title: James Monroe Whitfield

texts:
 sails, with different intent,
   Approached the Western Continent. One vessel bore as rich a freight
   As ever yet has crossed the wave;
The living germs to form a State
   That knows no master, owns no slave. She bore the pilgrims to that strand
   Which since is rendered classic soil,
Where all the honors of the land
   May reach the hardy sons of toil. The other bore the baleful seeds
   Of future fratricidal strife,
The germ of dark and bloody deeds,
   Which prey upon a nation's life.The trafficker in human souls
   Had gathered up and chained his prey,
And stood prepared to call the rolls,
   When, anchored in Virginia's Bay—

Abolition and emigration movements
Frederick Douglass visited <mask>'s barber shop in 1850. From their discussion, Douglass became deeply impressed by <mask>'s poetic abilities, calling him in the Anti-Slavery Bugle a "sable son of genius." Douglass was also impressed by his passion for abolition, commenting that his job as a barber was "painfully disheartening." Although Levine & Ivy, contemporary scholars, contend that the shop was a perfect place to network and exchange ideas. Beyond abolitionism, <mask> originally became a prominent member of the Colonization Movement, a popular movement focused on African Americans returning to Africa and indigenous parts of the South or Central Americas. <mask> broke with Douglass, who was not in favor of emigration and joined with Martin Delany, who favored Haiti or Central America as a location. In August 1853 Delaney, <mask> and others issued a call for a national convention to address the topic to be held in August 1854 in Cleveland Ohio, which was published in Douglass' North Star.A heated debate between Douglass and <mask> was

masks: Whitfield Whitfield Whitfield Whitfield Whitfield Whitfield


title: James Monroe Whitfield

type: original

texts:
 published in several issues after that, which helped frame the issue. <mask> became involved in a proposal by Missouri Senator Frank P. Blair to establish a colony for black colonization in Central America. Later, in 1859, <mask> was possibly sent out to look for land for the project. After the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, <mask> dropped the emigration issue and moved to California, where he believed there was still opportunity for black people to flourish without oppressive laws. Later life
In 1861/62 <mask>, possibly after his wife died, moved to San Francisco where he was considered by most African-Americans of the Northwest as "the" great African-American poet. His home was at 918 and then 1006 Washington St., and his barber shop at 916 Kearney St., all of which he owned. <mask> joined the Prince Hall Freemason Hannibal Lodge #1 and later served as a Worshipful Master for their California Grand Lodge 1864-69.On April 23, 1871, he died of heart disease in San Francisco at the age of 49. <mask> was interred at the now defunct Masonic Cemetery. Legacy
<mask>'s poems are included in the Library of America's anthology African American Poetry: 250 Years of Struggle & Song. Every year one of <mask>'s poem is read out loud at the Exeter, New Hampshire literary festival. See also
African-American literature

References

External links
 <mask> <mask>field

1822 births
1871 deaths
19th-century African-American activists
19th-century American poets
African-American abolitionists
American Prince Hall Freemasons
Activists from New Hampshire
Poets from New Hampshire
Barbers
Writers from Buffalo, New York
Activists from Buffalo, New York
People from Exeter, New Hampshire
Burials at Masonic Cemetery (San

masks:
Whitfield
Whitfield
Whitfield
Whitfield
Whitfield
Whitfield
Whitfield
Whitfield
James Monroe
Whitfieldhit


title: Marilyn Strathern

texts:
Dame <mask>, DBE (née Evans; born 6 March 1941) is a British anthropologist, who has worked largely with the Mount Hagen people of Papua New Guinea and dealt with issues in the UK of reproductive technologies. She was William Wyse Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Cambridge from 1993 to 2008, and Mistress of Girton College, Cambridge from 1998 to 2009. Early life
<mask> was born to Eric Evans and Joyce Evans in North Wales on 6 March 1941. Her first formal education experience was at Crofton Lane Primary School, followed by her attendance at Bromley High School. Strathern excelled academically, in part thanks to support and guidance from her mother, a teacher by trade. Following school, she enrolled in Girton College to study Archaeology and Anthropology. She then became a research student there and went on to obtain her PhD in 1968.She married fellow anthropologist <mask> in 1964 and they had three children together before ending their marriage. Career
	Strathern has held numerous positions over her career,  all of which involved her work with the people of Papua New Guinea and her expertise in feminist anthropology. Her career began in 1970, when she was a Researcher for the New Guinea Research Unit of the Australian National University, followed by a stint from 1976 to 1983 where she was a lecturer at Girton College and then Trinity College from 1984-1985, occasionally making guest lectures at the University of California, Berkeley in the United States, Europe and Australia. She left Cambridge to become Professor of Social Anthropology at Manchester University in 1985. She then returned to Cambridge for the final time in 1993 to take the position of William Wyse Professor of Social Anthropology until her retirement in 2008. During this time, she also held the position of Mistress of Girton College from 1998 to October 2009. Strathern was also co-opted

masks:
Ann Marilyn Strathern
Marilyn Strathern
Andrew Strathern


title: Marilyn Strathern

texts:
 Medal, Papua New Guinea (2005)
Elected to the American Philosophical Society (2016)

In 2000, artist Daphne Todd was commissioned by Girton College, Cambridge, to paint a portrait of Mistress <mask>n. This painting, which depicted <mask> with two heads on separate panels, went on to win Todd the Royal Society of Portrait Painters’ Ondaatje for Portraiture in 2001. Honorary degrees
Honorary Degree Sc. Edinburgh (1993)
Honorary Degree Sc. Copenhagen (1994)
Honorary Degree Lit, Oxford (2004)
Honorary Degree Pol., Helsinki (2006)
Honorary Degree, Panteion University, Athens (2006)
Honorary Degree Sc., Durham (2007)
Honorary Degree Philosophy, University Papua New Guinea (2009)
Honorary Degree Social Sciences, Belfast (2009)
Honorary Doctorate, Australian National University (2015)
 Honorary Doctorate, Harvard University (2019)

References

Citations

Sources

 Strathern, M. (1992, 17 May). The decomposition of an event.Retrieved from http://culanth.org/supplementals/403-the-decomposition-of-an-event

External links
 Shayna Loree Collins, '<mask>n 1941-'
 List of Strathern's recent publications
 'A Community of Critics' R.A.I. Huxley Memorial Lecture, given at University College, London, 8 December 2004 (film)
 interviewed by Alan Macfarlane 6 May 2009 (video)
http://culanth.org/supplementals/403-the-decomposition-of-an-event
 Virtual Society? Get Real! <mask>n paper
 Summary of <mask>n on English kinship

1941 births
Academics of the University of Manchester
Alumni of Girton College, Cambridge
British anthropologists
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of Girton College, Cambridge
Fellows of the British Academy
British feminist writers
Living people
Mistresses of Girton College, Cambridge
People educated at Bromley High School
People from Bromley
University of California, Berkeley faculty
British women anthropologists
Members of the American

masks:
Marilyn Strather
Marilyn
Marilyn Strather
Marilyn Strather
Marilyn Strather


title: William Spence (burgess)

texts:
<mask> (sometimes shown as Spense) was an early Virginia colonist on Jamestown Island. He was member of the first assembly of the Virginia House of Burgesses in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. <mask> became an ensign in the local militia and is thus sometimes identified as Ensign <mask> or <mask>. He was an early farmer on Jamestown Island, a tobacco taster and landowner at Archer's Hope. He, his wife and his young daughter, Sara, or Sarah, avoided the Indian massacre of 1622, but <mask> and his wife were reported "lost" at the census of February 16, 1624. Arrival at Jamestown

Not <mask>

<mask> is sometimes erroneously conflated with <mask> (burgess), another early Virginia colonist who also lived on Jamestown Island but did not arrive at Jamestown until 1611. <mask> later became a member of the House of Burgesses for Mulberry Island in 1632–33, eight years after <mask> was lost and presumed dead.First Supply mission

<mask> came to Virginia in the First Supply mission to Jamestown in 1608. He is sometimes  shown in modern printed lists of passengers as both a "gentleman" and a "labourer," not only a double listing, but in seemingly inconsistent categories. On the other hand, in the names of those arriving at Jamestown in the First Supply voyage in Captain John Smith's The General History, Book 3, Chapter 4, as reprinted in Haile at page 252, <mask> is only listed as a "gentleman. "<ref group=note>A footnote added by editor Edward Wright Haile to the chapter "A True Discourse" by Ralph Hamor in Haile, Edward Wright, ed. Jamestown Narratives: Eyewitness Accounts of the Virginia Colony: The First Decade: 1607-1617. Champlain, VA: RoundHouse, 1998. , p. 814 states that "In his General History, Captain John Smith wrote "from all those farmers, whereof the first was <mask>, an

masks:
William Spence
Spence
William Spence
Ensign Spence
Spence
William Spencer
William Spence
William Spencer
William Spencer
William Spence
William Spence
Spence
William Spence


title: William Spence (burgess)

texts: honest, valiant and industrious man, and hath continued from 1607 to this present [1624]." The 1607 date given in Haile's quote from a Smith writing about <mask> is inconsistent with the arrival of <mask> in the First Supply mission in 1608 as shown by Haile in his excerpts from Smith's The General History at page 252 of Jamestown Narratives.It would coincide with any source which stated that <mask>, rather than <mask>, arrived at Jamestown in 1607 on the Susan Constant, but not with usual accounts of either <mask>'s or <mask>'s arrivals and not with online Susan Constant passenger lists which include neither name. Martha McCartney states, with citations, at McCartney, 2007, p. 661 that <mask> arrived in the First Supply mission and at p. 662 that <mask> arrived in the "Sarah or Susan Constant." The Susan Constant has occasionally been referred to erroneously as the "Sarah Constant", as noted in Grizzard, Frank E. and Dennis Boyd Smith. Jamestown Colony: A Political, Social and Cultural History. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007. , p 216, but this was shown to be in error by Robinson, Gregory, and Robin R. Goodison. Sarah versus Susan. The William and Mary Quarterly 16, No.4, 1936. pages 515-21. Also, the phrase "Sarah or" from McCartney may not require the interpretation that it is referencing different names for the Susan Constant since a ship named the Sara(h) arrived at Jamestown in August 1611 with the returning Sir Thomas Gates (governor). That is consistent with references to <mask> arriving in Jamestown in 1611 on the Sarah the absence of his name from the Susan Constant passenger list or list of first settlers at United States National Park Service. The First Residents of Jamestowne. National Park Service Historic Jamestowne page. Retrieved July 11, 2020 and McCartney's

masks:
Spence
Spence
William Spencer
William Spence
Spence
Spencer
Spence
Spencer
Spencer


title: William Spence (burgess)

texts:
 further sketch of <mask>. McCartney, 2007, p. 322.The Sarah is also shown as arriving at Jamestown in May/June 1612. Kolb, A. E., "Early Passengers to Virginia: When Did They Really Arrive?, 1980, p. 412.</ref>

