title: Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина - бет 58

text:
extraction. 3. The symbols ... these elements were derived ... their Latin
names. 4. There arc elements which can ex ist... two different forms ...
the same physical state. 5. Reactions... ozone arc completely different...
those ... oxygen. 6. White phosphorus catches fire ... air ... room
temperature. 7. The atom s... all common gaseous elements exist... pairs
... the inert gases.
Ex. 9. Supply the definite or indefinite article.
1.
Mendeleyev is ... famous Russian chemist. 2. Mendeleyev is ...
founder of the Periodic Law. 3. Professor N i s ... author o f a great number
o f papers and books. 4. Swedish chcmist Berzelius w as... great discoverer.
5. Do you know who ... discovcrer of the atomic theoiy was? 6. Niels
Bohr was ... Danish physicist. 7. Chemistry is ... branch o f knowledge.
8. Section II is concerned with ... nature of radioactivity. 9. Dr. N dis
covered ... new law. 10. Faraday was ... well-known English physicist.
Ex. 10. Translate the sentences into Russian, paying attention to the
predicates.
1.
Chemistry concerns the compositions o f m atter and their
transformations. 2. A great number of Russian scientists, among them
Mendeleyev, Lomonosov, Butlerov ct al., could be mentioned as
contributors to the world science. 3. There arc several fields o f chcmistry
in which Russian scientists have achieved significant progress. 4. The
Periodic Law laid the foundation for the modem development of chcmistry.
5. In the molten state metals are able to interact with one another. 6. Alloys
which contain only two metals arc referred to as bimetallic. 7. Science has
become an important part of the modem world. 8. Chemists are needed
almost in every field of life. 9. The theories and laws
of chemistry are no
less exact as those of physics. 10. Silicon, the fourteenth element in the
periodic table might be called a congener o f carbon, in Group IV.
11. Attempts to arrange the elements in a definite order were followed by
a great discovery, the discovery of the Periodic Law. 12. The periodic
tabic may be interpreted in terms o f electronic structure o f atoms.
.13. Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becqucrcl in 1896. 14. The
change o f the program of experimentation could have given more accurate
results. IS. Before definite chemical evidence for the compound nature of
a substance was obtained, the substancc had been considered an clement.
16. In 1903 scientists recognized that radioactivity involves the spontaneous
transmutation of elements. 17. Here wc arc going to give a detailed account
of this phenomenon. 18. Heating was to have an important influence on
the rate of the reaction. 19. Two points should have been determined: the
composition of the sample and the relative weights of its constituent parts.
20. The result o f the comparison may be completely the opposite. 21. The
next step was to arrange the data in a table. 22. At any given temperature
a molecule of a light gas such as helium or hydrogen will have the same
average kinetic energy. 23. Chemists must have
known a great number of
reactions that can procccd without catalysts. 24. Few chcmical reactions
involve just a single elementary proccss. 25. Wc have prevented the
formation of by-products. 26. New methods of investigation arc being
developed, they are much more effective than the older ones.
Ex. 11. Translate the sentcnccs into English.
1. В 1818 году Бсрцслмус опубликовал список «атомных вссов».
2. Берцелиус ввел современные символы для химических элементов.
3. Некоторые элементы могут существовать в двух различных формах
в одном и том же физическом состоянии. 4. И озон, и молекулярный
кислород содержат только атомы кислорода. 5. Реакции озона совер
шенно отличны от реакций кислорода. 6. У озона— три атома кисло
рода, а у молекулярного кислорода— два. 7. Чтобы избежать путани
цы, молекулы газа записываются как
0 2, N2 и т. д. 8. Красный фосфор
стабилен на воздухе при температуре 240°С. 9. Белый фосфор, напри
мер, воспламеняется на воздухе при комнатной температуре.
Ex. 12. Make up questions to the italicized parts of the sentences.
1.
The symbols began as
a simple shorthand for referring to
the names
of the elements (3). 2. Ozone will
immediately oxidize metallic
silver (3).
3. There is no way of discovering
how many atoms arc combined together
in
any solid (2).
Ex. 13. Answer the following questions:
1.
What were the symbols introduced for? 2. Who introduced the
symbols for chcmical elements and when did he do it? 3. What significance
did symbols acquire? 4. What is the difference in writing allotropic
modifications o f elements?
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Scction II - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
compound
is defined (is dcscribcd) as the smallest part of a compound
that can exist as a free and separate substance.
