Ben‐Moshe N, Iwamura T. Shelter availability and human attitudes as drivers of rock hyrax (*Procavia capensis*) expansion along a rural--urban gradient. Ecol Evol. 2020;10:4044--4065. 10.1002/ece3.6174

1. INTRODUCTION {#ece36174-sec-0001}
===============

Urbanization is one of the major globally drivers in reducing and fragmenting the land available to wild animals (Mcdonald, Kareiva, & Forman, [2008](#ece36174-bib-0039){ref-type="ref"}). Despite cumulative evidence of the negative impacts of urban development on wildlife species (Marzluff, [2002](#ece36174-bib-0036){ref-type="ref"}; Newbold et al., [2016](#ece36174-bib-0048){ref-type="ref"}), some wild animals have expanded their presence into urbanized areas and inhabit cities* *(Ditchkoff, Saalfeld, & Gibson, [2006](#ece36174-bib-0013){ref-type="ref"}; Lowry, Lill, & Wong, [2013](#ece36174-bib-0033){ref-type="ref"}). Newly colonized urban areas may compensate such animals for habitat loss in natural areas (Murphy, [1988](#ece36174-bib-0045){ref-type="ref"}; Rosenzweig, [2003](#ece36174-bib-0055){ref-type="ref"}; Soanes & Lentini, [2019](#ece36174-bib-0060){ref-type="ref"}), while the human residents may enjoy the wildlife locally (Dearborn & Kark, [2010](#ece36174-bib-0012){ref-type="ref"}; Marzluff, [2002](#ece36174-bib-0036){ref-type="ref"}). Urbanization also poses considerable risks to wild animals from predation or the transmission of diseases from domesticated animals (Gillies & Clout, [2003](#ece36174-bib-0022){ref-type="ref"}; Lepczyk, Mertig, & Liu, [2004](#ece36174-bib-0032){ref-type="ref"}), or roadkill (Forman & Alexander, [1998](#ece36174-bib-0016){ref-type="ref"}) and can negatively impact people\'s wellbeing through damage to property (Messmer, [2000](#ece36174-bib-0043){ref-type="ref"}), transmission of infectious zoonotic diseases (Daszak, Cunningham, & Hyatt, [2000](#ece36174-bib-0010){ref-type="ref"}; Patz et al., [2004](#ece36174-bib-0049){ref-type="ref"}), or physical attack (Soulsbury & White, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0062){ref-type="ref"}). Considering the increasing trends of urbanization, it is important to understand the drivers behind the urban expansion of wildlife in order to mitigate the negative impacts.

Wildlife expands to urban areas in a gradual procession along a rural‐to‐urban gradient as the levels of human development of an area create different ecological settings for the wild species (Evans, Hatchwell, Parnell, & Gaston, [2010](#ece36174-bib-0015){ref-type="ref"}; McKinney, [2008](#ece36174-bib-0040){ref-type="ref"}). Wildlife urban invasion may occur when animals are forced out of their native habitats through habitat loss (Markovchick‐Nicholls et al., [2008](#ece36174-bib-0035){ref-type="ref"}), overpopulation (Scott et al., [2001](#ece36174-bib-0059){ref-type="ref"}), or shortage of food or water (Davis, Taylor, & Major, [2011](#ece36174-bib-0011){ref-type="ref"}; Waite, Chhangani, Campbell, Rajpurohit, & Mohnot, [2007](#ece36174-bib-0065){ref-type="ref"}). They might be attracted to the urban environment by novel and unpopulated niches (Gahbauer et al., [2015](#ece36174-bib-0017){ref-type="ref"}), reliable food sources (Murray, Hill, Whyte, Cassady, & Clair, [2016](#ece36174-bib-0046){ref-type="ref"}), and reduced risk of predation (Gering & Blair, [1999](#ece36174-bib-0019){ref-type="ref"}; Rebolo‐Ifrán, Tella, & Carrete, [2017](#ece36174-bib-0053){ref-type="ref"}). Marzluff et al. ([2001](#ece36174-bib-0037){ref-type="ref"}) found that intensive urbanization (i.e., urban core areas) negatively affect a wide range of both animal and plant species, while areas with mild urban development often have higher diversity than neighboring rural ones. Wildlife urban expansions along a full rural--urban gradient have been mostly studied in the context of the animals\' occurrences (Birds and butterflies -- Blair, [1999](#ece36174-bib-0003){ref-type="ref"}; mammalian carnivores ‐ Randa & Yunger, [2006](#ece36174-bib-0052){ref-type="ref"}; lizards -- Germaine & Wakeling, [2001](#ece36174-bib-0021){ref-type="ref"}) or their behavior shifts along the gradient (Carrete & Tella, [2011](#ece36174-bib-0008){ref-type="ref"}Malach), but seldom through the changes in drivers that cause the expansion. To fully comprehend why wild animals leave their native habitats and settle in core urban areas, a comprehensive analysis of the changes in the drivers behind the expansion process along a rural--urban gradient is required.

Rock hyraxes (*Procavia capensis*) in Israel have emerged in the last 20 years at the outskirts of Jerusalem, a city with 930,000 residents (Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, [2019](#ece36174-bib-0026){ref-type="ref"}) (Figure [1](#ece36174-fig-0001){ref-type="fig"}). Historically, their distribution in Israel has been restricted to rocky landscapes (i.e., near cliffs and rock outcrops that they use as shelters; Meltzer & Livneh, [1982](#ece36174-bib-0041){ref-type="ref"}), but in the last 30 years they have expanded their range considerably due to an extensive increase in rock piles formed as by‐products of construction(Kershenbaum & Blaustein, [2011](#ece36174-bib-0028){ref-type="ref"}; Mendelssohn & Yom‐Tov, [1999](#ece36174-bib-0042){ref-type="ref"}). The hyrax expansion in Israel has created conflicts with humans through damage to crops and private gardens (Kershenbaum & Blaustein, [2011](#ece36174-bib-0028){ref-type="ref"}; Moran, Sofer, & Cohen, [1987](#ece36174-bib-0044){ref-type="ref"}) but particularly as a risk to public health. Rock hyraxes are considered as a main reservoir of *Leishmaina tropica*, a pathogenic protozoon causing the leishmaniaisis disease, which can be transmitted to humans by a sandfly sting (Talmi‐Frank et al., [2010](#ece36174-bib-0029){ref-type="ref"}). The rock hyrax emergence near Jerusalem and an outbreak of the disease in the city in 2013 (Solomon & Scwatrz, [2016](#ece36174-bib-0061){ref-type="ref"}) has hereby raised health concerns regarding their future expansion and ability to colonize highly populated urban areas. Previous research on rock hyraxes in South Africa has shown that they are able to inhabit human settlements, having developed s reduced fear of humans and learnt to exploit artificial shelters, and additional food sources near residential areas (Mbise et al., [2017](#ece36174-bib-0038){ref-type="ref"}; Naylor, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0047){ref-type="ref"}; Wiid & Butler, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0067){ref-type="ref"}). However, these and other previous studies of rock hyrax and human interactions (Kershenbaum & Blaustein, [2011](#ece36174-bib-0028){ref-type="ref"}; Moran et al., [1987](#ece36174-bib-0044){ref-type="ref"}) took place in natural or suburban environments and there is no documentation to date of rock hyraxes colonizing core urban areas. Naylor ([2015](#ece36174-bib-0047){ref-type="ref"}), who studied the expansion of rock hyraxes into urban areas in South Africa, summarized that they occurred in suburbs but appeared to avoid densely urbanized areas.

