered as foolish as its title. In October 1869 it was reported in the press that Markham's investments had made her a fortune on Wall Street. During this time she was earning upwards to $150 per week, at a time when an experienced actor might expect $50 for a week on the boards. On October 28, 1870, <mask> was seriously injured in a carriage accident in New York on Harlem Street, such that at least one newspaper reported her dead.Eleven days earlier she had opened with Thompson at Wood's Theatre in a burlesque of the Wallace opera Lurline and after a relatively short recuperation she chose to join the cast of the Niblo's December revival of The Black Crook' playing what would turn out to be her signature rôle. The Black CrookThe Black Crook, a musical about an English ne'er do well who discovers his noble birth and decides to reform, was first produced in America at Niblo's Theatre in 1866 with a run in excess of 300 performances. <mask> later became so identified with her characterization of the fairy queen Stalacta, that afterwards some chroniclers erroneously listed her among the original 1866 cast. The revival ran for 122 performances and would return several more times to New York and in tours of the country. During this time, it was not uncommon for Markham to receive after a performance bouquets of flowers festooned with jewelry from her male admirers.The Black Crook, which featured actresses in flesh colored silk tights, has been credited with starting in 1866 what James Lauren Ford called “the great era of the leg show. A criticism of such shows in 1870 by Wilbur F. Storey, editor of the Chicago Times, led to the following incident. Lydia Thompson’s troupe of "British Blondes" was playing an engagement at McVicker’s Theatre.It was the first so-called "leg" show to appear in Chicago. Mr. Storey had heard rumors of the alleged indecency of the performance and he sent one of his reporters to see

masks: Markham Markham


title: Pauline Markham

texts:
 the show and write his impressions. Mr. Storey also indited a few lines for the editorial page that fairly sizzled. The "rongst" was printed in the Times February 24, 1870. That evening at five o’clock while Mr. Storey was on his way home from the office he was waylaid at Wabash avenue and Peck Court by Miss Thompson, Miss Markham and Mr. Henderson, manager of the "British Blondes." The editor was walking with his head down, as was his custom, when suddenly he was confronted by the trio. Mrs. Thompson drew short whip which was concealed in the folds of her skirt and began to rain blows down upon the head and shoulders of Mr. Storey.Unaware of the cause of the assault, Mr. Storey kept shouting: "What do you mean? What do you mean?" He raised his hands to ward off the blows and at this juncture Miss <mask> snatched the whip from Miss Thompson. She also belabored the editor until pedestrians came to his rescue. Burnettsville News, April 24, 1919

The three were arrested and later pled guilty to assault with <mask> receiving a $150 fine and Thompson and Henderson penalized $200 apiece. <mask>, with the help of Richard Grant White, published The Life of Pauline Markham in 1871. In 1872 <mask> appeared at Wood’s Museum with Belle Howitt in burlesque productions of Who Cried for the Rain, Red Riding Hood, The Three Musketeers and others, including several shows she had previously performed in with Thompson’s "British Blondes".The next year she toured with her own company in a piece described a fairy burlesque of the Golden Butterfly. That fall she returned to Niblo's Theatre to revive her rôle in The Black Crook. Randolph M. McMahon

In late November 1873 it was reported <mask> had eloped with Randolph M. McMahon, a former Southern Civil War officer with a reported rank ranging anywhere from Colonel to Major General. A few days earlier <mask> failed to appear for that night's performance of The Black Crook at Niblo's Theatre. It was later discovered the couple had skipped town to avoid

masks: Markham Markham Markham Markham Markham Markham


title: Pauline Markham

texts:
 detectives searching for McMahon over an extravagant unpaid hotel bill. <mask> would later say of McMahon that he was abusive and controlling to the point that he would only allow her twenty-five cents to spend on meals. According to sporadic news accounts the two remained together for at least five years with McMahon as her manager.Dramatic, Musical, & c. North American and United States Gazette, (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), February 26, 1873; Issue 31,699; col. C

In May 1874 <mask> was reported singing for private circles in New Orleans and by the summer of 1875, back in London at the Haymarket Theatre supporting Charles Wyndham in a play entitled Brighton.She played in Dancing Dolls, a variety show at the Globe Theatre in August 1876, before returning to America the next year to tour with Adah Richmond's Burlesque Company. That fall she appeared on the legitimate stage in Boston at Howard's Athenaeum as Fanny Vanderbilt in The Charity Ball and later in a production of Robin Hood''. In February 1878 the press linked Markham to scandal involving a former governor of South Carolina and the issuing of fraudulent bonds. Markham denied any involvement with the scheme or that she was acquainted with any of the men mentioned in the papers as members of the South Carolina ring, telling her interviewer that they are not the kind of persons she permits herself to associate with. The following year <mask>'s company toured the west presenting H. M. S. Pinafore. Sadie Marcus, later in life the common-law wife of gambler and lawman Wyatt Earp, claimed that she was a member of the troupe, but no corroborating evidence has been found to support her claim. Her name was never included among those on the Markham troupe's rolls in 1879.Randolph Murray

She married again in 1883 to Randolph Murray, an actor-manager, late of the British Army. A scandal arose shortly thereafter when the press discovered Murray had not ended an 1880 marriage before he wed <mask>. He claimed he was drunk at the time

masks: Markham Markham Markham Markham


title: Pauline Markham

texts:
 and that his bride deserted him a week later. Murray walked with a limp said to have been caused by a minié ball still embedded in his leg dating back to his service in India. His acting career in America began in the early 1870s at the Cleveland Academy of Music as W. C. Davenport. <mask> and Murray would perform together in a number of legitimate stage performances during their marriage. She divorced him in 1891, reportedly on the grounds of infidelity.Later years
Over the first ten years of her career <mask> was thought to have earned $250,000 and received some $100,000 in gifts. Her later career would still achieve some highs, but also a number of lows with more than one of her shows collapsing in mid tour and an incident involving a tour manager who disappeared with the troupe's funds. After her second marriage she eventually slipped into poverty with newspaper accounts of her working as a scrub woman and sometimes taking bit parts under an assumed name. If these accounts are true her poverty, at least in part, resulted from the broken leg she suffered around 1892 after falling through an open cellar door along a stretch of sidewalk in Louisville, Kentucky. Five years later she was awarded through a negligence lawsuit $5,000 from city of Louisville. In 1897 <mask> attempted a comeback in vaudeville that appears to have ended the following year at Tony Pastor's in dramatic skits with Catherine Dann. Adelard Gravel and final years

By 1900 she was married to Adelard Gravel, a Manhattan-based French-Canadian artist and printer that the press described as "moderately prosperous".In late 1905 <mask> was reported to be near death with pneumonia though later press clarified it to be a serious case of the measles. She lived on with her husband for another fourteen years, dying in New York at the age of 71. References

External links

 Photograph of <mask>
 <mask>ham photo gallery at NYP Library
<mask>ham: North American Theatre Online

British burlesque performers
1847 births
1919

masks:
Markham
Markham
Markham
Markham
Pauline Markham
Pauline Mark
Pauline Mark


title: Benjamin Constant

texts: Henri-<mask> (; 25 October 1767 – 8 December 1830), or simply <mask>, was a Swiss-French political thinker, activist and writer on political theory and religion. A committed republican from 1795, he backed the coup d'état of 18 Fructidor, (4 September 1797) and the following one on 18 brumaire, (9 November 1799). During the Consulat, in 1800 he became the leader of the Liberal Opposition. Having upset Napoleon and left France to go to Switzerland then to the Kingdom of Saxony, he nonetheless sided with Napoleon during the Hundred Days and became politically active again during the French Restoration. He was elected Député in 1818 and remained in post until his death in 1830. Head of the Liberal opposition, known as Indépendants, he was one of the most notable orators of the Chamber of Deputies of France, as a proponent of the parliamentary system. During the July Revolution, he was a supporter of Louis Philippe I ascending the throne.Besides his numerous essays on political and religious themes, <mask> also wrote on romantic love. His autobiographical Le Cahier rouge (1807) gives an account of his love for Madame de Staël, whose protégé and collaborator he became, especially in the Coppet circle, and a successful novella, Adolphe (1816), are good exemples of his work on this topic. He was a fervent classical liberal of the early 19th century. He refined the concept of liberty, defining it as a condition of existence that allowed the individual to turn away interference from the state or society. His ideas influenced the Trienio Liberal movement in Spain, the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, the Greek War of Independence, the November

