title: Elizabeth Oakes Smith

texts:
 civilization, and the prevailing impression from Mt. Katahdin is one of immense and desolate grandeur. The unbroken sweep of forest lies low, and the irregularities so hidden in space, that the idea of trees is lost and looks like a smooth lawn with varied and striking shades of greenness”

Women's Rights Movement
<mask> was not a member of the select group at the Seneca Falls Convention assembled to discuss the rights of women in 1848, but by that time she had for some years written occasionally on the subject of woman's social, political and economic situation.As she recorded in her autobiography, her attendance at the first National Women's Rights Convention in October, 1850 in Worcester inspired her to focus her efforts specifically on woman's rights, and she began a series of ten articles on woman's rights and capacities for Horace Greeley's New York Tribune entitled "Woman and Her Needs" (Nov. 1850 – June 1851), published in pamphlet form by Fowler and Wells in late 1851. In June 1851, she began lecturing publicly on the same subjects from New York and into New England, becoming the first woman to lecture regularly on the Lyceum movement circuit. In 1852, her tours extended west to St. Louis and Chicago. In September of that year, she was nominated by a select committee to serve as President of the National Women's Rights Convention in Syracuse but was rejected for that position when she and her friend Paulina Wright Davis arrived in dresses which exposed the neck and arms. Through the first half of the 1850s, <mask> continued her work on behalf of women, expanding her lecture tours into the midwest as far as Chicago. She circulated a prospectus for a

masks: Smith Smith


title: Elizabeth Oakes Smith

type: original

texts:
 feminist journal, The Egeria, and collected several subscriptions, but she abandoned the idea when fellow activist Paulina Wright Davis began The Una in February 1853. In 1854, she published two novels, Bertha and Lily; or the Parsonage at Beech Glen, which presented many of her woman's rights positions (sometimes drawn directly from her lectures) in the words of its title character, and The Newsboy, a novel which exposed the conditions of poverty and child labor in New York.In addition to these extended works, both of which were reprinted in several editions, <mask> edited and contributed to several of her husbands new ventures in journalism, including The Weekly Budget (1853–54) and a series of newspaper ventures combined in the mid-fifties under the title Emerson’s Monthly and United States Magazine. In 1855, <mask> and her family moved back to New York City for the first time since their arrival in the area in the late 30s, placing a down payment of eleven thousand dollars on a home near St. Mark's Place. In November 1858, <mask> and her family purchased Emerson’s Monthly, which continued for a year as The Great Republic, published by Oaksmith and company. (From this time, and perhaps earlier, her sons legally adopted the name Oaksmith as their own.) In 1859, <mask> and her husband retired to a large home in rural Patchogue Long Island  which they named “The Willows.”

Son Appleton's arrest
Given the difficulties of their publishing ventures, <mask> and her family's removal to Patchogue after only four years in their New York City residence seems to indicate a kind of social retrenchment, but the political upheaval of the American Civil War may have played an

masks: Smith Smith Smith Smith Smith


title: Elizabeth Oakes Smith

texts: equal role. During the 1850s, <mask>'s son Appleton Oaksmith had ventured into the shipping business, eventually purchasing several ships of his own. He had also, however, involved himself in the filibuster campaigns of General William Walker in Nicaragua, actually accepting the office of secretary in Walker's new "government" and helping arrange for the supply of Walker's small military force.When Walker's bid for US recognition failed and his militia was ousted from the country, there is mounting evidence that Appleton began to employ his ships in support of the Confederate states, at least in gun-running if not by allowing his ships to be used in the transport of slaves. In December 1861, Appleton was captured on Fire Island, New York and indicted for equipping a slave ship. With Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus in effect, he was quickly jailed, and the entire family was placed in a compromised political and social position. Thus, the Civil War years were especially difficult for <mask>'s family, who vehemently maintained Appleton's innocence. <mask> spent years seeking audiences with government officials in New York and finally with the President of the United States to procure her son's innocence. (He later did receive a Presidential pardon.) Even so, with her husband advancing in age and infirmity, she continued to write to make a living, placing her work in a variety of journals and lecturing where she could.With the nation's attention focused on the war and issues of slavery, her popularity and prominence in the cultural conversation were challenged, but in 1865 she began a series of “autobiographic notes” in Beadle's Monthly Magazine, later continued

masks: Smith Smith Smith


title: Elizabeth Oakes Smith

texts:
 in the 1880s in The Home Journal. The autobiography was never published in complete form, but is available in manuscript form at the New York Public Library. Spiritual years
Challenged and stigmatized by Appleton's arrest and exile to London during the war, <mask> experienced more misfortune as the 1860s decade came to a close with the death of her son Edward from yellow fever in 1865, the death of her now aged husband in 1868, and the death by drowning of her son Sidney in 1869. She sold her own home in Patchogue in 1870 and began living with her son Alvin in nearby Blue Point, New York on Long Island. When Appleton returned to the United States in the 1870s, purchasing a property in Beaufort, North Carolina, <mask> lived alternately between the two sons' homes. Undaunted by her reverses, she continued to publish poetry and articles in both popular and religious journals. In 1877, she served as pastor of The Independent Church in Canastota, New York, and she continued to attend conventions on Women's Suffrage.In January, 1879, she delivered a lecture entitled "Biology and Woman's Rights" at 11th Woman's Suffrage Convention, in Washington D.C.
As fragments of her personal journal from the late 1880s demonstrate, <mask> turned increasingly to a traditional religious faith in her later years. She outlived all of her immediate family, save her youngest son Alvin. By the time of her death in 1893 her fictional works had suffered the fate of all outmoded popular styles and themes, while her feminist works would have to await the renewed interest of activists and scholars in the 1970s and 80s. She was buried beside her husband Seba, and son Edward, in the Lakeview


title: Elizabeth Oakes Smith

texts:
 Cemetery, in Patchogue, New York. Archive
<mask>'s papers are in the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia and include  manuscripts, correspondence, diaries, scrapbooks, notebooks, and journals of <mask> and her immediate family. <mask> was a prolific letter-writer whose correspondents include <mask>, Augustus Whittemore Corliss, Sallie Holley, and Sarah Helen Whitman. References

Further reading

External links

<mask>es <mask> at History of American Women
"Woman and Her Needs"
Elizabeth Oakes Smith Society and Newsletter

1806 births
1893 deaths
19th-century American poets
People from Cape Elizabeth, Maine
Poets from Maine
American women poets
People from North Yarmouth, Maine
People from Canastota, New York
People from Beaufort, North Carolina
People from Blue Point, New York
19th-century American women

masks:
Smith
Smith
Smith
Elizabeth Bogart
Elizabeth Oak
Smith


title: Jaydin Eierman

texts:
<mask> (née Clayton: born on May 2, 1996 in Columbia, Missouri) is an American freestyle and folkstyle wrestler who competes internationally at 65 kilograms and collegiately at 141 pounds. In freestyle, Eierman is the reigning US Open National champion, medaled at the 2019 Pan American Games, earned runner–up honors from the 2018 US Open Nationals and was the 2019 US U23 National Champion. In folkstyle, he is the 2021 NCAA DI National runner-up and is the reigning B1G champion out of the University of Iowa, and was a three–time NCAA All-American and a three–time MAC champion for the Missouri Tigers, before transferring as a senior. Folkstyle career

High school
Eierman was born to Heather Thurston in Columbia, Missouri, where he attended Tolton High School. As a high schooler, Eierman went on to become the second undefeated wrestler in the history of Missouri to claim four MSHSAA titles in four years of varsity. Entering his senior year, he committed to the


title: Jaydin Eierman

texts:
 Missouri Tigers. After graduation, <mask> changed his last name Clayton to Eierman, honoring his life-long coach Mike Eierman.College