Слова к тексту:
the very — сам no ссбс; equal — равный; determine — определять;
relative — относительный; strictly — строго; it makes no claim — не пре
тендует; perfectly — совершенно; entity — нечто реально существующее
Text 12 В
Прочтите текст про себя (контрольное время чтения — 4 минуты).
Chemical Symbols for Representing Compounds
It is a short step from using a symbol for an element to using a
formula
for a compound. However, it is often forgotten that the very act of writing
the formula for a compound assumes the law of constant composition.
HgO originally meant “some of a compound containing equal numbers of
mercury and oxygen atoms”. A formula used in this way is referred to as
an empirical formula, for it contains only the cxpcrimantally determined
ratio o f the relative numbers of atoms of different elements in the
compound, but makes no statement about how many atoms there are in
one molecule. An empirical formula should be written with brackets (HgO);
to show that it makes no claim to represent one molecule of the substance;
but for inorganic solids where there is seldom a method of determining *,
the brackets are never used.
A molecule of a compound is defined as the smallest part of a compound
that can exist as a free and separate substance. For crystalline solids in
which one atom is surrounded by several
equivalent neighbours, the word
“molecule” has no well-defined meaning. Thus, the formula HgO refers
to a gram-molccular weight of mercuric oxide, whereas the gram-molecular
weight is the sum of gram-atomic weights of the elements in the proportions
in which they occur in the compound. For example, zinc has a gram-atomic
weight of 65 g and chlorinc a gram atomic weight of 35.5 g, so the gram-
molecular weight of zinc chloride (ZnCb) is 135 g.
For gases, the molecule is a perfectly real entity, and the molecular
weight of any volatile substance defined as
weight of 1 molecule
weight of V
|2
atom of carbon 12
can be measured experimentally. Therefore the formula NHj can either
refer to one molecule of ammonia, containing one atom of nitrogen, and
three atoms of hydrogen, or, alternatively, to one gram-molccular weight
of ammonia.
Though the terms “gram-molccular weight” and “gram-atomic weight”
arc no longer used by chemists, it is interesting to know how the idea
89
developed. At present, (he term “mole”
(mot) is usually used to name the
quantity of a substancc.
Упр. 4. Оправдались ли ваши предположения насчет отличия по
содержанию текста 12 В от текста 12 Л?
Упр. 5. Разделите текст на тематические части и озаглавьте их.
Упр. 6. Скажите, что говорится в тексте:
1) о том, что необходимо было знать, чтобы написать формулу со
единения символами; 2) о значении эмпирической формулы; 3) об упот
реблении скобок при написании эмпирической формулы; 4) как опре
деляется молекулярный вес летучих веществ; 5) что обозначает формула
аммиака.
Упр. 7. Найдите в тексте отрывок, где дается определение молеку
лы и описываются особенности употребления формул для обозначения
твердых веществ. Переведите этот отрывок на русский язык.
Ex. 1. Check up if you remember the ways of expressing time.
2.00
It is two (o’clock).
5.10
It is ten minutes past (after) five.
It’s ten past five.
It’s five-ten.
4.15
It’s a quarter past (after) four.
It’s fifteen minutes past (after) four.
It’s four-fifteen.
2.30
It’s half past two.
It’s two thirty.
7.45
It’s a quarter to eight.
It’s seven fortv-five.
2.55
It’s five (minutes) to three.
It’s two fiftv-five.
a. m.
до полудня
p. m.
после полудня
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title: Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина - бет 5

text:
Часть материала излагается на русском языке. Это касается фонетических
и грамматических комментариев, а также заданий к упражнениям второго раз
дела (Section II) каждого урока. Авторы считают целесообразным формули
ровать задания второго раздела на русском языке, чтобы сосредоточить вни
мание на решении одной методической задачи. Эти упражнения выполняются
на русском языке и формулировки заданий не должны создавать дополнитель
ные трудности.
Система упражнений по устной речи направлена на формирование у сту
дентов умений, необходимых для участия в беседах, выступлений с сообще
ниями по вопросам, связанным со специальностью.
В конце учебника приводятся отрывки из современной и исторической
литературы по химии, которые могут быть использованы для перевода, ан
нотирования, реферирования и дискуссий, а также раздел ‘■‘Miscellaneous
Grammar”, с упражнениями, включающими основные грамматические труд
ности, и ряд приложений справочного характера.
Авторы 3


title: Section 1П - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
1. What time is it now? 2. When do your classes usually begin? 3. When
did the lecture begin? 4 . 1 believe my watch is fast, what time is it by your
watch? 5. At what time shall we meet? 6. At what time are your classes
over? 7. When do you get up? 8. When will you be free? 9. When will you
come to the laboratory?