masks:
Benjamin Constant de Rebecque
Benjamin Constant
Constant


title: Benjamin Constant

texts:
 uprising in Poland, the Belgian Revolution, and liberalism in Brazil and Mexico. Biography
Henri-<mask> was born in Lausanne to the <mask> de Rebecque family, descendants of French Huguenots who had fled from Artois to Switzerland during the French Wars of Religion in the 16th century. His father, <mask> de Rebecque, served as a high-ranking officer in the Dutch States Army, like his grandfather, his uncle and his cousin Jean Victor <mask> Rebecque.When <mask>'s mother, Henriette-Pauline de Chandieu-Villars, died soon after his birth, both his grandmothers took care of him. Private tutors educated him in Brussels (1779) and in the Netherlands (1780). While at the Protestant University of Erlangen (1783), he gained access to the court of Duchess Sophie Caroline Marie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He had to leave after an affair with a girl, and moved to the University of Edinburgh. There he lived at the home of Andrew Duncan and was befriended by James Mackintosh and Malcolm Laing. When he left the city, he promised to pay back his gambling debts. In 1787, he returned to continental Europe, travelling on horseback through Scotland and England.In those years European nobility, with their prerogatives, come under heavy attack from those, like <mask>, who were influenced by Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality. <mask>'s family criticized him for leaving out part of his last name. In Paris, at the home of Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard he became acquainted with Isabelle de Charriere, a 46-year-old Dutch woman of letters, who later helped publish Rousseau's Confessions, and who knew his uncle David-Louis <mask> de Rebecque extremely well by virtue of a

masks:
Benjamin Constant
Constant
Jules Constant
de Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant
Constant


title: Benjamin Constant

texts:
 15-year correspondence. While he stayed at her home in Colombier Switzerland, together they wrote an epistolary novel. She acted as a maternal mentor to him until <mask>'s appointment to the court of Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel that required him to move north. He left the court when the War of the First Coalition began in 1792. In Braunschweig, he married Wilhelmina von Cramm, but she divorced him in 1793.In September 1794, he met and became interested in the famous and wealthy already married Germaine de Staël, herself brought up on the principles of Rousseau. They both admired Jean Lambert Tallien and Talleyrand. Their intellectual collaboration between 1795 and 1811 made them one of the most celebrated intellectual couples of the time. Paris

After the Reign of Terror in France (1793–1794), <mask> became an advocate of bicameralism and of an assembly like the Parliament of Great Britain. In revolutionary France this strand of political thought resulted in the Constitution of the Year III, the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. In 1799, after 18 Brumaire, <mask> was reluctantly appointed, on the insistence of Abbe Sieyes, by Napoleon Bonaparte to the Tribunat, despite grave reservations on the latter's part. Eventually, in 1802, the first consul confirmed in his doubts, forced <mask> to withdraw because of the tenor of his speeches and his close connection with Mme de Staël.<mask> became acquainted with Julie Talma, the salonnière wife of actor François-Joseph Talma, who wrote many letters to him of compelling human interest. In 1800, the Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise, an attempt to assassinate

masks: Constant Constant Constant Constant Constant


title: Benjamin Constant

texts: Napoleon, failed. In 1803, at a time when Britain and France were at peace, Jean Gabriel Peltier, while living in England, argued that Napoleon should be assassinated. The lawyer James Mackintosh defended the French refugee, Peltier against a libel suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul of France. Mackintosh's speech was widely published in English and also across Europe in a French translation by Madame de Staël. She was forced to leave Paris as a result. De Staël, disappointed by French rationalism, became interested in German romanticism.She and <mask> set out for Prussia and Saxony and travelled with her two children to Weimar. Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel welcomed them the day after their arrival. In Weimar they met Friedrich von Schiller. Due to illness Johann Wolfgang Goethe at first hesitated. In Berlin, they met August Wilhelm Schlegel, and his brother, Friedrich Schlegel. <mask> left de Staël in Leipzig and in 1806 lived in Rouen and Meulan, where he started work on his novel Adolphe. In 1808, he secretly married Caroline von Hardenberg, a woman who had been divorced twice, (she was related to Novalis and to Karl August von Hardenberg).He  moved back to Paris in 1814, where the French Restoration took place and Louis XVIII had become king. As a member of the Council of State, <mask> proposed a constitutional monarchy. He became friends with Madame Récamier while he fell out with Germaine de Staël, who had asked him to pay back his gambling debts when their daughter, Albertine, married Victor de Broglie. During the Hundred Days of Napoleon, who had become more liberal, <mask> fled to the Vendée, but returned

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 when he was invited several times to the Tuileries to set up changes for the Charter of 1815. After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), <mask> moved to London with his wife. In 1817, the year when Madame de Staël died, he was back in Paris and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, the lower legislative house of the Restoration-era government. One of its most eloquent orators, he became a leader of the parliamentary bloc first known as the Independents and later as "liberals".He became an opponent of Charles X of France during the Restoration
between 1815 and 1830. In 1822, Goethe praised <mask> in the following terms:

I spent many instructive evenings with <mask>. Whoever recollects what this excellent man accomplished in [later] years, and with what zeal he advanced without wavering along the path which, once chosen, was forever followed, realizes what noble aspirations, as yet undeveloped, were fermenting within him. In 1830, King Louis Philippe I gave <mask> a large sum of money to help him pay off his debts, and appointed him to the Conseil d'Etat. <mask> is said to have fathered Albertine de Staël-Holstein (1797–1838), who later married Victor de Broglie (1785–1870). <mask> died in Paris on 8 December 1830 and was buried in the Père Lachaise cemetery. Political philosophy

Ancient and modern freedom
One of the first thinkers to go by the name of "liberal", <mask> looked to Britain rather than to ancient Rome for a practical model of freedom in a large mercantile society.He drew a distinction between the "Liberty of the Ancients" and the "Liberty of the Moderns". The Liberty of the Ancients was a participatory republican liberty,

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 which gave the citizens the right to influence politics directly through debates and votes in the public assembly. To support this degree of participation, citizenship was a burdensome moral obligation requiring a considerable investment of time and energy. Generally, this required a sub-society of slaves to do much of the productive work, leaving the citizens free to deliberate on public affairs. Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous male societies, in which they could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs. The Liberty of the Moderns, in contrast, was based on the possession of civil liberties, the rule of law, and freedom from excessive state interference. Direct participation would be limited: a necessary consequence of the size of modern states, and also the inevitable result of having created a mercantile society in which there were no slaves but almost everybody had to earn a living through work.Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from daily political involvement. Critique of the French Revolution
He criticised several aspects of the French Revolution, and the failures of the social and political upheaval. He stated how the French attempted to apply ancient republican liberties to a modern state. <mask> realized that freedom meant drawing a line between a person's private life and that of state interference. He praised the noble spirit of regenerating the state. However, he stated that it was naïve for writers to believe that two thousand years had not brought some changes in


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texts: the customs and needs of the people. The dynamics of the state had changed.Ancient populations paled in comparison to the size of modern countries. He even argued that with a large population, man had no role in government regardless of its form or type. <mask> emphasised how citizens in ancient states found more satisfaction in the public sphere and less in their private lives whereas modern people favoured their private life. <mask>'s repeated denunciation of despotism pervaded his critique of French political philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Abbé de Mably. These writers, influential in the French Revolution, according to <mask>, mistook authority for liberty and approved any means of extending the action of the state. Alleged reformers used the model of public force of the Ancien Régime, and organised the most absolute despotism in the name of the Republic. He continually condemned despotism, citing the contradiction of a liberty derived from despotism, and the vacuous nature of this ideology.Furthermore, he pointed out the detrimental nature of the Reign of Terror, as an inexplicable delirium. In François Furet's words, <mask>'s "entire political thought" revolved around this question, namely the problem of how to justify the Terror. <mask> understood the revolutionaries' disastrous over-investment in the political sphere. The French revolutionaries such as the Sans-culottes were the primary force in the streets. They promoted constant vigilance in public. <mask> pointed out how despite the most obscure life, the quietest existence, the most unknown name, it offered no protection during the Reign of Terror. The pervasive mob

