INTRODUCTION {#s1}
============

Globally, noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) accounted for 71% of total deaths. In India, NCDs were estimated to account for 63% of all deaths, and cancer was one of the leading causes (9%).^[@B1]^ Cancer registries are recognized as vital components of national cancer-control programs.^[@B2]^ Publications from developed and developing countries provide updated information on cancer occurrence, trends, and projections.^[@B3]-[@B7]^ In India, the systematic collection of data on cancer has been performed since 1982 by the population-based cancer registries (PBCRs) and hospital-based cancer registries (HBCRs) under the National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP)--National Centre for Disease Informatics and Research (NCDIR) of the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR; ICMR-NCDIR-NCRP), Bengaluru (Appendix). NCRP commenced with the objective of generating reliable data on the magnitude and patterns of cancer. Several NCRP reports on cancer from different registries across India have been published.^[@B8]-[@B9]^

CONTEXT
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**Key Objective**This study reports the cancer incidence, patterns, trends, projections, cancer mortality, and clinical aspects of stage at presentation and treatment for the period 2012-2016 from 28 population-based and 58 hospital-based cancer registries in India under the network of the National Cancer Registry Programme.**Knowledge Generated**There is heterogeneity in cancer incidence (age-adjusted rate per 100,000: males: Osmanabad and Beed, 39.5 *v* Aizawl district, 269.4; females: Osmanabad and Beed, 49.4 *v* Papumpare district, 219.8) and in patterns across India and a lower proportion (\< 33%) of early stage at presentation for common cancers. The projected incidence of patients with cancer for the year 2020 in India in males is 679,421 and in females is 712,758.**Relevance**Results of this study will help in assessing the status and trends of cancer in India. This will assist local- and national-level stakeholders to implement public health action to control cancer.

PBCRs provide statistics on the occurrence and outcome of cancer in a geographically defined population. They also provide the framework for assessing the control of cancer in the community. HBCRs are concerned with the recording of information on patients with cancer seen in a particular hospital and are mainly used for reviewing clinical performance and the hospital cancer program.^[@B10]^

This article reports the cancer incidence, patterns, time trends, and mortality from 28 PBCRs for the composite period 2012-2016 across India under ICMR-NCDIR-NCRP. Also, it covers the stage at presentation and type of treatment received by patients with cancer from 58 HBCRs for the period 2012-2016 in India under the network of NCRP. Based on estimates from this period, the projection of patients with cancer in India for the year 2020 is also included.

METHODS {#s2}
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Presently, there are 36 PBCRs and 236 HBCRs registered under the ICMR-NCDIR-NCRP. However, this article includes data from 28 PBCRs and 58 HBCRs, which were complete with at least 1 year of good-quality data. All neoplasms with a behavior code of 3 as defined by the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology, 3rd Edition, and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (10th revision; ICD-10) were considered reportable and therefore registered in NCRP.^[@B11]^ Cancer registration is a complex process. In India, cancer registration is active wherein trained registry staff go to different sources (hospitals, diagnostic laboratories, vital statistics departments) for collection of data on a standardized core form.^[@B10]^ This is followed by quality control checks, duplicate checks, matching with mortality cases, follow-up of death certificate notifications, and assigning death certificate only (DCO). Patients with cancer who were residents in the registration area for a minimum period of 1 year before the date of diagnosis were included in the registry. Multiple cancer data sources were followed for data collection.^[@B10]^ Quality of the data was maintained per International Association of Cancer Registries/International Agency for Research on Cancer (IACR/IARC) norms.^[@B12],[@B13]^

Incidence and mortality data were retrieved from 28 PBCRs (urban or rural, or both) for the period 2012-2016. Cancer burden measures were calculated as crude rate, age-adjusted rate (AAR) per 100,000 population using world standard population,^[@B14]^ and cumulative risk (probability that an individual will be diagnosed with cancer \[0- to 74-year-old age group\] in the absence of any competing cause of death and assuming that the current trends prevail over the time period). Time trends in cancer incidence rate were generated as annual percent change (APC) and considered statistically significant (at *P* \< .05) from 16 PBCRs (with minimum of 10 years of data) using the Joinpoint regression program, 4.0.1 (National Cancer Institute).^[@B15]^ The years of data for trend analysis varied (11 to 35 years) across the PBCRs, and there were 6 PBCRs with more than 25 years of continuous data.