Ex. 3. Make up sentences or short stories with the following words:
1) introduce, they, symbols, Swedish, begin, shorthand, chemist, simple,
Berzelius, element, name; 2) phenomenon, allotropy, such, be, when, can,
form, element, exist, different, the same, state, physical; 3) act, formula,
law, the very, write, assume, composition, constant; 4) gram, weight,
molecular, be, element, seem, atomic
Ex. 4. Give detailed answers to the following questions:
1. In what way were the modem symbols for the elements introduced?
2. What is the meaning of a chemical symbol for an element? 3. In what
way do we usually write formulae for compounds? 4. What law is the
basis for writing the formula of a compound? 5. What is an atom? 6. What
is a molecule?
Ex. 5. Discuss the following topics:
1. The History of the Introduction of Symbols.
2. Symbols for Representing Elements.
3. Symbols for Representing Compounds.
DO YOU KNOW THAT...
Berzelius published his first paper on the new nomenclature in 1813.
A year later, he published his second article in which he formulated the
rales for writing formulae. The number of atoms was marked by a figure at
the upper end of the symbol. If a compound contained two atoms of a
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: particular element, he suggested that the sign should be written in bold type

text:
P art T w o
THE SUBJECT
Lesson 13
ГРАММАТИКА: Подлежащее. Существительное в функции подлежаще
го. Местоимение в
функции подлежащего.
Section I
Ex. 1. Practise your pronunciation.
a) period ('pionod], ancient [’einjont], civilization [.smlai'zeijn], China
['t/aura], India ['indjo], Greece [gri:s], Egypt [*i:d3ipt], quintessence [kwin'tesns],
elixir [l'likso], technique [tck'nkkj, iatrochcmist [ai'astrdo'kemist], pursuit
[pa'sju:t], phlogiston [flo'dsiston], subsequent ['sAbsikwont), qualitative
['kwohtstiv], quantitative ('kwontitotiv], identify [ai 'dcntifai], urea [ juano]
b) there\are, injheNhistory, a^'theoryyOfNnumbers, could^be^'vchanged,
'oneuof„\w hich, and0the0\answ er, 'this0isuth e\d atc,\p ro v ed wthat,
theudis'covery0of4particlcs
c) There are 'five 'periods | in the 'history of\chcmistry.
Ex. 2. Pay attention to the structure of
the following words, translate
them Into Russian:
a) collcctivc, elusive, native, quantitative, qualitative, imperative
b)
afternoon, anything, football, nevertheless, iatrochcmist, meanwhile,
thrcc-dimcntional, withstand, quintessence
c) tcchniquc, unique
Ex. 3. Define the meanings of the word
matter in the following sentences:
1. During the phlogiston period men postulated a hypothetical
matter.
2. Biology is the scicncc of the physical life of living
matter. 3. What is the
matter with you? 4. Wc haven’t discusscd this
matter yet. 5. No
matter what
method of preparation was used, the substancc should be pure. 6. It is a
92
ideas for combination as expressed in valcnce*, and the studies of molecular
structure until the thrcc-dimcntional models appeared.
Gradual determination o f physical properties of the elements indicated
a periodicity of property expressed by the periodic law which has withstood
the onslaught** of the discovery of the subatomic particles which make up
the nucleus and outer clcctrons of the atom.
W ords a n d W o rd-C om binations to Be M em orized
accurate, A. D., ancient, approach, assume, comprise, date, definite, determine,
effort, express, force, gain, goal, gold, gradual, improve, inorganic, matter, model,
organic, outer, particle, principal, problem, prove, qualitative, reliable, require,
stimulate, subsequent, synthesis, technique, there be, until, urea, withstand
E x. S. G ive th e R ussian equivalents fo r th e following:
the history of chcmistry, an ancicnt period, comprize, civilization,
develop, a philosophical approach to, a theory o f numbers, a theory of
elements, propose, the alchemical period, the principal goal, base metals,
change to, introduce, pure substancc, an improved technique, devote, during
the period, postulate, a hypothetical matter, require, gain in weight, the
answer to the problem, identify a substancc, synthesis of urea, produce a
compound, reliable measurements, stimulate the effort, accurate weight,
until, gradual, withstand smth., subatomic particles
Ex. 6. Give th e E nglish equivalents fo r th e following:
древний период, в истории химии,
метод изучения материи, атом
ная теория, теория элементов, теория чисел, земля, вода, воздух, огонь,
главная цель, превратить в золото, чистое вещество, требовать, уве
личение веса, очень легкое вещество, последующее открытие, совре
менная химия, качествснный/количсствснный анализ, определить
вещество, органическая/неорганическая химия, синтез вещества,
доказать, получить соединение, надежный метод, закон сохранения
массы, определить точный вес, последующие попытки, новая модель,
постепенный, указывать на периодичность, открытие частиц, состав
лять ядро, внешние электроны
E x. 7. F ill in th e b la n k s w ith prepositions w here
ncccssary.
