Malnutrition during a pregnancy and the early years of a child's life limits the neurological development of a child. Ricciuti (1993) and Rose (1994) found that malnutrition which caused neurological effects has long term impact on a child's cognitive development and intelligence. Sigman and Whaley (1998) found that adverse effects of malnutrition have more damaging effects which affect attention, memory, abstract reasoning, and general school achievement.