 Farmer, Landowner

Martha McCartney supports John Smith's statement that <mask> "reportedly" was the first farmer to work his own land on Jamestown Island. She also states that in 1618 <mask> offered to employ workers of the late governor, Sir Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, after West had died at sea while returning to the colony from England in summer 1618. West's subordinate, Captain Edward Brewster, to whom <mask> made the offer, was prevented from taking custody of his goods by Deputy Governor Samuel Argall, who misappropriated West's laborers and artisans to work on his own projects. Burgess

Ensign <mask>, along with Captain <mask>), were members of the first general assembly of the Virginia House of Burgesses for Jamestown in July–August 1619.Henry, <mask>. The First Legislative Assembly in America. In Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1893.Washington, Government Printing Office, 1894. . p. 60. Retrieved July 21, 2011. Later life

In 1619, as a "tobacco taster", <mask> evaluated the quality of tobacco by sampling portions of the tobacco crop. Because of his early arrival at Jamestown and continued residence there, <mask> was considered an "Ancient planter", which was simply a descriptive term. Ancient planters were early Virginia colonists who arrived when the colony was managed by the Virginia Company of London. They received land grants if they stayed in the colony for at least three years. Under the terms of the "Instructions to Governor Yeardley" issued by the London Company in 1618, these colonists received the first

masks:
Spencer
Spence
Spence
Spence
William Spence
William Powell
William Wirt
Spence
Spence


title: William Spence (burgess)

texts: land grants in Virginia.In January 1619, <mask> along with John Fowler received a patent for 300 acres in Archer's Hope, a few miles from Jamestown.The abstract of a patent of 500 acres in Archer's Hope to Lucy Webster, Judith Webster and Jane Webster states that the property included 300 acres patented to <mask> and John Fowler in January 1619. Nugent, Nell Marion. Cavaliers and Pioneers: Abstracts of Virginia Land Patents and Grants, 1623-1800. Volume 1. Richmond, Virginia: Press of the Dietz Co., 1934. p. 161. Since <mask> continued to live at Jamestown Island, McCartney surmises that he placed indentured servants on the property along with his partner, John Fowler, who lived there. Fowler and four others, not including <mask> or his wife, were killed in the Indian massacre of 1622 at <mask>'s house at Archer's Hope.Price, David A.Love & Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas and the Start of a New Nation. New York: Vintage Books, a Division of Random House, Inc., 2003. . pp. 201-208. A list of Virginia land patents sent to England in 1625 included 300 acres in Archer's Hope in the name of <mask>. <mask> had been in England in early 1622 and he returned on the James, which departed for Jamestown on July 21, 1622. The February 16, 1624 census of the Virginia colony's inhabitants listed <mask>, his wife and his young daughter Sara(h), but <mask> and his wife were shown on the list as "lost." They were also shown on a 1624 list of persons who had died since February 1623.Lists of the Livinge & the Dead in Virginia 1623 Transcribed from “Colonial Records of Virginia”, R.F.Walker, Superintendent Public Printing, Richmond, VA, 1874, Clemmitt & Jones, Printers, pp. 37-68. Retrieved July 31, 2020. <mask>'s daughter, <mask>, 4 years old, was entrusted to a 20-year old widow, Mrs.

masks:
William Spence
William Spence
Spence
Spence
Spence
William Spence
Spence
William Spence
Spence
Spence
Sara Spence


title: William Spence (burgess)

texts:
 Susan Bush, as guardian, at Elizabeth City, Virginia. On August 14, 1624, the General Court ordered John Johnson, who had property on Jamestown Island and at Archer's Hope, to put a roof on the house and repair the fence of Ensign <mask>, Johnson's recently deceased neighbor. After 3 months, the court also ordered <mask>'s "guardians" to have her property at Archer's Hope surveyed. On May 16, 1625, <mask>'s guardians, including the Reverend George Keith as well as Susan Bush, were ordered to appear before the General Court.In October 1625, having still not had the property surveyed, the guardians were told by the court that they would be fined if they did not have the land surveyed. Susan Bush placed the <mask> property in the hands of a tenant, Thomas Farley, on November 21, 1625. <mask> died by April 3, 1627 when the court ordered the Reverend George Keith of Elizabeth City to inventory her estate. Susan Bush also may have died by this date since she was not included in the order pertaining to the <mask> property. Death

Records of the exact date and manner of the deaths of <mask> and his wife have not been found. Notes

Citations

References

 Grizzard, Frank E. and Dennis Boyd Smith. Jamestown Colony: A Political, Social and Cultural History.Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007. .
 Haile, Edward Wright, ed. Jamestown Narratives: Eyewitness Accounts of the Virginia Colony: The First Decade: 1607-1617. Champlain, VA: RoundHouse, 1998. .
 Henry, <mask>. The First Legislative Assembly in America. In Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1893. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1894. . Retrieved July 21, 2011. Lists of the Livinge & the Dead in Virginia 1623 Transcribed from “Colonial Records of Virginia”, R.F.Walker, Superintendent Public Printing,

masks:
William Spence
Sara Spence
Sara Spence
Spence
Sara Spence
Spence
William Spence
William Wirt


title: William Spence (burgess)

texts:
 Richmond, VA, 1874, Clemmitt & Jones, Printers, pp. 37–68. Retrieved July 31, 2020. Kolb, Avery E.  Early Passengers to Virginia: When Did They Really Arrive?, The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 88, No. 4, Oct. 1980. via JSTOR.org
 McCartney, Martha W. Virginia immigrants and adventurers, 1607-1635: a biographical dictionary. Baltimore: Genealogical Pub.Co., 2007. .
 Nugent, Nell Marion. Cavaliers and Pioneers: Abstracts of Virginia Land Patents and Grants, 1623-1800. Volume 1. Richmond, Virginia: Press of the Dietz Co., 1934. Price, David A. Love & Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas and the Start of a New Nation. New York: Vintage Books, a Division of Random House, Inc., 2003. .
 Robinson, Gregory, and Robin R. Goodison."Sarah versus Susan." The William and Mary Quarterly 16, No. 4, 1936. pages 515–21. Stanard, <mask>. and Mary Newton Stanard. The Virginia Colonial Register. Albany, NY: Joel Munsell's Sons Publishers, 1902. , Retrieved July 15, 2011. Tyler, Lyon Gardiner in Encyclopedia of Virginia biography.New York: Lewis Historical Pub. Co., 1915. . Retrieved July 21, 2011. United States National Park Service. The First Residents of Jamestowne. National Park Service Historic Jamestowne page. Retrieved July 11, 2020. Woolley, Benjamin.Savage Kingdom: The True Story of Jamestown, 1607, and the Settlement of America. New York: Harper Perennial, 2008. Originally published as Savage Kingdom: Virginia and the Founding of English America'' in the United Kingdom by HarperCollins Publishers, 2007. Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
House of Burgesses members
American people of English descent
Virginia colonial people
Kingdom of England emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
People from Jamestown, Virginia
People from Charles City County,


title: David Wemyss, Lord Elcho

texts:
<mask>, Lord <mask>ss (12 August 172129 April 1787), was a Scottish peer and Jacobite, attainted for his part in the 1745 Rising and deprived of titles and estates. One of the few Jacobites excluded from the 1747 Act of Indemnity, his attempts to return home were unsuccessful and he spent the rest of his life in France and Switzerland. His wife Sofia (1756–1777) died in childbirth; <mask> left no legitimate children and when he died in Paris in 1787, his property passed to a younger brother. His record of the 1745 Rising or A short account of the affairs of Scotland in the years 1744, 1745, 1746, is now considered a key contemporary source for the Rising. Biographical details

<mask>, Lord Elcho was born on 21 August 1721 at Wemyss Castle in Fife, eldest son of James Wemyss, 5th Earl of Wemyss and Janet Charteris (died 1778). His title derived from Elcho Castle; abandoned in the 1730s but restored in the 19th century, it is one of the earliest examples of a Scottish building preserved purely for its historical value. His mother was the only child of Francis Charteris, who became immensely wealthy through his investment in the South Sea Company.A well-known rake, he appears in Hogarth's series A Harlot's Progress, and sentenced to death for rape in 1730 before being pardoned. <mask> had two younger brothers, Francis (1723-1808) and James (1726–1786). His sister Frances (ca 1729-1789) married Sir James Steuart (1707–1780), exiled for his part in the 1745 Rising but allowed home in 1763. He was the author of An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, described as 'one of the key economic works of the 18th century'. In September 1776, <mask> married Sofia (1756–1777), daughter of Reichsgraf Friedrich von Üxküll-Gyllenband, who died in childbirth a year later. He left two illegitimate daughters but

masks:
David Wemyss
Elchomy
Elcho
David Wemyss
Elcho
Elcho


title: David Wemyss, Lord Elcho

texts:
 no legitimate heir and his property passed to his younger brother. He died in 1787 in Paris, where he was buried and his memorial destroyed in the French Revolution.Career

Like many Jacobite sympathisers, <mask> had a background of Non-Juring Episcopalianism, Freemasonry and opposition to the 1707 Union; like the Jacobite peer Earl Kilmarnock, his father was Grand Master of Scotland, as was his brother Francis. However, the family were not considered activists and had not been involved in previous Risings. After his parents separated in 1732, he was sent to Winchester College in England, three weeks journey from his home in Fife; <mask> later recorded he met his father only once between 1734 and 1741. One of his classmates was James, later 6th Duke of Hamilton, whose father claimed to be the senior Scottish Jacobite. A biographer claimed Winchester turned <mask> into a fervent Scots patriot and that he 'disliked all Irishmen, most Englishmen, and a good many Scots.' During the Rising, he allegedly referred to Prince Charles as 'that damned, cowardly Italian', although this is disputed. <mask> left Winchester in 1738 for Reims, followed by a period at the French military academy in Angers, a popular location for young British noblemen.He then went on the 18th century cultural excursion known as the Grand Tour and visited Rome in October 1740, one of whose attractions was the exiled James Stuart and his sons. After the failed 1719 Rising, many Jacobite exiles accepted pardons and returned home, among them Lord George Murray. By 1737, Jacobitism seemed little more than nostalgia and James was reportedly "living tranquilly in Rome, having abandoned all hope of a restoration." Jacobite activist 1740 to 1746