1. There arc five periods... the history... chcmistry. 2. A philosophical
approach... the study... matter was developed ... Greece. 3. Alchemists
thought that there was a way ... which base metals could be changed ...
gold. 4. ... the phlogiston period men postulated a hypothetical matter.
5. G ain... weight... calcination... metals le d ... a search ... a very light
* as expressed in valence — выраженный валентностью
** has withstood the onslaught — выдержал атаку
94


title: particles make ...  the nucleus  ... the atom

text:
journals. 24. Accurate measurements began with the laws of Boyle, Charles,
Gay-Lussac and Dalton. These stimulated the efforts to determine accurate
atomic weights. 25. How can one prepare urea? 26. One can express the
idea for combination in valence. 27. Why docs one call Mendeleyev’s law
the periodic law? 28. One must clearly understand the idea of chemical
transformation. 29. One should be accurate in laboratory measurements.
Ex. 10. Translate the
scntcnccs into
English.
1. В истории развития химии есть несколько периодов. 2. Еще в
Древней Греции был разработан философский подход к изучению
материи. 3. Нужно помнить, что главной целью периода алхимии был
поиск философского камня. 4. Считали, что именно философский
камень превращает обычные металлы в золото. 5. Только тоща, когда
были разработаны
методы количественного и качественного анали
за, стало возможно получить достаточное количество чистых веществ.
6. Увеличение веса металлов при прокаливании привело впоследствии
к открытию газов. 7. Что такое качественный анализ? S. До 1928 года
органическую химию мало понимали. 9. Многие ученые создавали
свои модели строения атомов.
Ex. 11. Answer the following questions:
1. How many periods arc there in the history of chcmistry? 2. What
are these periods? 3. What do you know about the ancient period? 4. What
were the principal goals o f the alchemical period? 5. What was the period
o f iatrochemistry devoted to? 6. Why is the period between 1650 and 1774
callcd .the phlogiston period? 7. When docs modem chcmistry begin?
8. What stimulated the development of chcmistry in the 19th century?
9. What investigations led to the discovery of the Periodic Law?
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Scctlon II - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
same
age. 7.
To explore the phenomenon is to learn everything about it.
8. Comrade N will
replace comrade В while he is away on holidays.
9.
Drugs are substances used for medical purposes. 10. In future,
oil and
coal are to be replaced by new
fuels, i. c., materials for
producing heat
or energy. 11.
Cancer is one o f the most serious diseases o f the 21st
century.
Слова к тексту:
assembly—сбор; statement— формулировка; surpass— превосходить;
create — создавать; environment — окружающая среда; assurance— убеж
денность;
frontier — граница; miracle — чудо; superior — лучший;
explosive — взрывчатое вещество; fibre — волокно; opportunity— возмож
ность; benefit—польза; выгода; mankind— человечество; cure— лекарство;
fabric— ткань; cell — клетка
Text 13 В
Прочтите текст про себя (контрольное время — 4 минуты).
New
Frontiers in Chemistry
Twenty-first-century chcmistry has narrowed into units such as
instrumental analysis, biochemistry, chcmical engineering, and colloids.
Chemistry has progressed from an assembly o f facts to a statement of
laws, and thermodynamics of chcmical reactions to a study of atomic
structure. It is also an age o f practical applications which contribute to an
improved standard of living. Man has learned to surpass nature as he
explores the methods by which living matter is produced. To create a better
environment, empirical studies of the past have been replaced by an
assurance that any type of matter may be synthesized or analysed with
time and effort.
The great frontiers of our world and our universe that await the explorer
and the pioneer of the beginning of the twenty-first
ccntury arc scientific
rather than geographic. The past achievements of chcmistry, the “miraclc”
drugs, the superior explosives, the new plastics, the synthetic fibres, the
improved gasolines, and the rocket fuels, have received great publicity,
but much remains to be done. New types of matter, new applications o f
known principles, and — most important of all — further correlation and
interpretation of known facts and the development of new and more general
principles await the coming of new scientific workers with energy, talent,
and good training. In addition, there arc great opportunities for those who
would apply to the benefit o f mankind die findings o f scicncc. Cures for
cancer and other human ills are needed, as arc new materials for
construction to meet the needs of our daily life, better fabrics, stronger
metals and plastics, and better sources of energy. As we live in the spacc
age, new chcmical problems confront us, and the great problem of the
chemistry of the living cell is still with us, the promise for the future is
unlimited.