Here, we used the urban gradient approach to explore the drivers behind the urban invasion of rock hyrax (*Procavia capensis*)* *from the Judean Desert into urban core areas in Jerusalem. We predicted that the drivers for such expansion would change with the level of urban development and exposure to humans. More specifically, we predicted that in peri‐urban areas these drivers would be based on the land cover changes associated with the urban development, while in urban area they would reflect human attitudes toward maintaining their living environment. Given the emergence of leishmaniasis in Jerusalem, we also predicted that the rock hyraxes would be found to already establish colonies inside the city (Figure [1](#ece36174-fig-0001){ref-type="fig"}).

![The rock hyrax, *Procavia capensis*, a medium‐sized (3--4 kg) social mammal found throughout the sub‐Sahara, North Africa and the Middle East. The species relies on rock piles used as shelters to escape from predators and extreme weather. In Israel, the hyraxes have expanded their distribution greatly by using artificial rock piles formed by human development and are settling near to human settlements. Their persistence next to humans is now considered as a health risk since they were found as reservoir hosts to leishmaniasis disease](ECE3-10-4044-g001){#ece36174-fig-0001}

2. METHODS {#ece36174-sec-0002}
==========

2.1. Study sites {#ece36174-sec-0003}
----------------

The study area is located in northeast Jerusalem, an extension of the city toward the Judean Desert (Figure [2](#ece36174-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}). Here, the two neighborhoods of Pisgat Ze\'ev and Neve Ya\'akov (PZ and NY, respectively) were built during the 1980s on hilltops surrounded by dry ravines (wadis). These wadis join near the city and form Wadi Qelt, a natural canyon with a native rock hyrax population, located 4 km away from the study site.

![Map of the study area. The study area (dashed yellow lines) is located in the northeast of Jerusalem and comprises peri‐urban and core urban areas. To the east of the peri‐urban areas are the Judean Desert and the Wadi Qelt Nature Reserve where native rock hyrax populations reside](ECE3-10-4044-g002){#ece36174-fig-0002}

Following the rural--urban approach, we divided the study site into the outer "peri‐urban" and the inner "urban" areas of the city (Figure [2](#ece36174-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}). Unlike many other cities, where the boundaries of urban areas are hard to define as they merge into suburban development and also feature patches of rural areas (MacGregor‐Fors, [2010](#ece36174-bib-0034){ref-type="ref"}), in our study area these borders were clear as the outer and inner areas vary greatly from each other.

The "peri‐urban" area comprises a 2‐km‐wide belt of open land covering 4.16 km^2^, located at the interface between the wilderness of the Judean Desert and the Wadi Qelt Nature Reserve---an area with limited human presence and development, and the city (Figure [2](#ece36174-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}). This area is devoid of any human residences but is littered with artificial rock piles created during the expansion of the city. It is mostly barren, with seasonal plant cover of grass and low shrubs.

The "urban" area covers 4.05 km^2^ and has the characteristics of an "urban core" (MacGregor‐Fors, [2010](#ece36174-bib-0034){ref-type="ref"}): It has high population density (20,000 residents per km^2^) and is mostly built (61% of the area) with residential blocks of 3--8 stories, wide roads, public buildings, and commerce. It contains two neighborhoods: PZ and NY (Figure [2](#ece36174-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}), similarly designed in terms of city planning. In both neighborhoods, about 40% of the area comprises open spaces---private gardens, parks, or nonbuilt‐up areas, which can serve as foraging grounds for hyraxes. However, the two neighborhoods differ in their socio‐economic status and cultural norms, and these differences are reflected in the urban environment. PZ is the less conservative and more affluent neighborhood of the two and most of its public areas are well‐maintained. NY is poorer and hosts a large ultra‐Orthodox Jewish community, characterized by large and low‐income families (an average of 7.5 children per family -- Kahaner, Malach, & Hoshen, [2017](#ece36174-bib-0027){ref-type="ref"}), residing in small apartments sometimes shared by multiple families. Lack of storage space in these households and a general disregard of environmental regulations have resulted in the accumulation of discarded furniture and other household items on open grounds, creating shelter opportunities for hyraxes. In addition, more shelters can be found under temporary structures (common in NY as semilegal building: Table [A2](#ece36174-tbl-0007){ref-type="table"}). Moreover, the religious norms of the Orthodox Jewish residents of NY prohibit wasting edible food items, and thus, they tend to leave these exposed and available for the needed (Schwartz, [1997](#ece36174-bib-0058){ref-type="ref"}), as well as for animals.

2.2. Study species {#ece36174-sec-0004}
------------------

The rock hyrax, *Procavia capensis*, is a medium‐sized (3--4 kg) social mammal found throughout the sub‐Sahara, North Africa and the Middle East (Butynski, Hoeck, Koren, & de Jong, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0007){ref-type="ref"}). While on the verge of extinction in the neighboring countries (Rifai, Baker, & Amr, [2000](#ece36174-bib-0054){ref-type="ref"}), in Israel, the species is regarded as protected (under the Law of Wildlife Protection, 1955), and common in a range of environments, from arid deserts to woodlands. Within its broad geographic range, the rock hyrax distribution is often patchy as its presence is tightly associated with the presence of rock piles or boulder concentrations (Barry & Mundy, [2002](#ece36174-bib-0001){ref-type="ref"}; Gerlach & Hoeck, [2001](#ece36174-bib-0020){ref-type="ref"}). Rock hyraxes rely on these rocky features for several reasons. They do not dig burrows and instead use natural rock crevices between rocks to rest and hide (Meltzer & Livneh, [1982](#ece36174-bib-0041){ref-type="ref"}) and always forage at a safe distance to return to these shelters (Druce et al., [2006](#ece36174-bib-0014){ref-type="ref"}). Possessing poor thermoregulation abilities, the rock hyraxes also rely on rocky shelters to escape from unfavorable weather conditions and solar radiation (Bartholomew & Rainy, [1971](#ece36174-bib-0002){ref-type="ref"}). They frequently control their body heat by basking to absorb heat from the rocks and move between shaded or exposed rocks according to the ambient temperature (Brown & Downs, [2007](#ece36174-bib-0006){ref-type="ref"}; Taylor & Sale, [1969](#ece36174-bib-0064){ref-type="ref"}). Rocks also used both as vantage points for sentinels, ensuring the safety of other group members foraging in nearby open grounds and as prominent spots for males to declare their territory (Meltzer & Livneh, [1982](#ece36174-bib-0041){ref-type="ref"}). Because of their significant dependency on rocky shelters, we focus here on shelter availability and quality as a main driver/limiting factor for their expansion.

2.3. Survey methods {#ece36174-sec-0005}
-------------------

We conducted the surveys during the summer months (July--August) of 2015, and again (only in the urban area) in July 2018. During these months, rock hyraxes are active in the early morning and before dusk and can be more easily spotted then (Meltzer & Livneh, [1982](#ece36174-bib-0041){ref-type="ref"}).