University of Missouri
In his first season ('15–'16), Eierman was redshirted and compiled a 22–2 record at 133 pounds competing unattached in open tournaments. As a freshman, he moved up to 141 pounds and went on to compile a 29–7 record, claimed a Mid-American Conference title and placed fifth at the NCAAs, becoming an All-American. As a sophomore, Eierman improved his record to 34–3, repeated as the MAC champion and went on to place fourth at the NCAA championships. In his final year officially competing as a Tiger, Eierman racked up a 28–4 record, won his last MAC title (named Outstanding Wrestler) and went on to keep improving his position as an All-American at Nationals, placing third. For 2019–2020, <mask> took an Olympic redshirt. As a Tiger, Eierman went 89–14 overall. University of Iowa
In November 2019, <mask>

masks: Jaydin Eierman Eierman


title: Jaydin Eierman

texts:
 pandemic, Eierman confirmed he will come back in 2021–2022, as a 25 year old, sixth-year senior. Freestyle career

2017–2018
During his first years competing in senior freestyle, Eierman most notably placed second at the 2018 US Open and third at the 2018 US World Team Trials.He also competed internationally, placing eight at the Polish Open. 2019–2021
<mask> started off 2019 by placing fifth at the US Open and the US World Team Trials and followed up by becoming the US U23 National Champion and representative for the U23 World Championships. Four days before the event, it was announced that <mask> would replace Zain Retherford and attend the 2019 Pan American Games, in which he ended up bringing a bronze medal to the United States. He went on to place eight at the U23 World Championships. In 2020, <mask> placed fifth at the US National Championships, and earned the biggest win of his career when he defeated World and Olympic champion Vladimer

masks: Eierman Eierman Eierman


title: Jaydin Eierman

texts:
 Khinchegashvili at the HWC Showdown Open. In May 2, 2021, <mask> claimed his first US Open National Championship. Freestyle record

!colspan="7"| Senior Freestyle Matches
|-
! Res.
! Record
! Opponent
! Score
! Date
! Event
!Location
|-
! style=background:white colspan=7 |
|-
|Loss
|36–20
|align=left| Joey McKenna
|style="font-size:88%"|TF 0–10
|style="font-size:88%" rowspan=6|October 10–11, 2020
|style="font-size:88%" rowspan=6|2020 US Senior National Championships
|style="text-align:left;font-size:88%;" rowspan=6|
 Coralville, Iowa
|-
|Loss
|36–19
|align=left| Evan Henderson
|style="font-size:88%"|5–13
|-
|Win
|36–18
|align=left| Matthew Kolodzik
|style="font-size:88%"|6–5
|-
|Win
|35–18
|align=left| Ethan Lizak
|style="font-size:88%"|Fall
|-
|Win
|34–18
|align=left| Jordin Humphrey
|style="font-size:88%"|TF 11–0
|-
|Win
|33–18
|align=left| Joey Jones
|style="font-size:88%"|TF 10–0
|-
! style=background:white colspan=7 |
|-
|Loss
|32–18
|align=left|


title: Claudius Maximus

texts:
<mask> (fl. 2nd century AD) was a Roman politician, a Stoic philosopher and a teacher of Marcus Aurelius. No works by him are known to exist; however, he is mentioned in a few prestigious works from classical literature. Life
Anthony Birley believes that <mask> was born no later than AD 99. An inscription from Aquincum (now at the Gorsium Szabadtéri Museum) provides us details of his cursus honorum. The earliest office <mask> is attested as holding was in the quattuorviri viarum curandarum, one of the four boards that formed the vigintiviri; membership in one of these four boards was a preliminary and required first step toward gaining entry into the Roman Senate. Next he was commissioned a military tribune in Legio IV Scythica, during which time he distinguished himself, earning dona militaria from the emperor Trajan.<mask> returned to Rome, where he became a quaestor serving in the city, and upon completion of this traditional Republican magistracy <mask> was enrolled in the Senate. Following this he served as ab actis Senatus, or recorder of the Acta Senatus. Two more of the traditional Republican magistracies then followed: plebeian tribune, and praetor. Once he stepped down from his duties as praetor, <mask> was assigned a series of imperial posts. First was curator of the Via Aurelia, which Géza Alföldy dates to around 132. Next he was commissioned legatus legionis or commander of Legio I Adiutrix, then stationed at Brigetio; Alföldy dates this appointment from around 134 to 137. <mask> served as juridius utriusque Pannonia, which was followed by governor of Pannonia Inferior alone, Alföldy dating the later office from the year 137 to 141.This was followed by his consulship. Only a few offices of the consular portion of his cursus honorum are known. One is curator of aedium sacrarum canabenses publice, which Alföldy dates to around 144. The second was proconsular governor of Africa in 158/159. While proconsul he presided at the trial where Apuleius delivered a defense against a charge of magic. The Historia Augusta mentions <mask> <mask> as one of

masks:
Gaius Claudius Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Claudius
Maximus


title: Claudius Maximus

texts:
 Marcus Aurelius' Stoic teachers. Marcus Aurelius also mentions <mask>’ sickness and death as well as that of his wife, Secunda, in his Meditations.As Marcus says Antoninus witnessed <mask>' illness, if this was the cause of his death, then he must have died at some point before the death of Antoninus in 161 AD. The Historia Augusta reports the following anecdote from the life of Antoninus Pius, which does not refer to <mask> <mask>, rather it says Apollonius, as Marcus' other main tutors appear to have outlived Antoninus. It is related of him, too, as an instance of his regard for his family, that when Marcus [Aurelius] was mourning the death of his tutor and was restrained by the palace servants from this display of affection, the Emperor [Antoninus Pius] said: "Let him be only a man for once; for neither philosophy nor empire takes away natural feeling". Characterization in works

In the Meditations
In the first book of his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius remembers all of the people who have had a strong and benevolent influence upon him. A "<mask>" is listed last among Marcus Aurelius' teachers and to him is given one of the longer descriptions in the first book. It is likely that <mask>' education of the future emperor took place during the reign of Antoninus Pius. Marcus claims to have learned from <mask> among other virtues self-control, honesty, gravity of character, and kindness.He describes <mask> as the perfect sage. Later in the Meditations, Marcus Aurelius, when reflecting on suffering and death remembers how <mask> endured sickness and the death of his wife without complaint. He takes this as a model of good behavior. Historians have had difficulty in the past identifying the person of "<mask>" mentioned in the Meditations. Méric Casaubon in his 1692 edition of the Meditations refutes in his footnotes a previously held identification of this <mask> with "that other <mask>rius; mentioned by Eusebius." William Smith some two hundred years later wrote, "Some have identified <mask> <mask> with the <mask> who was consul, A.D. 144; Fabricius...

masks:
Maximus
Maximus
Claudius
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus Ty
Claudius
Maximus
Maximus


title: Claudius Maximus

texts:
 identifies him with the Claudius <mask>, 'proconsul of [Africa.]'" He concludes, however, that the truth of all these identifications is "very uncertain."Only towards the end of the 20th century has there been any consensus on the matter favoring full identification of all these persons with the <mask> of the Meditations (excepting <mask>, who was a Platonic). In the Apologia
In the Apologia, Apuleius, author of The Golden Ass, the only completely-surviving Roman novel, attempts to defend himself against a charge of magic, largely by appealing to his judge whom he identifies as <mask> <mask>. According to Apuleius, <mask> was a pious man who shunned ostentatious displays of wealth and was intimately familiar with the works of Plato and Aristotle. Apuleius refers to <mask> as "one, who holds so austere a creed and has so long endured military service". Apuleius also makes reference to the sternness of his judge's philosophy which is understood to be a reference to Stoicism. Though Apuleius is clearly trying to flatter his judge, at least some of his attributions were likely true since he was acquitted. In the Historia Augusta
The Historia Augusta mentions <mask> <mask> in a single sentence in the section on Marcus Aurelius.The sentence is unclear as to whether the philosophers listed were Stoics or whether the intention is to mention unspecified Stoic philosophers. It is from this entry that association was originally made between the <mask> <mask> of the Apologia and the <mask> mentioned in the Meditations. Although the Historia Augusta is known for its inaccuracies, Pierre Hadot feels that there is no reason to doubt this portion  of the text because it accurately characterizes other philosophers mentioned in the same paragraph. On the other hand, the identification of Sextus of Chaeronea as a Stoic is disputed. Notes