4
C t c i u m o u
97
Упр. 3. Передайте основное содержание текста в нескольких пред
ложениях.
Упр. 4. Составьте план текста.
Упр. 5. Прочтите предложения н скажите, соответствуют лн они со
держанию текста. Если нет, исправьте их.
1. Chemistry has made a great progress from an assembly o f facts to a
statement o f laws. 2. Twentieth-century chcmists didn’t think about
practical applications of their achievements. 3. In the ancient time there
was no assurance that any type of matter may be synthesized or analysed
with time and effort. 4. New geographic frontiers await the explorer.
5. Energy, talent and good training are needed for the development o f new
principles of science. 6. There are no more great opportunities for chcmists.
7. New chcmical problems confront us in the space age.
Упр. 6. Найдите в
тексте и переведите на русский язык предложе
ния, в которых дастся представление о химии двадцатого столетия.
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title: Section III - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
Model: —
A general question.
— An answer (+. -).
Ex. 3. Макс up short dialogues according to the model.
Example: — Are you a student?
— Yes, I am. / No, I’m not.
Ex. 4. Give detailed answers to the questions.
1. What do you know about the periodicity in chcmistry? 2. How did
chemistry change with time? 3. What were the most important discoveries
of the 19th century? 4. What can you say about the 20th-century chcmistry?
Ex. 5. Discuss the following topics:
1. The Achievements of the Ancicnt Civilizations.
2. The Principal Discoveries in the History of Chemistry and their
Importance.
3. The Twenty-First-Century Chemistry.
4. New Frontiers in Chemistry.
WHAT IS IT?
A substancc which cannot be divided into a simpler one by ordinary
chcmical methods.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title:
Lesson 14
ГРАММАТИКА: Оборот «именительный падеж с инфинитивом».
Section I

text:
b) inorganic, indirccl, insoluble, independent, incorrect, incapable,
indefinite, indifferent, inseparable, indivisibility
c) impossible, imperfect, improbable, improper, immaterial, imper
sonal, immeasurable, impractical
Ex. 3. Define the meanings оГ the word
because in the following sentences:
1. Mendeleyev’s mother could not placc Dmitry in the University of
Moscow
because he had been bom in Siberia. 2. The government retired
Mendeleyev from the University of St. Petersburg
because of his social
activity. 3. Mendeleyev could not present his paper on the periodic table at
the meeting of the Russian chcmical socicty himself
because he was ill.
4. Elements in the same group of the periodic table are sometimes callcd
congeners
because they possess similar properties. 5. Electrolysis of water
is not widely used to obtain ozone
because of its low cfiicicncy. 6.
Because
of the difference in the vapour pressure of ozone and oxygen it is possible to
separate them. 7. Lavoisier named the gas “hydrogen” (water-former)
because
of its ability to form water in combination with oxygen. 8. Selenium received
almost no attention in textbooks
because it was not commercially used.
Ex. 4. Find the predicate and the subject in the following sentences:
1.
The solid matter was believed to be really continuous matter. 2. It
was more logical to believe that all the varieties of matter arc brought
about by coupling together a relatively few kinds of particles. 3. This purely
philosophical guess turned to be confirmed later. 4. Atoms arc made of
fundamental particles, they arc callcd building blocks o f all matter.
5. Ancient Greeks were right in the ultimate sense o f the argument.
Text 14 A
The Idea of the Atom
Many times during the course o f history men believed that the solid
matter, of which the different things in the world are made, was really
continuous matter. They thought that if you could look at the surface of a
stone with magnificaton unlimited, you would always sec a continuous
surface, no matter how much you turned up the magnification. They believed
that you would not find individual particles like atoms and electrons. They
argued that if you had a magic knife by which you could cut the stone into
smaller and smaller pieces, you could continue cutting it up indefinitely
and could make the pieces as small as you like — a trillion, quadrillion,
quintillion times smaller or even infinitely small. But some twenty-five
hundred years ago, there lived in Greece a group of men with inquiring
minds, who perceived that this argument for
continuous matter was not
sound. Facing the fact that the world contains so
many different kinds of
matter— stones, metals, vegetables matter, animal matter, solids and liquids
of so many forms— they argued that it was more logical to believe that all
100
these varieties of matter arc brought about by coupling together a relatively
few kinds of particles, which could not be cut up any further. Because the
indivisibility was taken to be the fundamental property of these particles,
they gave them the name
atom, or
a-tom which in Greek means
uncuttable.
