title: Norma Merrick Sklarek

texts:
 accomplishment by <mask> with Welton Becket Associates in 1984 who served as the project director. The Terminal One station was built along with the Tom Bradley International Terminal so people can travel overseas especially before attending the summer Olympics from July–August. It is known for its extravagant architectural design that was a circular U shape. The $50-million station was constructed nearly two decades later to increase capacity.Selected works
While a director at Gruen Associates, Sklarek collaborated with César Pelli on a number of projects. Only the U.S. Embassy in Japan acknowledges <mask>'s contributions. 1961–66 – Fox Plaza, San Francisco, California
 1961–63 – California Mart, Los Angeles, California
 1963–65 – San Bernardino City Hall, San Bernardino, California
 1972–75 – Pacific Design Center, Los Angeles, California
 1976–78 – Embassy of the United States in Tokyo, Japan
 1980 – Santa Monica Place, Santa Monica
 1984 – Terminal One, Los Angeles International Airport, Los Angeles, California
 1989–92 – Mall of America, Minneapolis, Minnesota

References

Further reading
 Ehrhart-Morrison, Dorothy, No Mountain High Enough: Secrets of Successful African American Women, Conari Press, 1997. Summers, Barbara, ed. I Dream A World: Portraits of Black Women Who Changed America. Photos and Interviews by Brian Lanker. Workman Publishing, 1989.Lewis, Anna M, Women of Steel and Stone, Chicago Review Press, Inc, 2014. External links
 Pioneering Women of American Architecture, <mask> Sklarek
 "<mask>"

1926 births
2012 deaths
Barnard College alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation alumni
Hunter College High School alumni
20th-century American architects
21st-century American architects
People from Harlem
American women architects
California women architects
African-American architects
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American artists
21st-century American women
21st-century African-American women
21st-century

masks:
Sklarek
Sklarek
Norma Merrick
Norma Sklarek


title: Steve Roberts (Missouri politician)

type: original

texts:
<mask> is an American Democratic politician serving in the 5th district of the Missouri Senate. <mask>' election on January 6, 2021, made him the youngest black State Senator in Missouri history. <mask> previously served in the Missouri House of Representatives from 2017 to 2021.While in the House, he was selected by his colleagues to serve as Chairman of the Missouri Legislative Black Caucus. <mask> is also a member of the Air National Guard. <mask> currently serves as the Minority Whip of the Missouri Senate. Early life and education
<mask>, II was born in St. Louis, Missouri to Eva Frazer and <mask>, Sr. Eva Frazer is a medical doctor while <mask>, Sr. is an attorney, former St. Louis alderman, and businessman. <mask> is a fourth-generation St. Louis native.His grandparents and parents overcame segregation and discrimination. <mask> graduated from the University of Miami in with a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and Communication Studies. He then received his Juris Doctor degree from Pepperdine University School of Law. While in law school, <mask> worked in the U.S. Congress as a legislative intern; as a certified law clerk with the District Attorney’s Office in Compton, California; and assisted the Counsel to Secure Justice in New Delhi, India. During his final semester, <mask> worked with a clinic in Los Angeles, California that assisted with refugees fleeing persecution obtain asylum in the United States. Early career
After completing law school, <mask> joined AP Wireless Infrastructure Partners, LLC, where he was a member of a team of attorneys responsible for managing over $200 million of company assets. Following the death of Michael Brown and subsequent civil unrest in Ferguson,

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title: Steve Roberts (Missouri politician)

texts:
 Missouri in 2014, <mask> returned to St. Louis where he worked as a city prosecutor.During that time, he participated in over 100 cases, ranging from minor weapons offenses to homicides. While working in the prosecutor's office, <mask> was arrested for second degree sodomy for allegedly sexually assaulting St. Louis University Law student Amy Harms in 2015. Electoral history
<mask> defeated three opponents during the 2016 Missouri House of Representatives District 77 Democratic primary. He ran unopposed in the General Election. Incumbent <mask> then defeated Kimberly-Ann Collins in his second Democratic primary on August 7, 2018, and won the General Election on November 6, 2018. <mask> ran for the Missouri Senate’s 5th District in 2020, defeating five democratic opponents on the August 5, 2020 primary, before defeating Michael J. Hebron, Sr. in the general election with over (87%) of the vote. COVID-19 response
Since February 2022, <mask> has hosted over a dozen COVID-19 testing and vaccination clinics, primarily focusing in St. Louis City’s most underserved communities, such as the 63113 and 63115 area codes.Military service
<mask> joined the Missouri Air National Guard in 2018. After completing the Total Force Officer Training at Maxwell Air Force Base, <mask> was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the United States Air Force; dually serving as both a member of the Missouri Air National Guard as well as a member of the United States Air Force. <mask> was promoted to the rank of Captain after graduating from the United States Air Force’s Judge Advocate Staff Officer Course (JASOC) in 2021. Sexual Assault Allegations

Second Degree Sodomy Arrest
Then-assistant prosecutor <mask> was arrested

masks:
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Steven Roberts
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Steven Roberts


title: Steve Roberts (Missouri politician)

texts:
 for second-degree sodomy for allegedly attacking St. Louis University Law Student Amy Harms in April 2015. Shortly after the arrest, <mask> was fired from the prosecutor's office. The prosecutor's office stated that "his termination was a result of his poor performance." Harms later filed a civil suit in 2017, suit, and the plaintiff alleged that "defendant (<mask>) stuck his hand inside of Plaintiff's pants and underwear...Defendant's hand made contact with genitals." Harms has been quoted as stating, “This fight … has been exhausting … Just when I have a victory to celebrate, another loss soon follows. It isn’t easy for me, but I know it might be harder for anyone else. Short of exposing what happened in my case in the media, I don’t think the truth will come out. If the truth doesn’t come out, I do not believe that anything will change; those in power can sweep this, too, under the rug. These things must change.”

Harms then dismissed her suit in 2019. Rape allegations
In August of 2016, then-Representative <mask> was accused of raping then-State Representative Cora Faith Walker.Representative Walker alleges that Representative <mask> drugged and raped her after she met with him to discuss legislation. Representative Walker filed a civil suit after St. Charles prosecutors declined to press charges, and Representative <mask> filed a defamation suit against her. Both suits have been dropped. Political career
<mask> was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives in 2016 and served 2 two-year terms in Missouri’s 77th House District. In 2020, <mask> successfully ran for the Missouri Senate’s 5th District. Missouri House of Representatives
<mask> defeated three opponents during the 2016

masks:
Roberts
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Steven Roberts
Roberts
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title: Steve Roberts (Missouri politician)

texts:
 Missouri House of Representatives District 77 Democratic primary. He ran unopposed in the General Election.Incumbent <mask> then defeated Kimberly-Ann Collins in his second Democratic primary on August 7, 2018, and won the General Election on November 6, 2018. State representative

Missouri senate
<mask> ran for the Missouri Senate’s 5th District in 2020, defeating five democratic opponents on the August 5, 2020 primary, before defeating Michael J. Hebron, Sr. in the general election with over (87%) of the vote. State senate

Committee membership

Missouri House of Representatives
Judiciary

Utilities

Workforce Development

Special Committee on Criminal Justice, Ranking Minority Member

Missouri senate
Governmental Accountability and Fiscal Oversight

Insurance and Banking

Judiciary and Civil and Criminal Jurisprudence

Seniors, Families, Veterans and Military Affairs

Ways and Means

Select Committee on Redistricting

Joint Committee on Government Accountability

Joint Committee on Legislative Research

Joint Committee on Legislative Research – Revision Subcommittee

Missouri Military Preparedness and Enhancement Commission

References

Living people
Missouri state senators
1980s births
Missouri Democrats
Politicians from St. Louis
Members of the Missouri House of

masks: Roberts Roberts


title: Lakis Lazopoulos

texts:
<mask> () is a Greek playwright, actor and songwriter. He was ranked 83rd by the public in Skai TV's Great Greeks in 2009. In 2010, Forbes ranked <mask> as the most powerful and influential celebrity in Greece. Early life

<mask> was born in Larissa, Greece, where he received his primary and secondary school education. He then entered the School of Law at the University of Thrace and in 1984 received his Master’s degree from the University of Thessaloniki. However, he decided not to practice law or pursue other vocations outside of art and entertainment. Early Career

In 1979, he wrote his first script for the revue Something's cooking in Gipsyland.Say Goodbye, It's All Over Now, a quick success. <mask> joined the Free Theatre of Athens, where he performed  Why People are Happy, followed by yet another successful revue, Change and Craze. The political situation at the time triggered the production of four revues of a more politico-satirical nature, written between the years 1982-86 by <mask> and Giannis Xanthoulis: Haido’s Pasok’’ (1982), Pasok Keeps Harping On (1983), Blowing Hot and Cold on Kastri (the PM’s residence), and Andrea’s Taxing Tolls (1985). Career, 1986-1993

In 1986 he starred in Lysistrata. The play toured Greece and was performed in all major theaters to success and acclaim. That same year, he began writing on his own and staged I was Pasok and I grew old. In 1987, he wrote What the Japanese saw.He was sued over this by the then-President of Greece, Christos Sartzetakis. He stood trial but was acquitted of all charges. This drew press coverage both within and outside of Greece, including an article in Time Magazine. In 1988 he staged and performed in Nicholai Gogol’s “Diary of a madman” without great commercial success. In

masks:
Lakis Lazopoulos
Lazopoulos
Lazopoulos
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Lazopoulos


title: Lakis Lazopoulos

texts: 1989 he staged “Greece after heart surgery” which broke records, while his following play “There was a Small Ship” ran for two successive years and was a box office hit. 1n 1991 <mask> staged “I Have Something to Tell You”, in which he wrote and performed as himself like all his previous plays. In the summer of the same year he toured Greece with the performance “Alone at Last”.This comprised a series of his most popular acts, and proves to be his most successful commercially since 1981. Its success spurred another tour followed two years later, debuting in New York City. In 1992 he turns his attention to television, writing and interpreting fifteen character roles (both male and female), in the most successful TV series on Greek television to date, Deka mikroi Mitsoi. Portraying everyday characters satirizing contemporary social and political situations, it drew affinity with the public. Spurred by the success of the series, the educational department of the University of Athens conducts a survey looking into reasons why Greeks avidly watched the series and expressions used by its characters. With <mask> present, the findings were officially announced to academics, students and the press. Deka mikroi Mitsoi also took part in the festival of Forte dei Marmi in Italy, receiving an Honorable Distinction.In 1993 he presented Prokofiev’s well-known tale of Peter and the Wolf at the Athens Opera House. He also played the role of McKeith in Brecht’s “Three Penny Opera” under the direction of Jules Dassin. In 1994 he played the male lead in a television film titled Girl with Suitcases directed by Nikos Nikolaidis. He followed this with a guest star appearance in the film “Kavafis”, directed by Giannis Smaragdis. In the summer of 1996 he wrote the

masks: Lazopoulos Lazopoulos


title: Lakis Lazopoulos

texts:
 play “The Sunday of Shoes”, which goes on to be staged in Thessaloniki in the spring of 1997 and then Athens at the beginning of 1998. During that year, Walt Disney Productions assigned him the supervisory role of the animation film Hercules, for which he provided his own adaptation from English to Greek. He oversaw the casting of actors and uses his own voice in dubbing the roles of Philoctetes/Phil and Panic in the film.Career, 1999-2008

