title: Joseph Williams (musician)

texts:
 where he was not in full charge of the production, only recording and supplying the vocals. The second Vertigo album, Vertigo 2, was released in 2006. <mask> released an album of cover songs from renowned artists such as Elton John, Bryan Adams, Diane Warren, and Kevin Cronin in 2006, called Two of Us, featuring piano and voice only.He returned with two more voice & piano albums in 2007, Smiles and Tears, also consisting of classic hits by popular artists. His latest solo album containing original songs, This Fall, was released in November 2008. Work as a film composer
<mask> has also been busy as a composer of film and drama scores, most notably for episodes of the science fiction series Roswell, and The Lyon's Den starring Rob Lowe. In 2003, he was nominated for an Emmy Award for "Outstanding Main Title Theme Music" for the TV series Miracles. The music to the CBS miniseries Category 7: The End of the World and the TV film Momentum were composed by him. He was the writer of the original English lyrics for the songs "Lapti Nek" and "Ewok Celebration" from the original 1983 release of Return of the Jedi, which was scored and conducted by his father, <mask>. Both songs were replaced with other compositions in the 1997 Special Edition and later releases, to a generally negative response.Session work
<mask> has been in demand as a session vocalist and can be heard on numerous projects by other artists, as well as on movie soundtracks. In 1985 he sang the vocals for the theme song of the animated TV

masks:
Williams
Joseph Williams
John Williams
Williams


title: Drew Dober

type: original

texts:
<mask> (born October 19, 1988) is an American mixed martial artist currently competing in the lightweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. A professional competitor since 2009, he has also formerly competed for Bellator MMA, and Titan Fighting Championship. Background
Born and raised in Omaha, Nebraska, <mask> grew up with a single mother and a half-sibling, and didn't meet his father until 18. <mask> began training in Muay Thai at the age of 14 and was highly successful, going on to become a two-time Amateur National Champion. He also wrestled his junior and senior years at Millard North High School. <mask> is also a purple belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu, having achieved that rank under Ed Shobe of Mid-America Martial Arts before he moved to train in Colorado. Mixed martial arts career

Early career
<mask> compiled an amateur record of 9–0 before turning professional in 2009.Bellator
<mask> faced Nick Nolte at Bellator 16 on April 29, 2010. He won the fight via arm-triangle choke submission in the first round. Independent promotions
In the next three years, <mask> would compile a 12–2 record in various promotions including Victory Fighting Championship and Titan Fighting Championship. He then appeared on The Ultimate Fighter. The Ultimate Fighter
In February 2012, it was revealed that <mask> would be a participant on The Ultimate Fighter 15. He was defeated in the entry round by Daron Cruickshank via unanimous decision. Ultimate Fighting Championship
<mask> stepped in for an injured Sérgio Moraes to face Sean Spencer at The Ultimate Fighter 18 Finale on November 30, 2013.He lost the

masks:
Andrew Martin Dober
Dober
Dober
Dober
Dober
Dober
Dober
Dober
Dober


title: Drew Dober

texts: fight via unanimous decision. <mask> next faced Nick Hein at UFC Fight Night: Muñoz vs. Mousasi on May 31, 2014. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. <mask> faced former WEC Lightweight Champion Jamie Varner at UFC on Fox: dos Santos vs. Miocic. He secured his biggest win to date, defeating Varner via rear-naked choke submission in the first round. <mask> faced Leandro Silva on March 21, 2015 at UFC Fight Night 62. <mask> lost the fight via technical submission in the second round.Silva was attempting to secure a guillotine choke after dropping to the mat with <mask>'s neck secured in his arm. <mask> defended and moved his body to the side to stave off being caught in the choke. Silva appeared to be losing his grip on the submission as <mask> continued to work free. However, the referee stepped in and touched the fighters as if to motion that he was standing them up. In reality, he was stopping the fight due to submission despite the fact that <mask> never tapped and was in no significant danger of being choked out from the hold. Despite the loss, UFC awarded <mask> his win money with president Dana White stating that he would have liked to see the result overturned and the match declared a no contest. The fight was later overturned to a "No Contest" by the Brazilian MMA Athletic Commission (CABMMA) after the referee Eduardo Herdy admitted his mistake.<mask> then faced Efrain Escudero at UFC 188 on June 13, 2015. He lost the fight by guillotine choke submission in the first round. <mask> was expected to face Erik Koch on January 2, 2016 at UFC 195. However, Koch pulled out of the bout in

masks: Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober


title: Drew Dober

texts: early December citing injury and was replaced by Scott Holtzman. He won the fight by unanimous decision. <mask> was expected to face Islam Makhachev on April 16, 2016 at UFC on Fox 19. After the weigh ins, the UFC announced that Makhachev had failed an out-of-competition drug screening, testing positive for the banned anti-ischemic meldonium.The match was cancelled. A rescheduled bout with Erik Koch was expected to take place on September 10, 2016 at UFC 203. However on August 11, Koch pulled out again due to injury and was replaced by promotional newcomer Jason Gonzalez. He won the fight via TKO in the first round. <mask> next faced Olivier Aubin-Mercier on December 10, 2016 at UFC 206. He lost the fight via submission in the second round. <mask> then faced Josh Burkman on July 29, 2017 at UFC 214.He won by first round knockout. <mask> faced Frank Camacho in a welterweight bout on January 27, 2018 at UFC on Fox: Jacaré vs. Brunson 2. He won the fight via unanimous decision. This fight earned him the Fight of the Night bonus. <mask> faced Jon Tuck in a lightweight bout on August 25, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 135. He won the fight by unanimous decision. <mask> faced Beneil Dariush on March 9, 2019 at UFC Fight Night 146.He lost the fight via submission in the second round. <mask> faced Polo Reyes on June 29, 2019 at UFC on ESPN 3. He won the fight via knockout in the first round. <mask> faced Nasrat Haqparast on January 18, 2020 at UFC 246. He won the fight via knockout in the first round. This win earned him a Performance of the Night award. <mask> was expected to face Carlos Diego Ferreira on

masks: Dober Dober Dober Drew Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober


title: Drew Dober

texts:
 May 2, 2020 at UFC Fight Night: Hermansson vs. Weidman.However, on April 9, Dana White, the president of UFC announced that this event was postponed to a future date. <mask> instead faced Alexander Hernandez on May 13, 2020 at UFC Fight Night: Smith vs. Teixeira. He won the fight via technical knockout in round two. The bout with Ferreira was rescheduled for November 7, 2020 at UFC on ESPN: Santos vs. Teixeira. However, Ferreira pulled out on October 22 due to an illness and the bout was scrapped. <mask> faced Islam Makhachev March 6, 2021 at UFC 259. He lost the fight via submission in round three.<mask> faced Brad Riddell on June 12, 2021 at UFC 263. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. This fight earned him the Fight of the Night award. <mask> is next expected to face Ricky Glenn at UFC Fight Night 204 on March 12, 2022. <mask> is scheduled to face Ricky Glenn on March 12, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 203. Personal life
<mask> was previously married to his former opponent Nick Hein's sister Gloria. <mask> is currently engaged to Hollis Casey.Team Tate Finale
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|14–4
|Tony Sims
|Decision (split)
|Fight To Win: Prize Fighting Championship 4
|
|align=center|3
|align=center|5:00
|Denver, Colorado, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|13–4
|T.J. O'Brien
|Submission (rear-naked choke)
|Victory Fighting Championship 40
|
|align=center|2
|align=center|3:57
|Ralston, Nebraska, United States
|
|-
|Win
|align=center|12–4
|Aaron Derrow
|Decision (unanimous)
|Centurion

masks: Dober Dober Dober Dober Dober Drew Dober


title: Bill Hewitt (American football)

texts:
<mask> (October 8, 1909 – January 14, 1947) was an American professional football player who was a defensive end and end in the National Football League (NFL). He played five seasons for the Chicago Bears (1932–1936), three for the Philadelphia Eagles (1937–1939), and one for the Phil-Pitt Steagles (1943). He is remembered for his refusal to wear a helmet as one of the last NFL players not to wear one. <mask> played college football for the Michigan Wolverines, where he was named team's most valuable player and first-team All-Big Ten his senior season. In nine NFL seasons, he was named an All-Pro six times, won two NFL championships, and in 1934 led the league in touchdown receptions. His jersey number 56 is retired by the Bears and he is a member of the Philadelphia Eagles Hall of Fame. <mask> was posthumously inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1971.Early life and college
<mask> was born in Bay City, Michigan and attended Bay City Central High School. He attended the University of Michigan, where he lettered for three seasons for the Michigan Wolverines football team. He started in two games each in 1929 and 1930, and in 1931 was a first-team All-Big Ten selection from the United Press, as well as the Wolverines' team MVP. That season, he started four games at left end and five games at fullback, and had 446 yards rushing on 118 attempts. Against Minnesota, he scored the only touchdown of the game on a 57-yard run to help Michigan secure that year's Little Brown Jug trophy with a 6–0 win. Professional career
His head coach in Chicago, George Halas, called

masks:
William Ernest Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt


title: Bill Hewitt (American football)

texts:
 <mask> "absolutely fearless. He was a happy-go-lucky guy—until he stepped onto the field—and then he was a terror on offense or defense.He asked no quarter nor gave any." For most of his career, <mask> refused to wear a helmet during games, reasoning that wearing one inhibited his play. He played without one until 1939, his final season with the Eagles, due to new league rules requiring players to wear a helmet. On defense, <mask> was known for his quick reaction to the snap, which led fans to refer to him as "The Offside Kid." "I just anticipate when the ball is going to be snapped and charge at the same time", explained <mask>. "Anyway, what is the head linesman for? It's up to him to call offside if he thinks I am."Chicago Bears
<mask> played for the Chicago Bears for five seasons, from 1932 to 1936. As a rookie, he played in the 1932 NFL Playoff Game for the Bears against the Portsmouth Spartans, which was held to break a tie that season for the NFL championship. The Bears defeated the Spartans 9–0. The next season the Bears played in the first ever NFL Championship Game, against the New York Giants. <mask> had only one reception for three yards in the game, but was a part of what was described as "the greatest play of the game." In the fourth quarter, with the Bears trailing by five, <mask> received a pass from Bears quarterback Keith Molesworth, before lateraling to end <mask>, who then ran 19 yards for the final touchdown of the game. The Bears won the game 23–21.<mask> led the league in receiving touchdowns in 1934, with five, and was named a first-team