This changed in the late 1730s, as French statesmen sought to reduce British commercial strength,

masks: Elcho Elcho Elcho Elcho


title: David Wemyss, Lord Elcho

texts: whose growth was considered a threat to the European balance of power. Few of them believed the Stuart exiles were a valid option, but <mask> arrived in Rome when they were being taken seriously for the first time in two decades. In 1739, trade disputes between Britain and Spain led to the War of Jenkins' Ear, followed by the wider European conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. French defeat at Dettingen in June 1743 prompted efforts by Louis XV to divert British resources from mainland Europe, including an invasion of England in early 1744 to restore the Stuarts.James gave <mask> a commission as Colonel of dragoons, but the French fleet was severely damaged by winter storms in March and the plan was abandoned. <mask> returned to Edinburgh in December 1744, where he joined the Freemasons and the newly-formed pro-Jacobite Buck Club, whose members included his former Winchester classmate James Hamilton. Another was Murray of Broughton, whom Charles met in Paris earlier in the year, and shared his determination to come to Scotland "though with a single footman". The Club urged him not to do so, unless he brought 6,000 French troops, money and weapons; Charles Stewart, 5th Earl of Traquair (1699–1764), agreed to communicate this to the Prince but failed to do so. When Charles landed at Eriskay on 23 July, <mask>'s first reaction was to 'implore him to return to France', and he stayed at home awaiting developments. Charles persuaded Lochiel and others to back him and launched the Rebellion at Glenfinnan on 19 August. His small force of 1,000 clansmen advanced on Edinburgh, reaching Perth on 4 September, where they were joined by Lord George Murray.<mask> met them outside Edinburgh on 16 September, bringing £1,500 in cash, which was gratefully received by Charles. <mask> was appointed

masks: Elcho Elcho Elcho Elcho Elcho Elcho


title: David Wemyss, Lord Elcho

texts:
 aide-de-camp and a member of the Council of War; made up of 15-20 senior leaders, it was dominated by the Highland chiefs and Perthshire lords who provided most of their manpower. Divisions within the Jacobite leadership were apparent even at this early stage, Charles warning him against Lord George Murray, who he claimed had joined only to 'better betray the cause.' <mask> raised a troop of 'Lifeguards,' the best equipped cavalry unit in the Jacobite Army, who served as Charles' personal escort throughout the campaign. However, the decision to retreat from Derby on 5 December caused an irrevocable breach between the Prince and his Scottish supporters, including <mask>. At Culloden in April 1746, the Lifeguards escorted Charles from the battlefield, who then dismissed them, as he now trusted only the Irish exiles. On 3 May, <mask>, Lord George Murray and other Jacobites were picked up by two French ships, Le Mars and Bellone, who fought their way out past four Royal Navy vessels.Charles was left behind 'as Nobody knew where to seek for him.' Post 1746 Exile

Charles escaped from Scotland in October but the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 ended French support for the Stuart cause, while the Scots no longer trusted him. <mask> lost his titles and lands; the attainder was not reversed until 1821, when Francis Douglas (1772-1853) became 8th Earl of Wemyss. He was excluded from the 1747 Act of Indemnity, allegedly because 'among all the Rebel commanders, he distinguished himself by his brutality and insults and cruelty to our Prisoners.' Like Lord George Murray, he spent the rest of his life in exile, despite pleas to be allowed home. In June 1747, he wrote to Lord Milton, the Lord Justice Clerk of Scotland that 'if his Majesty will allow me to come home, I will give any assurance whatever for my making


title: David Wemyss, Lord Elcho

texts:
 his Majesty a most loyall subject for the future'. The former Jacobite leaders argued bitterly over responsibility for the Rising's failure, and Charles refused to reimburse <mask> for the money advanced at Edinburgh in 1745.He was appointed Captain in Fitzjames's regiment, then Colonel in the Royal-Ecossais after its commander John Drummond died in September 1747. The regiment garrisoned Gravelines and Dunkirk during the 1756 to 1763 Seven Years' War and in July 1770, Louis XV gave him the Order of Military Merit. <mask> divided his time between France and Switzerland, where he bought a property in the Canton of Neuchâtel and became a Swiss citizen. In 1770 he did a marriage proposal to Isabelle de Charrière when he was baron at Cottendart. She had however already decided to marry another man of the same village Colombier, Neuchâtel. On 9 September 1776, he married Sofia von Üxküll-Gyllenband (1756–1777), at Beutal in Switzerland, daughter of Reichsgraf Friedrich von Üxküll-Gyllenband, a minister of the Duchy of Wurttemberg. She died in Bôle, Switzerland on 26 November 1777, giving birth to a son who lived only one day; <mask> "...died in Paris on April 30, 1787 at his home in the Rue St Lazard."Despite his request to be buried with his wife, he was interred in Paris and the cemetery destroyed during the French Revolution. He left two manuscripts, a journal in French, covering the principal years of his life and "A Short Account of the Affairs of Scotland, 1745-1746;" edited by Evan Charteris, this was first published in 1907. References

Sources

People of the Jacobite rising of 1745
People from Fife
Scottish Jacobites
People educated at Winchester College
Naturalised citizens of Switzerland
1721 births
1787 deaths
6
Members of the Royal Company of Archers
David
Scottish

masks: Elcho Elcho Elcho


title: James Dobson

texts:
<mask>.
(born April 21, 1936) is an American evangelical Christian author, psychologist, and founder of Focus on the Family (FOTF), which he led from 1977 until 2010. In the 1980s he was ranked as one of the most influential spokesmen for conservative social positions in American public life. Although never an ordained minister, he was called "the nation's most influential evangelical leader" by The New York Times while Slate portrayed him as a successor to evangelical leaders Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson. As part of his former role in the organization, he produced the daily radio program Focus on the Family, which the organization has said was broadcast in more than a dozen languages and on over 7,000 stations worldwide, and reportedly heard daily by more than 220 million people in 164 countries. Focus on the Family was also carried by about sixty U.S. television stations daily. <mask> also founded the Family Research Council in 1981. He is no longer affiliated with Focus on the Family.<mask> founded Family Talk as a non-profit organization in 2010 and launched a new radio broadcast, Family Talk with Dr. <mask>, that began on May 3, 2010, on over 300 stations nationwide. Early life and education
<mask> was born to Myrtle Georgia (née Dillingham) and <mask><mask>, Sr., on April 21, 1936, in Shreveport, Louisiana. From his earliest childhood, religion played a central part in his life. He once told a reporter that he learned to pray before he learned to talk, and says he gave his life to Jesus at the age of three, in response to an altar call by his father. He is the son, grandson, and great-grandson of Church of the Nazarene ministers. The parents took their young son along to watch his father preach. Like most Nazarenes, they forbade dancing and going to movies.Young "Jimmie Lee" (as he was called) concentrated on his studies. <mask> studied academic psychology, which most evangelical Christians in the 1950s and 1960s did not look upon favorably. He came to believe that he was being called to become a Christian counselor or perhaps a Christian psychologist. He attended

masks:
James Clayton Dobson Jr
Dobson
Dobson
James Dobson
James Dobson
James C
. Dobson
Dobson


title: James Dobson

texts:
 Pasadena College (now Point Loma Nazarene University) as an undergraduate and served as captain of the school's tennis team. In 1967, <mask> received his doctorate in psychology from the University of Southern California. Career
In 1967, he became an Associate Clinical Professor of Pediatrics at the University of Southern California School of Medicine for 14 years. He spent 17 years on the staff of the Children's Hospital of Los Angeles in the Division of Child Development and Medical Genetics.For a time, <mask> worked as an assistant to Paul Popenoe at the Institute of Family Relations, a marriage-counseling center, in Los Angeles. <mask> arguably first became well-known with the publication of Dare to Discipline (1970), which encouraged parents to use corporal punishment in disciplining their children. <mask>'s social and political opinions are widely read among many evangelical church congregations in the United States. In 1977 he founded Focus on the Family. <mask> published monthly bulletins, which were dispensed as inserts in some Sunday church-service bulletins. <mask> interviewed serial killer Ted Bundy on-camera the day before Bundy's execution on January 24, 1989. The interview became controversial because Bundy was given an opportunity to attempt to explain his actions (the rape and murder of 30 young women).Bundy claimed in the interview (in a reversal of his previous stance) that violent pornography played a significant role in molding and crystallizing his fantasies. In May 1989, during an interview with John Tanner, a Republican Florida prosecutor, <mask> called for Bundy to be forgiven. The Bundy tapes gave Focus on the Family revenues of over $1 million, $600,000 of which it donated to anti-pornography groups and to anti-abortion groups. <mask> stepped down as President and CEO of Focus on the Family in 2003, and resigned from the position of chairman of the board in February 2009. <mask> explained his departure as twofold: one to allow a smooth transfer of leadership to the next generation, and in this case, to Jim Daly who he directly appointed as his

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 replacement. And secondly, due to some differences in opinion about organizational positions which represented "significant philosophical differences" with successor Jim Daly. He said, "I have believed for many years that one of the biggest mistakes a founder and president can make is to stay too long.By holding the reins of power as the years go by, an executive prevents his organization from developing the leadership to carry on when he dies or suddenly decides to step down. Then a crisis can occur that may even doom the ministry. We have all seen that happen." In 2010, <mask> founded the Dr. <mask> Family Institute, a non-profit organization that produces his radio program, Dr. <mask>'s Family Talk. <mask> frequently appears as a guest on the Fox News Channel. Personal life

<mask> married Shirley Deere on August 26, 1960. The couple have two children, Danae and Ryan.Ryan was adopted by the <mask>s. Awards
At the invitation of Presidents and Attorneys General, <mask> has also served on government advisory panels and testified at several government hearings. He was given the "Layman of the Year" award by the National Association of Evangelicals in 1982, "The Children's Friend" honor by Childhelp USA (an advocate agency against child abuse) in 1987, and the Humanitarian Award by the California Psychological Association in 1988. In 2005, <mask> received an honorary doctorate (his 16th) from Indiana Wesleyan University and was inducted into IWU's Society of World Changers, while speaking at the university's Academic Convocation. In 2008, <mask>'s Focus on the Family program was nominated for induction into the National Radio Hall of Fame. Nominations were made by the 157 members of the Hall of Fame and voting on inductees was handed over to the public using online voting. The nomination drew the ire of gay rights activists, who attempted to have the program removed from the nominee list and to vote for other nominees to prevent it from being approved.However, the program garnered enough votes and was subsequently inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame. Social views