In the summer of 1999 he played the lead role in the film Beware of Greeks Bearing Guns directed by Australian director John Tatoulis. The film was a box office hit when released in Greece in January 2000. In 2001 he wrote, directed, and starred in the film My best friend. He concurrently wrote the theatrical play “Ta Leme”, which maintained its position at the top of the box office well into 2002. In September 2002 he presented 12 theatrical monologues from the most important writers of 1700. That same summer he presented a theatrical monologue as part of the framework of the Cultural Olympiad entitled “Ages of Ridicule”. Between 2003 and 2004 he wrote, directed, and starred in the revue “Wind in our Sails”, which was presented at the theatre Britannia in Athens to commercial success.At the same time, he became Artistic Director for two prominent Athens theaters, the Britannia and Athinon. In February 2004 the film R20, for which he wrote co-directed with P. Karazas, opened at the box office. During the summer of 2004 he held the leading role of Hremilos in Aristophanes' historical comedy Ploutos. The play toured Greece, culminating in a special performance at the ancient theatre of Epidaurus, as part of the Athens Olympics that August. The winter of 2004 to 2005 found <mask> writing, directing and


title: Lakis Lazopoulos

texts:
 starring as the lead in another successful and original production at Athens' Britannia theatre, “Where is this Bus Going?” The show was a success, receiving exceptional reviews from the press. The premiere of Al Tsantiri News (“Live from the Shack”) in November 2004 made <mask> the first actor in Greek television history to host his own weekly show. To the present day, this satirical news bulletin continues to draw high ratings.Since 2004 he has held the position of Programming Director for the entertainment sector of the privately owned television channel, Alpha TV. The television program “504KM North of Athens”, inspired by student life in Greece, was a project through which he was able to introduce a group of young actors and a talented new director to Greek audiences. The film “Don't Go”, released in April 2005 was an adaptation of this story. In the summer of 2005 <mask> was set to once again bring his own style and interpretation to another Aristophanes play, The Acharnians this time for The National Theatre of Greece. In November 2005, he directed and played the lead in Vretania Theater, “Hysteria” written by Tery Johnson. In 2006 he played Nicolo (Greco’s best friend) in the film El Greco''. The movie was released on October 2007 and set a record for ticket sales.In November 2008 and after 3 years of absence from the theater he wrote, directed and starred as the lead in the play “Toiler on the roof”. The play was a success. References

External links
 Official website

1956 births
Greek male film actors
Greek male stage actors
Greek comedians
Living people
Greek television presenters
Actors from Larissa
20th-century Greek male actors
21st-century Greek male actors
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki alumni
Democritus University of


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
<mask>  (; 14 April 1889 – 22 October 1975) was an English historian, a philosopher of history, an author of numerous books and a research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and King's College London. From 1918 to 1950, <mask> was considered a leading specialist on international affairs. He is best known for his 12-volume A Study of History (1934–1961). With his prodigious output of papers, articles, speeches and presentations, and numerous books translated into many languages, <mask> was a widely read and discussed scholar in the 1940s and 1950s. By the 1960s his magnum opus had fallen out of favour among mainstream historians, due to recognition that Toynbee favoured myths, allegories and religion over factual data. Biography
<mask> (born in London on 14 April 1889) was the son of <mask> (1861–1941), secretary of the Charity Organization Society, and his wife Sarah Edith Marshall (1859–1939); his sister <mask> was an archaeologist and art historian. Toynbee was the grandson of <mask>, nephew of the 19th-century economist <mask> (1852–1883) and descendant of prominent British intellectuals for several generations.He won scholarships to Winchester College and Balliol College, Oxford (literae humaniores, 1907–1911), and studied briefly at the British School at Athens, an experience that influenced the genesis of his philosophy about the decline of civilisations. In 1912 he became a tutor and fellow in ancient history at Balliol College, and in 1915 he began working for the intelligence department of the British Foreign Office. After serving as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 he served as professor of Byzantine and modern Greek studies at the University of London. It was

masks:
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Toynbee
Toynbee
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Harry Valpy Toynbee
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Arnold Toynbee


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 here that <mask> was appointed to the Koraes Chair of Modern Greek and Byzantine History, Language and Literature at King's College, although he would ultimately resign following a controversial academic dispute with the professoriate of the College. From 1921 to 1922 he was the Manchester Guardian correspondent during the Greco-Turkish War, an experience that resulted in the publication of The Western Question in Greece and Turkey. In 1925 he became research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and director of studies at the Royal Institute of International Affairs in London. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), the United Kingdoms national academy for the humanities and social sciences, in 1937.His first marriage was to Rosalind Murray (1890–1967), daughter of Gilbert Murray, in 1913; they had three sons, of whom <mask> was the second. They divorced in 1946; <mask> then married his research assistant, Veronica M. Boulter (1893-1980), in the same year. He died on 22 October 1975, age 86. Views on the post-World War I peace settlement and geopolitical situation

In his 1915 book Nationality & the War, <mask> argued in favor of creating a post-World War I peace settlement based on the principle of nationality. In Chapter IV of his 1916 book The New Europe: Essays in Reconstruction, <mask> criticized the concept of natural borders. Specifically, <mask> criticized this concept as providing a justification for launching additional wars so that countries can attain their natural borders. <mask> also pointed out how once a country attained one set of natural borders, it could subsequently aim to attain another, further set of natural borders; for instance, the German Empire set

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Philip Toynbee
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title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts: its western natural border at the Vosges Mountains in 1871 but during World War I, some Germans began to advocate for even more western natural borders—specifically ones that extend all of the way up to Calais and the English Channel—conveniently justifying the permanent German retention of those Belgian and French territories that Germany had just conquered during World War I.As an alternative to the idea of natural borders, <mask> proposes making free trade, partnership, and cooperation between various countries with interconnected economies considerably easier so that there would be less need for countries to expand even further—whether to their natural borders or otherwise. In addition, <mask> advocated making national borders based more on the principle of national self-determination—as in, based on which country the people in a particular area or territory actually wanted to live in. (This principle was in fact indeed sometimes (albeit inconsistently) followed in the post-World War I peace settlement with the various plebiscites that were conducted in the twenty years after the end of World War I--specifically in Schleswig, Upper Silesia, Masuria, Sopron, Carinthia, and the Saar—in order to determine the future sovereignty and fate of these territories.) In Nationality & the War, <mask> offered various elaborate proposals and predictions for the future of various countries—both European and non-European. In regards to the Alsace-Lorraine dispute between France and Germany, for instance, Toynbee proposed a series of plebiscites to determine its future fate—with Alsace voting as a single unit in this plebiscite due to its interconnected nature. <mask> likewise proposed a plebiscite in Schleswig-Holstein to determine

masks: Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts: its future fate, with him arguing that the linguistic line might make the best new German-Danish border there (indeed, ultimately a plebiscite was held in Schleswig in 1920). In regards to Poland, <mask> advocated for the creation of an autonomous Poland under Russian rule (specifically a Poland in a federal relationship with Russia and that has a degree of home rule and autonomy that is at least comparable to that of the Austrian Poles) that would have put the Russian, German, and Austrian Poles under one sovereignty and government.<mask> argued that Polish unity would be impossible in the event of an Austro-German victory in World War I since a victorious Germany would be unwilling to transfer its own Polish territories (which it views as strategically important and still hopes to Germanize) to an autonomous or newly independent Poland. <mask> also proposed giving most of Upper Silesia, Posen Province, and western Galicia to this autonomous Poland and suggested holding a plebiscite in Masuria (as indeed ultimately occurred in 1920 with the Masurian plebiscite) while allowing Germany to keep all of West Prussia, including the Polish parts that later became known as the Polish Corridor (while, of course, making Danzig a free city that the autonomous Poland would be allowed to use). In regards to Austria-Hungary, <mask> proposed having Austria give up Galicia to Russia and an enlarged autonomous Russian Poland, give up Transylvania and Bukovina to Romania, give up Trentino (but not Trieste or South Tyrol) to Italy, and give up Bosnia, Croatia, and Slovenia so that newly independent states can be formed there. Toynbee also advocated allowing Austria to keep Czechia due to the strategic location of its Sudeten Mountain