The country was categorized into 6 geographic zones based on the location of the PBCRs: North (Delhi, Patiala), South (Hyderabad, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Bangalore, and Chennai), East (Kolkata), West (Ahmedabad urban, Aurangabad, Osmanabad and Beed, Barshi rural, Mumbai, and Pune), Central (Wardha, Bhopal, and Nagpur) and Northeast (NE; Manipur, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura, West Arunachal, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Pasighat, Cachar, Dibrugarh, and Kamrup urban). Population denominators were derived from the Census of India, conducted by the Regis-trar General and Census Commissioner of India under the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.^[@B16]^ The census populations of 2001 and 2011 were used to calculate the postcensal population estimates for the years 2012 and 2016 by 5-year age groups and sex. For time trend analysis, the respective 1981, 1991, 2001, and 2011 censuses were taken as the base to estimate inter- or postcensal population by 5-year age groups and sex.^[@B17]^

A standardized patient information form for HBCRs under NCRP and the data collection methods have been explained previously.^[@B18]^ Newly diagnosed and treated patients with cancer (N = 667,666) from 58 HBCRs (with a minimum of 1 year of a complete dataset) in 2012-2016 were pooled and are presented as the relative proportion of clinical stage and treatment. The stage/clinical extent of disease before treatment (excludes previously treated patients with cancer) was classified into localized only, locoregional, distant metastasis, and unknown.^[@B19]^ The completion of planned cancer-directed treatment after diagnosis was classified as surgery, radiotherapy, systemic therapy, and multimodality (combination of surgery and/or radiotherapy and/or systemic therapy).

Good-quality data indices of microscopic verification (MV%) above 75%, DCO% below 20%, other and unspecified sites (O&U%) below 15%, and mortality-to-incidence ratio (M:I%) were calculated for each PBCR and accordingly classified.^[@B12],[@B13]^ NCRP has developed in-house software (PBCR and HBCR Data Management) for data capture, quality checks, duplicates checks (deterministic and phonetic-similar sounding duplicate names), and mortality-incidence matching. The list of errors was sent back to registries for clarifications and corrected at each level. Incidence data for 2012-2016 was used as a reference for projection of patients with cancer in India until 2020 by sex and anatomic site (see Data Supplement for more details).

RESULTS {#s3}
=======

Average annual number of patients for all sites of cancer with incidence rate, cumulative risk by sex, and mortality rate according to different regions in India between 2012 and 2016 are given in [Table 1](#T1){ref-type="table"}. PBCRs in the NE showed the highest incidence rate in both sexes. It was observed that Aizawl district had the highest AAR (269.4) and mortality (152.7) rate among males. One of every 4 males in Aizawl district, Papumpare district, East Khasi Hills district, and Kamrup urban are likely to develop cancer in the age group of 0-74 years. One of every 4 females in the Papumpare district and 1 of 5 females in Mizoram state are likely to develop cancer in the age group of 0-74 years.

###### 

Annual Average No. of Patients for All Sites of Cancer With Incidence Rate per 100,000, Cumulative Risk (0-74 age group) and Mortality Rate by Sex and Reporting Year for 28 PBCRs Under NCRP

![](GO.20.00122t1)

On comparison of AARs for all sites of cancer (ICD10: C00-C97) across the population among males, Aizawl district (269.4) had the highest AAR and was approximately twice the AAR of Delhi PBCR (147.0). East Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya (227.9) had the second highest AAR, followed by Kamrup urban (213.0) and Mizoram PBCR (207.0). Among females, Papumpare district (219.8) had the highest AAR. In the rest of the regions (excluding NE), Delhi had highest AAR (147.0), followed by Thiruvanathapuram district (137.8) among males; Bangalore (146.8) had highest AAR, followed by Delhi (141.0) among females ([Fig 1](#f1){ref-type="fig"}).

![Comparison of all cancer sites' age-adjusted incidence rates (AARs) of all population-based cancer registries, 2012-2016 (International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th revision: C00-C97). AARs are in blue and crude rates are given in parentheses in red. Thi\'puram district, Thiruvananthapuram district.](GO.20.00122f1){#f1}

East Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya had the highest relative proportion of cancers associated with the use of tobacco, with 70.4% and 46.5% for males and females, respectively. The higher proportion of cancers associated with use of tobacco was in the NE states, followed by registries in the West and Central regions ([Fig 2](#f2){ref-type="fig"}).

![Sites of cancer associated with the use of tobacco (%), 2012-2016. Crude rate in red and age-adjusted rates in blue are given in parentheses. Sites of cancer associated with the use of tobacco, anatomic sites (International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th revision codes), lip (C00); tongue (C01-C02); mouth (C03-C06); pharynx (C10 and C12-C14); esophagus (C15); larynx (C32); lung (C33-C34); urinary bladder (C67).^[@B33]^ Thi'puram district, Thiruvananthapuram district.](GO.20.00122f2){#f2}

Among males, lung, mouth, esophagus, and stomach were the most common cancer sites. Among females, breast cancer, followed by cervix uteri and ovary cancer, were the most common sites across the PBCRs. Thyroid cancer was the second most common cancer in the PBCRs of Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam, whereas lung cancer was seen in Manipur and Mizoram state. In the NE region, the third most common cancers were stomach and gallbladder (Data Supplement). The decadal changes in leading sites of cancer from 6 older PBCRs (Barshi rural, Bangalore, Bhopal, Chennai, Delhi, and Mumbai) were observed for the first 10 and last 10 years of data (Data Supplement).