It is astonishing that this purely philosophical guess turned to be confirmed
so completely two thousand five hundred years later. O f coursc, today all
atoms arc cuttablc into smaller particles, such as the electrons in the outer
shells and the fundamental particles in the inside o f the nucleus; but the
truly fundamental particles o f which atoms arc made, arc sure to be
uncuttable and they arc true building blocks o f all matter.
During the period o f fourteen years beginning with 1897, it was
discovered that atoms arc composed o f smaller particles. The discovery of
the components of atoms and the investigation of the structure of atoms is
likely to be one of the most interesting stories in the history of science.
Moreover, knowledge about the electronic structure o f atoms has made it
possible to systematize the facts of chemistry in a striking way, making
the subject easier to understand and to remember: it has been discovered
that the bonds that hold atoms together in molecules, consist of pairs of
electrons held jointly by two atoms. So those ancient Greeks were right in
the ultimate sense of the argument.
Words and Word-Combinations to Be Memorized
argue, believe, bring about, confirm, continuous, coursc, of coursc,
fundamental, hold, individual, infinite, inside, jointly, kind, likely, mind,
moreover, out of, really, relatively, science, sense, shell, sound, sure, systematize,
turn, ultimate, vegetable
Ex. 5. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:
during the coursc of history, unlimited magnification, perceive, a sound
argument, bring about, a fundamental property, a purely philosophical
guess, confirm, in the outer shells, be composed of particles, be likely,
moreover, knowledge about the structure, in a striking way, make something
easier understand, hold together, jointly, in the sense
Ex. 6. Give the English equivalents for the following:
много раз, твердое вещество, из которых, посмотреть на поверх
ность, отдельные частицы, разрезать на более мелкие куски, столк
нуться с фактом, много различных видов, относительно немного,
полностью подтвердить, фундаментальные частицы, внутри ядра,
состоять из,
компоненты атомов, электронное строение атомов, сис
тематизировать факты, связь, удерживать вместе
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with prepositions where necessary.
1. Long ago there lived... Greece a group... m en... inquiring minds.
2. They named ... the particle “atom” because ... its indivisibility.
101
3. Atom means “indivisible” ... Greek. 4. Of course, today atoms arc known
to consist... still smaller particles. 5. The discovery ... the components
... atoms is o n e ... the most interesting stories ... the history... science.
6. Knowledge ... the structure ... atoms made it possible to systematize
the facts ... chcmistry ... a striking way. 7. Atoms are held together...
molecules ... bonds.
Ex. 8. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to different
functions of if.
1.
It was believed that all the varieties of matter were brought about by a
relatively few kinds of particles. 2.
It is astonishing that a purely philosophical
guess about the structure of an atom was so completely confirmed. 3. An
atom is no longer thought to be a fundamental particle,
it consists of still
smaller particles. 4. Knowledge about the electronic structure of atoms made
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title: Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина - бет 66

text:
годня признают, что атомы состоят из меньших частиц. 4. Считает*
ся, что все вещества состоят из фундаментальных частиц. 5. От
крытие структуры атома, вероятно, явилось одним из важнейших
открытий в науке. 6. Конечно, знание строения атома сыграло важ
ную роль в развитии химии.
Ex. 11. Answer the following questions:
1. What did the ancients think about the composition of matter? 2. What
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: particles  were considered  to be the  building  blocks  of matter?  3.  What

text:
was pure speculation, and was much too general to be useful. Dalton’s
atomic theory, however, was a hypothesis that explained many facts in a
simple and reasonable way.
Dalton stated the hypothesis that elements consist
o f atoms, all of the
atoms o f one element being identical*, and that compounds result from
the combination of atoms of two or more elements, cach in definite number.
In this way, he could give a simple explanation of the law of conservation
of mass and o f the law of constant proportions.
Упр. 3. Передайте основное содержание текста в нескольких пред
ложениях.
Упр. 4. Составьте план текста.
Упр. 5. Прочтите предложения н скажите, соответствуют ли они
содержанию текста. Если нет, исправьте их.
1. The Greek philosopher Democritus was the first who stated that
matter is composed of atoms. 2. The atoms were considered to be small
indivisible particles. 3. The atoms of different substanccs were considered
by Democritus to be different. 4. The atomic theory o f Democritus was
not useful bccausc it was too general. 5. Dalton stated that all of the atoms
of one element were the same.