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 mentality deterred many right thinking people and helped to usher in despots such as Napoleon.Commerce preferable to war
Moreover, <mask> believed that, in the modern world, commerce was superior to war. He attacked Napoleon's belligerence, on the grounds that it was illiberal and no longer suited to modern commercial social organization. Ancient Liberty tended to rely on war, whereas a state organized on the principles of Modern Liberty would tend to be at peace with all other peaceful nations. <mask> believed that if liberty were to be salvaged from the aftermath of the Revolution, then the chimera of Ancient Liberty had to be reconciled with the practical to achieve Modern Liberty. England, since the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the United Kingdom after 1707, had demonstrated the practicality of Modern Liberty and Britain was a constitutional monarchy. <mask> concluded that constitutional monarchy was better suited than republicanism to maintaining Modern Liberty. He was instrumental in drafting the "Acte Additional" of 1815, which transformed Napoleon's restored rule into a modern constitutional monarchy.This was only to last for "One Hundred Days" before Napoleon was defeated, but <mask>'s work nevertheless provided a means of reconciling monarchy with liberty. Indeed, the French Constitution (or Charter) of 1830 could be seen as a practical implementation of many of <mask>'s ideas: a hereditary monarchy existing alongside an elected Chamber of Deputies and a senatorial Chamber of Peers, with the executive power vested in responsible ministers. Thus, although often ignored in France, because of his Anglo-Saxon sympathies, <mask>


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 succeeded in contributing in a profound (albeit indirect) way to French constitutional traditions. Constitutional monarchy
Secondly, <mask> developed a new theory of constitutional monarchy, in which royal power was intended to be a neutral power, protecting, balancing and restraining the excesses of the other active powers (the executive, legislature, and judiciary). This was an advance on the prevailing theory in the English-speaking world, which, following the opinion of William Blackstone, the 18th-century English jurist, had regarded the King as head of the executive branch. In <mask>'s scheme, the executive power would be entrusted to a Council of Ministers (or Cabinet) who, although appointed by the King, were ultimately accountable to Parliament. In making this clear theoretical distinction between the powers of the King (as head of state) and the ministers (as Executive), <mask> was responding to the political reality which had become apparent in Britain for more than a century: that is, the ministers, and not the King, are responsible actors, and the King "reigns but does not rule".This was important for the development of parliamentary government in France and elsewhere. The King was not to be a powerless cipher in <mask>'s scheme. He would have many powers, including the power to make judicial appointments, to dissolve the Chamber and call new elections, to appoint the peers, and to dismiss ministers – but he would not be able to govern, make policy, or direct the administration, since that would be the task of the responsible ministers. This theory was literally applied in Portugal (1822) and Brazil (1824), where the King/Emperor


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 was explicitly given "Moderating Powers" rather than executive power. Elsewhere (for example, the 1848 "Statuto albertino" of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which later became the basis of the Italian constitution from 1861) the executive power was notionally vested in the King, but was exercised only by the responsible ministers. He advocated the separation of powers as a basis for a liberal State, but unlike Montesquieu and most of the liberal thinkers, he advocated five powers instead of three. They were:

 the Monarch or Moderator,
 the Executive,
 the Representative Power of Opinion,
 the Representative Power of Tradition and
 the Judiciary.Thus the Moderating Power was a monarch, a type of judge, who was not part of government, but served as a neutral power to the government, the Executive Power was vested in the ministers that the monarch appointed and they were, collectively, the head of government, the Representative Powers were a separation of the Monstesquieu's Legislative power, with the Representative Power of Opinion being an elected body to represent the opinion of the citizenry and the Representative Power of Tradition was a hereditary House of Peers and the judiciary was similar to the Montesquieu's Judicial Power. <mask>'s other concerns included a "new type of federalism": a serious attempt to decentralize French government through the devolution of powers to elected municipal councils. This proposal reached fruition in 1831, when elected municipal councils (albeit on a narrow franchise) were created. Comparative religion
Aside from his political and literary output, <mask> spent forty years working on religion and religious

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 feeling. His publications demonstrate his desire to grasp this social phenomenon inherent to human nature, which, in whatever forms it may present, is always a search for perfectibility. If its manifestations become rigid, splitting becomes inevitable. Thus, however religious feeling may present, it needs to adapt and evolve.<mask> is adamant that political authority should not meddle in the religious beliefs of the citizenry, even to defend them. In his view it is up to each person to decide where to seek their consolation, moral compass or faith. External authority cannot act upon someone's convictions, it can only act upon their interests. He also condemns a religion that is commonly regarded as utilitarian, since it degrades authentic religious feeling. He considers that it was necessary for polytheism to decline in line with human progress. The more humans progress in their understanding, the more beneficial the effects of theism. Belief in a god has itself evolved.Christianity, especially protestantism is, he argues, its most tolerant form and an indicator of intellectual, moral and spiritual evolution. Novels
<mask> published only one novel during his lifetime, Adolphe (1816), the story of a young, indecisive man's disastrous love affair with an older mistress. A first-person novel in the sentimentalist tradition, Adolphe examines the thoughts of the young man as he falls in and out of love with Ellenore, a woman of uncertain virtue. <mask> began the novel as an autobiographical tale of two loves, but decided that the reading public would object to serial passions. The love affair depicted in the finished version of the novel is thought

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 to be based on <mask>'s affair with Anna Lindsay, who describes the affair in her correspondence (published in the Revue des Deux Mondes, December 1930 – January 1931). The book has been compared to Chateaubriand's René or Mme de Stael's Corinne. As a young man, <mask> became acquainted with a literary friend of his uncle, David-Louis <mask> de Rebecque.She was Isabelle de Charrière, a Dutch woman of letters with whom he jointly wrote an epistolary novel, under the title, Les Lettres d'Arsillé fils, Sophie Durfé et autres. Legacy
The importance of <mask>'s writings on the liberty of the ancients and of that of his time has dominated understanding of his work, as has his critique of the French Revolution. The British philosopher and historian of ideas, Sir Isaiah Berlin has acknowledged his debt to <mask>. <mask>'s wider literary and cultural writings (most importantly the novella Adolphe and his extensive history of comparative religion) emphasised the importance of self-sacrifice and effect of human emotions as a basis for social living. Thus, while he pleaded for individual liberty as vital for individual and moral development and appropriate for modernity, he felt that egoism and self-interest were not part of a true definition of individual liberty. Emotional authenticity and fellow-feeling were critical. In this, his moral and religious thought was strongly influenced by the moral writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and German thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, whom he read in reference to his religious history.1824–1831) (on ancient religion)
 Appel aux Nations chrétiennes en faveur des Grecs. (1825)
 Mélanges de littérature et de politique


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 (1829)
 Du polythéisme romain considéré dans ses rapports avec la philosophie grecque et la religion chrétienne (1833)
 Correspondance de Benjamin <mask> et d'Anna Lindsay – L'Inconnue d'Adolphe, publiée par la baronne Constant de Rebecque. (Plon, 1933). Novels
 Dennis Wood, Isabelle de Charrière et <mask>. À propos d'une découverte récente. [Sur Les Lettres d'Arsillé fils, Sophie Durfé et autres, roman écrit par <mask> et Madame de Charrière.] In : Studies on Voltaire and the eighteenth century; 215.(Oxford, Voltaire Foundation, 1982), . Adolphe (1816)}quotes

Autobiographical writings
 Le Cahier rouge (1807), published posthumously (1907)
 Cécile (écrit vers 1809), published posthumously (1951)

Letters
 Lettre à M. Odillon-Barrot, avocat en la Cour de cassation, sur l'affaire de Wilfrid Regnault, condamné à mort (1818 puis publié chez P. Plancher en 1819)
 Deuxième lettre à M. Odillon-Barrot, avocat en la Cour de cassation, sur l'affaire de Wilfrid Regnault, condamné à mort (1818 puis publié chez P. Plancher en 1819)
 De l'appel en calomnie de M. le marquis de Blosseville, contre Wilfrid-Regnault (1818 puis publié chez P. Plancher en 1819)
 Correspondance Isabelle de Charrière et <mask> (1787–1805), Éd. Jean-Daniel Candaux. Paris, Desjonquères, 1996
 Renée Weingarten, Germaine de Staël & <mask>. A dual Biography, Yale, 2008. Lettres à Madame Récamier (1807–1830), Edition critique par Ephraïm Harpaz, Paris, Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1977. Intimate Diary
 Journaux intimes, Édition de Jean-Marie Roulin, Éd.Gallimard, collection folio classique n°6382, Paris, 2017. See also
 Contributions to liberal theory
 Institut Constant de Rebecque, a