The relative proportion of patients according to clinical extent of disease at the time of diagnosis as seen in the pooled data of 58 HBCRs for common sites of cancer showed that the majority of patients with cancer were diagnosed as locally advanced/locoregional for breast (57.0%), cervix uteri (60.0%), head and neck (66.6%), and stomach (50.8%) cancer. The majority of patients with lung cancer were diagnosed with distant metastasis in males (44.0%) and females (47.6%; [Fig 3](#f3){ref-type="fig"}). The relative proportion of types of cancer-directed treatment received (only at the reporting hospital) according to clinical extent of disease before treatment showed that multimodality was the first choice of treatment (locoregional, 79.5%; localized, 74.4%; distant metastasis, 47.6%; Data Supplement).

![Relative proportion (%) of patients according to clinical extent of disease, 2012-2016 (proportion \[%\] may not total 100% because of rounding).](GO.20.00122f3){#f3}

The estimated APC in cancer AAR for selected anatomic sites of cancer over the time period showed an increase in the incidence rate of all sites of cancer (12 PBCRs in males and 13 PBCRs in females). There was a significant increase in the incidence rate of breast cancer across all PBCRs over the years, except in Nagpur PBCR. There was a significant decrease in the incidence rate of cervical cancer in 10 PBCRs, except in Dibrugarh district and Pune. Lung cancer showed a significant increase in 11 PBCRs among females ([Fig 4](#f4){ref-type="fig"}).

![Annual percentage change (APC) in age-adjusted incidence rates (AAR) over the time period. Calendar years of incidence data for each population-based cancer registry (PBCR) used in trend analysis: Chennai (1982-2016); Mumbai (1982-2015); Bangalore (1982-2014); Barshi rural (1988-2016); Bhopal (1988-2015); Delhi (1988-2014); Kamrup urban (2003-2016); Mizoram state (2004-2016); Dibrugarh district, Sikkim state, Imphal West district; Aurangabad; Thiruvananthapuram (Thi\'puram) taluk; Nagpur (2005-2016); Kollam district; Pune (2006-2016); PBCRs with small numbers (\< 10 patients) per year not analyzed. Increase in APC in red, decrease in APC in green. (\*) APC significantly different from zero; *P* \< .05. Thi'puram PBCR expanded its coverage to district from the year 2012 onwards. Hence, Thi'puram taluk data was used for trend analysis. Thi'puram taluk, Thiruvananthapuram taluk.](GO.20.00122f4){#f4}

Among 28 PBCRs, MV%, ranged between 77% (Patiala) and 96.7% (Hyderabad); DCO% ranged between \< 0.05% (Osmanabad and Beed) and 19.4% (Patiala); O&U% ranged between 1.8% (Hyderabad) and 13.0% (Patiala). M:I% was high in Barshi rural (67.2%) followed by Wardha (59.2%) and Mumbai (56.0%; Data Supplement).

The projected incidence of patients with cancer in India among males was 679,421 (94.1 per 100,000) and among females 712,758 (103.6 per 100,000) for the year 2020. One in 68 males (lung cancer), 1 in 29 females (breast cancer), and 1 in 9 Indians will develop cancer during their lifetime (0-74 years of age; [Table 2](#T2){ref-type="table"}). The projected 5 most common cancers in 2020 for males (lung, mouth, prostate, tongue, and stomach) constitute 36% of all cancers and for females (breast, cervix uteri, ovary, corpus uteri, and lung) constitute 53% of all cancers (Data Supplement).

###### 

Projected Incidence of Cancer Statistics in India, 2020

![](GO.20.00122t2)

DISCUSSION {#s4}
==========

India exhibits heterogeneity in cancer. The incidence rates of Aizawl district were observed to be 7 times and 4 times that of Osmanabad and Beed district PBCRs in males and females, respectively. The highest cancer incidence rate was observed in the NE region (6 PBCRs for males and 4 PBCRs for females) than other areas in the country. The leading sites of cancer in the NE region were nasopharynx, hypopharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, larynx, lung, breast, and cervix uteri. The NE region lacks required infrastructure with respect to specialized treatment facilities, human resources, as seen by the low 5-year survival of breast, cervix, and head and neck cancer compared with rest of India. A substantial proportion of patients with cancer from the NE region are traveling outside the NE for treatment and cancer care.^[@B20],[@B21]^ Local cultural factors and lifestyle choices may have contributed to the heterogeneity in cancer incidence pattern and differences in India, as was seen in Thailand.^[@B7]^

Lung (9 PBCRs), mouth (9 PBCRs), esophagus (5 PBCRs), stomach (4 PBCRs), and nasopharynx (1 PBCR) cancers were the most common cancers in men. Lung cancer was the leading site in metropolitan cities and the southern region, whereas mouth cancer was the leading site in the West and Central regions. Lung cancer and oral/mouth cancer were the most common cancers among males in the Indian subcontinent.^[@B22]^ Cancers of the esophagus, stomach, and nasopharynx were the leading sites in the NE region of India. Here, the cancer incidence pattern is different from the rest of India. There are similarities in the cancer incidence pattern with the Southeast Asian region.^[@B23]^ Overall, these findings on patterns of cancer were similar to previously published reports under NCRP.^[@B8]^