masks:
Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt
Bill Karr
Hewitt


title: Bill Hewitt (American football)

texts:
 All-NFL selection for the third time in as many years. In 1935 <mask> caught five passes and was without a touchdown for the first time in his career. He had his most productive season as a pro in both receiving yards and touchdowns in 1936, as he caught 15 passes for 358 yards and six touchdowns. Philadelphia Eagles
After considering retirement, <mask> was traded to the Philadelphia Eagles with $4,000 in cash from the Bears in exchange for the rights to the first overall selection in the 1937 NFL Draft, Sam Francis, on February 15, 1937. <mask>'s game salary increased from $100 per game to $200 per game following the trade. He played for the Eagles for three seasons from 1937 to 1939. He was named to the All-NFL team in 1937, becoming the first player in league history to be named an All-Pro for two different teams.He had his second All-NFL selection as an Eagle in 1938 after catching a career-high 18 passes on the season. In November 1939, Eagles president Bert Bell announced <mask> would be retiring at the end of the season after eight years in the NFL. In his final home game with the Eagles, against the Pittsburgh Pirates, he was the middle man of a 66-yard play as he received a 26-yard pass from Davey O'Brien and lateraled to Jay Arnold, who ran 40 yards for the touchdown. They won 17–14—their first and only win that season. Steagles and retirement
After being out of football for three seasons, <mask> returned in 1943 to play fullback for the Steagles, a temporary merger of the Eagles and Pittsburgh Steelers during World War II. He appeared in six games that

masks: Hewitt Hewitt Hewitt Hewitt Hewitt


title: Bill Hewitt (American football)

texts:
 season, started in four of them, and caught two passes for 22 yards, after which he retired for good. During his career he caught 103 passes for 1,638 yards and 23 touchdowns.He also had one rushing touchdown and three passing touchdowns. He was named an All-Pro by at least one major U.S. publication six times in his career. After football
After retiring from professional football in 1943, <mask> worked for Supplee-Wills-Jones, a milk company, until September 1946. He died in a car crash on January 14, 1947 in Sellersville, Pennsylvania. <mask> was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1971. With his induction, the Bears became the first NFL team to have a complete one-platoon lineup in the Hall of Fame. In 2008 <mask> was named to the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor.He is a member of the National Football League 1930s All-Decade Team, selected in 1969 by the Hall of Fame. <mask>'s jersey number 56 is retired by the Bears, and he is enshrined in the Philadelphia Eagles Hall of Fame. References

Sources
 Lyons, Robert S. (2010). On Any Given Sunday, A Life of Bert Bell. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. External links
 <mask> at the Pro Football Hall of Fame

1909 births
1947 deaths
American football ends
American football fullbacks
Chicago Bears players
Michigan Wolverines football players
Philadelphia Eagles players
Steagles players and personnel
Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Bay City, Michigan
Players of American football from Michigan
Road incident deaths in Pennsylvania
National Football League players with

masks:
Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt
Hewitt
Bill Hewitt


title: Enric Mas

texts:
<mask> () (born 7 January 1995) is a Spanish racing cyclist who currently rides for UCI WorldTeam . He is a talented climber, and has finished in top 10 in prestigious world tour stage races, and has also won a stage at the Tour of the Basque Country. He is regarded as the next Alberto Contador, by the man himself, however Mas stated he would rather be the first <mask>s. Having previously ridden for the Specialized–Fundación Alberto Contador team, Contador knows the strength of <mask>s, believing he has a bright future. Career
Mas was born in Artà, a small town of about 7,500 people, which is the administrative seat of Llevant, on the island of Majorca, one of the Balearic Islands of Spain. In the past twenty years this small town has produced four professional athletes, three footballers and the pro cyclist <mask>s. Quick-Step Floors (2017–2019)

2017
On 19 July 2016, UCI World Tour team  announced the signing of Mas for 2017 season.The 2017 season became the first season for Mas in the World Tour. His best result came at the Vuelta a Burgos, where he finished 2nd on the final stage and therefore finished 2nd overall. He was named in the startlist for the 2017 Vuelta a España. He won the Combativity Award on stages 6 and 20 at the Vuelta a España; on the penultimate stage to Angliru, <mask> was in the breakaway and helped Alberto Contador win the stage. 2018

The 2018 season was <mask> <mask>' 2nd on the World Tour, and his first top 10 result came at the Tour of the Basque Country. He won the final stage to Arrate, which was his first professional victory. He moved up to 6th place in the general classification after the last stage, which meant he got his first ever top 10 world tour stage race finish; he also won the young rider classification.He continued his

masks:
Enric Mas Nicolau
Enric Ma
Enric Ma
Enric Ma
Mas
Enric
Mas


title: Brendan McFarlane

texts:
<mask> (born 1951) is an Irish republican activist. Born into a Roman Catholic family, he was brought up in the Ardoyne area of north Belfast, Northern Ireland. At 16, he left Belfast to train as a priest in a north Wales seminary. He joined the Provisional IRA in 1969. Early years
<mask> was brought up in a strongly religious Catholic family in the republican Ardoyne area of North Belfast. He served as an altar boy at the local church, and at the age of 17 joined a missionary school in Wales, where he began training to become a priest. <mask> joined the Provisional IRA when he was 18 years old, following the outbreak of The Troubles, after he had witnessed the violent disturbances first-hand in 1969.Bayardo Bar attack

In 1976, <mask> was sentenced to life imprisonment in connection with the Bayardo Bar attack on Aberdeen Street in the Protestant Shankill Road district of Belfast, which killed five people (three men and two women) and injured 60 more on 13 August 1975. In a 1995 House of Lords debate, Gerry Fitt, formerly the SDLP MP for West Belfast, alleged that <mask> had machine-gunned three pedestrians who were passing by the Bayardo as it was blown up. The bar was attacked because it was allegedly frequented by member of the loyalist Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). The IRA initially denied it had carried out the attack. The attack occurred against a background of severe sectarian violence. The IRA killed 88 Protestant civilians in similar attacks in 1974–76, in reprisal for loyalist attacks on Catholics, which killed 250 civilians in the same period. According to journalist Peter Taylor, the attack

masks:
Brendan McFarlane
McFarlane
McFarlane
McFarlane
McFarlane


title: Brendan McFarlane

texts:
 was carried out by the IRA in retaliation for the UVF's ambush of the Dublin-based Miami Showband on 31 July 1975 which had resulted in the shooting deaths of three bandmembers.One of the five people killed in the Bayardo attack was UVF man, Hugh Harris. Maze Prison – hunger strikes and escape
<mask> attempted to escape from the Maze Prison dressed as a priest in 1978. When the bid failed, <mask>'s Special Category Status was withdrawn, and he joined the dirty protest in the H-Blocks. His nickname "Bik" was acquired after the name of a famous Biscuit company MacFarlane Lang, now known as United Biscuits. Fellow prisoner and author of Blanketmen: An Untold Story of the H-Block Hunger Strike, Richard O'Rawe, described <mask> as "six feet tall and full of bonhomie", a "great singer" possessing a "striking character". O'Rawe also said that <mask> was an avid supporter of Gaelic football. He was Provisional IRA Officer Commanding in the Maze during the 1981 Irish hunger strike in which 10 republicans died.He took over from Bobby Sands in March 1981. Asked why, Sands is said to have replied: "Because you will let me die." He later described 1981 as, "probably the worst year of my life. Despite the political gains, the loss of that year is always with me." <mask> went on to lead the Maze Prison escape, the mass break-out of 38 republican prisoners from the Maze in 1983 in which a prison officer died of a heart attack. Fifteen IRA men were caught in the vicinity of the prison, four were captured later that day, 19 got away, with three never being recaptured. Immediately following the escape, <mask> and other

masks: McFarlane McFarlane McFarlane McFarlane McFarlane McFarlane


title: Brendan McFarlane

texts:
 prisoners commandeered a remote farmhouse near Dromore, County Down, and held the family inside hostage.Although he took a map and compass, and other items from the premises, none of the family members, which included two small children and a baby, were harmed. He and the other former escapees made their way across the Irish border and went on the run. After the break-out, <mask> resumed his IRA activities. In December 1983, he is alleged to have kidnapped supermarket executive Don Tidey in a bid to ransom him to raise money for the IRA. The kidnap was one of spate of kidnappings and robberies ordered by the IRA Army Council in the early 1980s to raise funds. Tidey was taking his 13-year-old daughter to school when he stopped at what he believed to be a Garda Síochána checkpoint. A gun was put to his head and he was bundled into a waiting car.A few days later his photograph was sent to Associated British Foods, and this was followed by a phone call demanding an IR£5 million ransom. The Gardaí eventually tracked Tidey and his kidnappers – four in all – to Derrada Wood in Ballinamore, County Leitrim on 16 December 1983. In the subsequent shoot-out, following which Tidey made his escape, a trainee Garda and an Irish Army soldier (Gary Sheehan and Patrick Kelly) were killed. Tidey's kidnappers escaped. On 16 January 1986, <mask> was recaptured in the Netherlands along with fellow escapee Gerry Kelly, and subsequently extradited to Northern Ireland, and released on parole from the Maze in 1997. By 1993 he had become the longest serving prisoner in the Maze. Kidnapping charges