2nd-century Romans
2nd-century philosophers
Philosophers of Roman Italy
Roman-era Stoic philosophers
Roman governors of Pannonia Superior
Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome
Roman governors of Africa
Year of birth missing
Year of death

masks:
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus Tyrius
Claudius
Maximus
Maximus
Maximus
Claudius
Maximus
Claudius
Maximus
Maximus


title: Julius Caesar

texts: <mask> (; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, <mask> led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator of Rome from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. In 60 BC, <mask>, Crassus and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, a political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass power as  were opposed by the  within the Roman Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. <mask> rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he both invaded Britain and built a bridge across the Rhine river.These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered <mask> to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, <mask> openly defied the Senate's authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army. This began <mask>'s civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC. After assuming control of government, <mask> began a program of social and

masks:
Gaius Julius Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts: governmental reforms, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reform and support for veterans.He centralized the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator for life" (). His populist and authoritarian reforms angered the elites, who began to conspire against him. On the Ides of March (15 March), 44 BC, <mask> was assassinated by a group of rebellious senators led by Brutus and Cassius, who stabbed him to death. A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. <mask>'s great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the last civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began. <mask> was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns.Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. Later biographies of <mask> by Suetonius and Plutarch are also important sources. <mask> is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. His cognomen was subsequently adopted as a synonym for "Emperor"; the title "<mask>" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern cognates such as Kaiser and Tsar. He has frequently appeared in literary and artistic works, and his political philosophy, known as

masks: Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts:
 Caesarism, inspired politicians into the modern era. Early life and career

<mask> <mask> was born into a patrician family, the , which claimed descent from Julus, son of the legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus. The Julii were of Alban origin, mentioned as one of the leading Alban houses, which settled in Rome around the mid-7th century BC, following the destruction of Alba Longa.They were granted patrician status, along with other noble Alban families. The Julii also existed at an early period at Bovillae, evidenced by a very ancient inscription on an altar in the theatre of that town, which speaks of their offering sacrifices according to the , or Alban rites. The cognomen "<mask>" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section (from the Latin verb "to cut", , ). The  suggests three alternative explanations: that the first <mask> had a thick head of hair (); that he had bright grey eyes (); or that he killed an elephant during the Punic Wars ( in Moorish) in battle. <mask> issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored the latter interpretation of his name. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC. <mask>'s father, also called <mask> <mask>, governed the province of Asia, and his sister Julia, <mask>'s aunt, married Gaius Marius, one of the most prominent figures in the Republic.His mother, Aurelia, came from an influential family.

masks:
Gaius Julius
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Gaius Julius
Caesar
Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts: Little is recorded of <mask>'s childhood. In 85 BC, <mask>'s father died suddenly, making <mask> the head of the family at the age of 16. His coming of age coincided with the civil wars of his uncle Gaius Marius and his rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Both sides carried out bloody purges of their political opponents whenever they were in the ascendancy. Marius and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna were in control of the city when <mask> was nominated as the new  (high priest of Jupiter), and he was married to Cinna's daughter Cornelia. Following Sulla's final victory, however, <mask>'s connections to the old regime made him a target for the new one.He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry, and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was instead forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in <mask>. The loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career, as the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army. <mask> felt that it would be much safer far away from Sulla should the dictator change his mind, so he left Rome and joined the army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia and Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the Civic Crown for his part in the Siege of Mytilene. He went on a mission to Bithynia to secure the

masks: Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts: assistance of King Nicomedes's fleet, but he spent so long at Nicomedes' court that rumours arose of an affair with the king, which <mask> vehemently denied for the rest of his life.Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, <mask> felt safe enough to return to Rome. He lacked means since his inheritance was confiscated, but he acquired a modest house in Subura, a lower-class neighbourhood of Rome. He turned to legal advocacy and became known for his exceptional oratory accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption. On the way across the Aegean Sea, <mask> was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner. He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. The pirates demanded a ransom of 20 talents of silver, but he insisted that they ask for 50. <mask> was relaxed and familiar with his captors, and (seemingly) joked that after his release he would raise a fleet, pursue and capture the pirates, and crucify them while alive.After his ransom was paid he fulfilled this promise in full, apart from one detail -- as a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of auxiliaries to repel an incursion from the east. On his return to Rome, he was elected military tribune, a first step in a political career. He was elected  in 69 BC, and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, including images of her husband Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the funeral procession. His wife Cornelia also

masks: Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts: died that year. <mask> went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.On his return in 67 BC, he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla, whom he later divorced in 61 BC after her embroilment in the Bona Dea scandal. In 65 BC, he was elected , and staged lavish games that won him further attention and popular support. In 63 BC, he ran for election to the post of , chief priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two powerful senators. Accusations of bribery were made by all sides. <mask> won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing. Cicero was consul that year, and he exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic; several senators accused <mask> of involvement in the plot.After serving as  in 62 BC, <mask> was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior (the western part of the Iberian Peninsula) as , though some sources suggest that he held proconsular powers. He was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, the richest man in Rome. Crassus paid some of <mask>'s debts and acted as guarantor for others, in return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and thus open to prosecution for his debts, <mask> left for


title: Julius Caesar

texts:
 his province before his praetorship had ended. In Hispania, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as  by his troops; he reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem. <mask> was acclaimed  in 60 BC (and again later in 45 BC).In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, army troops in the field would proclaim their commander , an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. However, <mask> also wished to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the Senate for permission to stand in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, <mask> chose the consulship.Consulship and military campaigns

In 60 BC, <mask> sought election as consul for 59 BC, along with two other candidates. The election was sordid—even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in favour of one of <mask>'s opponents. <mask> won, along with conservative Marcus Bibulus. <mask> was already in Marcus Licinius Crassus' political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a decade, so <mask> tried to reconcile them. The three of them had enough money and political

masks: Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts: influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate ("rule of three men"), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to <mask>'s daughter Julia.<mask> also married again, this time Calpurnia, who was the daughter of another powerful senator. <mask> proposed a law for redistributing public lands to the poor—by force of arms, if need be—a proposal supported by Pompey and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, a move which intimidated the triumvirate's opponents. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but he was driven from the forum by <mask>'s armed supporters. His lictors had their fasces broken, two high magistrates accompanying him were wounded, and he had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts proved ineffective in obstructing <mask>'s legislation.Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of <mask> and <mask>". When <mask> was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than the governorship of a province, as his military command duty after his year in office was over. With the help of political allies, <mask> secured passage of the lex Vatinia, granting him governorship over Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (southeastern Europe). At the instigation of Pompey and his father-in-law Piso, Transalpine Gaul (southern France) was added

masks: Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Caesar Julius Caesar Caesar Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts:
 later after the untimely death of its governor, giving him command of four legions. The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one. When his consulship ended, <mask> narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province. Conquest of Gaul