Cancer of the breast (19 PBCRs) and cervix uteri (7 PBCRs) were the most common cancers in women. The highest burden of breast cancer was observed in metropolitan cities. There is an increase in the trend of incidence of breast cancer, whereas cervix uteri cancer is on the decline. A steady increase in breast cancer in most of the PBCRs including newer PBCRs, poses a great health challenge to women in India.^[@B24]^ Presently, breast cancer and cervix uteri are the leading sites of cancer among women in India, posing an important public health problem that needs important input from various health and other agencies to tackle.^[@B25]^ A multidisciplinary approach to breast cancer, including awareness programs, preventive measures, screening programs for early detection, and availability of treatment facilities, are vital for reducing both incidence and mortality of cancer in Indian women.^[@B26]^

The incidence rate of thyroid cancer among women is increasing, and it is most common in the districts of Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam in Kerala. The high burden of thyroid cancer in Kerala could be due to overdiagnosis,^[@B27]^ as was observed even in high-income and low- and middle-income countries.^[@B28]^ AAR in Barshi rural is almost one third of urban PBCRs (males, 50.6 *v* 147.0; females, 61.0 *v* 146.8), and the increase in APC was less compared with urban PBCRs. This needs additional investigation.

There are cancers of several anatomic sites known to be associated with the use of tobacco.^[@B29]^ Based on PBCR data, almost one third of the cancers were known to be associated with the use of tobacco in India. India state-level disease burden initiative cancer collaborators estimated that tobacco use was the highest contributing risk factor for cancer in India. In India, lung cancer can be attributed to tobacco use and air pollution, which are the leading risk factors.^[@B30]^ Approximately 70% of cancers in India were potentially preventable through modifiable risk factors.^[@B31]^

Because it is difficult to obtain information on the clinical extent of disease and treatment from PBCRs, the hospital database was used for such analysis.^[@B10]^ The majority of breast and cervix uteri cancers were diagnosed at a locally advanced stage. Chemoradiation was the most common type of treatment of cancer cervix uteri. A multi-institutional study from India on cervix cancer showed significantly better survival with chemoradiation than radiation alone in the locally advanced stage.^[@B18]^ A study from Chennai showed that concurrent chemoradiation for locally advanced cervical cancer resulted in the best disease-free survival.^[@B32]^ Two thirds of the patients with cancer were diagnosed at the locoregional stage for head and neck cancers from HBCRs. Similar to that, a low proportion of patients with head and neck cancer presented in the early stage, and a high proportion (88.1%) were seen in Uttarakhand.^[@B33]^ Multimodality was the most common treatment given for breast and head and neck cancers. A multi-institutional study estimated that 65% of new head and neck cancers with locally advanced disease did not receive the benefit of optimal treatment, resulting in poor survival.^[@B34]^

Less than one fifth of lung and stomach cancers were diagnosed as localized only. Systemic therapy was the most common type of treatment given for lung and stomach cancer. A previous report on HBCR results showed similar findings.^[@B8a]^ A hospital-based study from northern India showed that 90% of patients with lung cancer were diagnosed at an advanced stage of the disease, and there was a delay in diagnostic evaluation and treatment.^[@B35]^ Creating cancer awareness, preventing risk factors, and improving access to care among people would result in downstaging of cancer.

The measure of validity, MV%, was above 77% for all the PBCRs. Varying patterns of DCO% and M:I% were observed among PBCRs which were dependent on the quality of death registration and certification.^[@B13]^ Efforts to improve the quality are always underway. In some registries, low DCO% (\< 1%) is due to nonavailability of all-cause mortality data and incomplete/incorrect certification of cause of death. Some registries had an efficient trace back procedure by house visit/phone. Data from PBCRs were regularly published in successive volumes of Cancer Incidence in Five Continents (CI-5) by WHO-IACR/IARC. The incidence data from 15 PBCRs under NCRP (India) were published in Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Volume XI, by WHO-IACR/IARC.^[@B36]-[@B38]^

The projected incidence of patients with cancer is higher for females (712,758) than males (679,421) for the year 2020. The projected national cancer incidence burden in 2020 will be 98.7 per 100,000 population (1,392,179 patients) as a conservative estimate. It is assumed that the observed rate of 2012-2016 will remain unchanged until 2020. The time trend in rate was not used to avoid uncertainty in the projection for a populous country like India. NCRP has estimated a slightly higher number of patients with cancer compared with IACR/IARC and GLOBOCAN for all sites of cancer in 2018. This may be because of a difference in methodology and use of recent data (1,392,179 *v* 1,157,294).^[@B22]^ This is the first such attempt in the country and will be further updated on availability of the next data set and census information. The influencing factors, such as risk factors/behavior, case finding procedure, screening program, and improved techniques for detecting patients with cancer, are likely to influence the projected number of patients.