Views on

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<mask> is a strong proponent of marriage defined as "one where husband and wife are lawfully married, are committed to each other for life," and have a homemaker mother and breadwinner father. According to his view, women are not deemed inferior to men because both are created in God's image, but each gender has biblically mandated roles. He recommends that married women with children under the age of 18 focus on mothering, rather than work outside the home. In his 2004 book Marriage Under Fire, <mask> suggests that heterosexual marriage rates in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have been falling, and that this is due to the recognition of same-sex relationships by those countries during the 1990s. He remarks that the "institution of marriage in those countries is rapidly dying" as a result, with most young people cohabiting or choosing to remain single (living alone) and illegitimacy rates rising in some Norwegian counties up to 80%. <mask> writes that "every civilization in the world" has been built upon marriage.He also believes that homosexuality is neither a choice nor genetic, but is caused by external factors during early childhood. He anecdotally cites as evidence the life of actress Anne Heche, who was previously in a relationship with Ellen DeGeneres. Criticizing "the realities of judicial tyranny," <mask> has written that "[t]here is no issue today that is more significant to our culture than the defense of the family. Not even the war on terror eclipses it." Critics have stated that <mask>'s views on homosexuality do not represent the mainstream views of the mental health community, with Dan Gilgoff referring to the positions of the American Psychiatric Association and the American Psychological Association on homosexuality. Views on schooling
Focus on the Family supports private school vouchers and tax credits for religious schools. According to Focus on the Family website, <mask> believes that parents are ultimately responsible for their children's education, and encourages parents to visit their children's schools to ask questions and to join the PTA so

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 that they may voice their opinions.<mask> opposes sex education curricula that are not abstinence-only. According to People for the American Way, Focus on the Family material has been used to challenge a book or curriculum taught in public schools. Critics, such as People for the American Way, allege that Focus on the Family encourages Christian teachers to establish prayer groups in public schools. <mask> supports student-led prayer in public schools, and believes that allowing student-led Christian prayer in schools does not violate the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Views on discipline within the family
In his book Dare to Discipline, <mask> advocates the spanking of children up to eight years old when they misbehave, but warns that "corporal punishment should not be a frequent occurrence" and that "discipline must not be harsh and destructive to the child's spirit." He warns against "harsh spanking" because "It is not necessary to beat the child into submission; a little bit of pain goes a long way for a young child. However, the spanking should be of sufficient magnitude to cause the child to cry genuinely."<mask> has called disciplining children to be a necessary but unpleasant part of raising children that should only be carried out by qualified parents:

In his book The Strong-Willed Child, <mask> suggests that if authority is portrayed correctly to a child, the child will understand how to interact with other authority figures:

In <mask>'s opinion, parents must uphold their authority and do so consistently: "When you are defiantly challenged, win decisively." In The Strong-Willed Child, <mask> draws an analogy between the defiance of a family pet and that of a small child, and concludes that "just as surely as a dog will occasionally challenge the authority of his leaders, so will a little child—only more so" (emphasis in original). When asked "How long do you think a child should be allowed to cry after being punished? Is there a limit?" <mask> responded:

Sociologists John Bartkowski and Christopher Ellison have stated that <mask>'s views


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 "diverge sharply from those recommended by contemporary mainstream experts" and are not based on any sort of empirical testing, but rather are nothing more than expressions of his religious doctrines of "biblical literalism and 'authority-mindedness. Views on tolerance and diversity
In the winter of 2004-2005, the We Are Family Foundation sent American elementary schools approximately 60,000 copies of a free DVD using popular cartoon characters (especially SpongeBob SquarePants) to "promote tolerance and diversity." <mask> contended that "tolerance" and "diversity" are "buzzwords" that the We Are Family Foundation misused as part of a "hidden agenda" to promote homosexuality.Kate Zernik noted <mask> asserting: "tolerance and its first cousin, diversity, 'are almost always buzzwords for homosexual advocacy.'" He stated on the Focus on the Family website that "childhood symbols are apparently being hijacked to promote an agenda that involves teaching homosexual propaganda to children." He offered as evidence the association of many leading LGBT rights organizations, including GLAAD, GLSEN, HRC, and PFLAG, with the We Are Family Foundation as shown by links which he claims once existed on their website. The We Are Family Foundation countered that <mask> had mistaken their organization with "an unrelated Web site belonging to another group called 'We Are Family,' which supports gay youth." <mask> countered:

In September 2005, Tolerance.org published a follow-up message advertising the DVD's continued availability, including We Are Family Foundation president Nancy Hunt's speculation that many of the DVDs may be "still sitting in boxes, unused, because of Dobson's vitriolic attack." Views on homosexuality
<mask> believes that God defines marriage as between one man and one woman only and describes this as the central stabilizing institution of society. <mask> believes that any sexual activity outside of such a union—including homosexuality—cannot be approved by God.In <mask>'s view, homosexuality results from influences in a child's environment rather than an inborn trait. He

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texts: states that homosexual behavior, specifically "unwanted same-sex attraction", has been and can be "overcome" through understanding developmental models for homosexuality and choosing to heal the complex developmental issues which led to same-sex attraction. Focus on the Family ministry sponsors the monthly conference Love Won Out, where participants hear "powerful stories of ex-gay men and women." Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (P-FLAG) has protested against the conference in Orlando, questioning both its methodology and supposed success. In regards to the conference, <mask> has stated that "Gay activists come with preconceived notions about who we are and what we believe and about the hate that boils from within, which is simply not true. Regardless of what the media might say, Focus on the Family has no interest in promoting hatred toward homosexuals or anyone else. We also don't wish to deprive them of their basic constitutional rights ...The Constitution applies to all of us." <mask> strongly opposes the movement to legitimize same-sex relationships. In his book Bringing Up Boys, <mask> states, "[T]he disorder is not typically 'chosen.' Homosexuals deeply resent being told that they selected this same-sex inclination in pursuit of sexual excitement or some other motive. It is unfair, and I don't blame them for being irritated by that assumption. Who among us would knowingly choose a path that would result in alienation from family, rejection by friends, disdain from the heterosexual world, exposure to sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS and tuberculosis, and even a shorter lifespan?" Sociologist Judith Stacey criticized <mask> for claiming that sociological studies show that gay couples do not make good parents.She stated that <mask>'s claim "is a direct misrepresentation of my research." In response to <mask>'s claim that "there have been more than ten thousand studies that have showed that children do best when they are raised with a mother and a father who are committed to each other," Stacey replied that "[a]ll of those studies that <mask>


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 is referring to are studies that did not include gay or lesbian parents as part of the research base." <mask> objected to a bill expanding the prohibition of sexual orientation-based discrimination in the areas of "public accommodation, housing practices, family planning services and twenty other areas." He said that, were such a bill passed, public businesses could no longer separate locker rooms and bathrooms by gender, which he claimed would lead to a situation where, "every woman and little girl will have to fear that a predator, bisexual, cross-dresser or even a homosexual or heterosexual male might walk in and relieve himself in their presence." Political and social influence

Although <mask> initially remained somewhat distant from Washington politics, in 1981 he founded the Family Research Council as a political arm through which "social conservative causes" could achieve greater political influence. In 1996, he cast a vote for U.S. Taxpayers' Party Presidential candidate Howard Phillips. In late 2004, <mask> led a campaign to block the appointment of Arlen Specter to head of the Senate Judiciary Committee because of Specter's pro-abortion rights stance.Responding to a question by Fox News personality Alan Colmes on whether he wanted the Republican Party to be known as a "big-tent party," he replied, "I don't want to be in the big tent ... I think the party ought to stand for something." In 2006, Focus on the Family spent more than a half million dollars to promote a constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage in its home state of Colorado. A May 2005 article by Chris Hedges in Harper's Magazine described <mask> as "perhaps the most powerful figure in the Dominionist movement" and "a crucial player in getting out the Christian vote for George W. Bush." Discernment Ministries, a site that describes dominionism as a heresy, characterized <mask> as belonging to the "Patriotic American" brand of dominionism, calling him "One of its most powerful leaders." In November 2004, <mask> was described by the online magazine Slate as "America's most influential evangelical

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texts: leader."The article stated "Forget Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, who in their dotage have marginalized themselves with gaffes ... <mask> is now America's most influential evangelical leader, with a following reportedly greater than that of either Falwell or Robertson at his peak ... <mask> may have delivered Bush his victories in Ohio and Florida." Further, "He's already leveraging his new power. When a thank-you call came from the White House, <mask> issued the staffer a blunt warning that Bush "needs to be more aggressive" about pressing the religious right's pro-life, anti-gay rights agenda, or it would "pay a price in four years". <mask> has sometimes complained that the Republican Party may take the votes of social conservatives for granted, and has suggested that evangelicals may withhold support from the GOP if the party does not more strongly support conservative family issues: "Does the Republican Party want our votes, no string attached—to court us every two years, and then to say, 'Don't call me, I'll call you'—and not to care about the moral law of the universe? ... Is that what they want? Is that the way the system works? Is this the way it's going to be?If it is, I'm gone, and if I go, I will do everything I can to take as many people with me as possible." However, in 2006, <mask> said that, while "there is disillusionment out there with Republicans" and "that worries me greatly," he nonetheless suggested voters turn out and vote Republican in 2006. "My first inclination was to sit this one out," but according to The New York Times, <mask> then added that "he had changed his mind when he looked at who would become the leaders of Congressional committees if the Democrats took over." <mask> garnered national media attention once again in February 2008 after releasing a statement in the wake of Senator John McCain's expected success in the so-called "Super Tuesday" Republican primary elections. In his statement, <mask> said: "I cannot, and will not, vote for Senator John McCain, as a matter of conscience," and indicated that he would refrain from voting

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 altogether if McCain were to become the Republican candidate, echoing other conservative commentators' concerns about the Senator's conservatism. He endorsed Mike Huckabee for president. After McCain selected an anti-abortion candidate, Sarah Palin, as his running mate, <mask> said that he was more enthusiastic in his support for the Republican ticket.When Palin's 17-year-old daughter's pregnancy was revealed, <mask> issued a press release commending Palin's stance, saying,