### 2.3.1. Peri‐urban survey (2015) {#ece36174-sec-0006}

The survey was conducted on foot. First, we characterized the landscape according to refuge availability for *P. capensis*. We considered "shelter" as any rock formation (piles, retaining walls, and cliffs) with cavities large enough for hyraxes: deeper than 50 cm and with an opening diameter larger than 20 cm (based on our previous measurements in native hyrax habitats and on Meltzer & Livneh, [1982](#ece36174-bib-0041){ref-type="ref"}), we divided the peri‐urban area into 248 polygons (Figure [2](#ece36174-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}) with each differing from its neighbors in its shelter characteristics ("quality" and "type"). We defined "quality" as a measure of availability and density of shelters on a scale of 1--4 (Figure [3](#ece36174-fig-0003){ref-type="fig"}):

![Examples of the classification of habitat units. Images 1--4 represent habitat classification according to "Quality" measurements: (1) An open area, without adequate refuge; (2) An area with few and scattered rocks that can serve for hidden movement or lookout; (3) An area with scattered rock mounds with crevices; (4) An area with continuous shelter options creating a crevice system with numerous openings. Images a--c represent classification according to "Type" characteristics: (a) Natural---cliffs and boulders formed by natural erosion. (b) Mixed (natural + artificial)---boulders that were pushed downhill from road construction and natural cliffs. (c) Artificial---portable structures with a wide crevice beneath, retaining walls, rock mounds](ECE3-10-4044-g003){#ece36174-fig-0003}

\(1\) an open area without adequate refuge; (2) an area with few and scattered rocks that can serve for hidden movement or lookout; (3) an area with scattered rock mounds with crevices; (4) an area with continuous shelter options creating a crevice system with numerous openings. The shelter "type" was defined either as: (A) natural: cliffs and boulders formed by natural erosion; (B) artificial: any rock accumulation that was formed by human activity; or (C) mixed: a combination of rocky natural features with artificial forms (Figure [3a--c](#ece36174-fig-0003){ref-type="fig"}). We defined these characteristics on site and used high‐resolution (10 cm per pixel) georeferenced orthophotos (Survey of Israel, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0063){ref-type="ref"}) to accurately define the boundaries of each polygon.

We then surveyed the occurrences of *P. capensis* in each polygon during their peak activity hours (early mornings and late afternoons). We conducted a two‐stage observation: first, we surveyed each polygon from a distance of 50--100 m for 15 min. After observing hyraxes in a polygon, we approached and verified whether the animals had fled to shelter in their polygon or escaped to a neighboring one. Only polygons that sheltered hyraxes were considered "occupied".

We estimated overall population size by examining hyrax abundance in 13 survey units that were colonized. These units were selected because they were of different sizes and because they were visible from two different vantage points. Counting was conducted in July 2015 by two independent observers from two different vantage points after sunrise (7--9 a.m.) and before sunset (5--7 p.m.), when the animals are most likely to be basking in the sun near their dens and easier to count. Rock hyrax colony sizes are often in correlation to the area of available shelter (Mbise et al., [2017](#ece36174-bib-0038){ref-type="ref"}). To estimate the colony sizes in the uncounted units according to the shelter size we conducted a curve fit test.

### 2.3.2. Urban survey (2015) {#ece36174-sec-0007}

We identified all the potentially "conventional" refuge sites for *P. capensis* (e.g., rock mounds and retaining walls) in the PZ and NY neighborhoods by analyzing high‐resolution orthophotos (10 cm per pixel) followed by ground surveys in all the streets, urban parks and open grounds. We characterized the urban sites using the shelter "quality," "type," and hyrax occurrence criteria we used in the peri‐urban area, but also defined the site\'s degree of maintenance as an indicator of the human attitude toward living environment.

We defined sites as of low maintenance effort (i.e., derelict) when they contained: (a) Temporary structures---an indication of unregulated building practices; (b) waste accumulation on open grounds; and (c) *Acacia saligna* thickets---an invasive bush that flourishes in disturbed soil and unkept gardens (Cohen & Bar, [2017](#ece36174-bib-0009){ref-type="ref"}). We considered sites as "maintained" where garbage is collected, and plants are trimmed and watered.

To locate urban hyrax colonies in unconventional shelters (i.e., sites without rocks, where hyraxes inhabited instead analogous refuges) or cryptic sites, we questioned over 100 residents (random passers‐by or by knocking on doors) in different parts of the neighborhoods. We showed them images of hyraxes and then asked whether they knew the locations of colonies and requested permission to access closed grounds (such as private gardens) when needed. We also met with police officers and neighborhood community administrators, who helped in providing additional information. When we found hyraxes colonizing unconventional sites, we categorized and detailed their habitat characteristics in the same manner as we had done for the conventional ones.

### 2.3.3. Repeated urban survey (2018) {#ece36174-sec-0008}

The successful establishment of hyrax colonies was examined by repeated observations during July 2018 (3 years after the first survey). We surveyed all colonized sites in 2015 and all vacant conventional sites during 2015, for the existence, disappearance, or new establishment of hyraxes at the sites. We also collected data obtained by the Jerusalem municipality and the Israel Nature and Parks Authority about other sightings of hyraxes in the neighborhoods and visited those sites to confirm hyrax colonization.

2.4. Statistical analysis {#ece36174-sec-0009}
-------------------------

To determine the factors that facilitate hyrax colonization in the peri‐urban area, we constructed a model that examines the relationship between each polygon\'s characteristics and its colonization by hyraxes. The tested characteristics were as follows:

*Quality* and *Type* of shelters in the polygon (categorical values, as described earlier in the Methods section, Figure [3](#ece36174-fig-0003){ref-type="fig"});

*Slope*, which measures the inclination of the topography in the polygon, based on ASTER digital elevation model (most natural populations occur in rugged topography);

*Proximity to urban area*, which is the distance from nearest residential structure (may attract due to food resources or deter due to human activity);

*Area*, log‐transformed size of the survey polygon (larger polygons may be more attractive as they may offer more shelters).

We performed a logistic regression using the following equation:$$Y = \text{Area} + \text{Quality} + \text{Type} + \text{Slope} + \text{Proximity\ to\ urban}$$

Our sample data (*n = *248) were divided into training and test datasets. We selected randomly 75% of the samples as training data (*n = X*) and 25% as the test data (*n = Y*). The *glm* function from the statistical package *R* was applied with *binomial* family with *logit* link (R Core Team, [2013](#ece36174-bib-0051){ref-type="ref"}).

2.5. GIS analysis {#ece36174-sec-0010}
-----------------

An important attractor of hyraxes to human settlements is that of gardens and parks as foraging grounds (Kershenbaum & Blaustein, [2011](#ece36174-bib-0028){ref-type="ref"}; Moran et al., [1987](#ece36174-bib-0044){ref-type="ref"}). We estimated their area in the neighborhoods by analyzing orthophotos (10 cm per pixel) using the maximum likelihood classification tool in ESRI ArcGIS.

3. RESULTS {#ece36174-sec-0011}
==========

3.1. Hyrax colonies in peri‐urban areas {#ece36174-sec-0012}
---------------------------------------

The division of the peri‐urban area into 248 shelter units (polygons), according to their natural/anthropogenic origin and the quality of shelter, indicates that naturally the area is not suitable for hyraxes---it has no all high‐quality shelters (level 4) and only 2 shelters of level 3 (Table [1](#ece36174-tbl-0001){ref-type="table"}). We observed hyraxes in 47 of polygons (Figure [4](#ece36174-fig-0004){ref-type="fig"}), with a near‐total dependency (98% of all shelters) on artificial shelters. The shelters used were artificial rock mounds (86%), retaining walls (12%), and other one natural outcrop (2%).

###### 

Refuge types for site units and the hyrax occurrences based on refuge quality index

  Refuge type                    Number of total units   Number of polygons *with Procavia capensis* (% of type colonized)   Number of polygons according to "refuge quality" index (% colonized)   total area (1,000 m^2^)   Mean unit area (1,000 m^2^)                      
  ------------------------------ ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------- ------- ----
  Natural                        39 (16%)                1 (2%)                                                              18 (0%)                                                                19 (5%)                   2 (0%)                        0          2,151   78
  Mixed (natural + artificial)   38 (15%)                6 (16%)                                                             7 (0%)                                                                 17 (0%)                   5 (40%)                       9 (44%)    699     21
  Artificial                     168 (69%)               40 (23%)                                                            38 (3%)                                                                14 (14%)                  60 (10%)                      56 (55%)   1,182   11

Refuge types indicate if a unit (see Figure [2](#ece36174-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}) is Natural, Artificial, or Mixed (combination of natural and artificial). Refuge quality indicates if the unit provides enough shelter with 1--4 index (see Figure [3](#ece36174-fig-0003){ref-type="fig"}).