In 1998, <mask> was first charged

masks: McFarlane McFarlane McFarlane


title: Brendan McFarlane

texts:
 in the Republic of Ireland with Tidey's kidnapping, but he challenged this on the basis that Gardaí had lost a number of exhibits containing fingerprints – the central evidence in the case.The Irish Supreme Court ruled in March 2006 that the trial could proceed. The Gardaí based the Tidey charges on items recovered from the kidnap site, including a milk carton and a plastic container, on which fingerprints were discovered. Although the items went missing from Garda headquarters during renovation work, the fingerprints had been photographed and a forensic analysis done. <mask> was due to stand trial on 3 October 2006. However his legal team launched a second judicial review in May 2006, on the grounds that <mask> could not get a fair trial due to "systematic delays in bringing the prosecution". This held up his trial until the Irish High Court ruled on the issue on 8 December 2006. However, <mask>'s representatives appealed this decision in turn.Their appeal was finally dismissed on 6 March 2008, and the trial opened in Dublin on 11 June 2008 only to collapse on 26 June when the Garda evidence was ruled inadmissible. In September 2010, <mask> was awarded compensation following a European Court of Human Rights ruling. The court found the proceedings relating to the kidnapping of supermarket executive Don Tidey had been "unreasonably long". The Irish government was ordered to pay 5,400 euro in damages within three months and 10,000 euro in legal costs. Other activity
In August 2004, Gerry Adams suggested that the IRA might disband to prevent its existence being used as an excuse to delay a power-sharing

masks: McFarlane McFarlane McFarlane McFarlane


title: Brendan McFarlane

texts:
 agreement which would include republicans. An IRA delegation including <mask> then met with the Provisional IRA South Armagh Brigade to discuss Adams' remarks in an attempt to avoid a rift between the groups. He is now a member of Coiste na n-Iarchimí ("the Ex-Prisoners' Committee"), a welfare organisation for republican ex-prisoners.Sinn Féin describes him as a voluntary worker, and he has been a vocal supporter of the party's political stance, appearing beside both Gerry Adams and Gerry Kelly at rallies and reiterating former prisoners' support for the direction the party is taking. <mask> has formed a band, Tuan, which is a regular on the Irish republican entertainment circuit. He also performs quite regularly in the Hatfield House, a popular bar in the Holylands district of Belfast. <mask> has also shown solidarity with the radical Basque nationalist movement and has been interviewed in the Basque and Spanish press on the subject of the Basque peace process and the proposed release of ETA prisoners. He has described the ETA prisoners as having been engaged in a, 'legitimate struggle' similar to that of Irish republicans. Personal life
He is married with children and lives in North Belfast. Cultural References
In the 2017 film Maze dramatising the 1983 prison break, directed by Stephen Burke, <mask> was portrayed by actor Tim Creed.References

1951 births
Escapees from British detention
Irish republicans imprisoned under Prevention of Terrorism Acts
Living people
Paramilitaries from Belfast
Place of birth missing (living people)
Prisoners accorded Special Category Status
Provisional Irish Republican


title: Alessandro Rosina

texts:
<mask> (; born 31 January 1984) is an Italian former footballer who played as an attacking midfielder or winger. Club career

Early career
Born in Belvedere Marittimo, <mask> resided until the age of 9 in the nearby town of Bonifati (the town of origin of his maternal family), he starting his career at local Cittadella del Capo football youth team at the age of 5, where he caught the eye of Juventus, Roma and Milan scouts. His father, however, decided to let him join Parma. He was subsequently brought up in the club's youth system. <mask> spent the 2001–02 season playing for the Parma Primavera team. He was promoted to the first team the next season, making his professional debut on 16 February 2003 against Juventus as a substitute for Hidetoshi Nakata. In two and a half years at the club, he made 25 league appearances.<mask> was a member of the B squad in the 2003–04 UEFA Cup. Following a tactical change to the team's formation, <mask> found first-team opportunities hard to come by. In January 2005 he was loaned to Hellas Verona, where he had a hugely successful spell. After the end of the loan he was bought by Torino, then in Serie B.

Torino

<mask> was regarded as a revelation since his arrival at the Turin club. He became the driving force behind Torino's 2005–06 promotion campaign, making 42 appearances, scoring twelve times, as the club clinched a spot in the Italian top flight the following season. In two subsequent Serie A seasons, he dragged the team to survival from relegation, averaging a goal every three games as well as providing several assists. As a result, he earned the captain's armband in January 2008 and became a popular figure amongst Torino fans.He was nicknamed <mask>, a portmanteau of his last name and

masks:
Alessandro Rosina
Rosina
Rosina
Rosina
Rosina
Rosina
Rosinaldo


title: Alessandro Rosina

texts:
 Ronaldo's name, due to his Brazilian-style flair. He stayed loyal to Torino despite awakening the interest of Italian powerhouses, signing a contract extension until 2011 in 2007. The 2008–2009 season was a major setback for Torino, as Rosina was unable to prevent the club from suffering relegation. Zenit

On 31 July 2009, <mask> was sold to Russian Premier League club Zenit St. Petersburg for a fee in the region of €7 million, signing a 4-year contract with Sine-Belo-Golubyye. Dick Advocaat, then-manager of Zenit who planned to quit the club at the end of the year to become Belgium coach, declared himself unhappy with the acquisition of Rosina and Sergei Kornilenko, labelling them newly appointed sporting director Igor Korneev's creatures, as the Dutch gaffer wished to sign two top-class forwards, namely Goran Pandev and Paolo Guerrero, instead. Nevertheless, <mask> made his debut on 5 August 2009 against FC Nizhny Novgorod in Russian Cup, also scoring his first Zenit goal, and played full 90 minutes in subsequent league game against Tom. As Zenit lost to Tom at home, Advocaat was replaced at the helm by former Zenit player Anatoli Davydov, who soon afterwards brought in another offensive midfielder, controversial Vladimir Bystrov.Despite finding little playing time through tough competition, <mask> had impressed on occasions, achieving a total of two goals and two assists in nine RFPL games out of remaining fourteen. 2010 preseason saw another head coach change, as fellow Italian Luciano Spalletti took reign. However, with Danny having recovered from cruciate ligaments injury, <mask> again found himself on the bench at the start of the season. Being used mainly as a substitute, he managed to contribute with a vital assist

masks: Rosina Rosina Rosina Rosina


title: Alessandro Rosina

texts:
 against archrivals Spartak Moscow, finding Nicolas Lombaerts' head with a perfect cross in a game that finished 1–1. As Spalletti settled to a counterattacking 4–3–3 or 4–2–3–1 formation with two wingers, and established internationals Danny, Konstantin Zyryanov and Danko Lazović all being options on the left, left-footed <mask> was mainly used in the rotation on the right as a backup for Bystrov. He scored after coming on as a substitute in 6–1 trashing of Saturn in September, rounding the keeper and scoring in the empty net. On 29 January 2011, before the start of Russian Premier League 2011–12 season, <mask> was loaned to Serie A side Cesena until July 2011.Cesena
Rosina made his debut for Cesena on 2 February 2011 against Catania, coming on as a substitute in the 81st minute for Emanuele Giaccherini. He scored his first goal for Cesena on 20 February 2011 against Parma, firing home the opener in the 31st minute. <mask> struggled with his fitness during his time on loan and amassed only 9 league appearances for Serie A newcomers. Return to Zenit
After his loan deal with Cesena came to an end, <mask> returned to Zenit and was subsequently registered for Russian Premier League football. On 14 August he was included in the starting line-up against Amkar and put off a dynamic performance, but due to below-par passing and general lack of end product he was substituted even before the break. Despite this, Zenit head coach Luciano Spalletti praised <mask> for his footballing attitude and determination to fight for a place in the team, promising him a squad role for the remainder of the season. Rosina had to fight off competition from Lazović, Aleksei Ionov, Szabolcs Huszti as well as recovering Bystrov.In April, he won his

masks: Rosina Rosina Rosina Rosina Rosina


title: Alessandro Rosina

texts:
 second Russian Premier League title. Return to Italy
On 31 August 2012, <mask> was sold to Siena. He spent two seasons with the club, until its bankruptcy in July 2014. On 23 July 2014, he signed with Serie B club Catania. International career
<mask> was a member of the Italy U-21 team from 2004 to 2007. On 17 October 2007, <mask> made his Italian national team debut against South Africa in an international friendly match. Honours

Club
Zenit St. Petersburg
Russian Premier League: 2010, 2012
Russian Cup: 2010

International
Italy U-21
UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship: 2004

Individual
UEFA European Under-21 Championship Team of the Tournament: 2007

References

1984 births
Italian footballers
Italian expatriate footballers
Living people
People from the Province of Cosenza
Sportspeople from Calabria
Parma Calcio 1913 players
Hellas Verona F.C.players
Torino F.C. players
A.C. Cesena players
A.C.N. Siena 1904 players
Calcio Catania players
FC Zenit Saint Petersburg players
S.S.C. Bari players
U.S. Salernitana 1919 players
Serie A players
Serie B players
Russian Premier League players
Expatriate footballers in Russia
Italy under-21 international footballers
Italy international footballers
Italian expatriate sportspeople in Russia
Association football midfielders
Association football

masks: Rosina Rosina Rosina


title: Ethan Anthony

texts:
<mask> is an American architect, author, and academic. As president of Cram and Ferguson Architects LLC, <mask> focuses on the design of the new Traditional American church architecture. During the last three decades, <mask> has designed numerous new traditional churches and interiors and has gained a national reputation for his work in liturgical architecture. His liturgical work can now be found in fifteen states. Early life and education
<mask> was born October 14, 1950 in Iowa City, Iowa. He spent his youth in Stow, Massachusetts where he attended Stow public schools. He graduated from Xavier High School (Jesuit Brothers) in Concord, Massachusetts in 1968 and attended the Boston Architectural College, School of Architecture from 1970 to 1977.While there he studied under Peter Blake, Arcangelo Cascieri, and Carl Koch before transferring to the University of Oregon at Eugene. There, <mask> completed his Bachelor of Architecture degree in 1980, studying painting under Frank Okada and Brian Kaslov and architecture in the studio of Professor Gary Moye. Career
Following graduation, <mask> returned to Boston where he was employed for three years in the firm of Thomas Payette. While at Payette Associates, Mr. <mask> served as project architect under John L. Wilson, Vice President of Design. Projects included medical office buildings and hospital planning and design projects around the United States and a project for a hotel in Egypt. A graduate of the School of Art and Architecture at the University of Oregon, <mask> served as a Project Architect under John L. Wilson. On leaving Payette Associates in 1983 <mask> founded Anthony Associates with an office on Congress Street where he practiced until 1990.During those seven years he designed a major renovation of and significant additions to the