On June 24, 2008, <mask> criticized statements made by U.S. Presidential candidate Barack Obama in Obama's 2006 "Call to Renewal" address. <mask> stated that Obama was "distorting the traditional understanding of the Bible to fit his own world view." On October 23, 2008, <mask> published a "Letter from 2012 in Obama's America" that proposed that an Obama presidency could lead to: mandated homosexual teachings across all schools; the banning of firearms in entire states; the end of the Boy Scouts, home schooling, Christian school groups, Christian adoption agencies, and talk radio; pornography on prime-time and daytime television; mandatory bonuses for gay soldiers; terrorist attacks across America; the nuclear bombing of Tel Aviv; the conquering of most of Eastern Europe by Russia; the end of health care for Americans over 80; out-of-control gasoline prices; and complete economic disaster in the United States, among other catastrophes. In the days after the 2008 presidential election, <mask> stated on his radio program that he was mourning the Obama election, claiming that Obama supported infanticide, would be responsible for the deaths of millions of unborn children, and was "going to appoint the most liberal justices to the Supreme Court, perhaps, that we've ever had." <mask> supports intelligent design and has spoken at conferences on the subject, and frequently criticizes evolution. In 2007, <mask> was one of 25 evangelicals who called for the ouster of Rev. Richard Cizik from his position at the National Association of Evangelicals because Cizik had taken a stance urging evangelicals to take global


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 warming seriously.On June 13, 2007, the National Right to Life Committee ousted Colorado Right to Life after the latter ran a full-page ad criticizing <mask>. On May 30, 2010, <mask> delivered the pre-race invocation at the NASCAR Coca-Cola 600 automobile race, raising criticism about his association with a sport associated with sponsors and activities which would not meet his definition of family-friendly. At a National Day of Prayer event in the U.S. Capitol, <mask> called Barack Obama "the abortion president." He said, "President Obama, before he was elected, made it very clear that he wanted to be the abortion president. He didn't make any bones about it. This is something that he really was going to promote and support, and he has done that, and in a sense he is the abortion president." Among others, Rep. Janice Hahn complained because <mask> used the National Day of Prayer for partisan purposes.She said, "<mask> just blew a hole into this idea of being a nonpartisan National Day of Prayer. It was very disturbing to me ... and really a shame. <mask> hijacked the National Day of Prayer—this nonpartisan, nonpolitical National Day of Prayer—to promote his own distorted political agenda." <mask> endorsed Ted Cruz in the 2016 Republican primaries. <mask> would later go on to endorse Trump in the general election against Hillary Clinton. <mask> has been named by Christianity Today as one of the Trump Administration's top "Evangelical Faith Advisers". In 2020, <mask> worked alongside other conservative Evangelicals and Evangelical organizations, including Jim Daly and Focus on the Family, to support the reelection of President Donald Trump.He echoed his support of the President throughout the impeachment proceedings earlier that year. Ecumenical relations
<mask> and Charles Colson were two participants in a 2000 conference at the Vatican on the global economy's impact on families. During the conference, the two Protestants met with Pope John Paul II. <mask> later told Catholic News Service that though he has theological differences with Roman Catholicism, "when it comes to the

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 family, there is far more agreement than disagreement, and with regard to moral issues from abortion to premarital sex, safe-sex ideology and homosexuality, I find more in common with Catholics than with some of my evangelical brothers and sisters." In November 2009, <mask> signed an ecumenical statement known as the Manhattan Declaration calling on evangelicals, Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians not to comply with rules and laws permitting abortion, same-sex marriage and other matters that go against their religious consciences. Publications
<mask> has authored or co-authored 36 books, including:

Books as sole author

Books with others
  (Foreword)

Notable articles and reports
 <mask> served on the committee that wrote the Meese Report on pornography. See also

Notes

References

Further reading
 Apostolidis, Paul.Stations of the Cross: Adorno and Christian Right Radio (2000). excerpt and text search, analysis of <mask>'s radio programs

 Løvdal, Hilde, Family Matters: <mask> and the Focus on the Family's Message to American Evangelicals, 1970–2010 (PhD dissertation, University of Oslo, Norway, 2012). External links

 Dr. <mask>'s Family Talk

 "And on the Eighth Day, Dr. <mask> Created Himself" – article by Eileen Welsome in 5280 Magazine

1936 births
Living people
20th-century American male writers
20th-century Protestants
21st-century American male writers
21st-century Protestants
Activists from California
Alliance Defending Freedom people
American Christian Zionists
American evangelicals
American evangelists
American anti-abortion activists
American psychologists
American radio personalities
American radio producers
California Republicans
Christians from California
Christians from Colorado
Christians from Louisiana
Focus on the Family people
Intelligent design advocates
Leaders of Christian parachurch organizations
Louisiana Republicans
Point Loma Nazarene Sea Lions men's tennis players
Promise Keepers
University of Southern California alumni
University of Southern California faculty
Writers from Shreveport, Louisiana
20th-century American

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title: Massari

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Sari Abboud (; born December 10, 1980), better known by his stage name <mask> ( ), is a Lebanese Canadian R&B pop recording artist. His music combines Middle Eastern culture with western culture. He started his musical career in 2001–2002, and has released three albums, Massari in 2005, Forever Massari in 2009 and Tune In in 2018. He has had a number of hit singles in Canada, his home country of Lebanon, the Middle East, Europe, and internationally. He is managed by SAL&CO. Early life and education
He was born in Beirut, Lebanon. His family relocated to Montreal, Quebec when he was 11 years old.At the age of 13, he and his younger brothers moved to Ottawa, Ontario, where he attended Hillcrest High School. Musical career
He started his musical career in 2001-2002 adopting the stage name <mask>, which in Lebanese Arabic, Massari ( ) means "money". The chosen name is also reminiscent of his birth name Sari. His cultural and social upbringing shaped his musical style very early in his music career. He released his first song "Spitfire" (2002) which was aired on Ottawa radio stations. Since then, <mask> has been steadily writing and developing his sound. 2005-2007: Debut self-titled album and success with CP Records
After three years of preparation, he released a self-titled album Massari on CP Records.His debut album resulted in four singles, receiving Gold certification in Canada, and he continued to have international success in Europe, Asia, the Middle East. Two of his early singles "Be Easy" and "Real Love" besides being

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 two of his major hits in Canada, cracking the Canadian Top 10, they also charted notably in the German Singles Chart. Based on his initial success, <mask> signed a record deal with independent record label, CP Records, becoming the prominent successful performing artist for the record company alongside rapper Belly. On November 14, 2007, <mask> and his record label, CP Records, came to a mutual agreement to end their relationship. 2009-2010: <mask> and signing with Universal
During 2009, he released two tracks from the forthcoming album, namely "Bad Girl" and "Body Body". The album itself Forever Massari was officially released on Universal Records Canada on 10 November 2009. It included songs by writers and producers like Rupert Gayle, Alex Greggs, Derek Brin, Rob Wells and Justin Forsley.2011-2013: Signing again with CP and Hero EP
In summer of 2011, <mask> signed again with CP Records, after five years of his departure from the label. On June 20, 2012, <mask> realized there was money to be made off of the Middle Eastern ethnic audience, and released a free single called "Full Circle" featuring Belly as the lead single from his first EP Hero. <mask>'s second single for the EP, called "Brand New Day", was released on July 1, 2012 (Canada Day). <mask> shot the video in Miami with Canadian director RT!. In January 2013, "Brand New Day" went Gold in Canada. It also charted on the Austrian Ö3 Austria Top 40, German Media Control Charts and Swiss Hitparade. The third single from the EP, "Shisha", features French Montana.It was

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 released on May 21, 2013. 2017-present: Tune In
On March 24, 2017, <mask> released a brand new song "So Long" along with a music video featuring former Miss Universe Pia Wurtzbach. It is the first single from his third album Tune In. The album contains features from Tory Lanez, Beenie Man, Shaggy, Afrojack and producer DaHeala. On March 31, 2017, a follow-up single "Done Da Da" was released along with a music video which received over 7.2 million views within 3 weeks on Vevo. Artistry

Influences
<mask> is fluent in English, Arabic, and French. He has been exposed to a wide variety of music styles.He says his biggest influence is George Wassouf <mask> says, "I sing from my heart and George Wassouf taught me to do that." Many of <mask>'s songs are influenced by his Middle-Eastern origins. Most of his songs contain Middle-Eastern Arabic melodies. <mask> says, "Because of my background, my music is heavily influenced by Middle-Eastern melodies. Over the past few years so many artists are trying to bring Arabic styles into their music, but mine is authentic." <mask> sings and raps about women. "My music is made for the ladies because that's where I get my inspiration.You'll notice a lot of the music is upbeat and positive. Women give off so much energy; it's hard not to be inspired by them." Music style
A large portion of <mask>'s work incorporates elements of both singing and rapping, depending on whether or not another artist is featured on the track. Overall, <mask> incorporates elements of R&B, hip hop, and pop in his

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title: Owen Roe O'Neill

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<mask>'Neill (Irish: Eoghan Ruadh Ó Néill;  – 1649) was a Gaelic Irish soldier and one of the most famous of the O'Neill dynasty of Ulster. O'Neill left Ireland at a young age and spent most of his life as a mercenary in the Spanish Army serving against the Dutch in Flanders during the Eighty Years' War. After the Irish Rebellion of 1641, O'Neill returned and took command of the Irish Confederate Ulster Army. He is known for his victory at the Battle of Benburb in 1646. O'Neill's later years were marked by infighting amongst the Confederates, and in 1647 he led his army to seize power in the capital of Kilkenny. His troops clashed with rival forces of the Confederacy, leading to O'Neill forming a temporary alliance with Charles Coote's English Parliamentary forces in Ulster. He initially rejected a treaty of alliance between the Confederates and the Irish Royalists, but faced with the Cromwellian invasion he changed his mind.Shortly after agreeing an alliance with the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland Ormond, in which he was promised an Earldom, he died on Tuesday, 6 November 1649. Early life

O'Neill was the illegitimate son of Art MacBaron O'Neill, a son of Matthew O'Neill, 1st Baron Dungannon and younger brother of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, who held lands in County Armagh. His alleged great-grandfather was Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, the most powerful figure in Ulster and the first O'Neill to take a title from the Crown as part of the