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

![Rock hyrax colonization of urban sites according to derelict/maintenance: (a) in all the colonized urban sites; (b) only in conventional sites; (c) only in unconventional sites. Note that as unconventional shelters do not have typical form and can comprise numerous types of crevices, we surveyed only those that were colonized](ECE3-10-4044-g004){#ece36174-fig-0004}

The logistic regression confirmed a significant effect of the site characteristics on the occurrence of rock hyraxes. The final model after model selection was:$$\text{Expected\ hyrax\ occurrence} = \text{Shelter}_{\text{Quality}} + \text{Shelter}_{\text{Type}} + \text{Shelter}_{\text{Area}}$$

( $r^{2} = .92$ and $\text{AUC} = 0.803$ ), confirming that shelters are indeed the main driver for the hyrax expansion to this area. *Shelter quality* is the most important predictor, with *shelter type* as well as shelter size also being statistically significant (Table [2a](#ece36174-tbl-0002){ref-type="table"}). Further analysis revealed that higher "shelter quality" contributes to the increased probability of hyrax occurrence; with "shelter quality" 4 having the highest effect. Area size also contributed to a higher probability of occurrence (Table [2b](#ece36174-tbl-0003){ref-type="table"}).

###### 

Results of logistic regression between the occurrence of *Procavia capensis* and the 248 polygons (shelter units) parameters---"type" (natural/man‐made/mixed), "quality" (on an ascending grade of 1--4), and "area size"

                 *df*   Deviance   Resid.   *df* Resid.   Pr (\>Chi)
  -------------- ------ ---------- -------- ------------- ------------
  NULL                             182      189.61         
  Unit type      2      6.907      180      182.7         0.032
  Unit quality   3      47.559     177      135.14        \<0.001
  Unit area      1      4.069      176      131.07        0.044

The results indicate the major effect of the shelter quality on hyrax occurrence and a lesser effect of its size.

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

###### 

Results of the logistic regression between the occurrence of *Procavia capensis* and the levels of shelter quality, indicating significant effect of high grades of shelter quality (3 and 4) on hyrax occurrence

                                      Estimate   *SE*     *z* value   Pr (≥*z*)
  ----------------------------------- ---------- -------- ----------- -----------
  Intercept                           −7.3904    2.0934   −3.530      \>0.001
  Type (mixed artificial + natural)   −0.6283    0.6537   −0.961      0.336
  Type (natural)                      −0.3906    1.0727   −0.364      0.716
  Quality level 2                     0.9721     1.2643   0.769       0.442
  Quality level 3                     2.5951     1.1543   2.248       0.025
  Quality level 4                     4.3831     1.1075   3.958       \>0.001
  Unit area                           0.3972     0.2011   1.975       0.048

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

When comparing shelter characteristics and occupancy between the peri‐urban area adjacent to the PZ and the NY neighborhoods, we found that the high‐quality shelters (level 4) near NY were more common (25% of the total shelters compared to 8% around PZ; Figure [4](#ece36174-fig-0004){ref-type="fig"}), and were generally larger in size (average 9,700 m^2^ compared to 4,300 m^2^ in PZ). Moreover, most of the high‐quality shelters (87%) near NY were occupied, leaving only limited options for further expansion, compared with 47% in the peri‐urban areas around PZ. These findings that high‐quality shelters are more common and more saturated with hyraxes located near the PZ neighborhood, may indicate a higher potential for further expansion to the urban areas of that neighborhood.

Most of the high‐quality shelters were found in close proximity to the urban area and human residences (63%) \<50 m, while only 7% were \>150 m from these (Table [2a](#ece36174-tbl-0002){ref-type="table"} and [2b](#ece36174-tbl-0003){ref-type="table"}). The peri‐urban hyraxes seemed to take advantage of their close proximity to urban foraging grounds: We frequently spotted hyraxes foraging in parks and gardens in the urban periphery and retreating to peri‐urban shelters when disturbed (Figure [A1](#ece36174-fig-0006){ref-type="fig"}). We identified 11 such peri‐urban colonies that forage in urban parks, but the actual number may have been higher.

We found a significant relationship between the shelter area and hyrax colony size:

Hyrax colony size = 10.71 X ln (area~(m)~) − 57.13 ( $r^{2} = .92$ and $\text{AUC} = 0.803$ ), (Figure [A2](#ece36174-fig-0007){ref-type="fig"}). Based on this equation we estimated the total peri‐urban population size as 1,600 individuals, distributed evenly between the peri‐urban areas of the two neighborhoods.

3.2. Hyraxes in urban areas {#ece36174-sec-0013}
---------------------------

Inside the urban areas, we located 25 permanent colonies (and Figures [4](#ece36174-fig-0004){ref-type="fig"} and [5](#ece36174-fig-0005){ref-type="fig"}) with a significant preference to settle in derelict sites. Overall, we found only one hyrax colony in the 14 well‐maintained urban sites that had high‐quality shelters (rock mounds and retaining walls), compared with 24 urban colonies at derelict sites.

![The evaluation of habitat quality and the locations of hyrax colonies in the peri‐urban and urban areas. Most of the high‐quality shelters of the peri‐urban area (dark brown polygons) as well as hyrax colonies (polygons with blue outlines) are concentrated at the fringes of the built (urban) area. The majority of urban hyrax colonies are concentrated in the Neve Ya\'akov neighborhood where they occupy both conventional and unconventional (analogous) shelters and where leishmaniasis outbreak has occurred](ECE3-10-4044-g005){#ece36174-fig-0005}

In terms of availability of urban shelter sites, we located 38 sites featuring "conventional" high‐quality rocky shelters (refuge quality = 4, Figure [5](#ece36174-fig-0005){ref-type="fig"}): 16 in NY and 22 in PZ. These were mostly retaining walls that resemble rock piles with deep crevices. Among these conventional sites, we found hyrax colonies in 18 of them (47%): 10 in NY and 8 in PZ (Figure [5](#ece36174-fig-0005){ref-type="fig"}).

Rock hyrax colonies were more common in the NY neighborhood---18 colonies compared with seven in PZ, despite NY being half the size of PZ. While all the colonies in PZ resided in conventional shelters, in MY we located seven colonies in sites that contained only "unconventional" shelters and are features unique to this neighborhood: cavities under temporary structures (part of an unauthorized building activity), and inside dumpsites formed by residents in public grounds (Figure [A1](#ece36174-fig-0006){ref-type="fig"}).

In terms of differences in foraging availability between the neighborhoods, remote sensing analysis for foraging grounds revealed that green open spaces (i.e., private gardens, parks or other open areas with plant cover) comprise a similar percentage of the area in both neighborhoods (approximately 40%). Moreover, the total area of green foraging ground is actually much larger in PZ (total area of 1.4 km^2^ and 0.4 km^2^ in PZ and NY, respectively). However, NY contains "unconventional" forage options in terms of food scraps from residents\' homes that are dumped on public grounds, driven by of religious rules that prohibit throwing food to the garbage, and lack of awareness by the local community. We observed hyraxes feeding on such human waste in 8 sites in NY (Figure [A3](#ece36174-fig-0008){ref-type="fig"}).

