Prospective research is needed for these woman-specific risk factors, including pregnancy-related risk factors and hormonal exposure (OCs and postmenopausal HT), as well as changes in hormone status across the lifespan (menarche, menopause, and oophorectomy). For example, preeclampsia clearly increases risk of stroke in the peripartum period and has been listed as a risk factor for CVD in women in the 2011 AHA Effectiveness-Based Guidelines for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Women 21 ; however, relatively lim- ited data on long-term risk of stroke among women with a history of preeclampsia are available.180 In addition, several less traditional risk factors, including psychosocial stress and depression, were important in the INTERSTROKE study92 and other observational studies398,399 but are not included in tradi- tional risk scores.440,445 Women have higher rates of depression, and thus, these factors may be of greater impact for women.446 Additionally, there are potential differences in the risk of stroke among older individuals with AF, with higher rates in women despite warfarin therapy, as discussed above.372 Whether bio- markers, in addition to lipid measures, additionally contribute to risk stratification in women is unclear. C-reactive protein, an inflammatory marker that is also included in the Reynolds Cardiovascular Risk Score,439,447 was found to improve predic- tion of risk of IS, particularly cardioembolic stroke, in older women in the WHI.448 Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase was associated with improvement in the prediction of large- Additional evaluation of other biomarkers for risk prediction will be of continued interest. Woman-Specific Risk Score: Summary and Gaps Consideration of the risk factors that are unique to women and are more prevalent or differentially increase risk, compared with men, may improve the accuracy of stroke risk assessment compared with current risk scores. This is especially true for younger women of reproductive age. 