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texts: representative of the O'Neills and head of the Ulster Irish.Sir Phelim O'Neill resigned the northern command of the Irish rebellion in Eoghan Rua's favour and escorted him from Lough Swilly to Charlemont. Upon arrival in Ireland, he received a letter from an English parliamentarian general by the name of Leslie, telling O'Neill that he was sad O'Neill, as an experienced officer, was committing himself to such a cause and that he should return to Spain. O'Neill responded that his cause in Ireland was far more honourable than an English general fighting against his own King. But distrust between the kinsmen was complicated by differences between <mask> O'Neill and the Catholic Confederation which met at Kilkenny in October 1642. Phelim professed to be acting in the interest of Charles I; O'Neill's aim was complete independence of Ireland as a Catholic country, while the Old English Catholics represented by the council desired to secure religious liberty and an Irish constitution under English rule. O'Neill wanted the Plantation of Ulster overturned and the recovery of the O'Neill dynasty's lands. The majority of Confederate military resources were directed to Thomas Preston's Leinster Army.Preston, an Old English Catholic, was also a Spanish veteran but he and O'Neill had an intense personal dislike of each other. Mainly because Preston had been given the available military resources, O'Neill was outnumbered by the Scottish Covenanter army that had


title: Owen Roe O'Neill

texts: complications to do with gout, which he had complained about several days before his death. Given O'Neill's well-known excellent defensive abilities, and immense experience in siege warfare, he could have been a serious threat to Cromwell's invasion, and that would be reason enough to assassinate O'Neill. However, there is no evidence to support this, and it is generally accepted now that he died of gout. Under cover of night he was said to have been brought to the Franciscan abbey in Cavan town for burial.Local tradition is that he was buried at Trinity Abbey, on an island in Lough Oughter. His death was a major blow to the Irish of Ulster and was kept secret for some time. After his death, the command of the Ulster army fell to his son <mask> until a replacement was found. Catholic nobles and gentry met in Ulster in March to appoint a commander to succeed O'Neill. Their choice was Heber MacMahon, Bishop of Clogher. The Ulster army was unable to prevent the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, despite a successful defence of Clonmel by O'Neill's nephew Hugh Duff O'Neill and was destroyed at the Battle of Scarrifholis in Donegal in 1650. Its remnants continued guerrilla warfare until 1653 when they surrendered at Cloughoughter Castle in County Cavan.Most of the survivors were transported to serve in the Spanish Army. In the 19th century, O'Neill was celebrated by the Irish nationalist revolutionaries, the Young Irelanders, as a patriot. Thomas Davis


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 wrote a song about O'Neill, "The Lament for <mask> Roe", first published in the Young Ireland newspaper The Nation. Drawing on an older tune composed by Toirdheallbhach Ua Cearbhalláin O'Carolan (English: Turlogh O'Carolan), it portrays his death as an assassination and the main cause of the subsequent defeat to Cromwell's English Republican forces. Its first verse is:

“Did they dare, did they dare, to slay <mask> O’Neill?”
“Yes, they slew with poison him they feared to meet with steel.”
“May God wither up their hearts! May their blood cease to flow,
May they walk in living death, who poisoned <mask>.”

Tommy Makem composed a song, "The Battle of Benburb", which commemorates O'Neill's 1646 victory over the Scottish Covenanters. Commemoration
O'Neill is commemorated in the names of several Gaelic Athletic Association clubs in Northern Ireland, including (in Armagh) Eoghan Ruadh Middletown; (in Derry) CLG Eoghan Rua, Coleraine; (in Dublin) St Oliver Plunketts/Eoghan Ruadh GAA, and (in Tyrone) Brackaville Owen Roes GFC; <mask> O'Neill's GAC, Leckpatrick; Dungannon Eoghan Ruadh Hurling Club, in Down, Kilcoo Owen Roes GAC and the defunct Benburb Eoghan Ruadh GAC

The Irish Army opened a new barracks in 1990, to replace the old military post in Cavan Town since 1707?, and named it "Dún Uí Néill" (O'Neill's Fort or Fort of O'Neill).A & Sp companies of the 29th Infantry Battalion conducted border patrols and Aid To Civil Power operations from here. It

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 was subsequently closed in 2012 during Defence Forces restructuring. Citations

Sources

 – 1643 to 1660
 – Snippet view

 – (online edition)

Further reading

Davis, Thomas, Lament for the Death of <mask> O'Neill

Lenihan, Padraig, Confederate Catholics at War
de Mesa, Eduardo ‘The career of <mask> O'Neill in the Spanish Army of Flanders (1606-1642): documentation held in Spanish archives’, Archivium Hibernicum. Irish Historical Records, 67 (2014), pp. 7-24. Ó Hanrachain, Tadhg, The Catholic Reformation in Ireland
Rankin, Deana, Between Spenser and Swift – English Writing in seventeenth century Ireland

Wheeler, James Scott, Cromwell in Ireland

External links

 British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Protectorate 1638–60
 Turlough O'Carolans "Cumha Eoghain Ruaidh Uí Néill" or "Lament for <mask> O'Neill"
 Thomas Davis, "Lament for the Death of <mask> O'Neill"

1580s births
1649 deaths
17th-century Irish people
Irish expatriates in Spain
Irish expatriates in France
Irish expatriates in Belgium
Irish expatriates in the Netherlands
Irish generals
O'Neill
O'Neill
Irish soldiers in the Spanish Army
O'Neill dynasty
People from County

masks:
Owen Roe
Owen Roe
Owen Roe
Owen Roe


title: Grace DeMoss

texts:
<mask> (born 1927) is a former competitive women's American amateur golfer from Oregon. She was the first Pacific Northwesterner to be named to the United States Curtis Cup team in 1952 and then again in 1954. After retiring from competitive golf, Zwahlen was elected to numerous sports Halls of Fame. From 1986 to 2017 she gave back to the game of golf by serving as a girls' golf coach at high schools in Oregon and Southern California. Early life and career
<mask> was born in Corvallis, Oregon, one of five daughters of <mask>, a Corvallis businessman. She started playing golf as a teenager at the Corvallis Country Club, though she was initially more interested in equestrian sports. She entered her first tournament, the Portland Open, in 1945 and came in last place.In her next major tournament a year later, the Pacific Northwest Golf Association Amateur, she made the semifinals, and then a year after that, lost in the finals. Her first tournament victory came in the 1947 Portland City Amateur. Golf success
After her win in Portland, she entered tournaments across North America, primarily on the west coast. In 1949, she won her first major tournament, the Canadian Women's Amateur. Following that win, she played throughout the winter in California to keep her game sharp. In 1950, she won the Pacific Northwest Amateur Championship played at Capilano Golf and Country Club in West Vancouver, British Columbia. She followed this victory with a semifinalist finish at the U.S. Women's Amateur, and was a finalist at the Canadian Women's

masks:
Grace DeMoss Zwahlen
DeMoss
Ray DeMoss


title: Grace DeMoss

texts:
 Amateur, the Women's Trans-Mississippi, and the Oregon Women's Amateur, and was medalist at the Women's Western Open.In 1952, she was named to the United States' Curtis Cup team, the first golfer from the Northwest to receive the honor. However, that year, the American team lost the Cup for the first time since its inception. Two years later, in 1954, <mask> was again named to the team. This time, <mask> and her team reclaimed the Cup at the matches contested at Merion Golf Club. Following her early success, she relocated to Florida to play golf year round where she won Florida Women's Amateur championships in 1955, 1957, and 1958. She returned to the Northwest to claim three straight Oregon women's amateur titles from 1956 to 1958. She continued to play competitively into the 1960s before retiring to start and raise her family.From 1986–2006, she was the girls' golf coach at Crescent Valley High School in her hometown of Corvallis, Oregon and from 2007–2017 she was the girls' freshman/sophomore golf coach at Santa Margarita Catholic High School in Rancho Santa Margarita, California. Personal
<mask> graduated from Oregon State University in 1952, but did not compete collegiately as Oregon State did not have a women's golf team until the 1970s. Following her graduation, <mask> married Howard K. Smith and golfed as "Mrs. <mask> Smith" or "Mrs. Howard Smith" for several years. She was later married to Fred C. Zwahlen Jr., who was the founder and chairman of the Department of Journalism at Oregon State, from the late 1950s until

masks:
DeMoss
DeMoss
DeMoss
DeMoss
Grace DeMoss


title: Grace DeMoss

texts:
 his death in 2004. <mask>'s family is linked to several other Oregon sports legends. Her sister Maxine married Oregon State football and basketball player Don Durdan, and another sister, Rae Ardis, married Durdan's teammate Quentin Greenough. Durdan, was the MVP of the 1942 Rose Bowl game and, in 1998, was inducted into the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame.After serving in the United States Navy during World War II, Durdan went on to play professional football for the San Francisco 49ers. Her brother-in-law, Ernie Zwahlen, played football at Oregon State and was the starting defensive tackle on Oregon State's 1957 Rose Bowl team and 1962 Liberty Bowl team. He went on to become an offensive line coach for the New York Jets, San Francisco 49ers, Houston Oilers and Baltimore Colts. Later he was a minority owner of the Houston Aeros professional hockey team. <mask>'s nephew, Dave Roberts, was the first overall player selected in the 1972 Major League Baseball draft, by the San Diego Padres. Roberts had a 10-year MLB career playing for the San Diego Padres, Texas Rangers, Houston Astros and Philadelphia Phillies. <mask> resides in Coto de Caza, California and has two children, daughter Molly Katherine Zwahlen Walsh (husband Mark Walsh) also of Coto de Caza and son Skip <mask> Zwahlen of Venice, California.Honors
She was named to the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame in 1986, the Oregon State University Sports Hall of Fame in 1991, and the Pacific Northwest Golf Association Hall of Fame in 1993. and the Corvallis High School Hall of Fame in

masks: DeMoss DeMoss DeMoss DeMoss


title: Olivier Panis

texts:
<mask> (born 2 September 1966) is a French former racing driver. <mask> drove in Formula One for ten seasons, scoring his only win at the 1996 Monaco Grand Prix for the Ligier team. He is the father of racing driver <mask>. Career
Born in Oullins, Lyon, <mask>, like many Formula 1 racing drivers, raced karts early in his career. After graduating from karts, <mask> raced several years in a number of "junior" series before racing in French Formula 3. He won a championship in Formula Renault in 1989 and finished second in French Formula 3 in 1991. He eventually found himself in Formula 3000, and he won the series' championship there in 1993.Formula One
The 27-year-old <mask> earned an F1 drive in 1994 for the French-based Ligier team. He made his debut at Brazil, finishing eleventh. He earned a surprise second place that season at Hockenheim ahead of teammate Éric Bernard, and finished 11th in the standings for the marque. He finished every race except France. He was however disqualified in Portugal for illegal skid block wear. He earned another surprise second place at the 1995 Australian Grand Prix, in spite of being two laps behind the leader Damon Hill, and he also added a handful of fourths to his resume, giving him an 8th-place finish in the championship. <mask> took a shock win in the 1996 Monaco Grand Prix.Starting 14th on a wet track, <mask> passed other rivals on the narrow circuit, including Martin Brundle, Mika Häkkinen and Johnny Herbert, and timed his change onto slick tyres perfectly. He overtook Eddie Irvine at the Lowes Hairpin and was running in third place before the Williams-Renault of Damon Hill and Benetton-Renault of Jean Alesi both hit terminal technical difficulties. One of only 3 cars to finish the race, (Brits David Coulthard and Johnny Herbert being the other two) <mask> held off a late charge from Coulthard to win. The race finished on 75 of the 78 scheduled laps due to the two-hour time limit being reached. <mask>' victory was the Ligier team's first victory in 15 years (and their

