It should be emphasized that the most important aspect of standardized BP measurement is preparation prior to the measurement and not the equipment used (Chapter 1). Heterogeneity in primary outcomes among various RCTs. It should be noted that the medium-sized trials that exclusively enrolled CKD patients and examined target BP levels, such as the Modi cation of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) trial,97 the African American Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension and the Blood-Pressure Control for Renoprotection in Patients with Non-diabetic Chronic had used kidney events as the primary outcomes and had relatively few non-kidney events during the trial. In contrast, the larger trials that did not exclusively enroll CKD patients, such as the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP) trial,100 the Secondary Prevention of Small Subcortical Strokes (SPS3) the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) trial,92 and the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT),93 used CV events as the primary outcomes and had relatively few kidney events, although there might be a sizeable number of CKD patients in the latter trials. These dichotomies and the heterogeneity in the characteristics of the study cohorts create challenges in data synthesis to provide an evidence base for practice recommendations in CKD. Cardiovascular outcomes. General population. In the general population, there is extensive evidence that the reduction in the risk of CV events is proportional to the SBP reduction achieved, with the absolute bene ts being greater in those with higher baseline risk of CV disease, and with no differ- ence in proportional risk reductions across groups de ned according to higher or lower baseline SBP.102 106 The meta- analysis of 21 RCTs by Xie et al. 