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Ethan Anthony
Anthony
Anthony
Ethan Anthony
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title: Ethan Anthony

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 Springfield, Vermont Hospital and numerous residential and educational projects in New England. He then merged his firm with Cram and Ferguson in 1990 as a partner. From 1991 to 1996  <mask> and his partner David Hulihan completed many projects for MCI Telecommunications Corporation throughout the Eastern half of the United States. Other clients included New England Telephone, Allmerica Insurance and National Life Insurance Company among others. In 1997 David Hulihan retired and the firm name was changed to HDB/Cram and Ferguson to reflect a return to the origins and traditions of the practice. Beginning in 1997, <mask> has led the practice as President and Principal of Cram & Ferguson Architects, LLC, Under his leadership the firm has continued its 125 year focus on planning and design of new traditionally-inspired religious and academic buildings and campus planning in addition to Preservation of significant historic buildings. <mask> is the President of the American Institute of Architects, Central Massachusetts Chapter and the INTBAU College of Traditional Practitioners based in London, has won numerous awards for design excellence, and in addition to authoring articles in Traditional Building and Faith and Form magazines, published "The Architecture of Ralph Adams Cram and his Firm" (WW Norton, New York, 2007).Religious architecture

<mask> brought his early Jesuit introduction to religion to Cram and Ferguson soon augmented by research journeys to great European monuments. His background in medieval history and readings in symbolism and architecture have informed his notable works include the 2019 Church for the St. Thomas Aquinas University Parish at the University of Virginia, 2017 Shrine of Our Lady of Good Voyage, Boston, and 2016 Church for the St. Kateri Tekakwitha Parish, Ridgway,

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title: Ethan Anthony

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 Illinois among many others. In depth research in the predecessor's firm work led to his recent book "The Architecture of Ralph Adams Cram and His Office", published in 2007. <mask> has designed numerous new traditional churches and interiors and has gained a national reputation for his work in liturgical architecture. His liturgical work can now be found in fifteen states. Since 1990, Mr. <mask> has concentrated on planning, design and restoration of historically significant buildings, design of new churches and additions to historic buildings. From 1991 to 1996 <mask> and his partner David Hulihan completed many projects for MCI Telecommunications Corporation throughout the Eastern United States.Other projects were completed for New England Telephone, Allmerica Insurance, National Life Insurance Company among others. In 1997 David Hulihan left the practice and <mask> continued the firm changing the name to HDB/ Cram and Ferguson to reflect the origins and traditions that he was reasserting in the practice. Church and academic work began to be more important in the workload and by 2000 90% of the workload was church or academic related. As part of this work <mask> has traveled extensively over the last twenty years in England, France, Germany, Italy and Spain collecting photographs and detail information from source Gothic and Romanesque churches and monasteries as inspiration for work he is designing, as well as resulting in his blog Ruins and Rosemary. Also since 1990 <mask> has also worked to organize the firm archives composed of some 10,000 photographs and 100,000 drawings. He published The Architecture of Ralph Adams Cram and His Office, (WW Norton, 2007)

Recent works
 St. Timothy's Episcopal Church: Winston-Salem, NC 2017 to present
 Additions and Renovations
 Sisters of St Thomas

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title: Ethan Anthony

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 Aquinas: Brooksville, FL 2016 to present
 New Church and Convent
 Cathedral of the Holy Cross: Boston, MA, 2014 to 2016
 Belfry Renovation
Our Lady of Good Voyage: Boston, MA, 2014 to present
 Interior design for a new 200-seat Gothic chapel
 Messiah Lutheran Church: South Windsor, CT, 2014 to present
 Extension of church
St. Kateri Tekakwitha Parish: Ridgway, IL 2013 to present
 New 450-seat Catholic church
 Valley of Our Lady Cistercian Monastery: Hollandale, WI, 2011 to Present
 New Monastery
 Chapel of St. Gabriel the Archangel: Norwood, MA, 2011 to present. Chapel Renovation
 St. John Neumann Catholic Church: Farragut, TN, 2005 to 2008
 New Church
 St. Edward's Chapel, Casady School: Oklahoma City, OK, 2002-2011
 Church Addition
 St. Andrew's Church: Denver Colorado, 2002-2009
 Master Plan, Addition and Restoration
Syon Abbey: Copper Hill, Virginia, 2002-2008
 New Church and Monastery
George J.Records Family Mausoleum, Oklahoma City, OK, 2002-2005
New Mausoleum
 Our Lady of Walsingham Roman Catholic Church: Houston, Texas, 2000-2003
 New Church
 Phillips Chapel, Canterbury School: Greensboro, North Carolina, 1999-2003
 New Church

Historic preservation

 St. Paul's Episcopal Church: Malden, MA, 2000 to present
 Restoration of front elevation, slate and copper roofs; existing conditions survey and accessibility design
 Chapel of St. Gabriel the Archangel: Norwood, MA, 2011 to present. References

External links
 Cram and Ferguson's Website
 Anthony's blog - Ruins & Rosemary
 The Architecture of Ralph Adams Cram and His Office by <mask>
  - "Bracing for the Storm" <mask>
  - pg 19, ""A Last Long Look at American Sacred Architecture"
  - "Neo-Gothic Architecture Today", Sacred Architecture, 2001

Living people
21st-century American architects
Writers from Iowa City, Iowa
New Classical

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Ethan Anthony


title: Andrew Havill

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<mask> (born 1 June 1965) is a British actor. Life and career
Havill has worked with the Royal Shakespeare Company and was in The Woman in Black in London's West End in 1996. In the 2000s, his theatre roles included working with Alan Ayckbourn on his play Virtual Reality; a West End production of Jean Anouilh's Ring Around the Moon; and key roles in director Chris Luscombe's productions of The Comedy of Errors and The Merry Wives of Windsor at Shakespeare's Globe. Of the latter, the Guardian's Lyn Gardner wrote: "Havill's comic timing is a joy" (21 June 2008). <mask> also appeared as Frank Ford in the US tour of the same play in 2010. Ben Brantley commented in The New York Times (31 Oct 2010), "As Ford... the excellent Mr. Havill is exactly as serious as he needs to be, reminding us that one of comedy’s main functions is to defuse bombs that in real life often explode and destroy.". In 2012 and 2013 he was part of the original cast of James Graham's critically acclaimed play This House, at the National Theatre, directed by Jeremy Herrin.Other work has included three roles at Hampstead Theatre in the plays Farewell to the Theatre, Drawing the Line, and Wonderland. Havill's TV credits include Aristocrats, Wives and Daughters and The Impressionists, and docudramas including Elizabeth David, Daphne, The Tudors and Messiah at the Foundling Hospital. He played the Chief Steward in the Christmas Doctor Who episode Voyage of the Damned and was in the BBC drama Spooks Series 8, as well as in Midsomer Murders (The Night of the Stag), Sherlock (A Scandal in Belgravia), Father Brown and The Coroner Series 1, episode 8. Havill's film work has included roles in Sylvia, The Heart of Me, The King's Speech, The Awakening, The Iron Lady, The Broken, Hyde Park on Hudson, Cloud Atlas, The Imitation Game and Downton Abbey.

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Andrew Havill
Havill


title: Thales of Miletus

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<mask> of Miletus ( ; , Thalēs; ) was a Greek mathematician, astronomer and pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Ionia, Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regarded him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition, and he is otherwise historically recognized as the first individual known to have entertained and engaged in scientific philosophy. He is often referred to as the Father of Science. <mask> is recognized for breaking from the use of mythology to explain the world and the universe, and instead explaining natural objects and phenomena by naturalistic theories and hypotheses, in a precursor to modern science. Almost all the other pre-Socratic philosophers followed him in explaining nature as deriving from a unity of everything based on the existence of a single ultimate substance, instead of using mythological explanations. Aristotle regarded him as the founder of the Ionian School and reported <mask>' hypothesis that the originating principle of nature and the nature of matter was a single material substance: water.In mathematics, <mask> used geometry to calculate the heights of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to <mask>' theorem. He is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. Life

The dates of <mask>' life are not exactly known, but are roughly established by a few datable events mentioned in the sources. According to Herodotus, <mask> predicted the solar eclipse of May 28, 585 BC.

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title: Thales of Miletus

texts: Diogenes Laërtius quotes the chronicle of Apollodorus of Athens as saying that <mask> died at the age of 78 during the 58th Olympiad (548–545 BC) and attributes his death to heat stroke while watching the games. <mask> was probably born in the city of Miletus around the mid-620s BC.The ancient writer Apollodorus of Athens writing during the 2nd century BC, thought <mask> was born about the year 625 BC. Herodotus, writing in the fifth century BC, described <mask> as "a Phoenician by remote descent". However, the probability is that he was as Greek as most Milesians since his ancestors were Cadmeians from Boeotia and not Semites. Tim Whitmarsh wrote that <mask> regarded water as the primal matter, and because thal is the Phoenician word for moisture, his name may have derived from this circumstance. However, this seems to be a minority view, since most dictionaries assert that his name comes from the Greek word “θᾰ́λλω” (thállō, “to thrive”) + -ης (-ēs), in which case means “one who thrives”. According to the later historian Diogenes Laërtius, in his third century AD Lives of the Philosophers, references Herodotus, Duris, and Democritus, who all agree "that <mask> was the son of Examyas and Cleobulina, and belonged to the Thelidae who are Phoenicians and amongst the noblest descendants of Cadmus and Agenor." Their names are Carian and Greek, respectively.Friedrich Nietzsche stresses the fact that his ancestors were only "Phoenician" in the sense that they could trace back their fictitious origins to the seafaring people of the mythological hero Cadmus. Therefore, his family migrated from Thebes, in central