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 Swiss free-market, classical liberal and libertarian think tank named after <mask>. References

Further reading
 Biancamaria Fontana, <mask> and the Post-Revolutionary Mind (1991. Yale U.P., New Haven – London)
 Carpenter, Catrine. "<mask>'s religious politics" History of European Ideas 35#4 (2009), 503–509. <mask>, <mask>. Constant: Political Writings (Cambridge UP, 1988).Dodge, Guy Howard. <mask>'s Philosophy of Liberalism: A Study in Politics & Religion (1980) 195pp. Gauchet, Marcel. "Constant," in A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution, ed. François Furet and Mona Ozouf (1989), p. 924. Pitt, A. "The Religion of the Moderns: Freedom and Authenticity in <mask>'s De la Religion", in History of Political Thought; 21#1 (2000), 67–87.Rosenblatt, Helena, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Constant, (2009. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
 Steven, Vincent, K. "<mask>, the French Revolution, and the Origins of French Romantic Liberalism",  French Historical Studies; 23:4 (2000 Fall), pp. 607–637 in Project MUSE
 Vincent, K. Steven. <mask> and the Birth of French Liberalism (Springer, 2011) online. Wood, Dennis. <mask>: A Biography (1993).Other languages
 Mauro Barberis, <mask>. Rivoluzione, costituzione, progresso (1988. Il Mulino, Bologna)
 Paul Bastid, <mask> et sa doctrine, I–II (1966. Colin, Paris)
 Pierre Deguise, <mask> méconnu. Le livre De la religion, avec des documents inédits (1966. Droz, Genève)
 Stefano De Luca, Il pensiero politico di <mask> (1993. Laterza, Roma-Bari)
 Béatrice Fink (dir.), <mask> : philosophe, historien, romancier et homme d'État (actes du colloque de l'université du Maryland, octobre 1989), Lausanne,

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 Institut Benjamin Constant ; Paris, J. Touzot, 1991, 186 p.
 Luca Fezzi, Il rimpianto di Roma. 'Res publica', libertà 'neoromane' e <mask>, agli inizi del terzo millennio (2012, Firenze, Le Monnier)
 François Furet, "La Révolution sans la Terreur? Le débat des historiens du XIXe siècle", in Le Débat pp. 13, 41. (1981)
 Henri Guillemin, <mask>, muscadin, Paris, Gallimard, 1958
 Kurt Kloocke, <mask>. Une biographie intellectuelle (1984. Droz, Genève)
 Giovanni Paoletti, <mask> et les Anciens.Politique, réligion, histoire (2006. Champion, Paris)
 Tzvetan Todorov, <mask>: la passion democratique (1997. Hachette, Paris)

External links

 Institut Benjamin Constant homepage
 Rebecq liberal
 Intellectual portrait of B. C. by Emile Faguet (in French)
 The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns (1816)
 Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments
  Lecture on ancient and modern liberty contains a readable version for contemporary students

1767 births
1830 deaths
People from Lausanne
Swiss Protestants
French Protestants
Members of the Chamber of Deputies of the Bourbon Restoration
Members of the 1st Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy
Swiss writers in French
Swiss psychological fiction writers
Swiss classical liberals
Swiss philosophers
18th-century philosophers
19th-century philosophers
18th-century French writers
18th-century French male writers
19th-century French novelists
Political philosophers
French classical liberals
French male novelists
French psychological fiction writers
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Coppet group
Philhellenes in the Greek War of Independence
Burials at Père Lachaise

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title: Habib Tanvir

texts: <mask> (1 September 1923 – 8 June 2009) was one of the most popular Indian Urdu, Hindi playwrights, a theatre director, poet and actor. He was the writer of plays such as, Agra Bazar (1954) and Charandas Chor (1975). A pioneer in Urdu and Hindi theatre, he was most known for his work with Chhattisgarhi tribals, at the Naya Theatre, a theatre company he founded in 1959 in Bhopal. He went on to include indigenous performance forms such as nacha, to create not only a new theatrical language, but also milestones such as Charandas Chor, Gaon ka Naam Sasural, Mor Naam Damad and Kamdeo ka Apna Basant Ritu ka Sapna. For him, true "theatre of the people" existed in the villages, which he strived to bring to the urban "educated", employing both folk performers as actors alongside urban actors. He died on 8 June 2009 at Bhopal after a three-week-long illness. Upon his death, he was the last of pioneering actor-managers in Indian theatre, which included Sisir Bhaduri, Utpal Dutt and Prithviraj Kapoor, and often he managed plays with a mammoth cast, such as Charandas Chor, which included an orchestra of 72 people on stage and Agra Bazaar, with 52 people.During his lifetime he won several national and international awards, including the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1969, Jawarharlal Nehru Fellowship in 1979, Padma Shri in 1983, Kalidas Samman 1990, Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship in 1996, and the Padma Bhushan in 2002. Apart from that he had also been nominated to become a member of the Upper House of Indian Parliament, the Rajya Sabha (1972–1978). His play Charandas Chor (Charandas, The Thief) won him the Fringe Firsts Award at Edinburgh International Drama Festival in 1982, and in 2007, it was included in the Hindustan Times' list of 'India's 60 Best works since


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 Independence which said : "an innovative dramaturgy equally impelled by Brecht and folk idioms, <mask> Tanvir seduces across language barriers in this his all-time biggest hit about a Robin Hood-style thief." Biography

Early life
He was born in Raipur, Chhattisgarh (erstwhile Madhya Pradesh) to Hafiz Ahmed Khan, who hailed from Peshawar. He passed his matriculation from Laurie Municipal High School, Raipur, and later completed his B.A. from Morris College, Nagpur in 1944. Thereafter he studied M.A.for a year at Aligarh Muslim University . Early in life, he started writing poetry using his pen name Takhallus. Soon after, he assumed his name, <mask> <mask>. Career

In 1945, he moved to Bombay, and joined All India Radio (AIR) Bombay as a producer. While in Bombay, he wrote songs for Urdu and Hindi films and even acted in a few of them. He also joined the Progressive Writers' Association (PWA) and became an integral part of Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA) as an actor. Later, when most of the prominent IPTA members were imprisoned for opposing the British rule, he was asked to take over the organisation.In 1954, he moved to New Delhi, and worked with Qudsia Zaidi's Hindustani Theatre, and also worked with Children's theatre, where he authored many plays. Later in the same year, he produced his first significant play Agra Bazar based on the works and times of the plebeian 18th-century Urdu poet, Nazir Akbarabadi, an older poet in the generation of Mirza Ghalib. For this play he brought together local residents and folk artistes from Okhla village in Delhi and students of Jamia Millia Islamia creating a palette never seen before in Indian theatre. Additionally, the play was not staged in a confined space, rather a bazaar, a marketplace. After this, he

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 continued to work with non-trained actors and folk artistes like the folk artists of Chhattisgarh. Stay in Europe
In 1955, when he was in his 30s, Habib moved to England. There, he trained in Acting at Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts (RADA) (1955) and in Direction at Bristol Old Vic Theatre School (1956).For the next two years, he travelled through Europe, watching various theatre activities. One of the highlights of this period, was his eight-month stay in Berlin in 1956, during which he got to see several plays of Bertolt Brecht, produced by Berliner Ensemble, just a few months after Brecht's death. This proved to have a lasting influence on him, as in the coming years, he started using local idioms in his plays, to express trans-cultural tales and ideologies. This, over the years, gave rise to a "theatre of roots", which was marked by an utter simplicity in style, presentation and technique, yet remaining eloquent and powerfully experiential. Return to India
A deeply inspired <mask> returned to India in 1958 and took to directing full-time. He produced Mitti ki Gaadi a post-London play, based on Shudraka's Sanskrit work, Mrichakatika. It became his first important production in Chhattisgarhi.This was the result of the work he had been doing since his return – working with six folk actors from Chhattisgarh. He went on to found "Naya Theatre", a theatre company in 1959. In his exploratory phase, i.e. 1970–73, he broke free from one more theatre restriction – he no longer made the folk artistes, who had been performing in all his plays, speak Hindi. Instead, the artistes switched to Chhattisgarhi, a local language they were more accustomed to. Later, he even started experimenting with "Pandavani", a folk singing style from the region and temple rituals. This