PBCRs in this study covered 100 million average annual person-years, accounting for coverage close to 10% of the population in India. Cancer registration in India faces several challenges because it is not a notifiable disease, posing challenges to data collection.^[@B39]-[@B42]^ The mortality registration system has several gaps, including incomplete and inaccurate certification of cause of death.^[@B43],[@B44]^ Registering through passive notification by health care providers to report cancer occurrence in India would improve the coverage with limited resources. Linking of cancer registry data with Ayushman Bharat,^[@B45]^ mortality databases, and the Hospital Information System would improve cancer registration, follow-up, and outcome data.

This study provides a framework for assessing the status and trends of cancer in India. This shall guide appropriate support for action to strengthen efforts to improve cancer prevention and control to achieve the National NCD targets and the sustainable development goals.^[@B46],[@B47]^ The data also provide leads to key research questions.

The authors acknowledge the contribution of the 28 population-based cancer registries and 58 hospital-based cancer registries under the National Cancer Registry Program, which contributed data, and Research Area Panel Expert Group on Cancer.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS {#s5}
====================

**Conception and design:** Prashant Mathur, Krishnan Sathishkumar, Meesha Chaturvedi

**Collection and assembly of data:** Prashant Mathur, Krishnan Sathishkumar, Meesha Chaturvedi, Priyanka Das, Kondalli Lakshminarayana Sudarshan, Anish John, Francis Selvaraj Roselind

**Data analysis and interpretation:** All authors

**Manuscript writing:** All authors

**Final approval of manuscript:** All authors

**Accountable for all aspects of the work:** All authors

AUTHORS\' DISCLOSURES OF POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
========================================================

The following represents disclosure information provided by authors of this manuscript. All relationships are considered compensated unless otherwise noted. Relationships are self-held unless noted. I = Immediate Family Member, Inst = My Institution. Relationships may not relate to the subject matter of this manuscript. For more information about ASCO\'s conflict of interest policy, please refer to [www.asco.org/rwc](http://www.asco.org/rwc) or [ascopubs.org/go/site/misc/authors.html](http://ascopubs.org/go/site/misc/authors.html).

Open Payments is a public database containing information reported by companies about payments made to US-licensed physicians ([Open Payments](https://openpaymentsdata.cms.gov/)).

No potential conflicts of interest were reported.

Swetha Acharya, Dillip Kumar Agarwalla, Zarika Ahmed, Gazi Naseem Ahmed, Shiraj Ahmed, B.S. Ajaikumar, P. Anandhi, Anil Kumar Anand, Ramandeep Arora, R.A. Badwe, Manas Ranjan Baisakh, Balamuralikrishna, Debabrata Barmon, Sangita Bhandari, Samir Bhattacharya, M. Bhattacharyya, Arup Bhowmik, T.W. Bhutia, T. Bindhu, Vijay Kumar Bodal, Pradeep Chandrakar, Latha Chaturvedua, Richa Chauhan, Saia Chenkual, S. Chhabra, Lily Chhakchhuak, Vivek Choudhary, Ashok Kumar Das, Rituparna Das, Dhritiman Datta, Biswajit Debbamma, Shiromani Debbarma, S.V. Suryanarayana Deo, Vinay Deshmane, Madhubala Devi, Punyabati Devi, Laishram Purnima Devi, Rajesh Dikshit, H. Dkhar, Biswajit Dubashi, Debanarayan Dutta, Vijay Gadagi, Vinay Gadigi, B. Ganesh, M.S. Ganesh, K.V. Gangadharan, Nitin Gangane, Uma Garg, Preethi Sara George, Sushmita Ghosal, Radha Ghosh, Debasis Gochhait, Ajay Gogia, H.K. Goswami, Ashutosh Gupta, Manish Gupta, Kaveri Hallikeri, Rajesh Harsvardhan, B.H. Srinivas, Vandana Jain, Swarima Jaitley, K.L. Jayakumar, P. Jayalekshmi, Kaling Jerang, G. Jongkey, J. Seios, K. Vijayakumar, D. Kadambari, Geeta Kadayaprath, Ravi Kannan, R. Kapoor, Tejinder Kataria, Mohanvir Kaur, Swarn Kaur, K. Gunaseelan, Shehna A. Khader, V. Khamo, Nazir Ahmad Khan, Sushma Khuraijam, Marla K. Prashanth, Anjali Kolhe, S.S. Koyande, Adishi Kri, Dinesh Kumar, G. Dilip Kumar, Narender Kumar, S. Shiva Kumar, Sunil Kumar, Rajesh Singh Laishram, Lalchhanhimi, K. Lalfakzuala, Lalhlupuii, Doris Lallawmzuali, Jerry Lalrinsanga, Cindy Lalthanpuii, Imliwati Longkumer, M.B. Jayaraman, Gautam Majumdar, Reeni Malik, Swapna Maliye, Indranil Mallick, Syamsundar Mandal, N. Manoharan, Lone Mohammad Maqbool, Aleyamma Mathew, Sanjay Mishra, Janmejay Mohapatra, C.T. Muthukumaran, Rekha G. Nair, Prem Nair, Sunithra Nair, Durgaprasad Nanda, D.K. Nath, Partha Nath, N. Venkatesh, Gamba Padu, Rakesh Pandey, Shashank Pandya, Sangeeta Pankaj, N.S. Panse, Sujith Chayu Patanaik, P.C. Pathy, Jeremy L. Pautu, K. Pavithran, Prasanth Penumade, Priya Darshini Pradhan, Aruna E. Prasad, Punitalal, Kedozeto Punyu, K. Kalpana Raghunath, Mujeeb Rahman, Vinod Raina, Ravi Shankar Rajendra, Ramachandra, C. Ramesh, B.S. Ramesh, Rakesh S. Ramesh, R. Rama Ranganathan, Rita Rani, K. Ratheesan, Sudhir Rawal, Prarthana Roselil, G. Sadashivudu, B.J. Saikia, Projnan Saikia, S.K. Samantara, A. Santa, Anupam Sarma, N. Hariharanadha Sarma, Sunil Kumar Saxena, Pooja Sethi, Anand Shah, B.K. Sharma, Jagannath Dev Sharma, Sudarshan Sharma, Shah Alam Sheikh, Kamalaksh Shenoy, Dinesh Shet, Atul Shrivastava, B.R. Shrivastava, Sushma Shrivastava, Alben Sigamani, Neetu Singhal, Indibor Singh, Rajesh Kumar Singh, Usha Singh, Badarisha R. Sohliya, G.S. Sreenath, U. Srihari, V.G. Sudhakaran, Saina Sunilkumar, Partha Sarathi Sutradhar, R. Swaminathan, A Talukdar, Ritesh Tapkire, Sopai Tawsik, B. Paul Thaliath, K.T. Harichandrakumar, Pampa Ch. Toi, Shyam Tsering, B.B. Tyagi, Ajith Kumar, V.R. Ashok Kumar Vaid, K. Velavan, C.R. Vijay, W.B. Langstieh, Chaitali Wagmere, Meenu Walia, John Zohmingthanga, Eric Zomawia, and B. Zothankima.