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts: ridges and allowing Hungary to keep Slovakia. Toynbee also advocated splitting Bessarabia between Russia and Romania, with Russia keeping the Budjak while Romania would acquire the rest of Bessarabia. <mask> argued that a Romanian acquisition of the Budjak would be pointless due to its non-Romanian population and due to it providing little value for Romania; however, Toynbee did endorse Romanian use of the Russian port of Odessa, which would see its trade traffic double in such a scenario. In regards to Ukraine (aka Little Russia), <mask> rejected both home rule and a federal solution for Ukraine.<mask>'s objection to the federal solution stemmed from his fear that a federated Russia would be too divided to have a unifying center of gravity and would thus be at risk of fragmentation and breaking up just like the United States of America previously did for a time during its own civil war. In place of autonomy, <mask> proposed making the Ukrainian language co-official in the Great Russian parts of the Russian Empire so that Ukrainians (or Little Russians) could become members of the Russian body politic as Great Russians' peers rather than as Great Russians' inferiors. <mask> also argued that if the Ukrainian language will not be able to become competitive with Russian even if the Ukrainian language will be given official status in Russia, then this would prove once and for all the superior vitality of the Russian language (which, according to Toynbee, was used to write great literature while the Ukrainian language was only used to write peasant ballads). In regards to future Russian expansion, <mask> endorsed the idea of Russia conquering Outer Mongolia and the Tarim Basin, arguing the Russia could improve and revitalize

masks: Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts: these territories just like the United States of America did for the Mexican Cession territories (specifically Nuevo Mexico and Alta California) when it conquered these territories from Mexico in the Mexican-American War back in 1847 (a conquest that Toynbee noted was widely criticized at the time, but which eventually became viewed as being a correct move on the part of the United States). <mask> also endorsed the idea of having Russia annex both Pontus and the Armenian Vilayets of the Ottoman Empire while rejecting the idea of an Russo-British partition of Persia as being impractical due to it being incapable of satisfying either Britain's or Russia's interests in Persia–with <mask> thus believing that a partition of Persia would merely inevitably result in war between Britain and Russia. Instead, Toynbee argues for (if necessary, with foreign assistance) the creation of a strong, independent, central government in Persia that would be capable of both protecting its own interests and protecting the interests of both British and Russia while also preventing both of these powers from having imperialist and predatory designs on Persia. In addition, in the event of renewed trouble and unrest in Afghanistan (which Toynbee viewed as only a matter of time), Toynbee advocated partitioning Afghanistan between Russia and British India roughly along the path of the Hindu Kush.A partition of Afghanistan along these lines would result in Afghan Turkestan being unified with the predominantly Turkic peoples of Russian Central Asia as well as with the Afghan Pashtuns being reunified with the Pakistani Pashtuns within British India. Toynbee viewed the Hindu Kush as being an ideal and impenetrable frontier between Russia and British

masks: Toynbee Toynbee


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 India that would be impossible for either side to cross through and that would thus be great at providing security (and protection against aggression by the other side) for both sides. Academic and cultural influence

Michael Lang says that for much of the twentieth century,

In his best-known work, A Study of History, published 1934–1961, Toynbee

...examined the rise and fall of 26 civilisations in the course of human history, and he concluded that they rose by responding successfully to challenges under the leadership of creative minorities composed of elite leaders. A Study of History was both a commercial and academic phenomenon. In the U.S. alone, more than seven thousand sets of the ten-volume edition had been sold by 1955. Most people, including scholars, relied on the very clear one-volume abridgement of the first six volumes by Somervell, which appeared in 1947; the abridgement sold over 300,000 copies in the U.S. The press printed innumerable discussions of Toynbee's work, not to mention there being countless lectures and seminars.<mask> himself often participated. He appeared on the cover of Time magazine in 1947, with an article describing his work as "the most provocative work of historical theory written in England since Karl Marx's Capital", and was a regular commentator on BBC (examining the history of and reasons for the current hostility between east and west, and considering how non-westerners view the western world). Canadian historians were especially receptive to <mask>'s work in the late 1940s. The Canadian economic historian Harold Adams Innis (1894–1952) was a notable example. Following <mask> and others (Spengler, Kroeber, Sorokin, Cochrane), Innis examined the flourishing of civilisations in

masks: Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 terms of administration of empires and media of communication. <mask>'s overall theory was taken up by some scholars, for example, Ernst Robert Curtius, as a sort of paradigm in the post-war period. Curtius wrote as follows in the opening pages of European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (1953 English translation), following close on <mask>, as he sets the stage for his vast study of medieval Latin literature.Curtius wrote, "How do cultures, and the historical entities which are their media, arise, grow and decay? Only a comparative morphology with exact procedures can hope to answer these questions. It was <mask><mask> who undertook the task." After 1960, <mask>'s ideas faded both in academia and the media, to the point of seldom being cited today. In general, historians pointed to his preference of myths, allegories, and religion over factual data. His critics argued that his conclusions are more those of a Christian moralist than of a historian. In his 2011 article for the Journal of History titled "Globalization and Global History in Toynbee," Michael Lang wrote:
To many world historians today, <mask><mask> is regarded like an embarrassing uncle at a house party.He gets a requisite introduction by virtue of his place on the family tree, but he is quickly passed over for other friends and relatives. However, his work continued to be referenced by some classical historians, because "his training and surest touch is in the world of classical antiquity." His roots in classical literature are also manifested by similarities between his approach and that of classical historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides. Comparative history, by which his approach is often categorised, has been in the doldrums. Political

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. Toynbee
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title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 influence in foreign policy
 While the writing of the Study was under way, <mask> produced numerous smaller works and served as director of foreign research of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (1939–43) and director of the research department of the Foreign Office (1943–46); he also retained his position at the London School of Economics until his retirement in 1956. <mask> worked for the Political Intelligence Department of the British Foreign Office during World War I and served as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He was director of studies at Chatham House, Balliol College, Oxford University, 1924–43.Chatham House conducted research for the British Foreign Office and was an important intellectual resource during World War II when it was transferred to London. With his research assistant, Veronica M. Boulter, <mask> was co-editor of the RIIA's annual Survey of International Affairs, which became the "bible" for international specialists in Britain. Meeting with Adolf Hitler
While on a visit in Berlin in 1936 to address the Nazi Law Society, <mask> was invited to have a private interview with Adolf Hitler, at Hitler's request. During the interview, which took place a day before <mask> delivered his lecture, Hitler emphasised his limited expansionist aim of building a greater German nation, and his desire for British understanding and co-operation. He also suggested Germany could be an ally to Britain in the Asia-Pacific if Germany were to have her colonies restored. <mask> believed that Hitler was sincere and endorsed Hitler's message in a confidential memorandum for the British prime minister and foreign secretary. <mask>'s lecture – delivered in English, but copies of which in German were

masks: Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee Toynbee


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 circulated in advance by officials – was warmly received by his Berlin audience, who appreciated its conciliatory tone.Tracy Philipps, a British 'diplomat' stationed in Berlin at the time, later informed Toynbee that it 'was an eager topic of discussion everywhere'. Back home, some of <mask>'s colleagues were dismayed by his attempts at managing Anglo-German relations. Russia
<mask> was troubled by the Russian Revolution since he saw Russia as a non-Western society and the revolution as a threat to Western society. However, in 1952, he argued that the Soviet Union had been a victim of Western aggression. He portrayed the Cold War as a religious competition that pitted a Marxist materialist heresy against the West's spiritual Christian heritage, which had already been foolishly rejected by a secularised West. A heated debate ensued, and an editorial in The Times promptly attacked Toynbee for treating communism as a "spiritual force". Greece and the Middle East
<mask> was a leading analyst of developments in the Middle East.His support for Greece and hostility to the Turks during World War I had gained him an appointment to the Koraes Chair of Modern Greek and Byzantine History at King's College, University of London. However, after the war he changed to a pro-Turkish position, accusing Greece's military government in occupied Turkish territory of atrocities and massacres. This earned him the enmity of the wealthy Greeks who had endowed the chair, and in 1924 he was forced to resign the position. His stance during World War I reflected less sympathy for the Arab cause and took a pro-Zionist outlook. <mask> investigated Zionism in 1915 at the Information Department of the Foreign Office, and in 1917 he published a


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 memorandum with his colleague Lewis Namier which supported exclusive Jewish political rights in Palestine. He expressed support for Jewish immigration to Palestine, which he believed had "begun to recover its ancient prosperity" as a result. In 1922, however, he was influenced by the Palestine Arab delegation which was visiting London, and began to adopt their views.His subsequent writings reveal his changing outlook on the subject, and by the late 1940s he had moved away from the Zionist cause and toward the Arab camp. The views <mask> expressed in the 1950s continued to oppose the formation of a Jewish state, partly out of his concern that it would increase the risk of a nuclear confrontation. However, as a result of <mask>'s debate in January 1961 with Yaakov Herzog, the Israeli ambassador to Canada, <mask> softened his view and called on Israel to fulfill its special "mission to make contributions to worldwide efforts to prevent the outbreak of nuclear war." In his article "Jewish Rights in Palestine", he challenged the views of the editor of the Jewish Quarterly Review, historian and talmudic scholar Solomon Zeitlin, who published his rebuke, "Jewish Rights in Eretz Israel (Palestine)" in the same issue. <mask> maintained, among other contentions, that the Jewish people have neither historic nor legal claims to Palestine, stating that the Arab

Dialogue with Daisaku Ikeda
In 1972, <mask> met with Daisaku Ikeda, president of Soka Gakkai International (SGI), who condemned the "demonic nature" of the use of nuclear weapons under any circumstances. <mask> had the view that the atomic bomb was an invention that had caused warfare to escalate from a political scale to catastrophic proportions and threatened the very


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts: existence of the human race. In his dialogue with Ikeda, <mask> stated his worry that humankind would not be able to strengthen ethical behaviour and achieve self-mastery "in spite of the widespread awareness that the price of failing to respond to the moral challenge of the atomic age may be the self-liquidation of our species."The two men first met on 5 May 1972 in London. In May 1973, Ikeda again flew to London to meet with <mask> for 40 hours over a period of 10 days. Their dialogue and ongoing correspondence culminated in the publication of Choose Life, a record of their views on critical issues confronting humanity. The book has been published in 24 languages to date. <mask> also wrote the foreword to the English edition of Ikeda's best-known book, The Human Revolution, which has sold more than 7 million copies worldwide. <mask> being "paid well" for the interviews with Ikeda raised criticism. In 1984 his granddaughter <mask> wrote a critical article for The Guardian on meeting Daisaku Ikeda; she begins writing: "On the long flight to Japan, I read for the first time my grandfather's posthumously, published book, Choose Life – A Dialogue, a discussion between himself and a Japanese Buddhist leader called Daisaku Ikeda.My grandfather [...] was 85 when the dialogue was recorded, a short time before his final incapacitating stroke. It is probably the book among his works most kindly left forgotten – being a long discursive ramble between the two men over topics from sex education to pollution and war." An exhibition celebrating the 30th anniversary of <mask> and Ikeda's first meeting was presented in SGI's centers around the world in 2005, showcasing contents of the dialogues between them, as well as Ikeda's

masks:
Toynbee
Toynbee
Toynbee
Toynbee
Polly Toynbee
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title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 discussions for peace with over 1,500 of the world's scholars, intellects, and activists. Original letters <mask> and Ikeda exchanged were also displayed. Challenge and response
With the civilisations as units identified, he presented the history of each in terms of challenge-and-response, sometimes referred to as theory about the law of challenge and response. Civilizations arose in response to some set of challenges of extreme difficulty, when "creative minorities" devised solutions that reoriented their entire society. Challenges and responses were physical, as when the Sumerians exploited the intractable swamps of southern Iraq by organising the Neolithic inhabitants into a society capable of carrying out large-scale irrigation projects; or social, as when the Catholic Church resolved the chaos of post-Roman Europe by enrolling the new Germanic kingdoms in a single religious community.When a civilisation responded to challenges, it grew. Civilizations disintegrate when their leaders stopped responding creatively, and the civilisations then sank owing to nationalism, militarism, and the tyranny of a despotic minority. According to an Editor's Note in an edition of Toynbee's A Study of History, <mask> believed that societies always die from suicide or murder rather than from natural causes, and nearly always from suicide. He sees the growth and decline of civilisations as a spiritual process, writing that "Man achieves civilization, not as a result of superior biological endowment or geographical environment, but as a response to a challenge in a situation of special difficulty which rouses him to make a hitherto unprecedented effort." Toynbee Prize Foundation
Named after <mask><mask>, the [Toynbee Prize] Foundation