title: Habib Tanvir

texts: made his plays stand out amidst the gamut of plays which still employed traditional theatre techniques like blocking movements or fixing lights on paper.Spontaneity and improvisation became the hallmark of his new theatre style, where the folk artistes were allowed greater freedom of expression. His next venture with Chhattisgarhi Nach style, saw another breakthrough in 1972, with a staging of the play titled Gaon Ka Naam Sasural, Mor Naam Damaad. This was based on a comic folk tale, where an old man falls in love with a young woman, who eventually elopes with another young man. By the time he produced his seminal play, Charandas Chor in 1975, the technique became popular. This play immediately established a whole new idiom in modern India theatre; whose highlight was Nach – a chorus that provided commentary through song. He also brought in Govind Ram Nirmalkar, a noted Nacha artist who would later go on to win Padma Shri and Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards, to play the lead role. Later, he collaborated with Shyam Benegal, when he adapted the play to a feature-length film, by the same name, starring Smita Patil and Lalu Ram.He was awarded the prestigious  Jawarharlal Nehru Fellowship in 1979 for research on Relevance of Tribal Performing Arts and their Adaptability to A changing Environment. In 1980, he directed the play Moti Ram ka Satyagraha for Janam (Jan Natya Manch) on the request of Safdar Hashmi. During his career, <mask> has acted in over nine feature films, including Richard Attenborough's film, Gandhi (1982), Black and White and in a yet-to-be-released film on the Bhopal gas tragedy. His first brush with controversy came about in the 1990s, with his production of a traditional Chhattisgarhi play about religious hypocrisy, Ponga Pandit. The play was


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 based on a folk tale and had been created by Chhattisgarhi theatre artists in the 1930s. Though he had been producing it since the sixties, in the changed social climate after the Babri Masjid demolition, the play caused quite an uproar amongst Hindu fundamentalists, especially the Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS), whose supporters disrupted many of its shows, and even emptied the auditoriums, yet he continued to show it all over. His Chhattisgarhi folk troupe, surprised again, with his rendition of Asghar Wajahat's Jisne Lahore Nahin Dekhya in 1992.Then in 1993 came Kamdeo Ka Apna Basant Ritu Ka Sapna, <mask>'s Hindi adaptation of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. In 1995, he was invited to the United States by the Chicago Actors Ensemble, where he wrote his only English language play, The Broken Bridge. In 2002, he directed Zahareeli Hawa, a translation of Bhopal by the Canadian-Indian playwright Rahul Varma, based on the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. During his illustrious career he brought works from all genres to stage, from ancient Sanskrit works by Shudraka, Bhasa, Vishakhadatta and Bhavabhuti; to European classics by Shakespeare, Molière and Goldoni; modern masters Brecht, Garcia, Lorca, Gorky, and Oscar Wilde; Tagore, Asghar Wajahat, Shankar Shesh, Safdar Hashmi, Rahul Varma, stories by Premchand, Stefan Zweig and Vijaydan Detha, apart from an array of Chhattisgarhi folk tales. Legacy
In 2010, at the 12th Bharat Rang Mahotsav, the annual theatre festival of National School of Drama, Delhi, a tribute exhibition dedicated to life, works and theatre of <mask> <mask> and B.V. Karanth was displayed. The 13th Bharat Rang Mahotsav opened with an Assamese adaptation of his classic play Charandas Chor, directed by Anup Hazarika, a NSD graduate. Awards
He was

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 the recipient of

 Sangeet Natak Akademy Award(1969),
 Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship(1979),
 Padma Shri (1983),
 Padma Bhushan(2002),

among other national and international awards during his lifetime.Plays
 Agra Bazar (1954)
 Shatranj Ke Mohrey (1954)
 Lala Shoharat Rai (1954)
 Mitti Ki Gaadi (1958)
 Gaon Ke Naon Sasural, Mor Naon Damand (1973)
 Charandas Chor (1975)
 Uttar Ram Charitra (1977)
 Bahadur Kalarin (1978)
 Ponga Pandit (1960s)
 Ek Aurat Hypathia Bhi Thee (1980s)
 Jis Lahore Nai Dekhya (1990)
 Kamdeo ka Apna Basant Ritu ka Sapna (1993)
 The Broken Bridge (1995)
 Zahreeli Hawa (2002)
 Raj Rakt (2006)
 Kartoos (?) Dekh Rahe Hai Nyan
 Hirma Ki Amar Kahani
 He also came up with his own versions of Basant Retu ka Sapna, Shajapur ki Shanti Bai, Mitti ki Gari and Mudrarakhsas. Filmography

 Rahi (1952) - Ramu
 Foot Path (1953)
 Charandas Chor (1975) (lyrics and script)
 Staying On (1980) (TV) - Dr. Mitra
 Gandhi (1982) - Indian barrister
 Man-Eaters of Kumaon (1986) (TV) - Bahadur
 Yeh Woh Manzil To Nahin (1987) - Akhtar Baig
 Hero Hiralal (1988)
 Prahaar: The Final Attack (1991) - Joe D'Souza, father of Peter D'Souza
 The Burning Season (1993) - Raja Sahib
 Sardar (1993)
 Mangal Pandey: The Rising (2005) - Bahadur Shah Zafar
 Black & White (2008) - Quazi Saab (final film role)

Bibliography
 Rang Habib – Critical Appreciation of Habib Tanveer's Works, Written by Shri B. R. Bhargava, Published by National School of Drama, 2006
 Charandas Chor. Tr. by Anjum Katyal. Seagull Books, 1996. Use of Music and Dance in Contemporary Dramatic Performances
 The Buddhist Theatre of Tibet
 The Living Tale of Hirma: Hirma Ki Amar Kahani.Calcutta, Seagull Books, 2005. Janam comes of Age by <mask> <mask>, 1988 Theatre of the streets: the Jana Natya Manch experience, by

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texts:
 Arjun Ghosh, Jana Naṭya Mancha, edited by Sudhanva Deshpande. Published by Jana Natya Manch, 2007
 Gaon ke Naon Theatre, Mor Naon Habib (documentary film), dirs. Sanjay Maharishi and Sudhanva Deshpande, 2005
 One Day in the Life of Ponga Pandit (documentary film), dirs. Sanjay Maharishi and Sudhanva Deshpande, 2005
 Tanvir ka safarnama (documentary film), dir. Ranjan Kamath. 2008

Further reading
 On the Theatre of Habib Tanvir The Dramatic touch of difference: theatre, own and foreign, by Erika Fischer-Lichte, Josephine Riley, Michael Gissenwehrer.Published by Gunter Narr Verlag, 1990 Page 221-233

See also
 Theatre in India

References

External links
 <mask> <mask>: Making of a Legend, Samar, 2001
 Super trouper : <mask> <mask>

 Remembering <mask> <mask> and his play Agra Bazar
  Rahul Varma's Tribute to Habib <mask>
  Rahul Varma's newest play mentored by <mask> <mask>
 <mask> Tanvir materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)

1923 births
2009 deaths
Indian Muslims
Indian male dramatists and playwrights
Indian theatre directors
Indian male film actors
Indian male stage actors
Indian People's Theatre Association people
Male actors from Chhattisgarh
People from Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Aligarh Muslim University alumni
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art
Alumni of Bristol Old Vic Theatre School
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship
Nominated members of the Rajya Sabha
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Hindi theatre
Hindi dramatists and playwrights
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Jawaharlal Nehru Fellows
Dramatists and playwrights from Chhattisgarh
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Indian male actors
Poets from

masks: Habib Tanvir Habib Tanvir Habib Tanvir Tanvir Habib Tanvir Habib


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
<mask> (; December 4, 1892 – October 7, 1986) was a Chinese Communist military commander and Marshal of the People's Liberation Army. <mask> is known as the 'half' of the "Three and A Half" Strategists of China in modern history. (The other three are Lin Biao, commander of the CPC, and Kuomintang commander Bai Chongxi, and CPC commander Su Yu.) Officially, <mask> was recognised as a revolutionary, military strategist and theoretician, and one of the founders of the People's Liberation Army. <mask>'s nicknames, Chinese Mars  and The One-eyed Dragon, also reflect his character and military achievement. Early life
<mask> was born to a peasant family in Kaixian, Sichuan (the site is currently submerged by the Three Gorges Dam). Influenced by the revolutionary theories of Sun Yat-sen, he later decided to dedicate himself to the cause of establishing a democratic and modern China.In 1911, <mask> joined the Boy Scouts in support of the Xinhai Revolution. In the following year, he enrolled in the Chongqing Military Academy and later joined the army against Yuan Shikai, who was planning to undermine the Xinhai Revolution and proclaim himself Emperor. In 1914, <mask> joined Sun Yat-sen's party and gained extensive military experience. During one battle during this period he captured 10,000 enemy soldiers, for which he was promoted to brigade commander. In 1916, he lost his right eye in a battle for Fengdu county, Sichuan. After he lost the eye he gained the nickname "One-Eyed Dragon". Alternative accounts of how <mask> lost his eye have included the speculation that he lost it either earlier, in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, or