Reconnaissance surveys in 2015 and 2018 indicated that the hyrax colonies in the core urban area of this study have become established and reproduce. Out of the 25 colonies observed in 2015, we confirmed 18 of these colonies again in 2018. Of the seven colonies that had disappeared, four sites had been demolished due to the construction of new buildings or other infrastructure. We also observed that one formerly empty site was now occupied by a new colony including juveniles. However, this colony might have moved from an adjacent, formerly occupied site that was found empty in 2018. Overall, we observed juveniles in eight colonies in 2018, of which seven had existed since 2015.

We further confirmed new observations obtained from the Jerusalem municipality and Israel Nature and Parks Authority and located five more colonies, to the west of PZ and NY neighborhoods. All the colonies inhabit artificial rock mounds at a peri‐urban area and are less than 100 m from the urban area. Their location, to the west of the former urban colonies which we located in 2015, and further away from the native range , suggests that the urban hyraxes disperse through the city in a leap‐frog pattern (Evans et al., [2010](#ece36174-bib-0015){ref-type="ref"}) and used a bottleneck of the urban area to colonize favorable sites with the combination of undisturbed shelters and close urban forage.

4. DISCUSSION {#ece36174-sec-0014}
=============

In this study, we analyze urban expansion of rock hyraxes into Jerusalem along a rural--urban gradient, by focusing on shelter availability. Our results indicate that land cover changes of the peri‐urban areas have promoted hyrax expansion through the creation of new rocky habitats, while the socio‐economic conditions and cultural norms of human residents are providing niches in the core urban areas where hyraxes find undisturbed shelters and supplementary food. Additionally, we document for the first time that rock hyraxes have become established in the densely populated urban areas, and their populations in core urban areas are reproducing.

Our results indicate that the peri‐urban area of Jerusalem lacks high‐quality natural refugia in terms of shelter availability (Table [1](#ece36174-tbl-0001){ref-type="table"}). Instead, we found that the hyraxes have populated this area by using new artificial refuge opportunities formed by road and building construction related to the urban development (Table [1](#ece36174-tbl-0001){ref-type="table"}). We demonstrated that this colonization of the peri‐urban area has a predictable pattern (Table [3](#ece36174-tbl-0004){ref-type="table"}), with most high‐quality artificial shelters having become occupied (Table [2a](#ece36174-tbl-0002){ref-type="table"} and [2b](#ece36174-tbl-0003){ref-type="table"}), and concentrated along the edges of the urban area (Table [4](#ece36174-tbl-0005){ref-type="table"}).

###### 

Potential drivers for shifts from the peri‐urban areas to the adjacent urban areas

  Parameter measured                                                                    Peri‐urban of Neve Ya\'akov   Peri‐urban of Pisgat Ze\'ev   implication
  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Estimated rock hyrax population size                                                  770                           810                           High densities compared to natural populations
  Occupancy of suitable habitats (quality 3--4)                                         87%                           47%                           Near saturation of suitable habitats in Neve Ya\'akov
  Number of rock hyraxes per 1 km of neighborhood perimeter bordering peri‐urban area   250                           70                            Potential higher invasion pressure from Neve Ya\'akov compared to Pisgat Ze\'ev
  \% of Neighborhood perieter bordering peri‐urban colonies                             63                            37                            

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

###### 

Distances of high‐quality habitats (grades 3--4) and hyrax colonies from residential areas

  Distance from edge of residential area (m)   \% of the total area of high habitat quality (grades 3--4)   \% units with hyrax colonies   \% of area with high habitat quality (grades 3--4)
  -------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------
  0--50                                        70.20                                                        63                             29
  50--150                                      23.40                                                        30                             17
  \>150                                        6.40                                                         7                              12

More than 90% of the high‐quality habitats and most of the rock hyrax colonies in the peri‐urban areas are concentrated at close proximity (\<150 m) from the residential areas.

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Our observations support previous studies (Mbise et al., [2017](#ece36174-bib-0038){ref-type="ref"}; Wiid & Butler, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0067){ref-type="ref"}) that rock hyraxes benefit from living close to human settlements, likely due to the readily available food resources and lack of natural predators. In the peri‐urban areas, we found that their numbers are much higher than native populations in the nearby Judean Desert; 1,600 individuals compared with 200 in the Arugot Nature Reserve, an oasis of similar size with abundant shelters and vegetation (Geffen E.*,* Tel Aviv University, personal communication, 2019). High densities in hyrax populations are known to increase competition and aggression (Gerlach & Hoeck, [2001](#ece36174-bib-0020){ref-type="ref"}; Hoeck, [1989](#ece36174-bib-0025){ref-type="ref"}), which push young animals lower down in the hierarchy into exile (Koren, Mokady, & Geffen, [2006](#ece36174-bib-0030){ref-type="ref"}; Meltzer & Livneh, [1982](#ece36174-bib-0041){ref-type="ref"}), or into human settlements (Wiid & Butler, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0067){ref-type="ref"}). As the potential man‐made habitats around the Neve Ya\'akov neighborhood have become exhausted (Table [3](#ece36174-tbl-0003){ref-type="table"}), such saturation of resources likely creates higher pressure for hyrax colonies to spill over into the adjacent core urban areas.

In addition to these external drivers from the peri‐urban area, internal attractive conditions in the urban area may also contribute to the hyrax invasion to the city. Specifically, we found that in the Neve Ya\'akov neighborhood hyraxes take advantage of food and shelter alternatives formed by the local socio‐economic conditions and cultural norms (Table [A2](#ece36174-tbl-0007){ref-type="table"}); they use dry waste accumulated in public spaces for shelter as well as crevices under temporary structures, which are common features of illegal building activity the in poor neighborhoods of Jerusalem. We observed that they also forage on exposed human food leftovers, which are not disposed in dustbins due to cultural norms prohibiting food waste (Figure [A3](#ece36174-fig-0008){ref-type="fig"}). Trash accumulated in urban areas is known to attract other wildlife species to cities, including spotted hyenas in Ethiopia (Yirga et al., [2015](#ece36174-bib-0068){ref-type="ref"}), white storks in Poland (Kruszyk & Ciach, [2010](#ece36174-bib-0031){ref-type="ref"}), coyotes in Canada (Murray et al., [2016](#ece36174-bib-0046){ref-type="ref"}) and golden jackals in Israel (Borkowski, Zalewski, & Manor, [2011](#ece36174-bib-0005){ref-type="ref"}). In both neighborhoods, hyraxes avoided conventional shelters in well‐maintained areas where they were likely persecuted by maintenance workers or gardeners (Table [A2](#ece36174-tbl-0007){ref-type="table"}).

While an underlying proximate cause of rock hyrax invasion is human‐related, the intrinsic nature of the rock hyrax may also play a role; one factor is its habituation to human presence, and another its exploitation of novel habitats (Naylor, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0047){ref-type="ref"}). In contrast to some other studies on urban wildlife that involved temporal and spatial segregation from a human presence (Ditchkoff et al., [2006](#ece36174-bib-0013){ref-type="ref"}; Gaynor, Hojnowski, Carter, & Brashares, [2018](#ece36174-bib-0018){ref-type="ref"}), the hyraxes in Jerusalem show little fear of humans. They often dwell inside public buildings and are active next to human presence (e.g., crossing roads with traffic; Figure [A2](#ece36174-fig-0007){ref-type="fig"}). Such behavioral adjustment may also facilitate the species' urban invasion (Blumstein, [2014](#ece36174-bib-0004){ref-type="ref"}). As seen in other urban animals such as stone martens (Herr, Schley, Engel, & Roper, [2010](#ece36174-bib-0024){ref-type="ref"}), large‐spotted‐genets (Widdows, Ramesh, & Downs, [2015](#ece36174-bib-0066){ref-type="ref"}) and raccoons (Hadidian, Prange, Rosatte, Riley, & Gehrt, [2010](#ece36174-bib-0023){ref-type="ref"}), the rock hyraxes in Jerusalem exploit diverse urban structures as analogues to their natural shelters, suggesting that they are highly adaptable.