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. Toynbee


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 was chartered in 1987 'to contribute to the development of the social sciences, as defined from a broad historical view of human society and of human and social problems.' In addition to awarding the Toynbee Prize, the foundation sponsors scholarly engagement with global history through sponsorship of sessions at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association, of international conferences, of the journal New Global Studies and of the Global History Forum. The Toynbee Prize is an honorary award, recognising social scientists for significant academic and public contributions to humanity.Currently, it is awarded every other year for work that makes a significant contribution to the study of global history. The recipients have been Raymond Aron, Lord Kenneth Clark, Sir Ralf Dahrendorf, Natalie Zemon Davis, Albert Hirschman, George Kennan, Bruce Mazlish, <mask>, William McNeill, <mask> Sartre, Arthur Schlesinger<mask>., Barbara Ward, <mask>, Sir Brian Urquhart, Michael Adas, Christopher Bayly, and <mask> Osterhammel. VI (Oxford University Press under the auspices of the British Institute of International Affairs 1924)
The World after the Peace Conference, Being an Epilogue to the "History of the Peace Conference of Paris" and a Prologue to the "Survey of International Affairs, 1920–1923" (Oxford University Press under the auspices of the British Institute of International Affairs 1925). Published on its own, but Toynbee writes that it was "originally written as an introduction to the Survey of International Affairs in 1920–1923, and was intended for publication as part of the same volume". With Kenneth P. Kirkwood, Turkey (Benn 1926, in Modern Nations series edited by H. A. L. Fisher)
The Conduct of British Empire

masks:
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Jean Paul
, Jr
Lady Jackson
Jrgen


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 Foreign Relations since the Peace Settlement (Oxford University Press under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs 1928)
A Journey to China, or Things Which Are Seen (Constable 1931)
Editor, British Commonwealth Relations, Proceedings of the First Unofficial Conference at Toronto, 11–21 September 1933, with a foreword by Robert L. Borden (Oxford University Press under the joint auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs and the Canadian Institute of International Affairs 1934)
A Study of History
Vol I: Introduction; The Geneses of Civilizations
Vol II: The Geneses of Civilizations
Vol III: The Growths of Civilizations
(Oxford University Press 1934)
Editor, with J. A. K. Thomson, Essays in Honour of Gilbert Murray (George Allen & Unwin 1936)
A Study of History
 Vol IV: The Breakdowns of Civilizations
 Vol V: The Disintegrations of Civilizations
Vol VI: The Disintegrations of Civilizations
(Oxford University Press 1939)
D. C. Somervell, A Study of History: Abridgement of Vols I-VI, with a preface by Toynbee (Oxford University Press 1946)
Civilization on Trial (Oxford University Press 1948)
The Prospects of Western Civilization (New York, Columbia University Press 1949). Lectures delivered at Columbia University on themes from a then-unpublished part of A Study of History.Published "by arrangement with Oxford University Press in an edition limited to 400 copies and not to be reissued". Albert Vann Fowler (editor), War and Civilization, Selections from A Study of History, with a preface by <mask> (New York, Oxford University Press 1950)
Introduction and translations, Twelve Men of Action in Greco-Roman History (Boston, Beacon Press 1952). Extracts from Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch and


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 Polybius. The World and the West (Oxford University Press 1953). Reith Lectures for 1952. A Study of History
Vol VII: Universal States; Universal Churches
Vol VIII: Heroic Ages; Contacts between Civilizations in Space
Vol IX: Contacts between Civilizations in Time; Law and Freedom in History; The Prospects of the Western Civilization
Vol X: The Inspirations of Historians; A Note on Chronology
(Oxford University Press 1954)
An Historian's Approach to Religion (Oxford University Press 1956). Gifford Lectures, University of Edinburgh, 1952–1953.D. C. Somervell, A Study of History: Abridgement of Vols VII-X, with a preface by <mask> (Oxford University Press 1957)
Christianity among the Religions of the World (New York, Scribner 1957; London, Oxford University Press 1958). Hewett Lectures, delivered in 1956. Democracy in the Atomic Age (Melbourne, Oxford University Press under the auspices of the Australian Institute of International Affairs 1957). Dyason Lectures, delivered in 1956. East to West: A Journey round the World (Oxford University Press 1958)
Hellenism: The History of a Civilization (Oxford University Press 1959, in Home University Library)
With Edward D. Myers, A Study of History
Vol XI: Historical Atlas and Gazetteer
(Oxford University Press 1959)
D. C. Somervell, A Study of History: Abridgement of Vols I-X in one volume, with a new preface by Toynbee and new tables (Oxford University Press 1960)
A Study of History
Vol XII: Reconsiderations
(Oxford University Press 1961)
Between Oxus and Jumna (Oxford University Press 1961)
America and the World Revolution (Oxford University Press 1962). Public lectures delivered at the University of Pennsylvania, spring 1961. The Economy of the Western Hemisphere (Oxford


title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 University Press 1962).Weatherhead Foundation Lectures delivered at the University of Puerto Rico, February 1962. The Present-Day Experiment in Western Civilization (Oxford University Press 1962). Beatty Memorial Lectures delivered at McGill University, Montreal, 1961. The three sets of lectures published separately in the UK in 1962 appeared in New York in the same year in one volume under the title America and the World Revolution and Other Lectures, Oxford University Press. Universal States (New York, Oxford University Press 1963). Separate publication of part of Vol VII of A Study of History. With <mask>, Comparing Notes: A Dialogue across a Generation (Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1963)."Conversations between <mask> and his son, Philip … as they were recorded on tape." Between Niger and Nile (Oxford University Press 1965)
Hannibal's Legacy: The Hannibalic War's Effects on Roman Life
Vol I: Rome and Her Neighbours before Hannibal's Entry
Vol II: Rome and Her Neighbours after Hannibal's Exit
(Oxford University Press 1965)
Change and Habit: The Challenge of Our Time (Oxford University Press 1966). Partly based on lectures given at University of Denver in the last quarter of 1964, and at New College, Sarasota, Florida and the University of the South, Sewanee, Tennessee in the first quarter of 1965. Acquaintances (Oxford University Press 1967)
Between Maule and Amazon (Oxford University Press 1967)
Editor, Cities of Destiny (Thames & Hudson 1967)
Editor and principal contributor, Man's Concern with Death (Hodder & Stoughton 1968)
Editor, The Crucible of Christianity: Judaism, Hellenism and the Historical Background to the Christian Faith (Thames & Hudson 1969)
Experiences (Oxford University Press 1969)
Some Problems of Greek

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title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 History (Oxford University Press 1969)
Cities on the Move (Oxford University Press 1970). Sponsored by the Institute of Urban Environment of the School of Architecture, Columbia University. Surviving the Future (Oxford University Press 1971). Rewritten version of a dialogue between <mask> and Professor Kei Wakaizumi of Kyoto Sangyo University: essays preceded by questions by Wakaizumi.With <mask>, A Study of History, new one-volume abridgement, with new material and revisions and, for the first time, illustrations (Oxford University Press and Thames & Hudson 1972)
Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World (Oxford University Press	1973)
Editor, Half the World: The History and Culture of China and Japan (Thames & Hudson 1973)
Toynbee on Toynbee: A Conversation between <mask><mask> and G. R. Urban (New York, Oxford University Press 1974)
Mankind and Mother Earth: A Narrative History of the World (Oxford University Press 1976), posthumous
Richard L. Gage (editor), The Toynbee-Ikeda Dialogue: Man Himself Must Choose (Oxford University Press 1976), posthumous. The record of a conversation lasting several days. E. W. F. Tomlin (editor), <mask>bee: A Selection from His Works, with an introduction by Tomlin (Oxford University Press 1978), posthumous. Includes advance extracts from The Greeks and Their Heritages. The Greeks and Their Heritages (Oxford University Press 1981), posthumous
Christian B. Peper (editor), An Historian's Conscience: The Correspondence of <mask><mask> and Columba Cary-Elwes, Monk of Ampleforth, with a foreword by Lawrence L<mask> (Oxford University Press by arrangement with Beacon Press, Boston 1987), posthumous
The Survey of International Affairs was published by Oxford University Press under the auspices

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texts:
 of the Royal Institute of International Affairs between 1925 and 1977 and covered the years 1920–1963. <mask> wrote, with assistants, the Pre-War Series (covering the years 1920–1938) and the War-Time Series (1938–1946), and contributed introductions to the first two volumes of the Post-War Series (1947–1948 and 1949–1950). His actual contributions varied in extent from year to year.A complementary series, Documents on International Affairs, covering the years 1928–1963, was published by Oxford University Press between 1929 and 1973. Toynbee supervised the compilation of the first of the 1939–1946 volumes, and wrote a preface for both that and the 1947–1948 volume. See also
 <mask> tiles
 Fernand Braudel
 Christopher Dawson
 Will Durant
 Carroll Quigley
 Oswald Spengler
 Eric Voegelin
 World history