<mask> was still deeply in debt, but there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion or by military adventurism.<mask> had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of Gaul were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals at the Battle of Magetobriga, with the help of a contingent of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to Italy, and that they had warlike intent. <mask> raised two new legions and defeated these tribes. In response to <mask>'s earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. <mask> treated this as an aggressive move and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north, directly opposite Britain.During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirs held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and <mask>'s political alliance was coming undone. The Lucca Conference renewed the First Triumvirate and extended <mask>'s governorship for another five years. The conquest of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of


title: Julius Caesar

texts: resistance remained. <mask> now had a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain. In 55 BC, <mask> repelled an incursion into Gaul by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year, possibly the Veneti of Brittany. His knowledge of Britain was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could not advance further.He raided out from his beachhead and destroyed some villages, then returned to Gaul for the winter. He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a few alliances, but poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, forcing <mask> to leave Britain for the last time. Though the Gallic tribes were just as strong as the Romans militarily, the internal division among the Gauls guaranteed an easy victory for <mask>. Vercingetorix's attempt in 52 BC to unite them against Roman invasion came too late. He proved an astute commander, defeating <mask> at the Battle of Gergovia, but <mask>'s elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender. Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year, Gaul was effectively conquered.Plutarch claimed that during the Gallic Wars the army had fought against three million men (of whom one million died, and another million were enslaved), subjugated


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texts:
 300 tribes, and destroyed 800 cities. The casualty figures are disputed by modern historians. Civil war

While <mask> was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. <mask> tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the brink of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married the daughter of a political opponent of <mask>.The Triumvirate was dead. In 51 BC, the consul Marcellus ensured that <mask>'s command would not be extended, but tribunes vetoed his proposal that it be ended at once. As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew. In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both <mask> and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the senate by <mask>'s supporter Curio. It received overwhelming support but was itself vetoed. At the start of 49 BC, <mask>'s renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the senate, which refused to vote on it. His supportive tribunes were driven out of Rome, the Senate declared <mask> an enemy and it issued its senatus consultum ultimum.There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why <mask> marched on Rome; the possibility of prosecution for actions in his consulship of 59 BC was unlikely. His objectives prior to the civil war were to secure himself an immediate second consulship and a triumph, having given up his triumph in 60 BC to stand for his first consulship. <mask> feared that his opponents – then holding

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title: Julius Caesar

texts: both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy, refuse to ratify an election result in which he was a victor, or deny him a triumph for Gaul. On about 10 January 49 BC, <mask> crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, <mask>, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is cast". Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate Latin translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea iacta esto", let the die be cast. Pompey and many of the Senate fled to the south, having little confidence in Pompey's newly raised troops.Pompey, despite greatly outnumbering <mask>, who had only his Thirteenth Legion with him, did not intend to fight. <mask> pursued Pompey, hoping to capture Pompey before his legions could escape. Pompey managed to escape before <mask> could capture him. Heading for Hispania, <mask> left Italy under the control of Mark Antony. After an astonishing 27-day route-march, <mask> defeated Pompey's lieutenants, then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Illyria, where, on 10 July 48 BC in the battle of Dyrrhachium, <mask> barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. In an exceedingly short engagement later that year, he decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, in Greece on 9 August 48 BC. In Rome, <mask> was appointed dictator, with Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); <mask> presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after 11 days, resigned this


title: Julius Caesar

texts: dictatorship.<mask> then pursued Pompey to Egypt, arriving soon after the murder of the general. There, <mask> was presented with Pompey's severed head and seal-ring, receiving these with tears. He then had Pompey's assassins put to death. <mask> then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, <mask> sided with Cleopatra. He withstood the Siege of Alexandria and later he defeated the pharaoh's forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. <mask> and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC.The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and <mask> was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs. <mask> and Cleopatra were not married. <mask> continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage—in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery—and probably fathered a son called <mask>. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in <mask>'s villa just outside Rome across the Tiber. Late in 48 BC, <mask> was again appointed dictator, with a term of one year. After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, <mask> went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies. On his way to Pontus, <mask> visited Tarsus from 27 to 29 May 47 BC (25–27 Maygreg.), where he met enthusiastic support, but

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 where, according to Cicero, Cassius was planning to kill him at this point. Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He was defeated by Titus Labienus at Ruspina on 4 January 46 BC but recovered to gain a significant victory at Thapsus on 6 April 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide. After this victory, he was appointed dictator for 10 years. Pompey's sons escaped to Hispania; <mask> gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, <mask> was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague). Dictatorship and assassination

While he was still campaigning in Hispania, the Senate began bestowing honours on <mask>.<mask> had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honour <mask>'s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following <mask>'s victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans. On <mask>'s return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian, later known as <mask>) as his principal heir, leaving his vast estate and property including his name. <mask> also wrote that if Octavian died before <mask> did, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus would be the next heir in succession. In his will, he also left a substantial gift to the citizens of Rome. Between

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 his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, <mask> established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together all of the provinces into a single cohesive unit. The first goal was accomplished when <mask> defeated Pompey and his supporters. To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed, so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long-neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar. Dictatorship

When <mask> returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly those over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents.When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity. Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars. At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, — each of 2,000 people, 200 horses, and 20 elephants — fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at <mask>'s wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and stopped


title: Julius Caesar

texts: only when <mask> had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars. After the triumph, <mask> set out to pass an ambitious legislative agenda.He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and decreed that jurors could come only from the Senate or the equestrian ranks. He passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the repopulation of Italy. Then, he outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term-limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt-restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed. The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built, among many other public works.<mask> also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register. From 47 to 44 BC, he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans. The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The Roman calendar at the time was regulated by the movement of the moon. By replacing it with the Egyptian calendar, based on the sun, Roman farmers were able to use it as the basis of consistent seasonal planting from year to year. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year. To bring the calendar into alignment

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texts:
 semi-official or popular cult, with Antony as his high priest. Political reforms

The history of <mask>'s political appointments is complex and uncertain. <mask> held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship.His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies. He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed dictator for 10 years. In 48 BC, <mask> was given permanent tribunician powers, which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate, although on at least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and divested of their office. This was not the first time <mask> had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it.After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, <mask>, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College. When <mask> returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900. All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to


title: Julius Caesar

texts: him. To minimise the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him, <mask> passed a law that subjected governors to term limits. In 46 BC, <mask> gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the censors. Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles and honours upon him.He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator". Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings. <mask> then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed <mask> to reward his supporters. <mask> even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a single cohesive unit. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by <mask>'s successor, the Emperor Augustus. In October 45 BC, <mask> resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder of the year, which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognize a single consul


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 without a colleague. In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator in perpetuity.Under <mask>, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants, mostly because <mask> was frequently out of Italy. Near the end of his life, <mask> began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates, and all consuls and tribunes. This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator. Assassination

On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, <mask> was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Several Senators had conspired to assassinate <mask>. Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified liberator named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head <mask> off.The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to <mask>'s aid, had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just as he approached the portico of the Theatre of Pompey, where the session was to be held, and detain him outside (Plutarch, however, assigns this action of delaying Antony to Brutus Albinus). When he heard the commotion from the Senate chamber, Antony fled. According to Plutarch, as <mask> arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother. The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that <mask> waved

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title: Julius Caesar

texts: him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down <mask>'s tunic. <mask> then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!").Casca simultaneously produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. <mask> turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("", "adelphe, boethei"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. <mask> attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico.According to Eutropius, around 60 men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times. According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal. The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said <mask>'s last words were the Greek phrase "" (transliterated as "Kai sy, teknon? ": "You too, child?" in English).However, Suetonius' own opinion was that <mask> said nothing. Plutarch also reports that <mask> said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators. The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus? ", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus? "); best known from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually forms


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 the first half of a macaronic line: "Et tu, Brute? Then fall, <mask>."This version was already popular when the play was written, as it appears in Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582 and The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke & etc. of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays. According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building. Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. <mask>'s dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it. <mask>'s body was cremated.A crowd which had gathered at the cremation started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. On the site of his cremation, the Temple of Caesar was erected a few years later (at the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum). Only its altar now remains. A life-size wax statue of <mask> was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. In the chaos following the death of <mask>, Antony, Octavian (later <mask>), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would culminate in the formation of the Roman Empire. Aftermath of the assassination

The result, unforeseen by the assassins, was that <mask>'s death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic. The