masks:
Liu Bocheng
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts: later, during the Long March.In 1923, during a war against the warlord Wu Peifu, in response to the Northern Expedition of the Kuomintang, <mask> was appointed commander of the Eastern Route, and later was promoted to commanding general in Sichuan. While fighting the army of Long Yun, a Yunnan warlord, <mask> defeated a force commanded by Zhu De, who would later become one of his closest comrades in the Red Army. In the same year, <mask> became acquainted with , the elder brother of Yang Shangkun, and Wu Yuzhang, who were among the earliest Communists of Sichuan. Their relationship marked <mask>'s first real exposure to the theory and practice of Communism. In May 1926, <mask> joined the CPC and was appointed military commissioner of Chongqing. In December 1926, along with Zhu De and Yang, <mask> masterminded the Luzhou and Nanchong uprising, fought against local warlords, while supporting the Northern Expedition. In 1927, <mask> was appointed army corps commander of the 15th Temporarily Organized National Revolutionary Army.It was during this time that <mask> witnessed the split between the Kuomintang and the CPC. After joining the CPC, <mask> led the Nanchang Uprising together with Zhu De, He Long, Ye Ting, Li Lisan and Zhou Enlai, effectively declaring war on the KMT. During this uprising, <mask> was appointed the first chief of staff of the newly born Chinese Red Army. However, after a series of defeats <mask>'s forces were destroyed, and its leaders went underground. In 1927 <mask> was selected to travel to Moscow, where he mastered Russian and attended the prestigious M. V. Frunze Military Academy. While

masks: Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
 studying in the Soviet Union he learned conventional, Western-style military tactics. While in Russia he translated a Russian textbook into Chinese, Combined Arms Tactics, produced a commentary of Sun Tzu's Art of War, both of which promoted conventional tactics.Later on, <mask> gave a lecture on the subject at the 6th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, which was held in Moscow. Commander of the CPC Army
In the summer of 1930, <mask> was sent back to China and was appointed as commissioner of the Central Military Committee of the CPC as well as Military Secretary of the Yangtze River division of the CPC. In December 1930, <mask> went to Shanghai to assist Zhou Enlai in the daily administration of CPC military affairs. In 1931, the CPC suffered great losses in several major cities and was forced to retreat to the countryside. <mask> was sent to the Central Soviet Territory, the CPC's power base in Jiangxi. In January 1932, <mask> was appointed president and commissar of the Red Army Military Academy. By October he was promoted to Chief of Staff of the Red Army, assisting Zhu De and Zhou in the war against Chiang Kai-shek’s 4th Suppression on the Central Soviet Territory.At the time, the CPC was under the reign of members of the 28 Bolsheviks, including Bo Gu, Zhang Wentian, and Otto Braun (also known by his Chinese name, Li De), the Military Advisor of Comintern, took control of military command. All three were educated in Moscow, and <mask> found common ground with these young men. During his time in the Jiangxi-Fujian Soviet (and during the subsequent Long March) <mask> experienced conflicts with

masks: Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts: other Communist leaders, including Mao Zedong and Peng Dehuai. <mask>'s conflict with Mao may partly be due to <mask>'s support for conventional tactics, which contradicted Mao's advocacy of guerrilla warfare. According to a later account by Zhang Guotao, <mask> described Mao as being a "pedant", and resented Mao's tendency to micromanage his military officers, rather than delegating authority to Red Army's general staff. Peng once led his troops during a siege of Guangchang under the orders of Bo and Li De, which resulted in the troops suffering heavy casualties. Peng blamed this on his army's inferior weaponry and resources.Peng was known for being outspoken and bad-tempered. After the battle Peng became furious, leading him into direct conflict with <mask>. <mask> grew to oppose the leadership of Bo and Braun later, after the Red Army began to suffer repeated defeats. In the Red Army's endeavour against the KMT's Fifth Encirclement Campaign, <mask> was demoted to Chief of Staff of the 5th Field Army following his dissidence with Bo and Braun. Bo and Braun led by way of doctrine and extremism, and the Red Army waged a face-to-face general war against the better-equipped and larger KMT army. Failure was inevitable; the CPC had to retreat from its territory to seek refuge, marking the beginning of the Long March. During the Long March, near the end of 1934, <mask> was reappointed as Chief of the General Staff of the Red Army and commander of Central Column, which consisted of the majority of the CPC senior leaders, such as Bo, Braun, Zhou and Mao.<mask> led the army across the Wu River and took control of Zunyi, a

masks: Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
 county of Guizhou province. It was in this small city that the famous Zunyi Conference was held in January 1935. During this conference, <mask> and most of the attendees showed their support for Mao. As a result of this conference, Bo, who was then Braun's command in military, was replaced by a new three-man team consisting of Mao, Zhou and Wang Jiaxiang. Later on, <mask> assisted Mao and Zhu across the Red Water River four times. <mask> himself led troops in the takeover of the Jiaopin ferry, securing the route across the Jinsha River for the major troops. In May, <mask> was appointed commander of avant-courier army and worked with commissar Nie Rongzhen on securing the route for the remaining troops.When his army entered the ethnic settlement areas, <mask> pledged brotherhood with a chieftain of the local Yi ethnicity, which significantly reduced the minorities’ hostility towards the CPC. <mask> then led the 1st Division of the Red Army across the Dadu River, where Chiang plotted to have the CPC armies annihilated, in the same manner as Shi Dakai and his army's road to perdition almost a century before. When Mao's 1st Red Army later united with Zhang Guotao’s 4th Red Army, <mask> stayed Chief of Staff. During a dispute between Mao and Zhang over major issues, which led to their later split, <mask> maintained his support for Mao. By the time they reached Yan'an, it was obvious that Mao was the winner. War with Japan

In 1936, after the Xi'an Incident, Chiang agreed to set up an alliance with the CPC in the fight against Japanese invaders. On July 7, 1937, after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, general war between


title: Liu Bocheng

texts: China and Japan broke out.Under the agreement with Chiang, CPC armies were reorganised into 8th Route Army, and <mask> was appointed commander of the 129th Division, one of its three divisions. It was then that he began his long cooperation with Deng Xiaoping, his commissar at that time. According to the orthodox record of the CCP, their cooperation and friendship lasted more than five decades. Their respective military and political talents complemented the other's perfectly, and there was a very high level of trust between them. They were said to have formed a perfect pair. However, their true relationship might not have been as close as it seemed. Firstly, Mao distrusted most of his generals, and sent his associates out as commissars to supervise these generals.Deng, who was Mao's close associate from 1930's when he worked in Jiangxi, was sent out for <mask>, and Luo Ronghuan for Lin Biao. Secondly, in contrast to <mask>'s role as a professional soldier, Deng was a political activist and knew little about the military. Their personalities and personal lives were vastly different, which might have posed a barrier to their becoming true friends. <mask>, Deng and Deputy Commander Xu Xiangqian led their troops to Shanxi, and carried out bushfighting around Taihang Mountain. After rounds of successful battles against the Japanese army, they set up the Jin–Ji–Yu Base Area () which consisted of parts of Shanxi, Hebei and Henan. In 1940, <mask> led his division in the Hundred Regiments Campaign, a major campaign led by Peng to breach the blockage on CPC base areas enforced by Japanese forces under the command of General