References

Footnotes

Bibliography
   online from ACLS E-Books

Further reading
  Beacock, Ian. Humanist among machines – As the dreams of Silicon Valley fill our world, could the dowdy historian <mask> help prevent a nightmare? (March 2016), Aeon
 Ben-Israel, Hedva. "Debates With Toynbee: Herzog, Talmon, Friedman", Israel Studies, Spring 2006, Vol. 11 Issue 1, pp.79–90
 Brewin, Christopher. "<mask>, Chatham House, and Research in a Global Context", in David Long and Peter Wilson, eds. Thinkers of the Twenty Years' Crisis: Inter-War Idealism Reassessed (1995)  pp. 277–302. Costello, Paul. World Historians and Their Goals: Twentieth-Century Answers to Modernism (1993). Compares <mask> with H. G. Wells, Oswald Spengler, Pitirim Sorokin, Christopher Dawson, Lewis Mumford, and William H. McNeill
 Friedman, Isaiah."<mask>: Pro-Arab or Pro-Zionist?" Israel Studies, Spring 1999, Vol. 4#1, pp. 73–95
 Hutton, Alexander. "'A belated

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title: Arnold J. Toynbee

texts:
 return for Christ? ': the reception of <mask><mask>'s A Study of History in a British context, 1934–1961". European Review of History 21.3 (2014): 405–424.Lang, Michael. "Globalization and Global History in Toynbee", Journal of World History 22#4 Dec 2011 pp. 747–783 in project MUSE
 McIntire, C. T. and Marvin Perry, eds. Toynbee: Reappraisals (1989) 254pp
 McNeill, William H. Arnold J. Toynbee: a life (Oxford UP, 1989). The standard scholarly biography. Martel, Gordon. "The Origins of World History: <mask>nbee before the First World War", Australian Journal of Politics and History,  Sept 2004, Vol.50 Issue 3, pp. 343–356
 Montagu, Ashley M. F., ed. Toynbee and History: Critical Essays and Reviews (1956) online edition
 Paquette, Gabriel B. "The Impact of the 1917 Russian Revolutions on <mask><mask>'s Historical Thought, 1917–34", Revolutionary Russia, June 2000, Vol. 13#1, pp. 55–80
 Perry, Marvin. <mask> and the Western Tradition (1996)
 <mask>, <mask>.A Study of History abridged edition by D. C. Somervell (2 vol. 1947); 617pp online edition of vol. 1, covering vols 1–6 of the original; A Study of History online edition

External links

 Toynbee bibliography
  large bibliography of secondary literature
 Site analysing passages in <mask>'s work
 <mask>, The Challenge Hypothesis (1934)

1889 births
1975 deaths
English Anglicans
Theories of history
Theorists on Western civilization
People educated at Winchester College
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Academics of King's College London
Academics of the London School of Economics
20th-century English historians
Council and directors of Chatham House
Members of the American

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Arnold Toy
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Arnold J
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title: Joseph Scott (attorney)

texts:
<mask> (July 16, 1867 - March 24, 1958) was a prominent British-born attorney and community leader in Los Angeles, California. His service to the community was so varied and important that he earned the nickname "Mr. Los Angeles." Early life
<mask> was born in Penrith, Cumberland, England, in 1867. His father, <mask>, was a Scottish Presbyterian and his mother Mary (née Donnelly) was an Irish Catholic, but young <mask> was raised Catholic. His father was tolerant and quiet, while his mother instilled a sense of respect and hard work in him. He attended Ushaw College, a seminary in Durham, County Durham, England, that trained Catholic priests and educated lay boys. He attended and graduated from the University of London.Emigration to the U.S. Feeling he would be discriminated against in England because of his Catholicism, <mask> emigrated to the United States in 1889. He worked in a paper mill in Massachusetts before being appointed a professor of rhetoric and English literature at St. Bonaventure College in Olean, New York. While teaching at the university, he received his A.M. degree in 1893. He moved to Los Angeles that year, and was admitted to the bar. His studies at St. Bonaventure continued, and he was awarded an LL.D. in 1914.He wed the former Bertha Roth in 1898. The couple had 11 children. His son A. A<mask> became a superior court judge in Los Angeles County, and his son <mask> was ordained a Catholic priest. His grandson, Father <mask>, is a Catholic priest in Long Beach. Career in Los Angeles
While practicing law in Los Angeles, <mask> became deeply involved in civic affairs. In 1888 he co-founded the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce.He was the organization's director from 1907 to 1918, and served as its president from 1910 to 1921.

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title: Joseph Scott (attorney)

texts: In 1902, he was named a member of the Charter Revision Committee which conducted the first significant reform of Los Angeles city government. The same year, he co-founded the Southern California chapter of the Knights of Columbus. He was elected to the Los Angeles City School District in 1906 and served for 10 years—the first five as president. In 1907, he funded the Southwest Museum. He remained on its board of trustees until 1957. In 1911, he helped defend union members John J. and James B. McNamara after they were charged with bombing the Los Angeles Times building and causing the deaths of 21 people.The McNamaras eventually confessed: John went to prison for life, and James served a 10-year sentence. For daring to defend the brothers, Times publisher Harrison Gray Otis (a virulent opponent of labor unions) attacked <mask> in the paper's pages for the next several years. In 1913, <mask> sued Otis, the Times, and the Times-Mirror Company for libel. After three separate trials, <mask> won judgments of nearly $70,000. In 1915, <mask> was appointed vice-president of the Panama-California Exposition. <mask> was a lifelong Republican. Nevertheless, in 1917 President Woodrow Wilson named him chairman of the Los Angeles draft exemption board, a post which he held for the duration of World War I. <mask> nominated Herbert Hoover for reelection as president at the 1932 Republican National Convention.At the age of 62, he was elected president of the Los Angeles Community Chest. In 1932, he helped raise a record $3.1 million (about $47.1 million in 2007 dollars) for the organization. He served for four years, and resigned in 1935. After his resignation, he was elected president of the California Conference of Social Work and served one two-year term.

masks: Scott Scott Scott Scott Scott Scott


title: Joseph Scott (attorney)

texts:
 <mask> momentarily rose to national prominence in 1945 in the Charlie Chaplin-Joan Barry paternity suit. The 23-year-old actress and one-time Chaplin protégée, Barry, had had an affair with the actor in 1942. Barry became pregnant, and sued Chaplin for child support in 1943.Barry hired <mask> to press her case in court. <mask> convinced the court to rule a blood test inadmissible as evidence, even though the test seemed to indicate that Chaplin was not the father. At trial, <mask> railed against the actor—who had a lengthy and public history of adulterous relationships and affairs with very young women. Among other things, <mask> called Chaplin a "pestiferous, lecherous hound", "a little runt of a Svengali", a "cheap Cockney cad", "a hoary headed old buzzard" and "a master mechanic in the art of seduction". Chaplin lost the suit. Veteran court attaches commented that <mask> was the most aggressive lawyer they ever heard bellowing patriotism-above-the-facts in a court case. He claimed Chaplin was Communist since he had urged the opening of a second front in Europe during World War II, since the fate of the world hinged on Germany being defeated by Russia (the United States was not at war at the time Chaplin said this).<mask> persisted in this claim although the United States did enter the war on the side of Russia. At least one law review deplored the course the court took in this case, likely leading to a change in the law, specifically the California Code of Civil Procedure, in 1965. After World War II, <mask> became a charter member of the Los Angeles chapter of the National Conference of Christians and Jews. Death
<mask> suffered a fall in the spring of 1957 which caused a cerebral hemorrhage. He was discharged ten days later. On July 16,

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title: Joseph Scott (attorney)

texts:
 he celebrated his 90th birthday with 1,000 well-wishers at the Biltmore Bowl at the Biltmore Hotel. However, he remained in frail condition and continued to seek medical treatment throughout the remainder of the year.<mask> collapsed and fell again in his law office on March 14, 1958, and was rushed to the hospital. He died on March 24, with his son George at his side. The cause of death was uremia. His wife and six of his children survived him. His body lay in state in Los Angeles City Hall for three days. Vice President Richard Nixon issued official condolences. A requiem mass was celebrated by his son, George, at the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana, which was attended by 1,250 people.Cardinal McIntyre presided at the funeral, and Bishop <mask> McGucken gave the eulogy. Among the church leaders attending the funeral were two Auxiliary Bishops of Los Angeles, the Auxiliary Bishop of Fresno, the Bishop of San Diego, and the retired Bishop of Colón, Panama. Among the political leaders in attendance were Governor Goodwin Knight, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of California Marshall F. McComb, and Irish Ambassador to the United States <mask> Hearne. He was interred in Calvary Mausoleum. Catholic work
<mask> was a dedicated and lifelong Catholic. He was an international commissioner for overseas work for the Knights of Columbus in 1918, and made nationwide speaking tours on behalf of the organization from the 1920s to the 1950s. His extensive knowledge of Catholic theology led to his appointment as a speaker at the International Eucharistic Congresses in 1926, 1936, 1937 and 1938.Pope Benedict XV elevated him to a Knight Commander of St. Gregory, with diplomatic star. Pope Pius XI elevated him to a Knight of St. Gregory. He was appointed a

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title: Joseph Scott (attorney)

texts:
 Privy Chamberlain of the Sword and Cape by Pope Pius XII. Irish nationalism
<mask> was a strong supporter of Irish nationalism and a united Ireland. He was a founding member of the American League for an Undivided Ireland in 1947, and served a term as its president. He also served as permanent chairman of the International Irish Congress. He received the Gold Medal from the American Irish Historical Society in 1948, the organization's highest honor.<mask> was a past president of Los Angeles Division 1 of the Ancient Order of Hibernians. At the time of his death, he was the chapter's oldest living member. Honors and popular culture references
<mask> was named an honorary dean of the Loyola Law School. The <mask> Moot Court at Loyola Law School is named for him, as is the <mask> Fellowship—which provides a research grant to a law school faculty member. A bronze statue of <mask> faces Grand Avenue in the front of the Stanley Mosk Courthouse building of the Los Angeles Superior Court. In 1962, noted Los Angeles sculptor Carl Romanelli was commissioned to design a statue of <mask>. When fund-raising for the effort fell short, Romanelli withdrew from the project.El Monte sculptor Cataldo Papaleo stepped in, made some changes to Romanelli's design, and cast the piece. Romanelli refused to sign the work, although the statue's base still bears his name. The statue was unveiled in 1967. <mask> is a character in the 1992 film Chaplin, and was portrayed by actor James Woods. Notes

References
"Atty. <mask> Succumbs at 90." Los Angeles Times.March 25, 1958. "Body of <mask> to Lie in State at City Hall." Los Angeles Times. March 27, 1958. Cross, Ira B. History of the Labor Movement in California. Reprint ed.Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press,

