For patients with AF, we recommend bleeding risk assessment should be performed for all patients with AF at every patient contact and should initially focus on potentially modi able bleeding risk factors (Strong recommendation, low quality evidence). Remark: Modi able risk factors may include: Uncontrolled blood pressure; Labile INRs (in a patient taking VKA); Alcohol excess; Concomitant use of NSAIDs or aspirin in an anticoagulated patient; bleeding tendency or predisposition (eg, treat gastric ulcer, optimize renal or liver function, etc). 4. For patients with AF, we recommend use of the HAS-BLED score to address modi able bleeding risk factors in all AF patients. Those potentially at high risk (HAS-BLED score 3) warrant more frequent and regular reviews or follow-up (Strong recommendation, moderate quality evidence). Remark: Given that bleeding risk is highly dynamic, attention to modi able bleeding risk factors should be prioritized during every patient contact and review. 5. In VKA-treated patients, we suggest the use of the HAS-BLED score for bleeding risk assessment (Weak recommendation, low quality evidence). Remark: A high HAS-BLED score ($ 3) is rarely a reason to avoid anticoagulation. The individual modi able components of the score, when reviewed with the patient, can serve to ameliorate bleed risk. 6. For patients with AF, we recommend against antiplatelet therapy alone (monotherapy or aspirin in combination with clopidogrel) for stroke prevention alone, regardless of stroke risk (Strong recommendation, moderate quality evidence). Remark: Patients with AF might have other indications for antiplatelet drugs (eg, acute coronary syndrome, stents). 7. In patients with AF who are eligible for OAC, we recommend NOACs over VKA (Strong recommendation, moderate quality evidence). Remark: Patient and caregiver preferences, cost, formulary considerations, anticipated medication adherence or compliance with INR testing and dose adjustment should be incorporated into clinical decision-making. 8. 