masks:
Olivier Panis
Panis
Aurélien Panis
Panis
Olivier
Panis
Panis
Panis
Panis
Panis


title: Olivier Panis

texts: last), and it was the first French victory in a French car at Monaco in 66 years. However, it was the only highlight to his  season, and he otherwise failed to do any better than 5th place in Hungary. <mask> had the potential for a big season in  while driving for Alain Prost, who had purchased Ligier.On Bridgestone tyres, he took the tyre company's first podium at Brazil. He was running second in Argentina before retirement. After 6 races, he stood third in the championship thanks to another podium finish with second place in Spain. A win could have been possible in that race had he not been held up lapping backmarkers for seven laps, losing him a total of 6 seconds to leader Jacques Villeneuve. At the 1997 Canadian Grand Prix, he broke both legs in a high-speed accident, causing him to miss the next seven races of the season. His place in the team was taken by Jarno Trulli, until he returned for the final three races of the season. He achieved sixth place at Luxembourg and appeared to show that he had fully recovered from his accident, as he drove as well as he had done before the crash.Despite missing half of the year, he still managed 9th in the championship with 16 points. 1998 would prove to be a difficult season for <mask>. He failed to score a single point for the Prost team, primarily due to a poor quality car. However, his full potential was restricted by the pins which remained in his legs, a legacy of the surgery following his crash in 1997. The highlight of the season was a ninth-place finish in Australia, although he also ran strongly at the 1998 Canadian Grand Prix until car failure intervened. An indicator of the team's problems in 1998 was the solitary point scored by <mask>' team-mate Jarno Trulli at Spa-Francorchamps. The following year saw an improvement for the partnership.A stronger car, and unusual circumstances, saw an irregular return to form for the Frenchman. After a troubled race he still claimed 6th in Brazil, a feat he repeated at Hockenheim. He began to qualify much more strongly,

masks: Panis Panis Panis


title: Olivier Panis

texts: with a third place in France, fifth at the Nurburgring, and sixth at Suzuka, where he spent the first stages of the race in third. Despite the signs of a return to form in 1999, strategical errors and misfortune restricted his points tally. Irrespective of the improvements, <mask> ended his relationship with the Prost team. <mask> was a consideration to drive for Williams, a team that was in a state of flux at the time, but turned it down to test for McLaren. This helped showcase <mask> to other top teams in F1, where he would regularly match the testing times of regular drivers David Coulthard and double World Champion Mika Häkkinen.Due to this he landed a drive with BAR for 2001. BAR wasn't the top team he had hoped, and he finished in 14th place during both of the years he was there, scoring a total of 8 points. His highest finish for BAR was in Brazil with fourth position. He had been fourth at his debut race for the team in Australia but was penalised for a yellow flag infringement which added twenty five seconds to his race time and put him seventh, and enabled Kimi Räikkönen to score a debut point. <mask> left for Toyota's racing team in 2003. He was signed to drive and provide the second-year team his knowledge, as well as help his new Brazilian teammate, Cristiano da Matta, learn the ropes of F1. Early results were an improvement, in part because he handled the new one-lap qualifying well, but the end result wasn't much different from previous seasons, as he was 15th with 6 points.<mask> remained with Toyota for 2004, his tenth season in Formula One. In early October 2004 he announced his intention to retire from racing following the 2004 Japanese Grand Prix; he planned to continue at Toyota as a test driver in 2005 and 2006. Before his retirement, he was the oldest active driver in F1 at the age of 37. 2004 saw him again score only 6 points, before being replaced for Brazil by his Brazilian teammate test driver Ricardo Zonta. He was the nominated third driver for Toyota in France in 2005, but this was

masks: Panis Panis Panis Panis Panis


title: Olivier Panis

texts:
 the last time he participated competitively at a Grand Prix weekend. On 18 September 2006, <mask> announced his complete retirement from F1 in order to race in other disciplines. His final outing as a Formula 1 test driver took place at Jerez, Spain on 14 December 2006.<mask> was highly regarded for his racecraft. He was also considered by the likes of Häkkinen, who was particularly upset when <mask> left the McLaren testing team to return to full-time driving, to be one of the best test-drivers in the field. Sport cars

He returned to racing in 2008 with the Oreca Courage team in the Le Mans Series. He has also worked as a consultant for the French A1 Grand Prix team and participated in the Andros Trophy ice race. He had an appearance in an episode of Top Gear, facing the team in an ice race, where he was jokingly referred to in the intro as 'France's second-best racing driver', presumably to Alain Prost. Racing record

Career summary

Complete International Formula 3000 results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races
in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)

† Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance. Complete GT1 World Championship results

24 Hours of Le Mans results

References

External links

<mask> Official website

1966 births
Living people
French racing drivers
French Formula Renault 2.0 drivers
French Formula One drivers
Formula One race winners
International Formula 3000 Champions
French Formula Three Championship drivers
Sportspeople from Lyon
Ligier Formula One drivers
Prost Formula One drivers
BAR Formula One drivers
Toyota Formula One drivers
International Formula 3000 drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
European Le Mans Series drivers
American Le Mans Series drivers
FIA GT1 World Championship drivers
French sports agents
Blancpain Endurance Series drivers
24 Hours of Spa drivers
Sports car racing team owners
12 Hours of Sebring

masks:
Panis
Panis
Panis
Olivier Panis


title: Jont

texts:
<mask> (born Jonathan Mark Smith Whittington, 17 August 1973 in Marylebone, London) is an English singer-songwriter. First achieving prominence as a slow left-arm spinner for Middlesex County Cricket Club, he then shifted focus to poetry then to music. Mainstream attention followed after his song "Sweetheart" was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 US comedy film Wedding Crashers and two tracks from his 2008 album Supernatural were featured in Season Five of US medical drama Grey's Anatomy. In 2019, <mask> released his ninth album Gentle Warrior, which expressed his deepening orientation towards spirituality and the healing power of music, and started playing "Gentle Warrior Ceremonies", a performance concept fusing song and meditation. History

Early years
Dividing his youth between the US and England, Jont first started writing poems aged fourteen While still a teenager he toured the United States conducting interviews with a series of prominent American poets including Allen Ginsberg and Jonathan Williams. Returning to England at age eighteen, Whittington began playing for Middlesex as a slow left-arm spinner and Phil Tufnell's number two. He made a single first-class appearance for the county against Cambridge University at Fenner's in 1992, with Whittington not required to bat in the match, while with the ball he went wicketless.During this period he attended Manchester University to study English and American Literature

Music career 1998–2010
Frustrated with the limited reception his poetry was achieving, Whittington started performing as a musician in the groups Your Baby and Funnybone before going solo. After leaving University he moved to London, attaining a residency at the 12 Bar Club which he called Unlit. Over the next five years he would play host to and perform with such artists as Tom Baxter,

masks:
Jont Openheart
Jont


title: Jont

texts:
 solely thoroughly through his own webstore. Music career 2013–present
In 2012, <mask> relocated from London to Halifax, Nova Scotia, titling his fifth album Hello Halifax to mark the occasion. Taking a break to focus on fatherhood, Jont returned in 2017 with An Old Innocence, recording and performing the album live with a full band called The Infinite Possibility. The album was recorded by Howard Bilerman (Arcade Fire)

In 2019 <mask> released his seventh album Gentle Warrior, showcasing a quieter singing style that allowed him to sing "from a place inside that felt more connected to my true essence." Jont will release a follow-up album entitled Thank You for the Medicine in 2020

Unlit
In the summer of 2006, Whittington posted a message on his Myspace profile essentially inviting people to offer their homes as venues for his tour of US – a concept simply tagged Unlit. Cameraman Dave Depares joined him to document the tour, and the resulting ten-part video blog series was posted on YouTube entitled The State We're In.From April to May 2008, Whittington and Depares filmed a second ten-part series of their video blog, this time entitled The House We're In and taking Unlit to Myspace user's houses in the UK. Shortly after this UK telecoms company Orange commissioned a third series of the show, called The Road We're On, as part of their "I Am Everyone" campaign. Episodes were premiered on Myspace a week before being posted on YouTube. Eight episodes were posted, plus a twenty-minute retrospective documentary, which was posted on Dailymotion. The Unlit series has been viewed by over two million people. In October 2008 in conjunction with the BBC Radio 2's Dermot O'Leary show and the BBC's Electric Proms, the Unlit series culminated in an Electric Proms/Unlit event in North London. "Unlit has developed from an

masks: Jont Jont


title: Christian Rakovsky

texts: <mask> (; ;  – September 11, 1941) was a Bulgarian-born socialist revolutionary, a Bolshevik politician and Soviet diplomat and statesman; he was also noted as a journalist, physician, and essayist. <mask>'s political career took him throughout the Balkans and into France and Imperial Russia; for part of his life, he was also a Romanian citizen. A lifelong collaborator of Leon Trotsky, he was a prominent activist of the Second International, involved in politics with the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party, Romanian Social Democratic Party, and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. <mask> was expelled at different times from various countries as a result of his activities, and, during World War I, became a founding member of the Revolutionary Balkan Social Democratic Labor Federation while helping to organize the Zimmerwald Conference. Imprisoned by Romanian authorities, he made his way to Russia, where he joined the Bolshevik Party after the October Revolution, and, as head of the Rumcherod, unsuccessfully attempted to generate a communist revolution in the Kingdom of Romania. Subsequently, he was a founding member of the Comintern, served as head of government in the Ukrainian SSR, and took part in negotiations at the Genoa Conference. He came to oppose Joseph Stalin and rallied with the Left Opposition, being marginalized inside the government and sent as Soviet ambassador to London and Paris, where he was involved in renegotiating financial settlements.He was ultimately recalled from France in autumn 1927, after signing his name to a controversial Trotskyist platform which endorsed world revolution. Credited with having developed the Trotskyist

masks:
Christian Georgievich Rakovsky
Rakovsky
Rakovsky


title: Christian Rakovsky

texts:
 critique of Stalinism as "bureaucratic centrism", <mask> was subject to internal exile. Submitting to Stalin's leadership in 1934 and being briefly reinstated, he was nonetheless implicated in the Trial of the Twenty One (part of the Moscow Trials), imprisoned, and executed by the NKVD during World War II. He was rehabilitated in 1988, during the Soviet Glasnost period. Names
<mask>'s original Bulgarian name was Krastyo Georgiev Stanchev (Кръстьо Георгиев Станчев), which he himself changed to Krastyo Rakovski (Кръстьо Раковски), being a descendant of the Bulgarian national hero Georgi Rakovski. The usual form his first name took in Romanian was Cristian (occasionally rendered as Christian), while his last name was spelled Racovski, Racovschi, or Rakovski. His given name was occasionally rendered as Ristache, an antiquated hypocoristic—he was known as such to his acquaintance, the writer Ion Luca Caragiale.In Russian, his full name, including patronymic, was Khristian Georgievich <mask> (Христиан Георгиевич Раковский). <mask> (as well as Cristian and Kristian) is an approximate rendition of Krastyo (the Bulgarian for "cross"), as used by Rakovsky himself. In Ukrainian, <mask>'s name is rendered as Християн Георгійович Раковський, and usually transliterated as Khrystyian Heorhiiovych <mask>i. During his lifetime, he was also known under the pseudonyms H. Insarov and Grigoriev, which he used in signing several articles for the Russian-language press. Biography