Our results did not show how well the urban analogues to rocky shelters function as refuge from cold in winters. This may pose a challenge for the rock hyrax colonization considering that Jerusalem is located at an elevation of \>650 m in mountain terrain, while the native hyrax population resides in lower elevations of \<300 m within secluded canyons. However, the environmental conditions that prevail in the city, such as higher ambient temperatures in dense urban areas during winters (Pickett et al., [2001](#ece36174-bib-0050){ref-type="ref"}), may compensate for the inferior insulation characteristics. Moreover, the urban colonies enjoy reliable food sources throughout the year and are not limited by seasonal fluctuations in foraging, unlike the native desert populations.

Our results indicate that the rock hyraxes have successfully expanded their distribution into the city of Jerusalem and are now adjusted to the urban environment. Evans et al. ([2010](#ece36174-bib-0015){ref-type="ref"}) have suggested that the wildlife urban expansion occurs in three stages: (a) arrival in urban areas; (b) adjustment to the urban environment; and (c) spread within urban areas and into neighboring towns and cities. The further dispersal and colonization into more densely populated areas of the city have considerable implications for the exposure of humans to leishmaniasis outbreaks (Salah, Abbasi, Warburg, Davidovitch, & Kotler, [2020](#ece36174-bib-0056){ref-type="ref"}; Salah, Davidovitch & Kotler, [2016](#ece36174-bib-0057){ref-type="ref"}). Identification of the drivers that promote the wildlife urban expansion, such as relevant land cover changes, human cultural norms, and areas of municipal neglect, are necessary for recognizing more areas at risk of colonization and implementing appropriate and relevant prevention measures.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST {#ece36174-sec-0016}
====================

The authors certify that they have NO affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest, or nonfinancial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS {#ece36174-sec-0017}
====================

**Noam Ben‐Moshe:** Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (lead); Formal analysis (equal); Investigation (lead); Methodology (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing‐original draft (equal). **Takuya Iwamura:** Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (supporting); Formal analysis (equal); Investigation (supporting); Methodology (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing‐original draft (equal); Writing‐review & editing (equal).

We thank David Meninger, Dori Katz, Julian Leaf, Daniel Zamler from "Geo‐Teva" for their contribution in the field work and GIS mapping

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT {#ece36174-sec-0019}
===========================

We agree to archive the data associated with this manuscript should the manuscript be accepted. Data used to produce the analyses and figures in this manuscript will be archived in the Dryad Repository: <https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.73n5tb2t2>

 {#ece36174-sec-0020}

![Rock hyrax colony size as function of shelter area in the peri‐urban region. The curve fit represents the logistic equation: Hyrax colony size = 10.71 ln (area~(m)~) − 57.13 $r^{2} = .92$ and ( $\text{AUC} = 0.803$ ), We did not refer to the extreme point at the right side of the graph as an outlier, because the numbers of hyraxes in a colony are limited due to their social structure, and In Israel, they typically do not exceed 65 individuals (Meltzer & Livneh, [1982](#ece36174-bib-0041){ref-type="ref"})](ECE3-10-4044-g006){#ece36174-fig-0006}

![Examples of urban sites with hyrax colonies. a and b represent "conventional" rock shelters (rock mounds and retaining walls); c and d represent "unconventional" shelters---piles of construction materials and dry waste in derelict grounds](ECE3-10-4044-g007){#ece36174-fig-0007}

![Examples of hyrax life in the city: (a) Food leftovers not disposed in dustbins due to cultural norms prohibiting wasting food are common features in religious parts of Neve Ya\'akov neighborhood, serving as an additional food source for urban hyraxes and hooded crows; (b) Hyrax observation trail designed by the municipality demonstrating the tolerance toward the new invaders before recognized as pests; (c) Urban hyraxes and joggers share grounds in a city park; (d) Hyraxes adapting to the urban region face new risks like crossing roads](ECE3-10-4044-g008){#ece36174-fig-0008}

###### 

Peri‐urban survey---data for the shelter units (polygons)

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Naturality: 1‐ artificial; 2‐ mixed; 3‐ natural
  Quality: 1‐ no available shelter; 2‐ scattered rocks without crevices; 3‐ scattered rock mounds with crevices; 4‐ continuous shelter, a crevice system with numerous openings.
  Hyrax occurrence: 0‐ not observed; 1‐ observed
  Urban proximity: 1‐ \<50 m; 2‐ 50−150 m; 3‐ \>150 m
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