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title: Thales of Miletus

texts: Greece, to Ionia in Asia Minor. Diogenes then states that "Most writers, however, represent him as a native of Miletus and of a distinguished family." His supposed mother, Cleobulina, has also been described as his companion instead of his mother. Nevertheless, the scholarly consensus is that, even though he is said by some ancient authors to have been of Phoenician extraction, he was most likely a native Milesian of noble birth and that he was certainly a Greek. Diogenes continues, by delivering more conflicting reports: one that <mask> married and either fathered a son (Cybisthus or Cybisthon) or adopted his nephew of the same name; the second that he never married, telling his mother as a young man that it was too early to marry, and as an older man that it was too late. Plutarch had earlier told this version: Solon visited Thales and asked him why he remained single; <mask> answered that he did not like the idea of having to worry about children.Nevertheless, several years later, anxious for family, he adopted his nephew Cybisthus. It is assumed that <mask>, at one point in his life, visited Egypt, where he learned about geometry. It is not impossible that <mask> visited Egypt, since Miletus had a permanent colony there (namely Naucratis), however visits to Egypt were a commonplace attribution to various philosophers by later writers, especially when these writers tried to explain mathematical knowledge. <mask> may have known about Egypt from accounts of others, without actually visiting it. Diogenes Laërtius wrote that <mask> identifies Miletus as Athenian colony. <mask> (who died around 30 years before


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 the time of Pythagoras and 300 years before Euclid, Eudoxus of Cnidus, and Eudemus of Rhodes) is often hailed as "the first Greek mathematician". While some historians, such as Colin R. Fletcher, point out that there could have been a predecessor to <mask> who would have been named in Eudemus' lost book History of Geometry, it is admitted that without the work "the question becomes mere speculation."Fletcher holds that as there is no viable predecessor to the title of first Greek mathematician, the only question is whether <mask> qualifies as a practitioner in that field; he holds that "<mask> had at his command the techniques of observation, experimentation, superposition and deduction...he has proved himself mathematician." Aristotle wrote in Metaphysics, "<mask>, the founder of this school of philosophy, says the permanent entity is water (which is why he also propounded that the earth floats on water). Presumably he derived this assumption from seeing that the nutriment of everything is moist, and that heat itself is generated from moisture and depends upon it for its existence (and that from which a thing is generated is always its first principle). He derived his assumption from this; and also from the fact that the seeds of everything have a moist nature, whereas water is the first principle of the nature of moist things." Activities
<mask> involved himself in many activities, including engineering. Some say that he left no writings. Others say that he wrote On the Solstice and On the Equinox.The Nautical Star-guide has been attributed to him, but this was disputed in ancient times. No writing

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 attributed to him has survived. Diogenes Laërtius quotes two letters from <mask>: one to Pherecydes of Syros, offering to review his book on religion, and one to Solon, offering to keep him company on his sojourn from Athens. Olive story as example of option type trade

A story, with different versions, recounts how <mask> achieved riches from an olive harvest by prediction of the weather. In one version, he bought all the olive presses in Miletus after predicting the weather and a good harvest for a particular year. Another version of the story has Aristotle explain that <mask> had reserved presses in advance, at a discount, and could rent them out at a high price when demand peaked, following his prediction of a particularly good harvest. This first version of the story would constitute the first historically known creation and use of futures, whereas the second version would be the first historically known creation and use of options.Aristotle explains that <mask>' objective in doing this was not to enrich himself but to prove to his fellow Milesians that philosophy could be useful, contrary to what they thought, or alternatively, <mask> had made his foray into enterprise because of a personal challenge put to him by an individual who had asked why, if <mask> was an intelligent famous philosopher, he had yet to attain wealth. Advisor role
Diogenes Laërtius tells us that <mask> gained fame as a counselor when he advised the Milesians not to engage in a symmachia, a "fighting together", with the Lydians. This has sometimes been interpreted as an alliance. Another story by Herodotus is that Croesus sent his


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 army to the Persian territory. He was stopped by the river Halys, then unbridged. <mask> then got the army across the river by digging a diversion upstream so as to reduce the flow, making it possible to cross the river. While Herodotus reported that most of his fellow Greeks believe that <mask> did divert the river Halys to assist King Croesus' military endeavors, he himself finds it doubtful.Croesus was defeated before the city of Sardis by Cyrus, who subsequently spared Miletus because it had taken no action. Cyrus was so impressed by Croesus’ wisdom and his connection with the sages that he spared him and took his advice on various matters. The Ionian cities should be demoi, or "districts". Miletus, however, received favorable terms from Cyrus. The others remained in an Ionian League of twelve cities (excluding Miletus), and were subjugated by the Persians. Astronomy

According to Herodotus, <mask> predicted the solar eclipse of May 28, 585 BC. <mask> also described the position of Ursa Minor, and he thought the constellation might be useful as a guide for navigation at sea.He calculated the duration of the year and the timings of the equinoxes and solstices. He is additionally attributed with the first observation of the Hyades and with calculating the position of the Pleiades. Plutarch indicates that in his day (c. AD 100) there was an extant work, the Astronomy, composed in verse and attributed to <mask>. Herodotus writes that in the sixth year of the war, the Lydians under King Alyattes and the Medes under Cyaxares were engaged in an indecisive battle when suddenly day turned into night, leading to


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 both parties halting the fighting and negotiating a peace agreement. Herodotus also mentions that the loss of daylight had been predicted by Thales. He does not, however, mention the location of the battle. However, based on the list of Median kings and the duration of their reign reported elsewhere by Herodotus, Cyaxares died 10 years before the eclipse.Sagacity

Diogenes Laërtius tells us that the Seven Sages were created in the archonship of Damasius at Athens about 582 BC and that <mask> was the first sage. The same story, however, asserts that <mask> emigrated to Miletus. There is also a report that he did not become a student of nature until after his political career. Much as we would like to have a date on the seven sages, we must reject these stories and the tempting date if we are to believe that <mask> was a native of Miletus, predicted the eclipse, and was with Croesus in the campaign against Cyrus. <mask> received instruction from an Egyptian priest and was said to have had close contacts along with the priests of Thebes and their linear geometry. It was fairly certain that he came from a wealthy, established family, in a class which customarily provided higher education for their children. Moreover, the ordinary citizen, unless he was a seafaring man or a merchant, could not afford the grand tour in Egypt, and did not consort with noble lawmakers such as Solon.In Diogenes Laërtius' Lives of Eminent Philosophers Chapter 1.39, Laërtius relates several stories of an expensive object that is to go to the most wise. In one version (that Laërtius credits to Callimachus in his Iambics) Bathycles of

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title: Thales of Miletus

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 Arcadia states in his will that an expensive bowl "'should be given to him who had done most good by his wisdom.' So it was given to <mask>, went the round of all the sages, and came back to Thales again. And he sent it to Apollo at Didyma, with this dedication...'<mask> the Milesian, son of Examyas [dedicates this] to Delphinian Apollo after twice winning the prize from all the Greeks.'" Theories
Early Greeks, and other civilizations before them, often invoked idiosyncratic explanations of natural phenomena with reference to the will of anthropomorphic gods and heroes. Instead, <mask> aimed to explain natural phenomena via rational hypotheses that referenced natural processes themselves. For example, rather than assuming that earthquakes were the result of supernatural whims, <mask> explained them by hypothesizing that the Earth floats on water and that earthquakes occur when the Earth is rocked by waves.<mask> was a hylozoist (one who thinks that matter is alive, i.e. containing soul(s). Aristotle wrote (De Anima 411 a7-8) of <mask>: ...<mask> thought all things are full of gods. Aristotle posits the origin of <mask> thought on matter generally containing souls, to <mask> thinking initially on the fact of, because magnets move iron, the presence of movement of matter indicated this matter contained life. <mask>, according to Aristotle, asked what was the nature (Greek arche) of the object so that it would behave in its characteristic way. Physis () comes from phyein (), "to grow", related to our word "be". (G)natura is the way a thing is "born", again with the stamp of what it is in itself.Aristotle

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 characterizes most of the philosophers "at first" () as thinking that the "principles in the form of matter were the only principles of all things", where "principle" is arche, "matter" is hyle ("wood" or "matter", "material") and "form" is eidos. Arche is translated as "principle", but the two words do not have precisely the same meaning. A principle of something is merely prior (related to pro-) to it either chronologically or logically. An arche (from , "to rule") dominates an object in some way. If the arche is taken to be an origin, then specific causality is implied; that is, B is supposed to be characteristically B just because it comes from A, which dominates it. The archai that Aristotle had in mind in his well-known passage on the first Greek scientists are not necessarily chronologically prior to their objects, but are constituents of it. For example, in pluralism objects are composed of earth, air, fire and water, but those elements do not disappear with the production of the object.They remain as archai within it, as do the atoms of the atomists. What Aristotle is really saying is that the first philosophers were trying to define the substance(s) of which all material objects are composed. As a matter of fact, that is exactly what modern scientists are attempting to accomplish in nuclear physics, which is a second reason why <mask> is described as the first western scientist, but some contemporary scholars reject this interpretation. Geometry
<mask> was known for his innovative use of geometry, and is often considered the first person in the western world to have applied deductive reasoning to

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 geometry (and by extension is often considered the first western mathematician). His understanding was theoretical as well as practical. For example, he said:

Topos is in Newtonian-style space, since the verb, chorei, has the connotation of yielding before things, or spreading out to make room for them, which is extension. Within this extension, things have a position.Points, lines, planes and solids related by distances and angles follow from this presumption. <mask> understood similar triangles and right triangles, and what is more, used that knowledge in practical ways. The story is told in Diogenes Laërtius (loc. cit.) that he measured the height of the pyramids by their shadows at the moment when his own shadow was equal to his height. A right triangle with two equal legs is a 45-degree right triangle, all of which are similar. The length of the pyramid's shadow measured from the center of the pyramid at that moment must have been equal to its height.This story indicates that he was familiar with the Egyptian seked, or seqed, the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope (cotangent). The seked is at the base of problems 56, 57, 58, 59 and 60 of the Rhind papyrus — an ancient Egyptian mathematical document. More practically Thales used the same method to measure the distances of ships at sea, said Eudemus as reported by Proclus ("in Euclidem"). According to Kirk & Raven, all you need for this feat is three straight sticks pinned at one end and knowledge of your altitude. One stick goes vertically into the ground. A second is made level. With the third you sight the ship and calculate the seked from the


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 height of the stick and its distance from the point of insertion to the line of sight (Proclus, In Euclidem, 352).<mask>' theorems