Revolutionary beginnings
<mask> was born to a wealthy Bulgarian family in Gradets—near Kotel—at the time still part of Ottoman-ruled Rumelia. He was, on his mother's side, the nephew of Georgi Sava Rakovski, a

masks:
Rakovsky
Rakovsky
Rakovsky
Christian
Rakovsky
Rakovsky
Christian Rakovsky


title: Christian Rakovsky

texts: revolutionary hero of the Bulgarian National Revival; that side of his family also included Georgi Mamarchev, who had fought against the Ottomans in the Imperial Russian Army. <mask>'s father was a merchant who belonged to the Democratic Party.He later stated that, as early as his childhood years, he had felt a special admiration towards Russia, and that he had been impressed by witnessing, at age 5, the Russo-Turkish War and Russian presence (he claimed to have met General Eduard Totleben during the conflict). Although his parents moved to the Kingdom of Romania in 1880, settling in Gherengic (Northern Dobruja), he completed his education in newly emancipated Bulgaria. <mask> was expelled from the gymnasium in Gabrovo for his political activities (in 1887 and then again, after organizing a riot, in 1890). It was around that time that he became a Marxist, and began collaborating with the socialist journalist Evtim Dabev, whom he aided in printing works by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (at the time, Rakovsky and Sava Balabanov also published their own newspaper, the clandestine Zerkalo). Since, after having ultimately been banned from attending any public school in the country, he could not complete his education in Bulgaria, in September 1890 <mask> went to Geneva to begin his studies and become a physician. While in Switzerland, he joined the Socialist Student Circle at the University of Geneva, which was largely composed of non-Swiss youth. A polyglot, <mask> became close to Georgy Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, and his circle, eventually writing a number of articles and a book in Russian.He also briefly worked with Rosa Luxemburg, Pavel Axelrod and

masks: Rakovsky Rakovsky Rakovsky Rakovsky


title: Christian Rakovsky

texts: Vera Zasulich. Unable to attend the First International Congress of Socialist Students in Brussels (1892), he became involved in organizing the Second Congress, held in Geneva during the fall of 1893. He was a founding editor of the Geneva-based Bulgarian-language magazine Sotsial-Demokrat and later a major contributor to the Bulgarian Marxist publications Den, Rabotnik, and Drugar. At the time, <mask> and Balabanov, with Plekhanov's encouragement, stressed the importance for moderation in socialist policies—Sotsial-Demokrat rallied with the Bulgarian Social Democratic Union and rejected the more radical Bulgarian Socialdemocratic Party. He soon became involved in distributing socialist propaganda inside Bulgaria, at a time when Stefan Stambolov organized a crackdown on political opposition. Later in 1893, Rakovsky enrolled in a medical school in Berlin, contributing articles for Vorwärts and becoming close to Wilhelm Liebknecht (the two corresponded regularly for the rest of Liebknecht's life). As a Bulgarian delegate to the Second International Congress in Zürich, he also met with Engels and Jules Guesde.Six months later, he was arrested and expelled from the German Empire for maintaining close contacts with the Russian revolutionaries there. He finished his education in 1894–1896 in Zürich, Nancy and Montpellier, where he wrote for La Jeunesse Socialiste and La Petite République, maintaining a friendship with Guesde and becoming an opponent of Jean Jaurès' reformist views. According to his own testimony, he became active in supporting the Anti-Ottoman upsurge in Crete and Macedonia, as well as Dashnak revolutionary activities. In 1896, he was the Bulgarian


title: Christian Rakovsky

texts:
 representative to the Second International's London Congress (part of his speech was published in Karl Kautsky's Die Neue Zeit). Military service and first stay in Russia
Although actively involved in many European countries' socialist movements, prior to 1917 <mask>'s focus remained on the Balkans and especially on his native country and Romania; his activities in support of the international socialist movement led to his expulsion, at different times, from Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, France and Russia. In 1897 he published Russiya na Istok (Russia in the East), a book sharply critical of the Russian Empire's foreign policy, which, according to Rakovsky, followed one of Georgy Plekhanov's guidelines ("Tsarist Russia must be isolated in its foreign relations"). On several occasions, he publicly criticized Russia's policies towards Romania and in Bessarabia (describing Russia's rule over the latter as "absolutist conquest", "mischievous action", and "abduction").According to Rakovsky, "Russophile papers" in Bulgaria had begun to target him as a consequence. After completing his education as a physician at the University of Montpellier (with the thesis L'Éthiologie du crime et de la dégénérescence – "The Cause of Crime and Degeneration", submitted in 1897), <mask>, who had married the Russian student E. P. Ryabova, was summoned to Romania in order to be drafted in the Romanian Army, and served as a medic in the 9th Cavalry Regiment stationed in Constanţa, Dobruja (1899–1900). He rose to the rank of lieutenant. <mask> subsequently rejoined his wife in Saint Petersburg, where he hoped to settle down and engage in revolutionary activities (he was probably expelled after

masks: Rakovsky Rakovsky Rakovsky


title: Christian Rakovsky

texts:
 an initial attempt to enter the country, but was allowed to return). An adversary of Peter Berngardovich Struve after the latter moved towards market liberalism, he became acquainted with, among others, Nikolay Mikhaylovsky and Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky, while authoring articles for Nashe Slovo and helping distribute Iskra. His close relationship with Plekhanov led Rakovsky to a position between the Menshevik and Bolshevik factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, one he kept from 1903 to 1917; the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin was initially hostile to Rakovsky, and at one point wrote to Karl Radek that "we [the Bolsheviks] do not have the same road as his kind of people". Initially, <mask> was expelled from Russia and had to move back to Paris.Returning to the Russian capital in 1900, he remained there until 1902, when his wife's death and the crackdown on socialist groups ordered by Emperor Nicholas II forced him to return to France. Working for a while as a physician in the village of Beaulieu, Haute-Loire, he asked French officials to review his case for naturalization, but was refused. In 1903, following the death of his father, <mask> again lived in Paris, where he followed developments of the Russo-Japanese War and spoke out against Russia, attracting, according to <mask> himself, the criticism of both Plekhanov and Jules Guesde. He voiced his opposition to the concession made by Karl Kautsky to Jean Jaurès, one which had allowed socialists to join "bourgeois" governments in times of crisis. România Muncitoare

He ultimately settled in Romania (1904) having inherited his father's estate near Mangalia. In 1913, his property, valued at some 40,000


title: Christian Rakovsky

texts: United States dollars at the time, was home to Leon Trotsky when the latter visited the Balkans as a press envoy during the Balkan Wars. He was usually present in Bucharest on a weekly basis, and started an intense activity as a journalist, doctor and lawyer.The Balkans correspondent for L'Humanité, he was also personally responsible for reviving România Muncitoare, the defunct journal of the Romanian socialist group, provoking successful strike actions which brought him to the attention of officials. <mask> also traveled to Bulgaria, where he eventually sided with the Tesnyatsi in their conflict with other socialist groups. In 1904, he was present at the Second International's Congress in Amsterdam, where he gave a speech celebrating the assassination of Russian police chief Vyacheslav von Plehve by Socialist-Revolutionary Party members. <mask> became noted locally especially after 1905, when he organized rallies in support of the Battleship Potemkin revolt (the events worsened relations between Russia and the Romanian Kingdom), carried out a relief operation for the Potemkin crew as their ship sought refuge in Constanţa, and attempted to persuade them to set sail for Batumi and aid striking workers there. According to his own account, a parallel scandal occurred when an armed Bolshevik ship was captured in Romanian territorial waters; <mask>, who indicated that the weapons on board were to be used in Batumi, faced allegations in the Romanian press that he was preparing a Dobrujan insurrection. His head was injured during street clashes with police forces over the Potemkin issue; while recovering, Rakovsky befriended the Romanian poets Ştefan Octavian Iosif and

masks:
Christian Rakovsky
Rakovsky
Rakovsky


title: Christian Rakovsky

texts: Dimitrie Anghel, who were publishing works under a common signature—one of the two authored a sympathetic portrait of the socialist leader, based on his recollections from the early 1900s. Throughout these years, <mask>, was, according to Iosif and Anghel, "continuously bustling; disappearing and appearing in workers' centers, be it in Brăila, be it in Galaţi, be it in Iaşi, be it anywhere, always preaching with the same undaunted fervor and fanatical conviction his social credo".<mask> was drawn into a polemic with the Romanian authorities, facing public accusations that, as a Bulgarian, he lacked patriotism. In return, he commented that, if patriotism meant "race prejudice, international and civil war, political tyranny and plutocratic domination", he refused to be identified with it. Upon the outbreak of Romanian Peasants' Revolt of 1907, <mask> was especially vocal: he launched accusations at the National Liberal government, arguing that, having profited from the early antisemitic message of the revolt, it had violently repressed it from the moment peasants began to attack landowners. Supportive of the thesis according to which the peasantry had revolutionary importance inside Romanian society and Eastern Europe at large, <mask> publicized his perspective in the socialist press (writing articles on the subject for România Muncitoare, L'Humanité, Avanti!, Vorwärts and others). <mask> was also one of the journalists suspected of having greatly exaggerated the overall death toll in their accounts: his estimates speak of over 10,000 peasants killed, whereas the government data counted only 421.<ref> Ion Bulei, "421, nu 11.000", in Ziarul Financiar, February 2,

masks: Rakovsky Rakovsky Rakovsky Rakovsky Rakovsky