masks: Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
 Okamura Yasuji. At the same time, <mask> integrated regular forces with militia, using frontal attack and bushfighting to frustrate the Japanese army's suppression and clean-out efforts.The Japanese were so irritated that they sent agents to assassinate <mask>. Although their mission was a failure, they did succeed in murdering <mask>'s first daughter when she was kept in kindergarten. The Japanese thought that this revenge might distract <mask>, but they underestimated <mask>'s willpower. His heightened loathing for the Japanese gave him more courage under fire and more inspiration in command. In 1943, <mask> was called back to Yan'an for Zheng Feng. He pledged his allegiance to Mao and supported Mao's power struggle with Wang Ming. On the contrary, Peng stood by Wang and as a result fell out of favour with Mao.(Despite this, <mask> was still labelled a dogmatist for pursuing his studies in Russia, and he had to make a public apology against his will in 1959.) In 1945, <mask> attended the 7th National Congress of the CPC in Yan'an, and prepared the counterattack against the Japanese and the forthcoming civil war with KMT armies. Chinese Civil War
At the end of the war against the Japanese, the war-scourged Chinese people pleaded for peace. Chiang then invited Mao to Chongqing for peace talks, during which, Yan Xishan sent his armies to attack CPC territories in Shanxi under Chiang's authorisation. <mask> and Deng led the Shangdang Campaign and defeated 13 divisions of Yan's troops totaled more than 35,000, and then headed east and annihilated another of Yan's army corps in the Handan Campaign. These two campaigns

masks: Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
 were the first experiences of the CPC army's shift from bushfight to campaign in movement, and proved to be valuable practice for the army groups campaign of CPC armies. They assisted in the CPC's quick occupation of Manchuria, and won advantageous status for Mao and his peace talk delegation in Chongqing.Under immense pressure, Chiang was forced to sign a peace agreement with Mao in October 1945. The peace, however, was fragile, and civil war broke out in 1946. <mask> and Deng led several campaigns in movement, undermining the strategic attack of KMT armies. In 1947, when the territories controlled by the CPC could no longer sustain so many troops, Mao decided to send part of his army to the territories controlled by KMT, in order to relieve the heavy burden on his own territories, and to position enemies at the gates of the KMT. He ordered <mask> and Deng to lead their armies from their northern China base in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei, to Anhui in southern China. This involved sending 100,000 soldiers across the Yellow River, and marching over 1000 kilometers into central plain. <mask> and Deng both saw it as a gamble rather than a strategic move, and even Mao himself was not certain if such gamble would pay off by openly discussing the three possible outcomes:
 The communist force could not even reach Dabie Shan.The communist force would be driven out by the Kuomintang force after reaching Dabie Shan. The communist force would be able to establish new base in Dabie Mountain. Although many expressed their concerns, Mao would not change his mind. During the expedition, they faced elite KMT armies. <mask> launched the

masks: Liu Liu Liu Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts: Southwestern Shandong Campaign defeating over nine brigades of KMT troops. Under this plot and cover, <mask>'s army promptly moved south and went into the Dabie Mountain areas. <mask>'s armies suffered great losses; half of the troops were wiped out and all of their heavy artilleries were lost, which greatly weakened their military abilities in later campaigns.<mask> and Deng's troops survived further rounds of attack. Far away from the power base, with few support armies and supplies, <mask> led self-sufficient soldiers and broke rounds of heavy blockade, while boosting his strength back to the original 100,000. Mao and his associates were very impressed by <mask>'s achievement and it was only then did they begin to maintain that the direct threat to Nanjing and Wuhan was a great achievement; a knife into the heart of KMT governance. <mask>'s success indeed forced the nationalists to redeploy nearly two dozen brigades against him, disrupting Chiang Kai-shek's original plan, thus relieved nationalist pressure on other communist forces. Mao's gamble had paid off with <mask>'s clever military strategies. <mask>'s success did not end there, he carried out to expand his initial victories over the nationalists by carrying out several campaigns with armies led by Chen Yi and Su Yu, another army led by Chen Geng, to annihilate a great number of KMT troops led by two prominent generals, Chen Cheng and Bai Chongxi. After ten months of hard work, <mask> and Deng had significantly enlarged the area of central plain area occupied by the CPC, and forced the KMT armies into strategic defense, as Chiang no longer had enough troops


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
 for attack.In Nov 1948, <mask>, Deng, Chen, Su and Tan Zhenlin together formed the Military Committee to command the massive Huai Hai Campaign, which was carried out by CPC troops in East China and the central plain to fight against the KMT main forces in Xuzhou and Anhui. In this decisive battle, more than 500,000 KMT soldiers were annihilated; among the POWs was General Du Yuming, Chiang's most distinguished protégé. In April 1949, after illusive peace talks between the CPC and the KMT were broken, <mask> led his armies across the Yangtze River and conquered huge areas of Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Fujian, taking over Nanjing, the capital of the KMT. <mask> was appointed mayor of Nanjing for a short while. With assistance from He Long, <mask> and Deng launched new campaigns to conquer vast areas in Southwestern China, by using long distance bypass and siege strategies. Among the areas conquered were his and Deng's own hometowns, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan and Xikang. After the Establishment of the PRC
On October 1, 1949, Mao announced the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.During the ceremony, <mask> stood next to Mao. This marked the peak of his career as a military commander. In January 1950, <mask> was appointed chairman of the Southwestern Division of the Central People's Government of PRC, together with Gao Gang, Rao Shushi, Peng and Lin Biao. The rewards of conquering southwestern China, however, proved only to be temporary. Mao soon sent his favorite general He Long to work alongside <mask>, to supervise and share the power with <mask>. During his short tenure as governor, <mask> led his


title: Liu Bocheng

texts: soldiers in the crackdown of bandits and restored law and order, oversaw economic development, and more importantly, made plans for the communist invasion of Tibet. Towards the end of 1950, <mask> was transferred to Nanjing as president and commissar of the Military Academy of the PLA, which would be considered a demotion for <mask>.There were no clear or generally accepted reasons on record for his falling out of favour. One popular opinion holds that, during the long period of time that <mask> worked with or under Mao, he never really earned Mao's trust. <mask> himself knew that too. From the Chinese history, he learnt that most generals that helped establish a new dynasty ended up getting killed by the suspicious Emperor. In order to prevent that from happening on himself, he tried to stay as far away from politics as possible. Because of his early year military training in Soviet Union, he used that as an excuse to quit his job in the government and become the president and commissar of the Military Academy of the PLA. Mao approved his request.The other story says that, while <mask> was still chairman, someone unknown to the public submitted a biography of <mask> in support of his promotion. In this biography he described <mask> as an offspring of <mask>, founder and first emperor of the Han Dynasty, and hinted that <mask> himself could set up his own empire as his ancestor did. Knowing of the cruelties and conspiracies in Chinese history, <mask> was worried instead of happy, because he knew that it would arouse Mao's suspicions over <mask>'s intentions. Although <mask> had this man arrested, Mao still learnt of

masks:
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu Bang
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts: the event, and <mask>'s worries eventually turned into reality. This only served to further increase Mao's long-time distrust of <mask>. Despite the demotion, <mask> was dedicated to his new job, attempting to bring what he learned during his years in the Soviet Union to the Academy. He organised the translations of numerous military textbooks from the Soviet Union and other countries, introducing major campaigns from ancient times to World War II to students, and sowing the seeds of the PLA's evolution into a modern army.Although <mask> was appointed Vice-Chairman of the Central Military Committee of the CPC and PRC in 1954 as a reward for his contributions, these titles did not promise real power as Peng's did. (Peng was appointed defense minister for his battle achievements in the Korean War.) In 1955, <mask> attained the rank of field marshal, ranking as the 4th amongst 10 field marshals of the PLA, next to Zhu De, Peng and Lin Biao. In 1956, after Nikita Khrushchev shook the Communist world by making his famous Secret Speech denouncing the cult of personality that surrounded Joseph Stalin, Mao wanted to ensure that a similar incident within the CPC would not happen. He wrote an article, "On Ten Relationships", arguing that the CPC should learn from foreign countries selectively, analytically and with criticism. The CPC center then issued documents to call on all CPC members to overcome the trend of dogmatism and empiricism at work. Investigations and purges were carried out by the military, under the direction of Peng.As an advocate of learning from other countries, <mask> became a key target. Some of his

masks: Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts: subordinates and deputies, including General Xiao Ke, were censored and kept in custody. <mask> had to make numerous self-criticisms for his association and support of these officials. Under heavy pressure, his health worsened (he eventually lost all sight in his remaining eye), and he finally submitted his resignation as president. In 1959, <mask> left Nanjing for Beijing and lived in half-reclusion. Although he was since elected as member of the Politburo in the 8th to 11th National Congress of the CPC, Vice-Chairman of the 2nd to 5th Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, and all the while holding the title of Vice-Chairman of the Military Committee, he did not participate very much in politics, citing health problems as a reason for his absence. This saved him from the following rounds of purges carried out by Mao.Peng, however, was not as fortunate. He was purged in the Lushan Conference in 1959 and later tortured to death during the Cultural Revolution. By the time of the Cultural Revolution, <mask> had become completely blind. Nonetheless, he survived the purges and witnessed his long-time friend Deng returning to power again. He supported Deng in the power struggle against Mao's widow, Jiang Qing, and her Gang of Four, and also advocated Deng's policy of reforming and opening up China to the outside world, a policy that <mask> himself had practiced in the Academy decades ago. In 1982, <mask> retired due to worsening health problems. This gave Deng a boost in his calling for the retirement of aging leaders in order to clear the way for younger leaders of the CPC.On October 7, 1986, <mask> died