There are two theorems of <mask> in elementary geometry, one known as <mask>' theorem having to do with a triangle inscribed in a circle and having the circle's diameter as one leg, the other theorem being also called the intercept theorem. In addition Eudemus attributed to him the discovery that a circle is bisected by its diameter, that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal and that vertical angles are equal. According to a historical Note, when <mask> visited Egypt, he observed that whenever the Egyptians drew two intersecting lines, they would measure the vertical angles to make sure that they were equal. <mask> concluded that one could prove that all vertical angles are equal if one accepted some general notions such as: all straight angles are equal, equals added to equals are equal, and equals subtracted from equals are equal. The evidence for the primacy of <mask> comes to us from a book by Proclus who wrote a thousand years after <mask> but is believed to have had a copy of Eudemus' book. Proclus wrote "<mask> was the first to go to Egypt and bring back to Greece this study." He goes on to tell us that in addition to applying the knowledge he gained in Egypt "He himself discovered many propositions and disclosed the underlying principles of many others to his successors, in some case his method being more general, in others more empirical."Other quotes from Proclus list more of <mask>' mathematical achievements:

In addition to Proclus, Hieronymus of Rhodes

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 also cites <mask> as the first Greek mathematician. Hieronymus held that <mask> was able to measure the height of the pyramids by using a theorem of geometry now known as the intercept theorem, (after gathering data by using his walking-stick and comparing its shadow to those cast by the pyramids). We receive variations of Hieronymus' story through Diogenes Laërtius, Pliny the Elder, and Plutarch. According to Hieronymus, historically quoted by Diogenes Laërtius, <mask> found the height of pyramids by comparison between the lengths of the shadows cast by a person and by the pyramids. Due to the variations among testimonies, such as the "story of the sacrifice of an ox on the occasion of the discovery that the angle on a diameter of a circle is a right angle" in the version told by Diogenes Laërtius being accredited to Pythagoras rather than <mask>, some historians (such as D. R. Dicks) question whether such anecdotes have any historical worth whatsoever. Water as a first principle
<mask>' most famous philosophical position was his cosmological thesis, which comes down to us through a passage from Aristotle's Metaphysics. In the work Aristotle unequivocally reported <mask>' hypothesis about the nature of all matter – that the originating principle of nature was a single material substance: water.Aristotle then proceeded to proffer a number of conjectures based on his own observations to lend some credence to why <mask> may have advanced this idea (though Aristotle did not hold it himself). Aristotle laid out his own thinking about matter and form which may shed some light on the ideas of <mask>, in

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 Metaphysics 983 b6 8–11, 17–21. (The passage contains words that were later adopted by science with quite different meanings.) In this quote we see Aristotle's depiction of the problem of change and the definition of substance. He asked if an object changes, is it the same or different? In either case how can there be a change from one to the other? The answer is that the substance "is saved", but acquires or loses different qualities (, the things you "experience").Aristotle conjectured that <mask> reached his conclusion by contemplating that the "nourishment of all things is moist and that even the hot is created from the wet and lives by it." While Aristotle's conjecture on why <mask> held water as the originating principle of matter is his own thinking, his statement that <mask> held it as water is generally accepted as genuinely originating with <mask> and he is seen as an incipient matter-and-formist. <mask> thought the Earth must be a flat disk which is floating in an expanse of water. Heraclitus Homericus states that <mask> drew his conclusion from seeing moist substance turn into air, slime and earth. It seems likely that <mask> viewed the Earth as solidifying from the water on which it floated and the oceans that surround it. Writing centuries later, Diogenes Laërtius also states that <mask> taught "Water constituted (, 'stood under') the principle of all things." Aristotle considered <mask>’ position to be roughly the equivalent to the later ideas of Anaximenes, who held that everything was composed of air.The 1870 book Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology noted:

Beliefs in


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 divinity

According to Aristotle, <mask> thought lodestones had souls, because iron is attracted to them (by the force of magnetism). Aristotle defined the soul as the principle of life, that which imbues the matter and makes it live, giving it the animation, or power to act. The idea did not originate with him, as the Greeks in general believed in the distinction between mind and matter, which was ultimately to lead to a distinction not only between body and soul but also between matter and energy. If things were alive, they must have souls. This belief was no innovation, as the ordinary ancient populations of the Mediterranean did believe that natural actions were caused by divinities. Accordingly, Aristotle and other ancient writers state that <mask> believed that "all things were full of gods." In their zeal to make him the first in everything some said he was the first to hold the belief, which must have been widely known to be false.However, <mask> was looking for something more general, a universal substance of mind. That also was in the polytheism of the times. Zeus was the very personification of supreme mind, dominating all the subordinate manifestations. From <mask> on, however, philosophers had a tendency to depersonify or objectify mind, as though it were the substance of animation per se and not actually a god like the other gods. The result was a total removal of mind from substance, opening the door to a non-divine principle of action. Classical thought, however, had proceeded only a little way along that path. Instead of referring to the person, Zeus, they talked about the great mind:

The


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 universal mind appears as a Roman belief in Virgil as well:

According to Henry Fielding (1775), Diogenes Laërtius (1.35) affirmed that <mask> posed "the independent pre-existence of God from all eternity, stating "that God was the oldest of all beings, for he existed without a previous cause even in the way of generation; that the world was the most beautiful of all things; for it was created by God."Influences

Due to the scarcity of sources concerning <mask> and the discrepancies between the accounts given in the sources that have survived, there is a scholarly debate over possible influences on <mask> and the Greek mathematicians that came after him. Historian Roger L. Cooke points out that Proclus does not make any mention of Mesopotamian influence on Thales or Greek geometry, but "is shown clearly in Greek astronomy, in the use of sexagesimal system of measuring angles and in Ptolemy's explicit use of Mesopotamian astronomical observations." Cooke notes that it may possibly also appear in the second book of Euclid's Elements, "which contains geometric constructions equivalent to certain algebraic relations that are frequently encountered in the cuneiform tablets." Cooke notes "This relation, however, is controversial." Historian B.L. Van der Waerden is among those advocating the idea of Mesopotamian influence, writing "It follows that we have to abandon the traditional belief that the oldest Greek mathematicians discovered geometry entirely by themselves...a belief that was tenable only as long as nothing was known about Babylonian mathematics. This in no way diminishes the stature of <mask>; on the


title: Thales of Miletus

texts: contrary, his genius receives only now the honour that is due to it, the honour of having developed a logical structure for geometry, of having introduced proof into geometry."Some historians, such as D. R. Dicks takes issue with the idea that we can determine from the questionable sources we have, just how influenced <mask> was by Babylonian sources. He points out that while <mask> is held to have been able to calculate an eclipse using a cycle called the "Saros" held to have been "borrowed from the Babylonians", "The Babylonians, however, did not use cycles to predict solar eclipses, but computed them from observations of the latitude of the moon made shortly before the expected syzygy." Dicks cites historian O. Neugebauer who relates that "No Babylonian theory for predicting solar eclipse existed at 600 B.C., as one can see from the very unsatisfactory situation 400 years later; nor did the Babylonians ever develop any theory which took the influence of geographical latitude into account." Dicks examines the cycle referred to as 'Saros' – which <mask> is held to have used and which is believed to stem from the Babylonians. He points out that Ptolemy makes use of this and another cycle in his book Mathematical Syntaxis but attributes it to Greek astronomers earlier than Hipparchus and not to Babylonians. Dicks notes Herodotus does relate that <mask> made use of a cycle to predict the eclipse, but maintains that "if so, the fulfillment of the 'prediction' was a stroke of pure luck not science". He goes further joining with other historians (F. Martini, J.L.E. Dreyer, O. Neugebauer) in rejecting the


title: Thales of Miletus

texts: historicity of the eclipse story altogether. Dicks links the story of <mask> discovering the cause for a solar eclipse with Herodotus' claim that <mask> discovered the cycle of the sun with relation to the solstices, and concludes "he could not possibly have possessed this knowledge which neither the Egyptians nor the Babylonians nor his immediate successors possessed." Josephus is the only ancient historian that claims <mask> visited Babylonia. Herodotus wrote that the Greeks learnt the practice of dividing the day into 12 parts, about the polos, and the gnomon from the Babylonians. (The exact meaning of his use of the word polos is unknown, current theories include: "the heavenly dome", "the tip of the axis of the celestial sphere", or a spherical concave sundial.) Yet even Herodotus' claims on Babylonian influence are contested by some modern historians, such as L. Zhmud, who points out that the division of the day into twelve parts (and by analogy the year) was known to the Egyptians already in the second millennium, the gnomon was known to both Egyptians and Babylonians, and the idea of the "heavenly sphere" was not used outside of Greece at this time. Less controversial than the position that <mask> learnt Babylonian mathematics is the claim he was influenced by Egyptians.Pointedly historian S. N. Bychkov holds that the idea that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal likely came from Egypt. This is because, when building a roof for a home – having a cross section be exactly an isosceles triangle isn't crucial (as it's the ridge of the roof that must fit precisely), in contrast a symmetric


title: Thales of Miletus

texts: square pyramid cannot have errors in the base angles of the faces or they will not fit together tightly. Historian D.R. Dicks agrees that compared to the Greeks in the era of Thales, there was a more advanced state of mathematics among the Babylonians and especially the Egyptians – "both cultures knew the correct formulae for determining the areas and volumes of simple geometrical figures such as triangles, rectangles, trapezoids, etc. ; the Egyptians could also calculate correctly the volume of the frustum of a pyramid with a square base (the Babylonians used an incorrect formula for this), and used a formula for the area of a circle...which gives a value for π of 3.1605—a good approximation." Dicks also agrees that this would have had an effect on <mask> (whom the most ancient sources agree was interested in mathematics and astronomy) but he holds that tales of Thales' travels in these lands are pure myth. The ancient civilization and massive monuments of Egypt had "a profound and ineradicable impression on the Greeks".They attributed to Egyptians "an immemorial knowledge of certain subjects" (including geometry) and would claim Egyptian origin for some of their own ideas to try and lend them "a respectable antiquity" (such as the "Hermetic" literature of the Alexandrian period). Dicks holds that since <mask> was a prominent figure in Greek history by the time of Eudemus but "nothing certain was known except that he lived in Miletus". A tradition developed that as "Milesians were in a position to be able to travel widely" <mask> must have gone to Egypt. As Herodotus says Egypt was the birthplace of

masks: Thales Thales Thales


title: Thales of Miletus

texts: geometry he must have learnt that while there. Since he had to have been there, surely one of the theories on Nile Flooding laid out by Herodotus must have come from <mask>. Likewise as he must have been in Egypt he had to have done something with the Pyramids – thus the tale of measuring them. Similar apocryphal stories exist of Pythagoras and Plato traveling to Egypt with no corroborating evidence.As the Egyptian and Babylonian geometry at the time was "essentially arithmetical", they used actual numbers and "the procedure is then described with explicit instructions as to what to do with these numbers" there was no mention of how the rules of procedure were made, and nothing toward a logically arranged corpus of generalized geometrical knowledge with analytical 'proofs' such as we find in the words of Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius." So even had <mask> traveled there he could not have learnt anything about the theorems he is held to have picked up there (especially because there is no evidence that any Greeks of this age could use Egyptian hieroglyphics). Likewise until around the second century BC and the time of Hipparchus (c. 190–120 BC) the Babylonian general division of the circle into 360 degrees and their sexagesimal system was unknown. Herodotus says almost nothing about Babylonian literature and science, and very little about their history. Some historians, like P. Schnabel, hold that the Greeks only learned more about Babylonian culture from Berossus, a Babylonian priest who is said to have set up a school in Cos around 270 BC (but to what extent this had in the field of geometry is