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texts: Roman middle and lower classes, with whom <mask> was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion.Antony, who had been drifting apart from <mask>, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. To his surprise and chagrin, <mask> had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his sole heir (hence the name Octavian), bequeathing him the immensely potent <mask> name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic. The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture, and even clothing on to <mask>'s funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats. Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to <mask>'s adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when <mask> died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from <mask>'s war chests, and the legitimacy that <mask>'s name would provide for any action he took against them.With the passage


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 of the lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC, the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and <mask>'s loyal cavalry commander Lepidus. It formally deified <mask> as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and <mask>n henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of the divine"). Because <mask>'s clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate reinstated the practice of proscription, abandoned since Sulla. It engaged in the legally sanctioned killing of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its 45 legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius. Antony and Octavian defeated them at Philippi. Afterward, Antony formed an alliance with <mask>'s lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other.This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium in 31 BC and suicide in Egypt in 30 BC, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name <mask>, a name conveying religious, rather than political, authority. <mask> had been preparing to invade Parthia and Scythia, and then march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination. His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results. Deification

<mask> was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title Divus Iulius (the divine/deified <mask>) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. The

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 appearance of a comet during games in his honour was taken as confirmation of his divinity.Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honours during his lifetime: and shortly before his assassination, Antony had been appointed as his flamen (priest). Both Octavian and Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of <mask>, Octavian, as the adoptive son of <mask>, assumed the title of Divi Filius (Son of the Divine). Personal life

Health and physical appearance

Based on remarks by Plutarch, <mask> is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC. Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a tapeworm. <mask> had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures.He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after <mask> died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that <mask> was a sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in <mask>'s conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination. A line from


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 Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: "Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf". No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with <mask>. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made.By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence. Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that <mask>'s behavioral manifestations—headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility—and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in his Natural History that <mask>'s father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes. These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. <mask> possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease. Suetonius, writing more than a century after <mask>'s death, describes <mask> as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes". Name and family

The name <mask> <mask>

Using the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters J and U, <mask>'s name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of G by C. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR,

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texts: reflecting the older spelling.(The letterform Æ is a ligature of the letters A and E, and is often used in Latin inscriptions to save space.) In Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯sar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was <mask>'s principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during <mask>'s time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser () or Dutch keizer (). In Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong  first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel .Then, the plosive  before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like  in Italian and  in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate  became a fricative  (thus, ) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. <mask>'s cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse "Render unto <mask> the things which are <mask>'s, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became, from the late first millennium, Kaiser in German and (through Old Church Slavic cěsarĭ) Tsar or Czar in the Slavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power was

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 Simeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word <mask> constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in the text corpora of Old High German (keisar), Old Saxon (kēsur), Old English (cāsere), Old Norse (keisari), Old Dutch (keisere) and (through Greek) Gothic (kaisar).Posterity

Wives
 First marriage to Cornelia (Cinnilla), from 84 BC until her death in 69 or 68 BC
 Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC over the Bona Dea scandal
 Third marriage to Calpurnia, from 59 BC until <mask>'s death

Children
 Julia, by Cornelia, born in 83 or 82 BC
 <mask>ion, by Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC, and killed at age 17 by <mask>'s adopted son Octavianus. Posthumously adopted: <mask> <mask>, his great-nephew by blood (grandson of Julia, his sister), who later became Emperor Augustus. Suspected Children
 Marcus Junius Brutus (born 85 BC): The historian Plutarch notes that <mask> believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been <mask>'s lover during their youth. <mask> would have been 15 years old when Brutus was born. Junia Tertia (born ca. 60s BC), the daughter of <mask>'s lover Servilia was believed by Cicero among other contemporaries, to be <mask>'s natural daughter. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born ca.85–81 BC): On several occasions <mask> expressed how he loved Decimus Brutus like a son. This Brutus was also

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 named an heir of <mask> in case Octavius had died before the latter. Ronald Syme argued that if a Brutus was the natural son of <mask>, Decimus was more likely than Marcus. Grandchildren
Grandchild from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Lovers
 Cleopatra, mother of <mask>
 Servilia, mother of Brutus
 Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes

Rumors of passive homosexuality

Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in <mask>'s Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "<mask> may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered <mask>." According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly <mask>'s enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career.The stories were repeated, referring to <mask> as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. <mask> himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion. This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that <mask> and his engineer Mamurra were lovers, but later apologised. Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by <mask> through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus.Literary works

During his lifetime, <mask> was regarded as

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texts:
 one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin —even Cicero spoke highly of <mask>'s rhetoric and style. Only <mask>'s war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his Anticato, a document written to defame Cato in response to Cicero's published praise. Poems by <mask> are also mentioned in ancient sources. Memoirs

 The Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years. The Commentarii de Bello Civili (The Civil War), events of the Civil War from <mask>'s perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.Other works historically have been attributed to <mask>, but their authorship is in doubt:
 De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria;
 De Bello Africo (On the African War), campaigns in North Africa; and
 De Bello Hispaniensi (On the Hispanic War), campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula. These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". They were important in shaping <mask>'s public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings. As a model of clear and direct Latin style, The Gallic Wars traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students.

masks:
Caesar
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts:
 Legacy

Historiography

The texts written by <mask>, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction of his biography. However, <mask> wrote those texts with his political career in mind, so historians must filter the exaggerations and bias contained in it.<mask> is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read. The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of <mask>, which described Augustus as <mask>'s political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by the Octavian traditions, such as when <mask>'s epoch is considered a turning point in the history of the Roman Empire. Still, historians try to filter the Octavian bias. Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of <mask>. Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work Histoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the Gallic Wars in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place The Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the Commentaries, and translated them to Turkish language. Henry IV and Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV retranslated the first one afterwards. Politics

<mask> is seen as the main example of

masks:
Caesar
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Caesar
Julius Caesar


title: Julius Caesar

texts:
 Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government. Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Bonaparte did not focus only on <mask>'s military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism.The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions

Battle record

Chronology

See also

 Et tu, Brute? <mask> <mask> (name)
 <mask>, a play by William Shakespeare ( 1599)
 Giulio Cesare, an opera by Handel, 1724
 Veni, vidi, vici
 Caesareum of Alexandria
 Caesar cipher

References

Sources

Primary sources

Own writings

 Dickinson College Commentaries: Selections from the Gallic War
 Forum Romanum Index to <mask>'s works online in Latin and translation

Ancient historians' writings

 Appian, Book 13 (English translation)
 Cassius Dio, Books 37–44 (English translation)
 Plutarch on Antony (English translation, Dryden edition)
 Plutarch: The Life of <mask> (English translation)
 Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony (English translation)
 Suetonius: The Life of <mask>. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe)
 Suetonius: The Life of <mask> Caesar (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified)

Secondary sources

External links

 Guide to online resources
 History of <mask>
 <mask> at

masks:
Caesar
Gaius Julius
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Caesar
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Julius
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar


title: Tucker Gougelmann

texts:
<mask>n (January 24, 1917 – June 23, 1975) was a United States Marine Corps colonel, World War II veteran, and a Central Intelligence Agency officer in their Special Activities Division who died in Vietnam in 1975. World War II and entry into the CIA
During the war he served in the Pacific, participating in battles such as Guadalcanal. During the Solomon Islands campaign he suffered a severe wound as the result of being shot in the right leg by a Japanese sniper while he was helping to move his fellow soldiers who were wounded out of danger. Although the military doctors told him that his leg would have to be amputated as part of his treatment, Gougelmann was intent on returning to service and therefore refused to give his permission for the doctors to proceed with the amputation. He wound up keeping his leg but as a result his convalescence lasted for two years. During this time he was decorated with a Purple Heart in recognition of his having sustained the injury in combat. By the time he had recovered and was returned to active duty the war was drawing to a close.Regardless, Gougelmann remained in the Corps until his honorable discharge in 1949. Wanting to continue in service to his country, Gougelmann joined the then nascent Central Intelligence Agency, which had been created from the embattled Central Intelligence Group ("CIG") following the National Security Act of 1947 which Truman had signed into law only two years earlier. Although the CIG had a record of difficulty with attracting "the best and the brightest," the newly formed CIA had no such difficulties in its early years. It was in fact a magnet for many of the nation's privileged youth who were recent graduates of top educational institutions, such as Ivy League universities. It was