Names Listed Alphabetically {#s7}
===========================

Affiliations. {#s8}
-------------

National Centre for Disease Informatics and Research, Indian Council of Medical Research, Bengaluru, India: Prashant Mathur, DNB, PhD; Krishnan Sathishkumar, MSc; Meesha Chaturvedi, MBBS; Priyanka Das, B-Level; Kondalli Lakshminarayana Sudarshan, MSc; Stephen Santhappan, MSc, MPhil; Vinodh Nallasamy, MSc, MPhil; Anish John, BE; Sandeep Narasimhan, MSc; and Francis Selvaraj Roselind, MSc.

Population-based cancer registries. {#s9}
-----------------------------------

Delhi population-based cancer registry (PBCR) -- B.R. Ambedkar Institute Rotary Cancer Hospital, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (S.V. Suryanarayana Deo, MS, N. Manoharan); Patiala District PBCR - Government Medical College and Rajindra Hospital, Punjab (Vijay Kumar Bodal, MD, Mohanvir Kaur, MD); Hyderabad PBCR - Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences, Telangana (G. Sadashivudu, MD, U. Srihari); Kollam PBCR - District Cancer Registry Kollam, Regional Cancer Centre, Kerala (Rekha G Nair, MD, P. Jayalekshmi, PhD); Thiruvananthapuram PBCR - Regional Cancer Centre, Thiruvanan-thapuram, Kerala (Aleyamma Mathew, PhD, Preethi Sara George, PhD); Bengaluru PBCR -- Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Karnataka (Ramachandra, MS, C. Ramesh, PhD, C.R. Vijay, PhD); Chennai PBCR -- Cancer Institute (WIA), Tamil Nadu (R. Swaminathan, PhD, R. Rama Ranganathan, PhD); Kolkata PBCR -- Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute and Saroj Gupta Cancer Centre and Research Institute, West Bengal (Samir Bhattacharya, PhD, Syamsundar Mandal, PhD, Durgaprasad Nanda, MS); Ahmedabad urban PBCR -- Gujarat Cancer & Research Institute, Gujarat (Shashak Pandya, MS, Anand Shah, MD); Mumbai, Aurangabad, Nagpur, Pune PBCRs -- Indian Cancer Society, Maharashtra (Vinay Deshmane, MD, S.S. Koyande); Barshi Expanded (Osmanabad and Beed Districts) PBCR -- Nargis Dutt Memorial Cancer Hospital, Maharashtra (NS Panse); Barshi Rural PBCR -- Tata Memorial Hospital, Maharashtra (R.A. Badwe, MS, Rajesh Dikshit, PhD); Wardha PBCR -- Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Maharashtra (Nitin Gangane, MD, Swapna Maliye, S. Chhabra, MD); Bhopal PBCR -- Gandhi Medical College, Madhya Pradesh (Reeni Malik, MD, Atul Shrivastava); Manipur PBCR -- Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, Manipur (Madhubala Devi, MD, Punyabati Devi, MD, Laishram Rajesh, MD, Sushma Khuraijam); Mizoram PBCR -- Civil Hospital, Mizoram (Eric Zomawia, MD, John Zohmingthanga, MD, Lalchhanhimi, MD, Saia Chenkual, MD, B. Zothankima, MD, Lily Chhakchhuak, MBBS, Jerry Lalrinsanga, MBBS); Sikkim PBCR -- Sir Thutob Namgyal Memorial Referral Hospital, Sikkim (T.W. Bhutia, MD, Priya Darshini Pradhan, MD, Sangita Bhandari); Naharlagun (West Arunachal) PBCR -- Timo Riba State Hospital, Arunachal Pradesh (Sopai Tawsik, MD, Shyam Tsering, MD, K.R. Adishi, MD, Gamba Padu, MD); Meghalaya PBCR -- Civil Hospital, Meghalaya (W.B. Langstieh, H. Dkha, MD, B. Sohliya, MD, L Purnima Devi, MD); Nagaland PBCR -- Naga Hospital Authority, Nagaland (V. Khamo, MD, Kedozeto Punyu, MD); Pasighat PBCR -- Bakin Pertin General Hospital, Arunachal Pradesh (Kaling Jerang, PGDCP, G. Jongkey, MD); Tripura PBCR -- Cancer Hospital, Regional Cancer Centre, Tripura (Gautam Majumdar, MD, Arup Bhowmik, MD, Rituparna Das, MD, Shiromani Debbarma); Cachar PBCR -- Silchar Medical College, Assam (Shah Alam Sheikh, MD, R.P. Banik, MD); Dibrugarh PBCR -- Assam Medical College and Hospital, Assam (Projnan Saikia, MD, Zarika Ahmed, MD); Guwahati (Kamrup urban) PBCR -- Dr. Bhubaneswar Borooah Cancer Institute (Regional Institute for Treatment and Research), Assam (Jagannath D. Sharma, MD, Anupam Sarma, MD, Debabrata Barmon, MD, Shiraj Ahmed, MD).