6
. Dalton could not explain the law o f
conservation of mass.
Упр. 6. Найдите в тексте предложения с описанием того, как Демок
рит представлял себе атомы, и переведите их на русский язык.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


text:
нас
ссминар по истории, я должен принять о нем участие. 5. Кто за
нял второе место по волейболу?
6
. Сколько времени у вас занял пере
вод? 7. Вчера я добрался до университета за 40 минут.
Ex. 3. Make up short dialogues according to the model.
Model: —
A special question.
— An answer.
Examples:
1
>— What is it?
It is a book.
2
) -
When did you comc'
— At S o’clock.
Ex. 4. Give detailed answers to the questions.
1. In what way did the idea of the atom change in the coursc of history?
2. What scientist stimulated the development of the atomic theory? 3. What
do you know about the atomic structure?
Ex. 5. Discuss the following topics:
1. Early Atomic Theories.
2. The Present Ideas about the Structure of Matter.
3. The Most Important Discoveries Concerning the Atomic Structure.
WHAT IS IT?
The smallest unit of an element that can take part in a chcmical change.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Lesson  15 - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
Ex. 2. Pay attention to the structure оГ the following words. Translate
them into Russian:
a) 'extract — ex'tract, 'progress — progress, 'import — import,
'export — cx'port, 'increase — in'crcasc, 'present — pre'scnt, 'com
pound — com'pound, prc'cipitatc — prccipi'tatc
b) physics, mathematics, economics,
dynamics, electronics
c) irregular, irrespective, irrational, irrccognizablc, irreligious,
irremovable, irreplaceable
Ex. 3. Define the meanings of the word
about in the following sentences:
1. Our knowledge
about atoms greatly increased during the twentieth
century. 2. The student was
about to comc into the room when I stopped
him. 3. A theory usually involves some idea
about the nature of some part
of the Universe. 4. The mixture is
about to explode, stop heating it. 5. At
what time do you usually get up? — At
about 7.
6
. They were
about to
leave when the telephone rang. 7. The Mendeleyev system has served for
about a century as a key to discovering new elements. S.
About one-fifth
of the air by volume is oxygen. 9. Ibcrc is nothing special
about this
proccss. 10. You know too little
about selenium.
Ex. 4. Find the predicate and the subject in the following sentences:
1. As it was verified by further work in chcmistry and physics, Dalton’s
atomic hypothesis became the atomic theory. 2. In the early years of the
twentieth century, atoms were defined as the imaginary units. 3. It has
more than once happened in the history of science that a hypothesis has
been abandoned.
Text 15 A
T h e A tom ic T h eo ry
In 1805 the English chemist and physicist John Dalton (1766-1844)
put forward the hypothesis according to which all substanccs were stated
to consist o f small particles o f matter, o f several different kinds,
corresponding to the different elements. He callcd these particles atoms,
from the Greek word
atomos, meaning “indivisible”. This hypothesis gave
a simple explanation or picture of previously observed but unsatisfactorily
explained relations among the weights of substances taking part in chcmical
reactions with one another. As it was verified by further work in chemistry
and physics, Dalton’s atomic hypothesis became the atomic theory.
The rapid progress of science during the twentieth century is well
illustrated by the increase in our knowledge about atoms. In a popular
textbook of chcmistry written in the early years of the twentieth century,
atoms were defined to be the “imaginary units” of which bodies arc
''aggregates. The article in “Atom” in the 11th edition of the
Encyclopaedia
Britannica, published in 1910, ends with the words “The atomic theory
106
has been of priceless value to chcmists, but it has more than once
happened in the history of science that a hypothesis, after having been
useful in the discovery and the coordination of knowledge, has been
abandoned and replaced by one more in harmony with later discoveries.
Some distinguished chcmists thought that this fate may be awaiting the
atomic theory... But modem discoveries in radioactivity are in favour
o f the existence of the atom, although they lead to the belief that the
atom is likely to be not so eternal and unchangeable a thing as Dalton
and his predecessors had imagined”.
Only half a ccntuiy later, scientists had precise knowledge of the struc
ture and properties of atoms and molecules.
Atoms and molecules can no
longer be considered “imaginary”.