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title: Joseph Scott (attorney)

texts:
 1974. Darrow, Clarence. The Story of My Life. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932. "Expanding Chests." Time. December 3, 1934."Fighting Folk." Time. January 8, 1945. Fogelson, Robert M. The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles 1850-1930. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1967. "<mask>, 90 Dies." The New York Times.March 25, 1958. McDougal, Dennis. Privileged Son: Otis Chandler and the Rise and Fall of the L. A. Times Dynasty. Reprint ed. New York: Perseus Publishing, 2002. Prendergast, Edward."<mask> Story." Los Angeles Herald. May 8, 1952. "Rites Conducted for <mask>." Los Angeles Times. March 30, 1958. Robinson, David.Chaplin: His Life and Art. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985. Robinson, W.W. Lawyers of Los Angeles: A History of the Los Angeles Bar Association and of the Bar of Los Angeles County. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Bar Association, 1959. "<mask> Paid Tribute by Notables." Los Angeles Times. March 26, 1958.Stimson, Grace Heilman. Rise of the Labor Movement in Los Angeles. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1955. External links
Collection of Materials About <mask> (Collection 776). Department of Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. Accessed August 23, 2007. "<mask>."Statue by Carl Romanelli/Cataldo Papaleo, 1967. Public Art In Los Angeles. No date. Accessed August 23, 2007. 1867 births
1958 deaths
Lawyers from Los Angeles
Alumni of the University of London
St. Bonaventure University alumni
English emigrants to the United States
Alumni of Ushaw College
Laetare Medal recipients
English Roman Catholics
English people of Scottish descent
English people of Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Irish descent
People from

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Joseph Scott


title: Michael O. Rabin

texts:
<mask> (; born September 1, 1931) is an Israeli mathematician and computer scientist and a recipient of the Turing Award. Biography

Early life and education
<mask> was born in 1931 in Breslau, Germany (today Wrocław, in Poland), the son of a rabbi. In 1935, he emigrated with his family to Mandate Palestine. As a young boy, he was very interested in mathematics and his father sent him to the best high school in Haifa, where he studied under mathematician Elisha Netanyahu, who was then a high school teacher. <mask> graduated from the Hebrew Reali School in Haifa in 1948, and was drafted into the army during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The mathematician Abraham Fraenkel, who was a professor of mathematics in Jerusalem, intervened with the army command, and Rabin was discharged to study at the university in 1949. He received an M.Sc.from Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1953 and a Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1956. Career
Rabin became Associate Professor of Mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley (1961–62) and MIT (1962-63). Before moving to Harvard University as Gordon McKay Professor of Computer Science in 1981, he was a professor at the Hebrew University. In the late 1950s, he was invited for a summer to do research for IBM at the Lamb Estate in Westchester County, New York with other promising mathematicians and scientists. It was there that he and Dana Scott wrote the paper "Finite Automata and Their Decision Problems". Soon, using nondeterministic automata, they were able to re-prove Kleene's result that finite state machines exactly accept regular languages. As to the origins of what was to become computational complexity theory, the next summer Rabin returned to the Lamb Estate.John McCarthy posed a puzzle to him about spies, guards, and passwords, which Rabin studied and soon after he

masks:
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title: Michael O. Rabin

texts: wrote an article, "Degree of Difficulty of Computing a Function and Hierarchy of Recursive Sets." Nondeterministic machines have become a key concept in computational complexity theory, particularly with the description of the complexity classes P and NP. <mask> then returned to Jerusalem, researching logic, and working on the foundations of what would later be known as computer science. He was an associate professor and the head of the Institute of Mathematics at the Hebrew University at 29 years old, and a full professor by 33. <mask> recalls, "There was absolutely no appreciation of the work on the issues of computing. Mathematicians did not recognize the emerging new field". In 1960, he was invited by Edward F. Moore to work at Bell Labs, where Rabin introduced probabilistic automata that employ coin tosses in order to decide which state transitions to take.He showed examples of regular languages that required a very large number of states, but for which you get an exponential reduction of the number of states if you go over to probabilistic automata. In 1969, <mask> proved that the second-order theory of n successors is decidable. A key component of the proof implicitly showed determinacy of parity games, which lie in the third level of the Borel hierarchy. In 1975, <mask> finished his tenure as Rector of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and went to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the USA as a visiting professor. Gary Miller was also there and had his polynomial time test for primality based on the extended Riemann hypothesis. While there, Rabin invented the Miller–Rabin primality test, a randomized algorithm that can determine very quickly (but with a tiny probability of error) whether a number is prime. <mask>'s method was based on previous work of Gary Miller that solved the problem

masks: Rabin Rabin Rabin Rabin Rabin


title: Michael O. Rabin

texts:
 deterministically with the assumption that the generalized Riemann hypothesis is true, but Rabin's version of the test made no such assumption.Fast primality testing is key in the successful implementation of most public-key cryptography, and in 2003 Miller, <mask>, Robert M. Solovay, and Volker Strassen were given the Paris Kanellakis Award for their work on primality testing. In 1976 he was invited by Joseph Traub to meet at Carnegie Mellon University and presented the primality test. After he gave that lecture, Traub had said, "No, no, this is revolutionary, and it's going to become very important." In 1979, <mask> invented the Rabin cryptosystem, the first asymmetric cryptosystem whose security was proved equivalent to the intractability of integer factorization. In 1981, <mask> reinvented a weak variant of the technique of oblivious transfer invented by Wiesner under the name of multiplexing, allowing a sender to transmit a message to a receiver where the receiver has some probability between 0 and 1 of learning the message, with the sender being unaware whether the receiver was able to do so. In 1987, <mask>, together with Richard Karp, created one of the most well-known efficient string search algorithms, the Rabin–Karp string search algorithm, known for its rolling hash. <mask>'s more recent research has concentrated on computer security.He is currently the Thomas J. Watson Sr. Professor of Computer Science at Harvard University and Professor of Computer Science at Hebrew University. During the spring semester of 2007, he was a visiting professor at Columbia University teaching Introduction to Cryptography. Awards and honours
<mask> is a foreign member of the United States National Academy of Sciences, a member of the
French Academy of Sciences and a foreign member of the Royal Society. In 1976, the Turing

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title: Michael O. Rabin

texts:
 Award was awarded jointly to <mask> and Dana Scott for a paper written in 1959, the citation for which states that the award was granted:

For their joint paper "Finite Automata and Their Decision Problems," which introduced the idea of nondeterministic machines, which has proved to be an enormously valuable concept. Their (Scott & Rabin)  classic paper has been a continuous source of inspiration for subsequent work in this field. In 1995, <mask> was awarded the Israel Prize, in computer sciences.In 2010, <mask> was awarded the Tel Aviv University Dan David Prize ("Future" category), jointly with Leonard Kleinrock and Gordon E. Moore, for Computers and Telecommunications. <mask> was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Science from Harvard University in 2017. See also
 Oblivious transfer
 Rabin automaton
 Rabin fingerprint
 Hyper-encryption
 List of Israel Prize recipients

References

External links
 Short Description in an Information Science Hall of Fame at University of Pittsburgh
 Oblivious transfer
 Quotes from some of Professor <mask>'s classes
 Website for one of <mask>'s courses
 Description of Rabin's research by Richard J. Lipton

1931 births
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Israeli mathematicians
Israeli computer scientists
Hebrew Reali School alumni
Einstein Institute of Mathematics alumni
Hebrew University of Jerusalem faculty
Columbia University faculty
Turing Award laureates
Dijkstra Prize laureates
Israel Prize in computer sciences recipients
Members of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Modern cryptographers
Logicians
Theoretical computer scientists
Living people
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Tarski lecturers
International Association for Cryptologic Research fellows
IBM Research computer scientists
IBM employees
Harvard University faculty
ETH Zurich


title: Bob Peirce

texts:
<mask> is a British businessman in Los Angeles. Until July 2009 he was a British diplomat, serving as British Consul-General in Los Angeles. He was a key negotiator with China on Hong Kong from the early 1980s through the handover in June 1997. Under the chairmanship of Christopher Patten, Peirce guided the work of the Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland, whose seminal report provided a vital foundation for peace in Northern Ireland. He has also worked closely with the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) to develop links between the UK and US on all aspects of policing policy. In his capacity as Consul-General in Los Angeles, he facilitated the first-ever visit by a serving British Prime Minister to California and strengthened UK-CA cultural and business relations through the creation of BritWeek. He has served as private secretary to three British Foreign Secretaries: Sir Geoffrey Howe, Sir John Major, and Douglas Hurd.Biodata
<mask> (born 18 March 1955) was raised in Somerset, England, where he attended Taunton School., and in South Africa. He was educated at St Catherine's College, Oxford, where he obtained a MA in Modern History, and also studied Chinese at Cambridge University. His parents are Kenneth and Margaret (Edna) Peirce. Foreign Office career

After joining the Foreign & Commonwealth Office (FCO) in 1977, <mask> worked in a number of key positions. He served in Hong Kong (from 1979–80, then as Deputy Political Advisor from 1986–89 and finally as Political Advisor to the Governor from 1993–97), in Peking (1980–83), at the FCO in London (1983–85), and in the Cabinet Office (1985–86). He was Private Secretary to three Secretaries of State for Foreign & Commonwealth Affairs between 1988-90. He served at the UK Mission to the UN from 1990–93, where his work

masks:
Robert Nigel Peirce
Peirce
Bob


title: Bob Peirce

texts:
 focused on Security Council issues, including Namibia, Cambodia, South Africa, Angola, Yugoslavia, Cyprus and many others.In 1990, he was engaged by the UK's Overseas Development Administration (the predecessor to the Department for International Development) to serve as a consultant to the President of Uganda, Yoweri Museveni, on the organisation of the Ugandan State House bureaucracy. <mask> was posted to the Royal College of Defense Studies in 1998 until becoming Secretary of the Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland later that year. He left the Commission in 1999 and became Counselor (Press & Public Affairs) at the British Embassy in Washington, D.C. In 2005, he was appointed Consul-General in Los Angeles, with responsibility for a geographical region with a larger population than many countries. Hong Kong