title: Didi Kempot

texts:
<mask> (born <mask>; Javanese: ꦝꦶꦝꦶꦏ꧀ꦥꦿꦱꦼꦠꦾ, Dhidhik Prasetyå; 31 December 1966 – 5 May 2020) was an Indonesian singer and songwriter in the campursari style. He wrote some 700 songs, mainly in his native Javanese language. Apart from Indonesia, <mask> was also popular in Suriname and the Netherlands, both of which have significant Javanese diaspora population. Personal life
<mask> was born in Surakarta, Indonesia in 1966. <mask>'s father, Ranto Edi Gudel, was a comedian and singer-songwriter who often performed at the traditional ketoprak tobong theatrical stage. His brother  was also a comedian. According to his brother Eko Gudel, Didi's childhood was full of misbehaviour and often fighting.After dropped out from Junior High School in Surakarta, Didi then moved to his uncle's house in Samarinda but his school seemed not success too. He then returned to his hometown to start busking. Early career
He started working as a street busker in his hometown between 1984 and 1986 before moving to Jakarta. According to him, when he arrived in Jakarta to pursue a career in music, he and eight of his friends slept in a narrow room for Rp15,000 per month. He said that the room is so narrow that they "sometimes could only sleep on their side [because of the lack of space]." The name "Kempot", which is an portmanteau of Kelompok Penyanyi Trotoar (Sidewalk Singer Group), was also coined in Jakarta. Didi said that at the time, they did not earn enough money to save, because every time they earn some amount, the money will be spent on drinks.However, this period was a productive time as he wrote many songs, including "We Cen Yu", "Cidro" (Broken), "Moblong-Moblong" (Perforated),

masks:
Didi Kempot
Didik Prasetyo
Didi
Didi
Didi


title: Didi Kempot

texts:
 "Lerteler Meneh" (Drunk Again) and "Podo Pintere" (Equally Smart). According to Didi, these songs were popular among fellow buskers, even though he had not yet released them officially. This convinced him to continue pursuing a music career. After busking, Didi usually found time to record songs using blank tapes and tape recorders. When a song had been recorded, Didi handed it directly to various recording studios as a demo. Didi recounted that often the tape only got so far as the security desk. Some of the labels Didi applied for were MSC Plus and Musica Studios.Musica Studios eventually called <mask> because they were interested in his demo tape. <mask> was then assisted by Pompi Suradimansyah, a member of the band No Koes, in arranging music. Slowly but surely, the comedic song "We Cen Yu" which was lined up as a single, became popular with the public, especially in Jakarta. <mask> was offered to make a music video to be aired on TVRI, the only nationwide television channel at that time. This was also his first time to appear on the screen. In 1989, he released the single "Cidro" ("Broken"), which did not immediately become popular at the time. The song's theme did not fit the mainstream comedic, funny songs along the lines of "Jika Bulan Bisa Ngomong" ("If Only the Moon Could Speak") by .Moreover, the campursari style employed by <mask> was not popular in the 1980s; Musica lumped him together with other Javanese pop singers. Concerts in the Netherlands and Suriname
Although "Cidro" had no success in Indonesia at the time of its release, it was a hit in the Netherlands and Suriname, two countries that have a significant Indonesian diaspora, especially those of

masks: Didi Didi Didi Didi


title: Didi Kempot

texts:
 Javanese descent. <mask> then was invited to hold a concert there. In 1993, <mask> left for the Netherlands. When he arrived in the Netherlands, Didi was surprised that many memorized "Cidro". He returned to the Netherlands in 1996 and also toured Suriname. In the South American country, Didi was even more famous among the many native people and Javanese descendants there.From 1996 to 1998, he recorded 10 albums which were only released in the Netherlands and Suriname, such as Layang Kangen, Trimo Ngalah, and Suket Teki. In total <mask> performed in Netherlands twice and in Suriname 11 times, the latest being the Layang Kangen Tour in 2018 when he received an award from President Dési Bouterse. Success in Indonesia
In the 1990s, Didi released the songs "Sewu Kutho" ("A Thousand Cities") and "Stasiun Balapan" ("Balapan Station"), which became hits in Indonesia. <mask>'s fame in his home country rose after his album Stasiun Balapan (1999) exploded in the market. Print and electronic media began covering <mask>. He paced to various television stations for album promos. The success of the Stasiun Balapan album led Didi to record a second album titled Modal Dengkul.Other albums he released in early 2000s are Tanjung Mas Ninggal Janji, Seketan Ewu, Plong (2000), Ketaman Asmoro (2001), Poko'e Melu (2002), Cucak Rowo (2003), Jambu Alas with Nunung Alvi (2004) and Ono Opo (2005). His popularity briefly waned with the turn of the century, but in the 2010s he regained his prominence especially among younger people. According to music researcher Irfan R. Darajat from Laras Studies of Music in Society, the rise of Didi is part of a recent effort of "hipster-washing" to raise up

masks: Didi Didi Didi Didi Didi


title: Didi Kempot

texts:
 music that was previously considered "uncool", such as dangdut and qasidah. The rooting, site-specific, exclusivity of Didi's heartbreak songs in Javanese fits with the hipster-washing pattern. However, he added that Didi's rise to mainstream fame should not make him to be seen "[…] weird, cult-like, kitsch or whatever and make Didi’s music seem like something exotic." In April 2020, he streamed a live charity concert from his house and raised a total Rp7.6 billion (~$500,000) to help Indonesians who are affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. He also released a song entitled "Ojo Mudik" ("Don't Go Mudik"), pleading his fans not to go back home during the Eid al-Fitr holiday season to prevent further spread of the coronavirus.Style
Didi worked in a campursari (a Javanese word meaning "mixture of essences") style, producing ballads with influences of pop music and the local styles kroncong and dangdut. The vast majority of his songs are themed around heartbreaks and other sad love stories. Because of this, he earned the nickname "The Godfather of the Broken-Hearted" during his later years. Aldo Sianturi of Billboard Indonesia writes that he is a "genius music conceptor" who are able to express the "depth and bitternes of love" in his lyrics, which are mostly written in Javanese, specifically the low ngoko register which is used as the daily speech by most Javanese speakers. Death
<mask> died of complications from cardiac arrest on 5 May 2020 in Surakarta. He is survived by his wife Yan Vellia and two children. References

External links

1966 births
2020 deaths
20th-century Indonesian male singers
21st-century Indonesian male singers
Campursari
Javanese


title: Tadeusz Pełczyński

texts:
<mask> (codenames: Grzegorz, Adam, Wolf, Robak; Warsaw, 14 February 1892 – 3 January 1985, London) was a Polish Army major general (generał brygady), intelligence officer and chief of the General Staff's Section II (the military intelligence section). During World War II, he became chief of staff of the Home Army (ZWZ, Armia Krajowa; July 1941 – October 1944) and its deputy commander (July 1943 – October 1944). Early life and education
<mask> was the son of <mask>, a Sanniki sugar-mill technician, and Maria, née Liczbińska, a teacher, and was a great-grandson of <mask>, a general in the Army of Congress Poland. Pełczyński began school in Łęczyca. In 1905 he participated in a school strike connected with Polish efforts to win independence from the Russian Empire. He continued his schooling in Warsaw at the Gen. Paweł Chrzanowski Gymnasium. In 1911 he began medical studies at Kraków University.As a medical student he was a member of the patriotic-gymnastic Sokół organisation and of the "Zet" Polish Youth Association (Związek Młodzieży Polskiej "Zet"). He completed a military course conducted by Zygmunt Zieliński, a future Polish Army generał broni (lieutenant general). Marriage and family
In 1923 <mask> married Wanda Filipowska, with whom he had a daughter, Maria, and a son, Krzysztof (Christopher, born 1924, who died during the Warsaw Uprising on 17 August 1944, of wounds sustained on 1 August, the first day of the Uprising). World War I