  Polygon Number   Naturality   Quality   Hyrax occurrence   Urban proximity   Area (sqm)   Description
  ---------------- ------------ --------- ------------------ ----------------- ------------ ---------------------------------------------------------
  1                1            3         1                  1                 645          Rock mound
  2                2            2         0                  1                 13,966       Natural rock face with crevices
  3                1            1         0                  2                 2,327        Construction working plot
  4                1            3         1                  2                 4,409        Rock mound
  5                1            3         1                  3                 3,922        Rock mound
  6                1            3         0                  1                 1,487        Rock mound
  7                1            3         0                  1                 3,165        Rock mound
  8                2            2         0                  1                 1,781        Dirt road
  9                1            4         1                  2                 5,317        Rock mound
  10               1            4         0                  2                 4,737        Rock mound
  11               2            4         0                  2                 1,325        natural rock face with crevices + Rock mound
  12               1            4         0                  1                 2,032        Rock mound
  13               1            3         0                  1                 628          Retaining wall
  14               1            4         1                  1                 3,344        Big boulders pile
  15               2            4         1                  1                 6,146        Rock mound
  17               3            4         1                  2                 54,302       natural rock face with crevices + Big boulders pile
  18               2            2         0                  1                 12,471       Sparsely scattered rock mounds
  19               1            3         0                  1                 306          Retaining wall
  20               2            2         0                  1                 12,253       Scattered boulders
  21               1            3         0                  1                 2,668        Scattered rocks
  22               1            4         0                  1                 785          Big boulders pile
  23               2            4         0                  1                 7,255        Big boulders pile
  24               1            2         0                  1                 2,345        Rock and dirt mounds
  25               2            4         1                  1                 1,349        Big boulders pile
  26               1            4         0                  1                 4,145        Rock mound
  27               1            2         1                  1                 5,380        Rock and dirt mounds
  28               3            1         0                  1                 4,528        Open area without rocks
  29               3            2         0                  2                 338,079      natural rock face with crevices
  30               1            3         0                  1                 1,800        Rock mound and dirt
  31               3            3         0                  2                 18,422       natural rock face with crevices
  32               1            3         0                  1                 2,536        Rock mound
  33               1            3         0                  1                 4,889        Rock mounds
  34               1            3         0                  1                 543          Retaining wall
  35               1            4         0                  1                 5,023        Rock mound
  36               1            1         0                  1                 9,226        Dirt mound
  37               1            4         1                  1                 4,251        Rock mound
  38               1            3         0                  2                 2,123        Rock mound
  39               1            4         1                  1                 6,031        Rock mound
  40               3            1         0                  2                 36,355       Flat terrain without rocks
  42               3            1         0                  2                 76,840       Natural rocky ground
  43               2            2         0                  1                 73,376       Scattered small rock mounds
  44               3            3         0                  3                 3,884        Natural rock mounds
  45               3            2         0                  2                 58,964       Scattered natural rock mounds
  46               3            1         0                  1                 199,366      Grass area without rocks
  47               1            3         0                  1                 741          Rock mounds and dirt road
  48               2            2         0                  1                 23,351       Scattered boulders
  49               2            4         1                  1                 58,335       Big boulders pile
  50               1            4         1                  1                 4,319        Rock mounds
  51               2            2         0                  1                 13,013       Dirt mound
  52               1            4         1                  1                 2,683        Rock mounds
  53               1            4         1                  1                 1,566        Rock mounds
  54               1            3         0                  1                 9,226        Rock mound
  55               2            3         0                  2                 35,850       Scattered boulders
  56               1            4         1                  1                 5,247        Rock mound
  57               1            4         1                  1                 10,146       Rock mounds
  58               1            4         0                  1                 11,942       Rock mound and retaining wall
  59               1            1         0                  1                 850          Old Quarry
  60               1            4         0                  2                 11,834       Big boulders pile
  61               1            4         0                  2                 13,235       Rock mounds
  62               3            2         0                  1                 111,149      Scattered boulders
  63               1            4         1                  1                 3,613        Retaining wall
  64               1            4                            1                 1,039        Retaining wall
  65               1            3         0                  1                 3,003        Rock mounds
  66               1            4         1                  1                 1,618        Rock mounds
  67               1            4         1                  1                 1,627        Retaining wall
  68               1            3         0                  1                 5,249        Rock mound
  69               1            4         0                  1                 12,971       Rock mound
  70               1            3         0                  1                 2,266        Small retaining wall
  71               1            4         1                  1                 5,621        Rock mound
  72               1            4         1                  1                 714          Rock mound
  73               1            1         0                  1                 2,756        Dirt mound
  74               1            4         0                  1                 2,804        Dirt mound with scattered rocks
  75               3            2         0                  1                 40,158       Scattered boulders
  76               3            2         0                  1                 10,989       Scattered boulders
  77               1            2         0                  2                 31,457       Rock mounds inside construction working plot, dry waste
  78               1            4         0                  2                 8,903        Rock mound
  79               1            3         0                  1                 4,855        Rock mound
  80               1            3         0                  1                 360          Rock mound
  81               1            3         0                  3                 4,450        Rock mound
  82               1            3         0                  1                 782          Rock mound
  83               1            3         0                  1                 70,278       Rock mound
  84               1            3         1                  1                 217          Retaining wall
  85               1            4         1                  1                 11,568       Rock mound
  86               1            3         1                  1                 95           Retaining wall
  87               1            4         1                  1                 13,334       Rock mound
  88               1            3         0                  1                 512          Retaining wall
  89               1            3         0                  1                 301          Retaining wall
  90               1            2         0                  1                 15,608       Construction working plot with scattered rocks
  91               1            3         0                  1                 264          Retaining wall
  92               1            3         1                  1                 2,544        Rock mound
  93               1            4         1                  3                 7,753        Rock mound
  94               2            1         0                  2                 5,810        Open area without rocks
  95               1            2         0                  2                 18,892       Dirt slope
  96               1            4         1                  3                 12,028       Old Quarry
  97               2            1         0                  1                 3,042        Open area without rocks
  98               2            1         0                  1                 15,821       Open area without rocks
  99               3            2         0                  2                 6,346        natural rock face with crevices and scattered rocks
  100              3            2         0                  1                 15,754       Forested slope
  101              3            2         0                  2                 32,382       natural rock face with crevices in a ravine
  102              3            1         0                  3                 25,055       Open area without rocks
  103              1            4         1                  1                 9,770        Big boulders pile
  104              1            1         0                  1                 49,335       Built with concrete
  105              2            1         0                  1                 9,935        Open area without rocks
  106              1            4         0                  1                 189          Retaining wall
  107              1            1         0                  1                 4,087        Built with concrete
  108              1            1         0                  1                 6,925        Built with concrete
  110              1            1         0                  1                 4,156        Disturbed area between houses
  111              1            4         1                  1                 5,045        Boulder mound
  112              2            2         0                  2                 9,011        Disturbed area with small cliffs
  113              2            4         0                  1                 12,341       Rock mounds in slope
  114              2            4         0                  1                 7,031        Rock mound
  115              2            2         0                  1                 3,165        Open area without rocks
  116              1            3         0                  1                 15           Retaining wall
  117              1            2         0                  1                 12,999       Disturbed area with small mounds
  118              1            2         1                  1                 498          Small retaining wall
  119              3            1         0                  1                 11,634       Open area without rocks
  120              1            3         0                  1                 3,352        Rock mounds under road
  121              1            1         0                  1                 3,343        Open area without rocks
  122              2            1         0                  1                 7,239        Open area without rocks
  123              3            1         0                  2                 16,002       Open area without rocks
  124              1            4         1                  2                 5,525        Retaining wall
  125              1            4         1                  2                 4,364        Boulder mounds
  126              1            1         0                  2                 10,899       Open area without rocks
  127              1            1         0                  1                 2,758        Orchard
  128              1            1         0                  1                 2,260        Built with concrete
  129              3            1         0                  1                 25,271       Open area without rocks
  130              1            4         1                  1                 6,911        Boulder mounds under houses
  131              1            1         0                  1                 1,634        Dirt mound
  132              1            1         1                  1                 31,960       Dirt mound
  133              1            4         1                  1                 11,856       Rock mounds
  134              2            3         1                  2                 23,311       Natural rock faces and scattered rocks
  135              3            2         0                  2                 29,113       Natural rock faces and scattered rocks
  136              1            4         1                  1                 6,451        Boulder mounds under houses
  137              1            4         1                  2                 8,704        Boulder mounds under houses
  138              3            2         0                  2                 43,263       Natural rock faces
  139              1            3         0                  1                 3,473        Rock mound under road
  140              1            4         0                  1                 8,680        Rock mound between retaining walls
  141              3            1         0                  1                 49,486       Open area without rocks
  142              2            2         0                  1                 20,303       Disturbed area with scattered rocks
  143              3            1         0                  2                 85,144       Open area without rocks
  144              1            4         0                  1                 481          Retaining wall under houses
  145              1            3         0                  1                 2,990        Rock mound under road
  146              1            3         0                  3                 2,280        Rock mound under road
  147              3            2         0                  3                 60,838       Natural rock faces
  148              1            3         0                  3                 3,160        Rock mound under road
  149              1            2         0                  1                 90,849       Natural rock faces
  150              1            3         0                  1                 20,597       Old quarry with scattered rock mounds
  151              1            3         0                  1                 2,120        Rock mounds
  152              1            1         0                  1                 36,434       Disturbed area between houses
  153              1            2         0                  1                 5,993        Disturbed area between houses
  154              3            2         0                  2                 163,318      Natural rock faces
  155              1            3         0                  1                 28,895       Disturbed area with scattered rock mounds
  156              3            2         1                  3                 304,476      Natural rock faces
  157              2            3         0                  2                 2,207        Rocky slope with scattered rock mounds
  158              1            3         0                  1                 317          Retaining wall under road
  159              1            3         0                  1                 9,283        Rock mound under road
  160              1            1         0                  1                 3,811        Open area without rocks
  161              1            3         0                  1                 11,330       Rock mound under road
  162              1            4         0                  3                 1,435        Retaining wall
  163              1            3         0                  3                 255          Retaining wall
  164              1            3         0                  3                 544          Retaining wall
  165              1            4         0                  2                 4,413        Rock mound under road
  166              1            4         0                  1                 10,099       Rock mound under road
  167              1            3         0                  1                 380          Retaining wall under road
  168              1            4         0                  1                 950          Retaining wall under road
  169              2            2         0                  2                 60,146       Rocky slope with scattered rock mounds
  170              1            3         0                  3                 15,083       Rocky slope with scattered rock mounds
  171              1            1         0                  3                 15,123       Dirt mound
  172              1            3         0                  3                 101          Retaining wall
  173              1            2         0                  3                 1,353        Scattered rocks
  174              1            1         0                  1                 12,461       Orchard
  175              1            1         0                  1                 1,777        Orchard
  176              1            1         0                  1                 2,959        Orchard
  177              1            1         0                  1                 3,952        Dirt mound
  178              3            1         0                  2                 2,535        Open area without rocks
  179              2            1         0                  1                 85,315       Open area without rocks
  180              1            4         0                  3                 6,805        Rock mound under road
  181              2            3         1                  2                 6,905        Rock mounds in a ravine
  182              3            2         0                  1                 29,762       Rock mounds in a ravine
  183              1            3         0                  1                 981          Retaining wall under road
  184              1            4         1                  2                 13,406       Rock mound under road
  185              1            1         0                  2                 13,670       Dirt mound
  186              3            1         0                  2                 26,174       Open area without rocks
  187              2            2         0                  1                 41,437       Scattered rocks in forested slope
  188              2            4         0                  1                 5,538        Rock mound under road
  189              1            4         0                  2                 1,374        Retaining wall under road
  190              1            4         0                  2                 1,179        Retaining wall under road
  191              1            4         1                  1                 1,651        Retaining wall under road
  192              1            4         1                  1                 3,834        Boulder mounds
  193              2            2         0                  2                 10,872       Natural rock faces
  194              1            4         0                  2                 3,159        Rock mound under road
  195              1            4         1                  1                 5,172        Rock mound under road
  196              1            1         0                  1                 3,587        Construction working plot
  197              1            3         0                  1                 4,684        Dry waste piles
  198              1            2         0                  1                 12,753       Rock mound in a ravine
  199              1            3         0                  2                 3,402        Rock mound
  200              1            3         0                  1                 377          Retaining wall
  201              1            3         0                  1                 5,450        Dirt mound
  202              1            1         0                  1                 6,888        Construction working plot
  203              3            1         0                  2                 6,141        Open area without rocks
  204              1            3         0                  1                 5,572        Rock mounds
  205              3            2         0                  2                 17,664       Open area with scattered rocks
  206              1            1         0                  1                 6,358        Dirt mound
  207              1            2         0                  2                 7,066        Rock mound in a ravine
  208              1            1         0                  1                 2,736        Open area without rocks
  209              1            4         0                  1                 1,215        Rock mound
  210              3            1         0                  1                 6,774        Open area without rocks
  211              1            1         0                  2                 21,193       Dirt mound
  212              1            4         1                  2                 14,917       Rock mound beneath road
  213              3            2         0                  1                 31,325       Rock mounds
  214              1            3         0                  3                 3,676        Scattered rocks
  215              2            2         0                  2                 24,324       Slope with scattered rocks
  216              1            4         0                  1                 4,028        Rock mound under buildings
  217              1            1         0                  1                 16,726       Dirt mounds
  218              3            2         0                  2                 13,501       Natural rock faces
  219              1            1         0                  2                 3,599        Dirt mound
  220              3            1         0                  2                 18,703       Orchard
  221              2            2         0                  3                 19,317       Retaining wall
  222              3            1         0                  3                 23,313       Open area without rocks
  223              1            3         0                  1                 5,560        Rock mound beneath road
  224              2            3         0                  1                 7,106        Big scattered rocks
  225              2            2         0                  1                 44,770       Slope with terraces
  226              2            1         0                  1                 10,867       Open area without rocks
  227              1            1         0                  1                 12,880       Road
  228              1            1         0                  1                 26,630       Open area without rocks
  229              3            1         0                  1                 6,170        Open area without rocks
  230              1            1         0                  1                 6,459        Orchard
  231              1            1         0                  2                 3,954        Orchard
  232              1            3         0                  1                 1,024        Rock mound
  233              1            1         0                  1                 2,650        Built with concrete
  234              1            1         0                  1                 5,024        Orchard
  235              1            1         0                  1                 1,873        Built with concrete
  236              1            3         0                  1                 8,755        Rock mound
  237              1            2         0                  1                 316          Retaining wall
  238              1            2         0                  1                 1,341        Retaining wall
  239              1            3         0                  1                 3,151        Rock mound
  240              1            3         0                  1                 1,038        Retaining wall
  241              1            3         0                  1                 2,348        Retaining wall
  242              1            3         0                  1                 675          Retaining wall
  243              3            2         0                  2                 26,249       Slope with natural rock faces
  244              3            2         0                  2                 20,591       Scattered rocks
  245              2            2         0                  1                 3,162        Scattered rocks
  246              3            1         0                  2                 678          Road
  247              1            1         0                  1                 19,004       Disturbed area next to construction site
  248              1            1         0                  1                 6,528        Dirt mound