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 contested). Dicks points out that the primitive state of Greek mathematics and astronomical ideas exhibited by the peculiar notions of <mask>' successors (such as Anaximander, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus), which historian J. L. Heiberg calls "a mixture of brilliant intuition and childlike analogies", argues against the assertions from writers in late antiquity that <mask> discovered and taught advanced concepts in these fields. John Burnet (1892) noted

According to the 10-th century Byzantine encyclopdia Suda, Thales had been the "teacher and kineman" of Anaximander.Nicholas Molinari has recently argued for an important Greek influence on <mask>' idea of the archai, namely, the archaic water deity Acheloios, who was equated with water and worshipped in Miletos during <mask>' life. He argues that <mask>, as a sage and world traveler, was exposed to many mythologies and religions, and while they all had some influence, his hometown Acheloios was the most essential. For evidence, he points to the fact that hydor meant specifically "fresh water," and that Acheloios was seen as a shape-shifter in myth and art, so able to become anything. He also points out that the rivers of the world were seen as the "sinews of Acheloios" in antiquity, and this multiplicity of deities is reflected in <mask>' idea that "all things are full of gods." Interpretations
In the long sojourn of philosophy, there has existed hardly a philosopher or historian of philosophy who did not mention <mask> and try to characterize him in some way. He is generally recognized as having brought something new to human thought.


title: Thales of Miletus

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 Mathematics, astronomy, and medicine already existed.<mask> added something to these different collections of knowledge to produce a universality, which, as far as writing tells us, was not in tradition before, but resulted in a new field. Ever since, interested persons have been asking what that new something is. Answers fall into (at least) two categories, the theory and the method. Once an answer has been arrived at, the next logical step is to ask how <mask> compares to other philosophers, which leads to his classification (rightly or wrongly). Theory
The most natural epithets of <mask> are "materialist" and "naturalist", which are based on ousia and physis. The Catholic Encyclopedia notes that Aristotle called him a physiologist, with the meaning "student of nature." On the other hand, he would have qualified as an early physicist, as did Aristotle.They studied corpora, "bodies", the medieval descendants of substances. Russell
Most agree that <mask>' stamp on thought is the unity of substance, hence Bertrand Russell:

Russell was only reflecting an established tradition; for example: Nietzsche, in his Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, wrote:

This sort of materialism, however, should not be confused with deterministic materialism. <mask> was only trying to explain the unity observed in the free play of the qualities. The arrival of uncertainty in the modern world made possible a return to Thales; for example, <mask> Boodin writes ("God and Creation"):

Boodin
Boodin defines an "emergent" materialism, in which the objects of sense emerge uncertainly from the substrate. <mask> is the innovator

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 of this sort of materialism. Feldman
Later scholastic thinkers would maintain that in his choice of water <mask> was influenced by Babylonian or Chaldean religion, that held that a god had begun creation by acting upon the pre-existing water. Historian Abraham Feldman holds this does not stand up under closer examination.In Babylonian religion the water is lifeless and sterile until a god acts upon it, but for <mask> water itself was divine and creative. He maintained that "All things are full of gods", and to understand the nature of things was to discover the secrets of the deities, and through this knowledge open the possibility that one could be greater than the grandest Olympian. Feldman points out that while other thinkers recognized the wetness of the world "none of them was inspired to conclude that everything was ultimately aquatic." He further points out that <mask> was "a wealthy citizen of the fabulously rich Oriental port of Miletus...a dealer in the staples of antiquity, wine and oil...He certainly handled the shell-fish of the Phoenicians that secreted the dye of imperial purple." Feldman recalls the stories of <mask> measuring the distance of boats in the harbor, creating mechanical improvements for ship navigation, giving an explanation for the flooding of the Nile (vital to Egyptian agriculture and Greek trade), and changing the course of the river Halys so an army could ford it. Rather than seeing water as a barrier <mask> contemplated the Ionian yearly religious gathering for athletic ritual (held on the promontory of Mycale and believed to be ordained by the ancestral kindred of


title: Thales of Miletus

texts: Poseidon, the god of the sea). He called for the Ionian mercantile states participating in this ritual to convert it into a democratic federation under the protection of Poseidon that would hold off the forces of pastoral Persia.Feldman concludes that <mask> saw "that water was a revolutionary leveler and the elemental factor determining the subsistence and business of the world" and "the common channel of states." Feldman considers <mask>' environment and holds that <mask> would have seen tears, sweat, and blood as granting value to a person's work and the means how life giving commodities travelled (whether on bodies of water or through the sweat of slaves and pack-animals). He would have seen that minerals could be processed from water such as life-sustaining salt and gold taken from rivers. He would’ve seen fish and other food stuffs gathered from it. Feldman points out that <mask> held that the lodestone was alive as it drew metals to itself. He holds that <mask> "living ever in sight of his beloved sea" would see water seem to draw all "traffic in wine and oil, milk and honey, juices and dyes" to itself, leading him to "a vision of the universe melting into a single substance that was valueless in itself and still the source of wealth." Feldman concludes that for <mask> "...water united all things.The social significance of water in the time of <mask> induced him to discern through hardware and dry-goods, through soil and sperm, blood, sweat and tears, one fundamental fluid stuff...water, the most commonplace and powerful material known to him." This combined with his contemporary's idea of


title: Thales of Miletus

texts:
 "spontaneous generation" allow us to see how <mask> could hold that water could be divine and creative. Feldman points to the lasting association of the theory that "all whatness is wetness" with <mask> himself, pointing out that Diogenes Laërtius speaks of a poem, probably a satire, where <mask> is snatched to heaven by the sun. Rise of theoretical inquiry
In the West, <mask> represents a new kind of inquiring community as well. Edmund Husserl attempts to capture the new movement as follows. Philosophical man is a "new cultural configuration" based in stepping back from "pregiven tradition" and taking up a rational "inquiry into what is true in itself;" that is, an ideal of truth. It begins with isolated individuals such as <mask>, but they are supported and cooperated with as time goes on.Finally the ideal transforms the norms of society, leaping across national borders. Classification
The term "Pre-Socratic" derives ultimately from the philosopher Aristotle, who distinguished the early philosophers as concerning themselves with substance. Diogenes Laërtius on the other hand took a strictly geographic and ethnic approach. Philosophers were either Ionian or Italian. He used "Ionian" in a broader sense, including also the Athenian academics, who were not Pre-Socratics. From a philosophic point of view, any grouping at all would have been just as effective. There is no basis for an Ionian or Italian unity.Some scholars, however, concede to Diogenes' scheme as far as referring to an "Ionian" school. There was no such school in any sense. The most popular approach refers to a Milesian school, which is more


title: Thales of Miletus

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 justifiable socially and philosophically. They sought for the substance of phenomena and may have studied with each other. Some ancient writers qualify them as Milesioi, "of Miletus." Influence on others

<mask> had a profound influence on other Greek thinkers and therefore on Western history. Some  believe Anaximander was a pupil of <mask>.Early sources report that one of Anaximander's more famous pupils, Pythagoras, visited <mask> as a young man, and that <mask> advised him to travel to Egypt to further his philosophical and mathematical studies. Many philosophers followed <mask>' lead in searching for explanations in nature rather than in the supernatural; others returned to supernatural explanations, but couched them in the language of philosophy rather than of myth or of religion. Looking specifically at <mask>' influence during the pre-Socratic era, it is clear that he stood out as one of the first thinkers who thought more in the way of logos than mythos. The difference between these two more profound ways of seeing the world is that mythos is concentrated around the stories of holy origin, while logos is concentrated around the argumentation. When the mythical man wants to explain the world the way he sees it, he explains it based on gods and powers. Mythical thought does not differentiate between things and persons and furthermore it does not differentiate between nature and culture. The way a logos thinker would present a world view is radically different from the way of the mythical thinker.In its concrete form, logos is a way of thinking not only about individualism, but also the abstract.