<mask> was twice a member of the Government of Hong Kong, in the 1980s and again in the 1990s. From 1993-97, he was the Secretary responsible for Hong Kong's external affairs under Governor Christopher Patten. For most of the period from 1979-97, he was directly involved in the negotiations that culminated in the handover of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China on 30 June 1997, and receives a mention in Patten's book, East and West and other books about that period.The Patten Commission
<mask> was the Secretary (equivalent to chief executive) of the Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland, established 3 June 1998 under Chris Patten. The Commission's report A New Beginning: Policing in Northern Ireland, released in 1999, was drafted by <mask> and formed the basis of policing reforms in Northern Ireland following the 1998 peace agreement. It has been hailed by policing experts around the world as a seminal document for policing in a

masks: Bob Bob Bob Bob


title: Bob Peirce

texts:
 democratic society as well as a template for policing in divided societies. Policing policy
When serving as head of political and public affairs at the British Embassy in Washington, DC, <mask> worked closely with Chuck Wexler, Executive Director of the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF), to develop links between UK and US police departments, resulting in best practice exchanges on all aspects of related policy, from forensic DNA to public order policing. California
Visit by Prime Minister Tony Blair
In August 2006, <mask> facilitated the visit by Prime Minister Tony Blair to California — the first ever visit to the state by a serving British Prime Minister. As part of the visit, <mask> instigated the creation of a ground-breaking climate change pact between California and the United Kingdom. The pact was signed by Blair and California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger after their participation in a climate change round table with business leaders in Long Beach.The unprecedented agreement between a country and a US state affirms that the UK and California will work together to evaluate and implement market-based mechanisms that spur innovation, share best practices, deepen their understanding of the economics of climate change, collaborate on technology research, and enhance linkages between their scientific communities. BritWeek
Together with Nigel Lythgoe, President of 19 Entertainment and Executive Producer of American Idol, <mask> introduced BritWeek to Los Angeles, an annual week of events and celebrations whose collective aim is to strengthen and broaden awareness of the creative, cultural and trade links between Britain and Los Angeles. A promotional film for BritWeek 2008, features <mask>, Nigel Lythgoe, Simon Cowell of American Idol, and a number of other prominent Brits

masks: Bob Bob Bob Bob Bob


title: Bob Peirce

texts:
 commenting on the influence the UK has had on Los Angeles and vice versa, not least in the entertainment arena. <mask> continues to chair Brit Week, which is being extended to include San Francisco in 2010.

Business career
In September 2009, <mask> joined a company headed by Los Angeles billionaire Dr. Patrick Soon-Shiong, Abraxis BioScience. He advises the company on government and public affairs. Personal life

Peirce is married to Sharon Harroun, a native of Virginia who has worked extensively with international humanitarian organisations promoting peace in Northern Ireland, including the Children's Friendship Project for Northern Ireland, Inc. (CFPNI). Sharon and <mask> are involved with LA's BEST (Better Educated Students for Tomorrow), an after school education, enrichment, and recreation program for elementary school children in Los Angeles.Together, they have three children from different marriages. Links
 Who's Who reference guide
 BBC article – California and UK in climate pact
 California Office of the Governor press release on UK-CA Agreement
 Official biography on www.BritainUSA.com
 Telegraph article about BritWeek 2008
 Marshall Scholars Meet Tony Blair during California visit
 BritWeek 2008 promotional video

Living people
1955 births
British businesspeople
British diplomats
British expatriates in the United States
People from

masks: Bob Bob Bob


title: Grantley Herbert Adams

texts:
Sir <mask>, CMG, QC (28 April 1898 – 28 November 1971) was a Barbadian politician. He served as the inaugural premier of Barbados from 1953 to 1958 and then became the first and only prime minister of the West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962. He was a founder of the Barbados Labour Party (BLP), and he was named in 1998 as one of the National Heroes of Barbados. Early life
<mask> was born at Colliston, Government Hill, St. Michael, on 28 April 1898. He was the third child of seven born to <mask> and the former Rosa Frances Turney. <mask> was educated at St. Giles and at Harrison College in Barbados. In 1918, he won the scholarship and departed the following year for his undergraduate studies at Oxford University.<mask> played a single match of first-class cricket for Barbados during the 1925–26 season, as a wicket-keeper against British Guiana in the Inter-Colonial Tournament. Political career
<mask>' political interest began when he was still a law student in England. He became a member of the Liberal Party at Oxford, finding his views aligned best with those of the Asquithian liberals, in support of private enterprise and trade. Under the Liberal ideals of the era, support of trade union action, representational government and reform of the land ownership and taxation system were towards the overall goal of fostering free trade. As the British liberals that shaped him rejected the socialism of the British Labour Party, so too did <mask> oppose the labour-focused efforts of the Democratic League of Charles Duncan O'Neal and Clennell Wickham on his return to Barbados in 1925. He attacked their strike efforts as editor of the Agricultural Reporter, a planter paper that had opposed workers' rights since its nineteenth century inception. With a growing reputation and popularity among the conservative establishment, <mask>' entry into the House of Assembly in 1934 was assured by his role in the deconstruction of the socialist League, including bankrupting one of the key journalistic voices in support of workers'

masks:
Grantley Herbert Adams
Adams
Fitzherbert Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams


title: Grantley Herbert Adams

texts: rights.Nevertheless, <mask>' fundamental belief in liberal policies meant that he tended to support pro-working class efforts once he was installed in the House, and continued to espouse many of O’Neale's causes after the man's passing in 1936. <mask> therefore consolidated his position by subsuming the fragmented Labour movement he had shattered, and marrying them to his own liberal ideals. It is this face that embraced the workers' rebellions of 1937 and lead to the establishment of the Barbados Labour Party in 1938. <mask> was president of the Barbados Workers' Union (BWU) from 1941 to 1954, and was involved in the lowering of the exclusive income qualification in 1942. By 1949, governmental control was wrested from the planters. <mask> became the first Premier of Barbados in 1953 and additionally Minister of Finance in 1954. Four years later he became the Prime Minister of the West Indies Federation, defeating Ashford Sinanan by two votes.(Sinanan went on to serve as Leader of the Opposition of Trinidad's Democratic Labour Party.) <mask> served this role from 1958 to 1962; Barbados was one of the ten provinces of the West Indies Federation, an organisation doomed by nationalistic attitudes and by the fact that its members, as British colonies, held limited legislative power. Yet he retained his reputation for conservatism through his support of the monarchy. His leaderships's failure to form unions such as the BWU and his rejection of attempts to speed up the push for Independence was used by his opponents as evidence that he was no longer in touch with the needs of his country. Errol Walton Barrow, a fervent reformer, became the new people's advocate. Barrow had left the BLP and formed the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) as the social democrat alternative to <mask>' liberal government, one that cleaved more closely to Labour's disruptive traditions. As such, Barrow instituted many progressive social welfare focused on demolishing long-standing class barriers, including free education for all Barbadians, and the

masks: Adams Adams Adams Adams Adams Adams


title: Grantley Herbert Adams

texts:
 School Meals system, the latter being vehemently derided by <mask> himself.By 1961, Barrow had replaced <mask> as Premier and the DLP controlled the government. Personal life
<mask> was married to Grace Thorne (1904-1990) in 1929 at St. John's Church. Their only child, Tom, himself won the Barbados Scholarship and attended Oxford to become a lawyer. <mask> was elected as Barbados' second Prime Minister in 1976. Legacy

Grantley Adams International Airport, formerly Seawell Airport, located in Christ Church, Barbados, was named after the former Premier in 1976. A statue in honour of <mask> is located in front of Government Headquarters at Bay Street, St. Michael. <mask> is one of Barbados' National Heroes.He was the father of Barbados' second Prime Minister following independence, the late J. M. G. "Tom" <mask>. <mask> was buried in Bridgetown, Barbados, at the churchyard of the Anglican Cathedral Church of Saint Michael and All Angels on Saint Michael's Row. The former home of <mask>, located on Roebuck Street, Bridgetown, functions as the headquarters of the Barbados Labour Party political group. <mask> is featured on the front of the Barbados $100 bill, popularly referred to as a "Grantley". See also
 Politics of Barbados
 List of Premiers/Prime Ministers of Barbados

Further reading
 F. A. Hoyos: The Rise of West Indian Democracy: The Life and Times of Sir <mask> <mask>, Advocate Press (1963)

References

External links
Sir <mask> <mask> biography The Caribbean Community secretariat

1898 births
1971 deaths
Barbadian lawyers
Knights Bachelor
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
National Heroes of Barbados
Leaders of the Barbados Labour Party
Finance ministers of Barbados
Prime Ministers of Barbados
Colonial government in the West Indies
Barbadian Queen's Counsel
Barbadian cricketers
Barbados cricketers
Barbadian sportsperson-politicians
20th-century Barbadian lawyers
Barbados in World War II
People educated at Harrison College (Barbados)
Members of the Federal Parliament of the West Indies

masks:
Adams
Adams
Adams
Tom Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Grantley
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Grantley
Herbert Adams


title: Ippolita Maria Sforza

texts:
<mask> (18 April 1445 or 1446 – 20 August 1488) was an Italian noblewoman, a member of the Sforza family which ruled the Duchy of Milan from 1450 until 1535. She was the first wife of the Duke of Calabria, who later reigned as King Alfonso II of Naples. Ippolita was a very intelligent and cultured young woman. Life

Childhood
Ippolita was born on April 18 1445 in Cremona to <mask>, famous leader and future Duke of Milan, and <mask>, the only daughter of the Duke of Milan <mask>. Since she was a child she showed precocity of intellect, love for letters and a certain passion for hunting, favored in this by her father who often gave her greyhounds for their country estates. Francesco Sforza sometimes asked his young daughter to act as an intermediary between him and his mother, so that she could help him to return to the graces of <mask>, the times when he and his wife entered into a quarrel for some reason. She had for masters Guiniforte Barzizza, by Baldo Martorelli, humanist from the Marche region heir to the humanist pedagogy of Vittorino da Feltre, and Costantino Lascaris, who gave her the study of Greek and dedicated a Greek Grammarto her.When she was 14 years old she made a Latin address to pope Pius II at the diet of Mantua, which became well known after it was circulated in manuscript. Alleged portrait of Hippolyta, Domenico Ghirlandaio. Giovanni Sabatino degli Arienti describes it as follows:

Marriage
On 10 October 1465 she married the Duke of Calabria Alfonso of Aragon, son of King Ferrante of Naples. The latter sent his second son Federico with six hundred horses to Milan to marry Hippolyta by proxy in the name of his brother and to accompany her to his new home. The bride had already left Milan with the wedding procession, when the marriage risked skipping due to the sudden death of the leader Jacopo Piccinino, son-in-law of Francesco Sforza. Ferrante of Aragon in fact had previously lured him to Naples

masks:
Ippolita Maria Sforza
Francesco I Sforza
Bianca Maria Visconti
Filippo Maria Visconti
Bianca Maria


title: Ippolita Maria Sforza

texts: with the false promise of conduct and then for revenge imprisoned, as the leader had fought against him during the first baronial revolt. Jacopo Piccinino died shortly after his arrest, according to Ferrante for having fallen from the window following a failed escape attempt, but according to most he was strangled in prison by order of the sovereign.Francesco Sforza was so enressy at his death that he blocked his daughter's wedding procession, threatening to cancel the wedding. The situation was finally resolved and Hippolyta, after staying for two months in Siena and then having passed through Rome, reached Naples on September 14, where with great magnificence she was received by Alfonso her husband and her father-in-law Ferrante, who set up many parties and shows to celebrate the wedding. In the early days relations with her husband, three years younger than her, had to be good, if in that same year the fifteen-year-old Eleonora of Aragon, in turn about to marry Ippolita's younger brother, Sforza <mask>rza, desired "even some of the carezone [which] she sees do no time from the Duke of Calabria to the duchess", and if Hippolyta herself writes to her mother that she and Alfonso slept together every night and that they often had fun between hunts and tickling in country residences. In these terms she describes her husband, for example, in one of the many letters: "My Ill.mo consort [...] et con caccia di falconi et nebbii et con giugare al ballone et con leggere et interpretarme uno suo libro spagnuolo de regimento de stato et molte altre cose morale, me ha tenuto et tene in great pleasure". If so, then the relations between the spouses had to deteriorate later over time, both for the continuous and brazen betrayals of Alfonso, who would have found a new and complacent lover in Trogia Gazzella, and for the bad character that distinguished him. In fact, already a few weeks after the wedding we have news of the first


title: Ippolita Maria Sforza

texts: high fidelity to her fearsome husband and for her unheard of modesty". King Ferrante, on the other hand, showed himself to be very satisfied with his daughter-in-law for her beauty, intelligence and custom, to such an extent that the Sforza ambassadors wrote that "the Majesty of the king has no other pleasure, nor any other paradise he does not seem to find, except when he sees her dancing and even singing". From the letters to the mother there is a certain discomfort for the perhaps excessive demonstrations of affection of the father-in-law, but it is to be considered that Hippolyta was in Naples for a short time and that the very spontaneous character of King Ferrante could easily be misunderstood.She also formed excellent friendships with her brother-in-law Federico, like her lover of letters and a man with a very sensitive soul, who very often went to visit her in Castel Capuano or in the villa called della Duchesca staying in his company. Throughout her life Hippolyta found herself playing the role of peacemaker between Milan and Naples and between Naples and Florence, as relations between the various powers were strained and Ferrante was partly responsible for the famous Pazzi conspiracy. In fact, in 1480 when Lorenzo de' Medici went, not without some fear, to Naples to try to mediate a peace with Ferrante, he did not leave Florence before being reassured by Ippolita that Ferrante would not imprison and kill him as he used to do with guests. Already in 1468 Ippolita had returned to the court of Milan to try to pacify her brother Galeazzo <mask>, who became duke after the death of his father, with their mother <mask> and also with his father-in-law Ferrante. However, the visit turned out to be very short, as Hippolyta, at the time in the midst of her beauty as a woman, was forced to return quickly to Naples to escape, it seems, the flattery of her brother, who showed very ambiguous feelings towards her. As a

masks:
Maria
Bianca Maria


title: Ippolita Maria Sforza

texts:
 mother she was very fond of her children, and this is demonstrated by the tender letter she wrote to her mother to announce the birth of the firstborn Ferrandino, in which she hopes that her little son, growing up, will show her the same affection that she still showed to her mother. In addition to the three children had by Alfonso, Ippolita also raised as her own two grandchildren, Beatrice and Ferrante d'Este, children of her sister-in-law Eleonora d'Aragona, who had left them still children at the court of Naples by the will of their father Ferrante.Death
He died suddenly on August 19, 1488 in Castel Capuano, shortly before the wedding of his daughter Isabella, according toArienti due to an "apostema in the head". His death was prophesied by Friar Francis of Aragon, who was in the city of Florence: from there the friar wrote to the duchess, who recommended him to pray for the soul of his mother, to have had a vision in which the deceased <mask> Visconti told him that he had begged God to let his daughter enter heaven with him, adding that by now the bread was baked and that the Almighty was eager to taste it at his own convito. Two or three days after receiving the letter, Hippolyta was seriously ill and sixteen days later died, despite all the processions and relics - such as the blood of St. Januarius, the crucifix to which St. Thomas Aquinas spoke and the head of St. Luke the Evangelist - brought to his bedside. Her family members were always close to her, including the king and queen, and so also the eldest son Ferrandino who, initially very far from home, as soon as he received news of his mother's illness immediately returned to comfort her, being loved by the latter maximally. The second son Peter was instead sick in bed and on the verge of death, and for this reason the departure of his mother was kept secret from him, so as not to cause him a displeasure that could have killed him. Great funerals were


title: Ippolita Maria Sforza

texts:
 made and the deceased, dressed in white brocade, with a golden circle on her head and jewels and rings on her fingers, was buried in the church of theAnnunziata in Naples. She composed many letters.These have been published in Italy in a single volume entitled, The Letters of Ippolita <mask>rza, and edited by Serena Castaldo. Previously, in 1893, in Bologna, F. Gabotto published a collection of <mask>'s letters which she had written in Naples from 1475 to 1482. Apart from epistolary activity, her notable writings include poetry and a Latin eulogy for her father Francesco. Religious fervor
Hippolyta died in the smell of holiness because of the deeply religious conduct she had kept alive: every day she listened to three masses, sometimes even four or five, in any case no less than two. So she recited the rosary daily and read a prayer book as big as a psalter and one as big as a vesperal, kneeling before the image of the Virgin. She also recited seven penitential psalms and prayers in suffrage for her deceased parents and relatives, maintaining this habit for more than twenty years. All the vigils of the Immaculate recited a thousand hail marys to honor the Virgin, to whom she always turned her thoughts, and very often she wept thinking of her sufferings.Every Saturday she recited the rosary three times with great devotion, having been the one who brought this litany from Lombardy to Naples, and all the vigils of the Immaculate recited it six times. On Friday morning she used to enter the chapel before Mass and, left alone, she closed the door, then prayed prostrate on the floor with her arms on the cross to remember the passion of Christ, saying a hundred paternostri and a hundred hail marys. Then she opened the doors and let in the chaplains who were to celebrate Mass. Every day she also wanted to hear the prayers of vespers. Her soul was not satisfied by so many prayers, so that she also made other people pray:

masks:
Maria Sfo
Ippolita


title: Ippolita Maria Sforza

texts: them, so that he was raised believing himself dead spindle". The young prince then remained in a coma for thirteen days, until his mother <mask>, weeping and devoutly invoking the help of the Virgin with endless prayers, obtained that "lost them, or lost lost spirits restored in the former body of the son". In similar ways she had also obtained the healings of her other two children, Isabella and Pietro, also reduced to serious condition, as well as her husband Alfonso and father-in-law Ferrante.As for almsgiving, every day she gave more than thirty poor people meat, bread and wine, and increased them to another nineteen on the eve of the Immaculate Conception and on all the feasts of his Protector. Once a month she visited all the prisoners to console them and used to send the court doctors to the poor sick out of pity. She made numerous donations to monasteries and provided dowry to poor girls who were ashamed to beg. All these benefits she wanted to be done as secretly as possible, so that the praise in this life would not take away that of the other, nevertheless they were made known at her death by the people who were close to her. She never wanted to be thanked for what she did, nor could she bear to be praised. She had a particular devotion to the observant orders, which is why she wore the rope of Friar Minor around her shirt. She fasted during the four canonical times and their vigils, and with great sacrifice also for the whole of Lent, as well as punctually every Saturday.Every evening he aned the foreheads of her children with holy oil, drawing the sign of the cross, and blessed them with love before sending them to bed, then repeated the same operation in the morning. Even in the course of the illness that led her to the tomb, Ippolita did not disturb or upset, but remained persevering in her virtue. On her last day of life, feeling that she was about to die, she asked to be able to listen to a mass of


title: Ippolita Maria Sforza

texts:
 the angels, to go with them accompanied. Her relatives were estranged by this request, since the duchess did not usually ask for such a mass, and asked her if she did not rather want a mass of the Nunciata, but Hippolyta remained firm in her initial purpose. All this happened on a Tuesday, which is the day proper to the angels and which also in that year occurred with the feast of the Nunziata, to which the duchess was deeply devoted. Lineage
The marriage with Alfonso produced three children:

 Ferdinand II of Naples known as "Ferrandino" (26 June 1467 - 7 October 1496), King of Naples from 1495 to 1496;
 Isabella (2 October 1470 – 11 February 1524), Duchess of Milan by marriage to Gian Galeazzo Sforza and later Duchess of Bari. She was the mother of Bona Sforza of Aragon, wife of Sigismund I of Poland;
 Pietro (31 March 1472 - 17 February 1491), Prince of Rossano.In mass culture

Literature
The Trattato della laudanda vita e della profetata morte di Ippolita Sforza d'Aragona by Bernardino da Rende is dedicated to her. Television

 In the Netflix series Medici Ippolita is played by the French actress Gaia Weiss. In the historical fantasy drama series Da Vinci's Demons Ipolita is played by Jeany Spark. In both television series, however, the character of Hippolyta appears totally distorted, as she never nurtured towards Lorenzo de 'Medici, with whom she entertained an exchange of letters, other than a sincere friendship, which was never love, nor therefore Hippolyta, as a woman famous for her singular modesty, would never have granted herself to him thus betraying her husband, nor King Ferrante, in love with his daughter-in-law, would have ever exploited her by pushing her to prostitute herself at the Medici. References

Sources

15th-century Italian nobility
1446 births
1488 deaths
People from Cremona
15th-century Italian women writers
Ippolita <mask>ta Maria
15th-century Italian writers
15th-century Italian