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

###### 

Urban survey --Habitat features of the urban sites colonized by hyraxes. Gray columns contain characteristics associated with derelict areas and unregulated construction

  Neighborhood    Site number   Conventional   Unconventional   Maintainenece   Occurrence in 2015 Survey   Occurrence in 2018 Survey           
  --------------- ------------- -------------- ---------------- --------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --- --- ---
  Neve Ya\'akov   255                                           \+                                                                      −   ✓   ✓
  256                                          \+                               \+                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  258             \+                                                            \+                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  259             \+                                                            \+                          −                           −   −   
  261             \+                                                            \+                          −                           ✓   O   
  262             \+                                                                                        \+                          −   −   
  263             \+                           \+               \+                                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  264             \+                           \+               \+                                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  265             \+                                            \+                                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  266                                          \+               \+              \+                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  267                                          \+               \+                                          −                           −   −   
  268             \+                                            \+              \+                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  269             \+                                            \+                                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  270             \+                           \+                               \+                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  271             \+                                                                                        \+                          −   −   
  273                                          \+               \+                                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  275             \+                                            \+                                          −                           ✓   O   
  276             \+                                            \+                                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  278             \+                                                                                        −                           −   −   
  279             \+                                                                                        −                           −   −   
  280             \+                                                                                        \+                          −   −   
  297                                                           \+                                          −                           ✓   ✓   
  323                                          \+                                                           −                           ✓   ✓   

  Neighborhood    Site number   Conventional   Unconventional   Maintainenece   Occurrence in 2015 Survey   Occurrence in 2018 Survey           
  --------------- ------------- -------------- ---------------- --------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --- --- ---------------------------------------------------------------
  Pisgat Ze\'ev   284           \+             \+                               \+                                                      −   √   X (hyrax found in nearby site that was previously unoccupied)
  287             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  288             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  289             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  290             \+                                            \+              \+                          −                           X   X   
  293             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  294             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  296             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  298             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  301             \+                                                            \+                          −                           X   X   
  302             \+                                                                                        \+                          √   √   
  305                           \+                                                                          −                           √   O   
  309             \+                                                                                        −                           √   X   
  310                           \+                                              \+                          −                           X   X   
  311             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  312             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  314             \+                                                                                        \+                          X   X   
  317                           \+                                                                          −                           √   O   
  318                           \+                                                                          −                           √   O   
  320             \+            \+                                                                          −                           √   √   
  321                           \+                                                                          −                           √   √   
  323                           \+                                                                          −                           X   √   

Right column shows occupancy of sites 3 years after the first survey.

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