Hospital-Based Cancer Registries {#s10}
--------------------------------

A.J. Hospital & Research Centre, Mangalore (Marla K. Prashanth, MS, Kamalaksh Shenoy, MD); Acharya Harihar Regional Cancer Centre, Cuttack (Dillip Kumar Agarwalla, MD, Janmejay Mohapatra, MD, P.C. Pathy, MD, S K Samantara, MD); Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Kochi (Debanarayan Dutta, MD, K. Vijayakumar, MS, Prem Nair, MD, K. Pavithran, MD); Apollo Hospital, Bhubaneswar (Manas Ranjan Baisakh, MD); Asian Institute of Medical Sciences, Faridabad (Neetu Singhal, DNB); Assam Medical College, Dibrugarh (H. K. Goswami, MD); BPS Government Medical College for Women, Sonipat (Uma Garg, MD, Swarn Kaur, MD); Cachar Cancer Hospital, Silchar (Ravi Kannan, MS, Ritesh Tapkire, MS), Cancer Hospital & Research Institute, Gwalior (B.R. Shrivastava, MS); Cancer Institute (WIA), Chennai (R. Rama Ranganathan, PhD, R. Swaminathan, PhD); Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata (Partha Nath, MD, Syamsundar Mandal, PhD); B. Borooah Cancer Institute, Guwahati (M Bhattacharyya, MD, Ashok Kumar Das, MS, B J. Saikia, MD, A Talukdar, MS, Jagannath Dev Sharma, MD); B.R. Ambedkar Institute Rotary Cancer Hospital, New Delhi (Ajay Gogia, MS, Sunil Kumar, MS, S.V. Suryanarayana Deo, MS, N. Manoharan, G.K. Rath, MD); Erode Cancer Centre, Thindal, Erode (K. Velavan, MD); Father Muller Medical College Hospital, Mangalore (Dinesh Shet, MD); Fortis Memorial Research Institute, Gurugaon (Vinod Raina, MD, B. B. Tyagi, MS); Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal (Atul Shrivastava, Sushma Shrivastava); General Hospital, Ernakulam (Balamuralikrishna, DMRT, J. Seios, MD, Sunithra Nair, MBBS); Government Medical College, Thrissur (K.L. Jayakumar, MD, Shehna A. Khader, DNB, M.B. Jayaraman, MD, V.R. Ajith Kumar, DMRT); Govt Arignar Anna Memorial Cancer Hospital & Research Institute, Kanchipuram (P. Anandhi, MD, C.T. Muthukumaran, MBBS); HCG Bangalore Institute of Oncology, Bengaluru (BS Ajaikumar, MD, B.S. Ramesh, MD); HCG NMR Cancer Centre, Hubli (Sanjay Mishra, MD); Indira Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna (Sangeeta Pankaj, MD, Rajesh Kumar Singh, MD); Indo-American Cancer Institute & Research Centre, Hyderabad (G. Dilip Kumar, DNB, Sujith Chayu Patanaik, MS, K. Kalpana Raghunath, MBBS, A. Santa, MD); International Cancer Centre, Neyyoor (Prarthana Roselil, MD, V.G. Sudhakaran, MD); Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Bengaluru (Ramachandra, MS, C. Ramesh, PhD): Mahavir Cancer Sansthan and Research Centre, Patna (Richa Chauhan, MD, Ravi Shankar Rajendra, MD, Rita Rani, DNB, Usha Singh, MD); Malabar Cancer Centre, Kannur (T. Bindhu, K. Ratheesan, Saina Sunilkumar, MD); Mandya Institute of Medical Sciences, Mandya (S. Shiva Kumar, MS, N. Venkatesh, MD); Max Super Specialty Hospital, New Delhi (Anil Kumar Anand, MD, Ramandeep Arora, MD); Max Super