The outbreak of World War I in August 1914 found Pełczyński on

masks:
Tadeusz Walenty Pełczyński
Tadeusz Pełczyński
Ksawery Pełczyński
Michał Pełczyński
Pełczyński


title: Tadeusz Pełczyński

texts:
 vacation near Włocławek. After the area had been occupied by the Germans, he was mobilised by them to work as a medic at a Russian-prisoner-of-war camp. After his release from German service, in June 1915 he joined the Polish Legions. He served as an officer in the 6th Legions Infantry Regiment (6 Pułk Piechoty Legionów) and commanded a platoon and a company.In July 1917, following the Oath Crisis, he was interned at a camp in Beniaminów. In March 1918, after release from internment, he took up work at a social-services agency (Rada Główna Opiekuńcza) while continuing his involvement with "Zet." Interwar period
In November 1918 <mask> was accepted into the Polish Army and placed in command of a company, then a battalion, of the 6th Legions' Infantry Regiment. In March 1920 he was transferred to the Infantry Officer-Cadet School (Szkoła Podchorążych Piechoty) in Warsaw as a company commander, then a battalion commander. From September 1921 to September 1923 he attended the War College (Wyższa Szkoła Wojenna) in Warsaw. After graduating with a General Staff officer's diploma, he returned to the Infantry Officer-Cadet School as a battalion commander. In July 1924 he was posted to the Office of the Inner War Council (Ścisła Rada Wojenna).In May 1927 he began service in the Second Department of Polish General Staff (the intelligence section) as chief of the Information Department (Wydział Ewidencyjny). In January 1929 he was appointed chief of Section II. From March 1932 to September 1935 he commanded the 5th


title: Tadeusz Pełczyński

texts:
 Legions' Infantry Regiment (5 Pułk Piechoty Legionów) in Wilno (it was part of the elite 1st Legions Infantry Division), then returned to again head Section II. As chief of the Second Department of Polish General Staff, Pełczyński, like his predecessor Colonel <mask> Schaetzel and like deputy chief Lt. Col. Józef Englicht, was very supportive of Marshal Józef Piłsudski's Promethean project, aimed at liberating the non-Russian peoples of the Soviet Union. Pełczyński was the longest-serving prewar chief of the Second Department (1929–32, and 1935 – January 1939). In January 1939 he was relieved of this post and placed in command of the 19th Infantry Division (19 Dywizja Piechoty), stationed in Wilno. His tenure as chief of Section II had reportedly been ended by his wife Wanda's political activities against Marshal Edward Śmigły-Rydz and General Felicjan Sławoj-Składkowski.World War II

<mask> may have made his greatest contribution to Allied victory in World War II well before the opening of hostilities, when he proposed giving Polish knowledge of the German Enigma machine to the French and British. According to Colonel Stefan Mayer, "From Gen. <mask>, now resident in Great Britain, I know that... he suggested [to the chief of the Polish General Staff, General Wacław Stachiewicz] that in case of [impending] war the Enigma secret... be used as our Polish contribution to the common... defence and divulged to our future allies. [<mask>] repeated [this] to Col. Józef Smoleński when in [the] first days of

masks: Tadeusz Pełczyński Pełczyński Pełczyński


title: Tadeusz Pełczyński

texts:
 promoted to major general (generał brygady). He commanded sabotage operations carried out by Kedyw units against the German war machine (including disruption of several rail lines). He took part in the decision to begin the Warsaw uprising.Five weeks into the Warsaw Uprising, on 4 September 1944, Pełczyński was gravely wounded when the PKO savings-bank building on Świętokrzyska Street was bombed, and as a result he could no longer carry on the duties of Home Army chief of staff. After the suppression of the Uprising, <mask> was imprisoned by the Germans at the Langwasser camp, then at Colditz. Later years
Following his liberation by the Allies in 1945, he made his way to London in England. Decorations
Gold Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari
Silver Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari
Cross of Independence
Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Cross of Valor (thrice)
Gold Cross of Merit
Home Army Cross

See also
Biuro Szyfrów
Edmund Charaszkiewicz
Prometheism
List of Poles

Notes

References
 Edmund Charaszkiewicz, Zbiór dokumentów ppłk. Edmunda Charaszkiewicza (A Collection of Documents by Lt. Col. Edmund Charaszkiewicz), opracowanie, wstęp i przypisy (edited, with introduction and notes by) Andrzej Grzywacz, Marcin Kwiecień, Grzegorz Mazur, Kraków, Księgarnia Akademicka, 2000, . Edmund Charaszkiewicz, "Referat o zagadnieniu prometejskim" ("Report on the Promethean Question"), in Zbiór dokumentów ppłk. Edmunda Charaszkiewicza (A Collection of Documents by Lt. Col. Edmund


title: Tadeusz Pełczyński

texts: Charaszkiewicz).Andrzej Grzywacz et al., introduction to Zbiór dokumentów ppłk. Edmunda Charaszkiewicza (A Collection of Documents by Lt. Col. Edmund Charaszkiewicz), pp. 5–27. <mask> Kryska-Karski and Stanisław Żurakowski, Generałowie Polski Niepodległej (The Generals of Independnent Poland), 2nd ed., Warsaw, Editions Spotkania, 1991, p. 144. Wojciech Baliński, "Gen. bryg. <mask> <mask> (1892–1985). Przywracani pamięci" ("Major General <mask> Pełczyński (1892–1985)—Restored to Memory"), in Polska Zbrojna (Armed Poland).Waldemar Strzałkowski, "Ci, co wierzyli w Polskę. Powrót prochów generała Pełczyńskiego" ("Those Who Believed in Poland: the Return of General <mask>'s Ashes"), in Polska Zbrojna (Armed Poland), no. 215, 1995. Zbigniew Mierzwiński, Generałowie II Rzeczypospolitej (The Generals of the Second Republic), Warsaw, Wydawnictwo Polonia, 1990,  (83-7021-141-0), pp. 209–213. Lista starszeństwa oficerów Legionów Polskich w dniu oddania Legionów Polskich Wojsku Polskiemu (12 kwietnia 1917) [Seniority List of Officers of the Polish Legions on the Day of the Polish Legions' Transfer to the Polish Army (12 April 1917)], Warsaw, 1917, p. 18. Władysław Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War II, edited and translated by Christopher Kasparek, Frederick, MD, University Publications of America, 1984, .Gordon Welchman, The Hut Six Story:  Breaking the Enigma Codes, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1982. External

masks: Tadeusz Tadeusz Pełczyński Tadeusz Pełczyński


title: Peter Sellers

texts: <mask>  (born <mask>; 8 September 1925 – 24 July 1980) was an English actor, comedian and singer. He performed in the BBC Radio comedy series The Goon Show, featured on a number of hit comic songs and became known to a worldwide audience through his many film roles, among them Chief Inspector Clouseau in The Pink Panther series. Born in Southsea, Portsmouth, <mask> made his stage debut at the Kings Theatre, Southsea, when he was two weeks old. He began accompanying his parents in a variety act that toured the provincial theatres. He first worked as a drummer and toured around England as a member of the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA). He developed his mimicry and improvisational skills during a spell in Ralph Reader's wartime Gang Show entertainment troupe, which toured Britain and the Far East. After the war, <mask> made his radio debut in ShowTime, and eventually became a regular performer on various BBC radio shows.During the early 1950s, <mask>, along with Spike Milligan, Harry Secombe and Michael Bentine, took part in the successful radio series The Goon Show, which ended in 1960. <mask> began his film career during the 1950s. Although the bulk of his work was comedic, often parodying characters of authority such as military officers or policemen, he also performed in other film genres and roles. Films demonstrating his artistic range include I'm All Right Jack (1959), Stanley Kubrick's Lolita (1962) and Dr. Strangelove (1964), What's New, Pussycat? (1965), Casino Royale (1967), The Party (1968), Being There (1979) and five films of the Pink Panther series (1963–1978). <mask>'s versatility enabled him to portray a wide range of