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
 in Beijing, at the age of 94. In the lament given to him, <mask> was rehabilitated and cleared of all charges against him during the movements against dogmatism. Anecdotes
During the Fengdu campaign in 1916, <mask> was hit by a bullet in the head, which passed through his right temple and went out from his right eye. A German surgeon performed surgery to remove the eyeball and debride necrotic tissues. To keep his brain nerves from being damaged by the anaesthetics, <mask> insisted on operation without anesthesia. After the procedure was finished, <mask> told the surgeon that he counted a total of 72 cuts. The doctor was greatly moved by this display of courage and perseverance, and out of great respect he gave <mask> the nickname "Chinese Mars".Deng's famous “Cats Theory” (“Whether it is a black cat or a white cat, as long as it can catch the rat, it is a good cat”), in fact, originated from <mask>. During his long military career, <mask> often stated that “Whether it is a black cat or a yellow cat, as long as it can catch the rat, it is a good cat” to demonstrate that the purpose of war is to win, no matter what strategies you take. <mask> and Deng's relationship grew strong only after the communist takeover because both were discontent with Mao Zedong's disastrous policies, such as Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution: As <mask> was persecuted in the late 1950s, Deng showed his support to <mask>, as the latter was making rounds of analyses and apologies for the so-called "dogmatism" and "empiricism". Similarly, <mask> showed his support to Deng for Deng's economic policy in the early 1960s to reform the

masks: Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu Liu


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
 Chinese economy. Deng's entire family attended <mask>'s funeral, which only happened in the case of very close family ties in traditional Chinese culture. <mask> wanted a small funeral in the hospital he died in. However, because too many military and political leaders requested to attend the funeral, the funeral was moved to a bigger hall.False anecdotes
<mask> and Deng's relationship was greatly exaggerated by the Chinese general populace as a way to protest Mao Zedong's disastrous Cultural Revolution: In 1972, shortly after the death of Chinese Field Marshal Chen Yi, <mask> told his family that after his death, he wanted his funeral to be held by Deng, and his eulogy to be done by Deng, and this was when Deng was still under house arrest and <mask> did so to show his support. However, the general Chinese populace had gravely turned this incident into something out of proportion as a way to protest the disastrous Cultural Revolution by claiming that after Hua Guofeng was named by Mao as his successor, <mask> had requested a face-to-face conversation with Hua Guofeng, wanting his funeral to be held by Deng, and his eulogy to be done by Deng, or else he would rather have his son to throw his cadaver in the fields to feed the wild dogs. In reality, there is no official record that <mask> had made such an outrageous request, nor any face-to-face conversations with Hua, nor any formal request to the Chinese regime to have his funeral held by Deng and his eulogy done by Deng. However, it was definitely his personal wish which is revealed to his family. This personal wish of <mask> became a reality after his death as his


title: Liu Bocheng

texts:
 family informed the Chinese regime about his wish, and by that time, Deng was already the paramount leader of China and nobody could stop him from honoring <mask>'s personal wish. Legacy

Unlike other CCP generals, such as Lin Biao and Peng Dehuai, <mask> never won the trust and support of Mao. <mask> earned his reputation and title through his own outstanding military skills and sublime personality.He oversaw the development of the CPC armies’ expertise in regular battle, frontal attack, army groups campaigns, and sieges. <mask> was also the first to introduce modern military strategies and the tactics of foreign countries to the CPC army, and incorporated science and artistry into military training. All of these endeavours shifted public perception of the CPC army from being a guerrilla force consisting of peasants and proletarians with little regular training to becoming a sophisticated and highly skilled modern military force. See also
 List of generals of the People's Republic of China

References

Citations

Sources

 Barron, James. "<mask>, Military Leader in Two Chinese Revolutions". New York Times. October 10, 1986.Retrieved August 31, 2014. Lew, Christopher R. The Third Chinese Revolutionary War, 1945–1949: An Analysis of Communist Strategy and Leadership. US and Canada: Routelage. 2009. . p. 12. Long March Leaders

1892 births
1986 deaths
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Chongqing
Marshals of the People's Republic of China
Mayors of Nanjing
Writers from Chongqing
People of the Chinese Civil War
Eighth Route Army generals
Chinese military writers
People's Republic of China writers
Frunze Military

masks:
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu
Liu Bocheng


title: William Honnyng

texts:
<mask> (1520–1569) was an English Member of Parliament and Tudor Court official who served as Clerk of the Signet and Clerk of the Privy Council under Henry VIII and Edward VI. Early life
The Honnyng (or Honing, Honning, Hunnings) family came originally from the Holland district of South Lincolnshire. The eldest child of Roger Honnyng and Margaret née Owle, <mask> was born in 1520, most probably in London. Roger was a member of the Fishmongers' Company, with houses and shops in Oldefisshestrete in the City of London. Career
In 1538 <mask> obtained the post of secretary to Bishop Edmund Bonner on his appointment as Ambassador to Paris. Honnyng owed this appointment to the influence of Thomas Wriothesley. When Bonner was recalled to London, Honnyng also returned, during the summer of 1540.On his return to London, <mask> was appointed a clerk of the Signet, and took up the office some time after October 1541, when he was granted the next vacancy. He had, by 1542, become the servant of Thomas Wriothesley. On 23 April 1543 Honnyng was appointed one of the two clerks of the Privy Council. The Council at that time included Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Howard, John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford, Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, Stephen Gardiner, Sir Anthony Wingfield, Thomas Wriothesley, John Dudley, Viscount Lisle and <mask>t. <mask> was elected to the first Parliament of the young king Edward VI, convened on 4 November 1547, as MP for Winchester. He may have owed this appointment to the influence of Wriothesley. Honnyng was also elected as MP for Orford, Suffolk, in Edward

masks:
William Honnyng
William
William Honnyng
Honnyng
William Page
Honnyng


title: William Honnyng

texts:
 time Gray's Inn was a fashionable place for noblemen and country gentlemen to send their sons, even though some 90% would not actually be called to the Bar. Along with legal training, the Inn provided a good venue for 'masques and revels'. The following year, in 1562, Honnyng was appointed a Justice of the Peace for Suffolk, and by 1564 was 'of the Quorum'. In 1566 Honnyng was appointed to the Suffolk Commission of Sewers (responsible for sea and river defences, and maintaining the Fennland drainage system). Marriage and children
Honnyng married Frances Cutler, the daughter of Nicholas Cutler, MP, by Eleanor Mynne (daughter of John Mynne and a first cousin of Thomas Wriothesley).They had fourteen children:

Jane (1542–1557)
Elzabethe
Frannces
Catterin
Anne (born 1548)
 Edward (21 May 1550 – 1609), heir, and MP for Dunwich, Suffolk in 1589, and MP for Eye in 1593 – 1604. Edward married Ursula Wingfield, a granddaughter of Sir Anthony Wingfield PC KG. <mask> (1552 – c.1610), clerk of the Office of the Revels during the time <mask> was putting on plays at Court. Henry (11 February 1553 – 22 January 1635) a leading participant in the Jacobean Plantation of Fermanagh. Nicholas (born 13 May 1555)
Joan (born 8 August 1556)
John (19 January 1558 (ns) – 1585) a sea captain who served in Elizabeth's war against Spain in the Netherlands, dying at the Battle of Arnhem in 1585. Four portraits of John survive, at the V&A, at the Wellcome Library, at Queens' College Cambridge, and one in a private collection. Thomas
Franccis, Receiver of Crown Rents for Suffolk and

masks:
William
William Shakespeare