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 Furthermore, it focuses on sensible and continuous argumentation. This lays the foundation of philosophy and its way of explaining the world in terms of abstract argumentation, and not in the way of gods and mythical stories. Reliability of sources

Because of <mask>' elevated status in Greek culture, an intense interest and admiration followed his reputation. Due to this following, the oral stories about his life were open to amplification and historical fabrication, even before they were written down generations later. Most modern dissension comes from trying to interpret what we know, in particular, distinguishing legend from fact. Chronological classification
Historian D.R.Dicks and other historians divide the ancient sources about <mask> into those before 320 BC and those after that year (some such as Proclus writing in the 5th century C.E. and Simplicius of Cilicia in the 6th century C.E. writing nearly a millennium after his era). The first category includes Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, Aristophanes, and Theophrastus among others. The second category includes Plautus, Aetius, Eusebius, Plutarch, Josephus, Iamblichus, Diogenes Laërtius, Theon of Smyrna, Apuleius, Clement of Alexandria, Pliny the Elder, and John Tzetzes among others. Earliest sources
The earliest sources on Thales (living before 320 BC) are often the same for the other Milesian philosophers (Anaximander, and Anaximenes). These sources were either roughly contemporaneous (such as Herodotus) or lived within a few hundred years of his passing.Moreover, they were writing from an oral tradition that was widespread and well known in the


title: Thales of Miletus

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 Greece of their day. Latter sources
The latter sources on <mask> are several "ascriptions of commentators and compilers who lived anything from 700 to 1,000 years after his death" which include "anecdotes of varying degrees of plausibility" and in the opinion of some historians (such as D. R. Dicks) of "no historical worth whatsoever". Dicks points out that there is no agreement "among the 'authorities' even on the most fundamental facts of his life—e.g. whether he was a Milesian or a Phoenician, whether he left any writings or not, whether he was married or single—much less on the actual ideas and achievements with which he is credited." Comparison of the two source groups
Contrasting the work of the more ancient writers with those of the later, Dicks points out that in the works of the early writers <mask> and the other men who would be hailed as "the Seven Sages of Greece" had a different reputation than that which would be assigned to them by later authors. Closer to their own era, <mask>, Solon, Bias of Priene, Pittacus of Mytilene and others were hailed as "essentially practical men who played leading roles in the affairs of their respective states, and were far better known to the earlier Greeks as lawgivers and statesmen than as profound thinkers and philosophers." For example, Plato praises him (coupled with Anacharsis) for being the originator of the potter's wheel and the anchor.Only in the writings of the second group of writers (working after 320 BC) do "we obtain the picture of <mask> as the pioneer in Greek scientific thinking, particularly in regard to mathematics and astronomy which he is


title: Thales of Miletus

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 supposed to have learnt about in Babylonia and Egypt." Rather than "the earlier tradition [where] he is a favourite example of the intelligent man who possesses some technical 'know how'...the later doxographers [such as Dicaearchus in the latter half of the fourth century BC] foist on to him any number of discoveries and achievements, in order to build him up as a figure of superhuman wisdom." Problem suggested by Dicks
Dicks points out a further problem arises in the surviving information on <mask>, for rather than using ancient sources closer to the era of Thales, the authors in later antiquity ("epitomators, excerptors, and compilers") actually "preferred to use one or more intermediaries, so that what we actually read in them comes to us not even at second, but at third or fourth or fifth hand. Obviously, this use of intermediate sources, copied and recopied from century to century, with each writer adding additional pieces of information of greater or less plausibility from his own knowledge, provided a fertile field for errors in transmission, wrong ascriptions, and fictitious attributions". Dicks points out that "certain doctrines that later commentators invented for Thales...were then accepted into the biographical tradition" being copied by subsequent writers who were then cited by those coming after them "and thus, because they may be repeated by different authors relying on different sources, may produce an illusory impression of genuineness." Aristotle
Doubts even exist when considering the philosophical positions held to originate in <mask> "in reality these stem directly from Aristotle's own


title: Thales of Miletus

texts: interpretations which then became incorporated in the doxographical tradition as erroneous ascriptions to Thales". (The same treatment was given by Aristotle to Anaxagoras.)Most philosophic analyses of the philosophy of <mask> come from Aristotle, a professional philosopher, tutor of Alexander the Great, who wrote 200 years after <mask>' death. Aristotle, judging from his surviving books, does not seem to have access to any works by <mask>, although he probably had access to works of other authors about <mask>aeus, Plato etc., as well as others whose work is now extinct. It was Aristotle's express goal to present <mask>' work not because it was significant in itself, but as a prelude to his own work in natural philosophy. <mask> and John Raven, English compilers of the fragments of the Pre-Socratics, assert that Aristotle's "judgments are often distorted by his view of earlier philosophy as a stumbling progress toward the truth that Aristotle himself revealed in his physical doctrines." There was also an extensive oral tradition. Both the oral and the written were commonly read or known by all educated men in the region. Aristotle's philosophy had a distinct stamp: it professed the theory of matter and form, which modern scholastics have dubbed hylomorphism.Though once very widespread, it was not generally adopted by rationalist and modern science, as it mainly is useful in metaphysical analyses, but does not lend itself to the detail that is of interest to modern science. It is not clear that the theory of matter and form existed as early as <mask>, and if it did, whether <mask> espoused it. While some

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 historians, like B. Snell, maintain that Aristotle was relying on a pre-Platonic written record by Hippias rather than oral tradition, this is a controversial position. Representing the scholarly consensus Dicks states that "the tradition about him even as early as the fifth century B.C., was evidently based entirely on hearsay....It would seem that already by Aristotle's time the early Ionians were largely names only to which popular tradition attached various ideas or achievements with greater or less plausibility". He points out that works confirmed to have existed in the sixth century BC by Anaximander and Xenophanes had already disappeared by the fourth century BC, so the chances of Pre-Socratic material surviving to the age of Aristotle is almost nil (even less likely for Aristotle's pupils Theophrastus and Eudemus and less likely still for those following after them). Diogenes Laërtius
The main secondary source concerning the details of <mask>' life and career is Diogenes Laërtius, "Lives of Eminent Philosophers". This is primarily a biographical work, as the name indicates.Compared to Aristotle, Diogenes is not much of a philosopher. He is the one who, in the Prologue to that work, is responsible for the division of the early philosophers into "Ionian" and "Italian", but he places the Academics in the Ionian school and otherwise evidences considerable disarray and contradiction, especially in the long section on forerunners of the "Ionian School". Diogenes quotes two letters attributed to <mask>, but Diogenes wrote some eight centuries after <mask>' death and that his sources often contained


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 "unreliable or even fabricated information", hence the concern for separating fact from legend in accounts of <mask>. It is due to this use of hearsay and a lack of citing original sources that leads some historians, like Dicks and Werner Jaeger, to look at the late origin of the traditional picture of Pre-Socratic philosophy and view the whole idea as a construct from a later age, "the whole picture that has come down to us of the history of early philosophy was fashioned during the two or three generations from Plato to the immediate pupils of Aristotle". See also
 Know thyself
 Material monism
 Plato's Academy mosaic

Notes

References
  (1991 pbk ed. ; 2011 3rd edition)
  Third Edition

 Herodotus, Histories, A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1920; . Online version at Perseus
 Hans Joachim Störig, Kleine Weltgeschichte der Philosophie.Fischer, Frankfurt/M. 2004, . Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (eds. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A.) London.Taylor and Francis. (1855). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Further reading

 Priou, Alex (2016). "The Origin and Foundations of Milesian Thought." The Review of Metaphysics 70, 3–31. External links

 Thales of Miletus from The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Thales of Miletus MacTutor History of Mathematics
 Thales' Theorem – Math Open Reference (with interactive animation)
 Thales biography by Charlene Douglass (with extensive bibliography)
 Thales of Miletus Life, Work and Testimonies by Giannis Stamatellos
 Thales Fragments

6th-century BC Greek people
6th-century BC


title: Robert Boulin

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<mask> (20 July 1920 – 30 October 1979) was a French politician who served as Minister of Labour in the French Cabinet and was at the centre of a major real-estate scandal that ended only with his death in mysterious circumstances. At the time of his death he was the longest serving minister in post-revolution French history; only Louis XIV's Colbert served longer. Career until 1978
<mask> was born in Villandraut, Gironde. A Gaullist who joined the Free French movement in 1940, and rose to lead the movement in Navarre – an achievement for which he was awarded the croix de guerre – <mask> was known for his moderation; the courtesy with which he treated his political opponents led to a reputation as a skilled negotiator. <mask>'s first ministerial position was as refugee minister in 1961, when France was winding up the Algerian war preparing to repatriate more than a million French settlers. Boulin served in the three governments following the establishment of the Fifth Republic in nine different posts; he occupied ministerial posts for fifteen years. His only break in ministerial service came from 1973 to 1976, when he was sidelined for having worked for Chaban-Delmas against Valéry Giscard in the presidential elections.Accusations in the Press
In 1979, when he was being tipped as a successor to the unpopular Raymond Barre as Prime Minister of France, the satirical and investigative weekly Le Canard enchaîné began to publish a series of articles that it said revealed <mask> had taken undue advantage of his position to obtain favourable terms on a series of real estate deals in the French Riviera. The paper printed photographs of letters on official ministry letterhead that purported to show that <mask> had tried to get government representatives in the region to authorize construction of 26 houses in an area where buildings were barred for

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 environmental reasons, and that Boulin tried to get Henri Tournet, the property developer at the center of the scandal, promoted to the Legion of Honor. Further, according to the Le Canard enchaîné, Tournet sold Boulin  near Ramatuelle in 1974 that the developer had already sold to someone else. Boulin said he knew nothing of the dispute until 1978, but a letter quoted by the Canard seemed to indicate that the minister knew beforehand. The paper further claimed that Boulin had paid $8,000 for the land, a third of what the other buyer had paid a year earlier, and was able to get a building permit – within a month, which was unusual – in a wooded area where building had previously not taken place. Death and controversy
On 29 October 1979, Boulin had lunch with his son Bertrand, and subsequently disappeared. Police found his body on the morning of 30 October in a pond in the forest of Rambouillet.Next to his car, which was parked nearby, was an empty container of barbiturates. In the car were envelopes addressed to <mask>'s wife and to his colleagues at the Labor Ministry. Before the contents of the envelopes were known, top governmental leaders publicly accused Le Canard enchaîné of being morally responsible for <mask>'s death, and there were broad hints the government might use the reaction to the <mask> death to seek stricter libel laws, as was done in the 1930s after the suicide of Roger Salengro, the Socialist minister in Léon Blum's Popular Front government, in 1936. Salengro was widely believed to have been hounded by Fascist weeklies. Jacques Chaban-Delmas, then President of the National Assembly, who had been politically identified with <mask> for many years, told a special memorial session of the assembly that it should "draw the lessons of this tragedy, of this assassination." After meeting with President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, Prime

masks: Boulin Boulin Boulin Boulin