masks:
Peter Sellers
Richard Henry Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers


title: Peter Sellers

texts: comic characters using different accents and guises, and he would often assume multiple roles within the same film, frequently with contrasting temperaments and styles. Satire and black humour were major features of many of his films, and his performances had a strong influence on a number of later comedians.<mask> was nominated three times for an Academy Award, twice for the Academy Award for Best Actor, for his performances in Dr. Strangelove and Being There, and once for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film for The Running Jumping & Standing Still Film (1959). He won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role twice, for I'm All Right Jack and for the original Pink Panther film, The Pink Panther (1963) and was nominated as Best Actor three times. In 1980 he won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his role in Being There, and was previously nominated three times in the same category. Turner Classic Movies calls <mask> "one of the most accomplished comic actors of the late 20th century". In his personal life, <mask> struggled with depression and insecurities. An enigmatic figure, he often claimed to have no identity outside the roles that he played. His behaviour was often erratic and compulsive, and he frequently clashed with his directors and co-stars, especially in the mid-1970s when his physical and mental health, together with his alcohol and drug problems, were at their worst.<mask> was married four times and had three children from his first two marriages. He died from a heart attack, aged 54, in 1980. English filmmakers the Boulting brothers described <mask> as "the greatest comic

masks: Sellers Sellers Sellers Sellers Sellers


title: Peter Sellers

texts:
 genius this country has produced since Charles Chaplin". Biography

Early life (1925–1935)

<mask> was born on 8 September 1925, in Southsea, a suburb of Portsmouth. His parents were Yorkshire-born William "Bill<mask> and Agnes Doreen "Peg" (née Marks). Both were variety entertainers; Peg was in the Ray Sisters troupe. Although christened Richard Henry, his parents called him <mask>, after his elder brother, who was stillborn.<mask> had no other siblings. Peg <mask> was related to the pugilist Daniel Mendoza (1764–1836), whom <mask> greatly revered, and whose engraving later hung in his office. At one time <mask> planned to use Mendoza's image for his production company's logo. <mask> was two weeks old when he was carried on stage by Dick Henderson, the headline act at the Kings Theatre in Southsea: the crowd sang "For He's a Jolly Good Fellow", which caused the infant to cry. The family constantly toured, causing much upheaval and unhappiness in the young <mask>'s life. <mask> maintained a very close relationship with his mother, which his friend Spike Milligan later considered unhealthy for a grown man. <mask>'s agent, Dennis Selinger, recalled his first meeting with Peg and <mask>, noting that "Sellers was an immensely shy young man, inclined to be dominated by his mother, but without resentment or objection".As an only child though, he spent much time alone. In 1935 the <mask> family moved to North London and settled in Muswell Hill. Although <mask> was Protestant and Peg was Jewish, <mask> attended the North London Roman Catholic school St Aloysius' College, run by the Brothers of Our Lady of Mercy. The family was not rich, but Peg insisted on

masks:
Sellers
" Sellers
Peter
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Peter Sellers
Sellers
Bill Sellers
Sellers


title: Peter Sellers

texts:
 an expensive private schooling for her son. According to biographer <mask>, <mask> was fascinated, puzzled, and worried by religion from a young age, particularly Catholicism; Roger Lewis believed that soon after entering Catholic school, <mask> "discovered he was a Jew—he was someone on the outside of the mysteries of faith". Later in his life, <mask> observed that while his father's faith was according to the Church of England, his mother was Jewish, "and Jews take the faith of their mother." According to Milligan, <mask> held a guilt complex about being Jewish and recalls that Sellers was once reduced to tears when he presented him with a candlestick from a synagogue for Christmas, believing the gesture to be an anti-Jewish slur.<mask> became a top student at the school, excelling in drawing in particular. He was prone to laziness, but his natural talents shielded him from criticism by his teachers. <mask> recalled that a teacher scolded the other boys for not studying, saying: "The Jewish boy knows his catechism better than the rest of you!" Early performances (1935–1939)
Accompanying his family on the variety show circuit, <mask> learned stagecraft, but received conflicting encouragement from his parents and developed mixed feelings about show business. His father doubted <mask>'s abilities in the entertainment field, even suggesting that his son's talents were only enough to become a road sweeper, while <mask>'s mother encouraged him continuously. While at St Aloysius College, <mask> began to develop his improvisational skills. He and his closest friend at the time, Bryan Connon, both enjoyed listening to early radio comedy shows.Connon

masks:
Peter Evans
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers
Sellers


title: Peter Sellers

texts:
 remembers that "<mask> got endless pleasure imitating the people in Monday Night at Eight. He had a gift for improvising dialogue. Sketches, too. I'd be the 'straight man', the 'feed', ... I'd cue <mask> and he'd do all the radio personalities and chuck in a few voices of his own invention as well." Second World War (1939–1945)
With the outbreak of the Second World War, St. Aloysius College was evacuated to Cambridgeshire. Because his mother did not allow Sellers to go, his formal education ended at fourteen.Early in 1940, the family moved to the north Devon town of Ilfracombe, where <mask>'s maternal uncle managed the Victoria Palace Theatre; <mask> got his first job at the theatre, aged fifteen, starting as a caretaker. He was steadily promoted, becoming a box office clerk, usher, assistant stage manager and lighting operator. He was also offered some small acting parts. Working backstage gave him a chance to study actors such as Paul Scofield. He became close friends with Derek Altman, and together they launched <mask>'s first stage act under the name "Altman and Sellers", consisting of playing ukuleles, singing, and telling jokes. During his backstage theatre job, <mask> began practising on a set of drums that belonged to the band Joe Daniels and his Hot Shots. Daniels noticed his efforts and gave him practical instructions.The instrument greatly suited <mask>'s temperament and artistic skills. Spike Milligan later noted that <mask> was very proficient on the drums and might have remained a jazz drummer, had he lacked his skills in mimicry and improvisation. As the war progressed, <mask> continued to develop his drumming skills, and played with a

masks: Peter Peter Sellers Sellers Sellers Sellers Sellers Sellers Sellers


title: Peter Sellers

texts:
 series of touring bands, including those of Oscar Rabin, Henry Hall and Waldini, as well as his father's quartet, before he left and joined a band from Blackpool. <mask> became a member of the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA), which provided entertainment for British forces and factory workers during the war. <mask> also performed comedy routines at these concerts, including impersonations of George Formby, with <mask> accompanying his own singing on ukulele. In September 1943, he joined the Royal Air Force, although it is unclear whether he volunteered or was conscripted; his mother unsuccessfully tried to have him deferred on medical grounds. <mask> wanted to become a pilot, but his poor eyesight restricted him to ground staff duties.He found these duties dull, so auditioned for Squadron Leader Ralph Reader's RAF Gang Show entertainment troupe: Reader accepted him and <mask> toured the UK before the troupe was transferred to India. His tour also included Ceylon and Burma, although the duration of his stay in Asia is unknown, and <mask> may have exaggerated its length. He also served in Germany and France after the war. According to David Lodge, who became friends with <mask>, he was "one of the best performers ever" on the drums and developed a fine ability to impersonate military officers during this period. Early post-war career and The Goon Show (1946–1955)
In 1946, <mask> made his final show with ENSA starring in the pantomime Jack and the Beanstalk at the Théâtre Marigny in Paris. He was posted back to England shortly afterwards to work at the Air Ministry, and demobilised later that year. On resuming his theatrical career,

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