Specialty Hospital, Patparganj (Geeta Kadayaprath, MS, Meenu Walia, MD); Medanta Cancer Centre, Gurugaon (Tejinder Kataria, MD, Ashok Kumar Vaid, MD); MES Medical College & Hospital, Perinthalmanna (K.V. Gangadharan, MD, Mujeeb Rahman, MS); Mizoram State Cancer Institute (Civil Hospital), Aizwal (K. Lalfakzuala, MD, Lalhlupuii, MD, Doris Lallawmzuali, MD, Cindy Lalthanpuii, MD, Jeremy L. Pautu, MD, B. Zothankima, MD); Narayana Hrudayalaya Health City, Bengaluru (Alben Sigamani, MD); North East Cancer Hospital & Research Institute, Guwahati (Gazi Naseem Ahmed, MD, Imliwati Longkumer, D.K. Nath, MD); Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh UT (Sushmita Ghosal, MD, R. Kapoor, MD, Narender Kumar, MD); Pravara Rural Hospital & Rural Medical College, Loni (Vandana Jain, MD, Chaitali Wagmere, MD); Rajiv Gandhi Cancer Institute and Research Centre, New Delhi (Swarima Jaitley, Sudhir Rawal, MS); Regional Cancer Centre, Raipur (Pradeep Chandrakar, MD, Vivek Choudhary), MD; Regional Cancer Centre, Agartala (Dhritiman Datta, MD, Biswajit Debbamma, MD, Partha Sarathi Sutradhar, MD, Gautam Majumdar, MD); Regional Cancer Centre, Thiruvananthapuram (Preethi Sara George, PhD, Aleyamma Mathew, PhD); Regional Cancer Centre Kamala Nehru Memorial Hospital, Allahabad (Radha Ghosh, DNB, B. Paul Thaliath, MD); Regional Cancer Centre, Indira Gandhi Medial College, Shimla (Manish Gupta, MD, Sudarshan Sharma, MD); Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, Imphal (Indibor Singh, MD, Madhubala Devi, MD, Punyabati Devi, MD, Rajesh Singh Laishram, MD); RST Regional Cancer Hospital, Cancer Relief Society, Nagpur (Anjali Kolhe, MD, B.K. Sharma, MD); Rural Development Trust, Bathalapalle (N. Hariharanadha Sarma, MD); Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow (Rajesh Harsvardhan, MD, MD, Rakesh Pandey, MD, Punitalal, MD); SDM College of Dental Sciences and Hospital, Dharwad (Swetha Acharya, MS, Kaveri Hallikeri, MS); Shakuntala Memorial Hospital & Research Centre,, Hubli (Vijay Gadagi, MD, Vinay Gadigi, MD); Sher-I-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences, Srinagar (Nazir Ahmad Khan, MD, Lone Mohammad Maqbool); St. Johns Medical Hospital, Bengaluru (Rakesh S Ramesh, DNB); Tata Medical Centre, Kolkata (Indranil Mallick, MD); Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai (B. Ganesh, PhD, R.A. Badwe, MS; The Gujarat Cancer & Research Institute, Ahmedabad (Shashank Pandya, MS, Anand Shah, MD); Vydehi Institute of Medical Sciences, Bengaluru (M.S. Ganesh, MS, Aruna E. Prasad, MD); JIPMER, Regional Cancer Centre, Puducherry UT (Biswajit Dubashi, MD, D. Kadambari, MD, Debasis Gochhait, MD, G.S. Sreenath, MD, K. Gunaseelan, K.T. Harichandrakumar, MD, Latha Chaturvedua, MD, Pampa Ch. Toi, MD, Pooja Sethi, MD, Prasanth Penumade, MD, B.H. Srinivas, MD, Sunil Kumar Saxena, MD); Government Medical College, Jammu (Dinesh Kumar, MD, Ashutosh Gupta, MD).