Words and Word-Combinations to Be Memorized
article, current, define, distinguish, explanation, in favour of, illustrate,
increase, no longer, more than once, physicist, physics, popular, precise,
previously, price, priceless, progress, put forward, radioactivity, rapid, replace,
satisfactory, useful, be of value
Ex. 5. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:
put forward a hypothesis, according to the atomic theory, give an
explanation, previously observed relations, by further work, rapid
progress, during the current century, be illustrated by smth., imaginary
units, be o f value, replace a hypothesis by a theory, a distinguished
chemist, discoveries in radioactivity, be in favour o f smth., imagine, have
precise knowledge, no longer
Ex.
6
. Give the English equivalents for the following:
выдвинуть идею, согласно теории, дать простое объяснение,
объяснить факт, принять участие в реакции, друг с другом, попу
лярная книга, третье издание, опубликовать статью, заменить одну
идею другой, выдающийся ученый, доводы в
пользу гипотезы, спу
стя полстолстия, больше не может рассматриваться, увеличение ра
диоактивности, не один раз, ранее неизвестная величина, быстрое
развитие
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with prepositions where necessary.
1
. Dalton's theory was p u t... 1805.2. The hypothesis could not explain
... relations... the weights... substanccs taking part... chcmical reactions.
3. The atomic theory is ... priceless value ... chcmists. 4. Modem
discoveries... radioactivity a rc ... the existence... the atom. 5. H alf... a
century later the atomic structure became clear.
6
. The atomic theory is
useful... the coordination ... knowledge. 7. Dalton’s atomic hypothesis
was verified ... further work ... chcmistry and physics.
107
Ex. 8. Translate the scntcnccs into Russian paying attention to different
functions of
for.
1. The atomic theory was of great value
fo r further
development of
science. 2. Dalton’s hypothesis became the atomic theory,
fo r it was
verified by later discoveries. 3.
For this reason the hypothesis'was
replaced by another one. 4. This technique is recommended to be used,
fo r it is very accurate. 5. Argon and other gases of this group arc callcd
inert,
fo r they are chemically inactive.
6
. The theory hasn’t been
recognized
fo r almost a century.
Ex. 9. Translate the sentences into Russian.
a)
1
. Dalton’s hypothesis was later proved to be true. 2. Fundamental
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Part  O n e - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
Part O n e
THE PREDICATE
Lesson 1
ГРАММАТИКА: Определение сказуемого в предложении. Простое сказуе
мое в действительном залоге (Indefinite). Употребление
шагала will для выражения регулярности действия в на
стоящем времени, глаголов used to и would— для выра
жения повторности в прошлом. Функции шагала do.
Scction I
Ex. 1. Pronounce the following words:
a
1*0
state, same, name, late, make, place,
plane, take, face, nature, statement,
correlate
a
[*]
that, fact, back, bad, hand, land, man,
plan, stand, factoiy, angle, happen-
ar, ar + согласная
[o:] part, arm, car, dark, far, hard, large,
March, start, argue, argument
ar + гласная
[еэ] care, bare, parents, vary, various
ai,ay
[ci]
day, train, explain, play, May, pay, say,
way
b)
hypothesis (hat'poOosis), theory [*0ion], law [I
d
:], subject [sob'dsekt],
agree [o'gri:], atom ('aitom], atomic [o'tomik], universe ['ju:niv3:s], example
[tg'za:mpl]. chemist [kemist]
Ex. 2. Read the following words and say what Russian words help to
understand their meaning:
theory, hypothesis, correlate, test, deduction, result, experiment, atom,
nature, crystal, substancc, regular, interpret, systematic, argument, structure
4
Ex. 3. Pay attention to the following way of word-building:
основа слова + -al-» прилагательное
international, central, theoretical, hypothetical, experimental, industrial,
formal, natural
прилагательное + -ly —» наречне
usually, readily, quickly, slowly, usefully, highly, easily, really,
experimentally
основа слова + -ist [ist] —» существительное, прилагательное
communist, scientist, chemist, socialist, capitalist, naturalist, physicist,
economist
Which of these words may be nouns and adjectives?
Ex. 4. What part of speech docs each of these abbreviations stand for: a,
adv,attr,cj,int,n, num,part,prep,pron.v? What part of speech do the following
words belong to? Write corresponding abbreviations for them.
theory, find, further, it, and, of, if, such, usually, about, part, represent,
that, wc, various, between, value, pure, crystal, atom, other, word, two,
knowledge, by, thus, but, explain
Ex. 5. Define what parts of speech the italicized words belong to.
1. The girl’s face was beautiful. 2. Many difficulties face us when wc
study. 3. Experimentally means during the experiment. 4. There arc various
means of getting substances. 5. Chemistry is a very interesting subject.
6
. When wc want to learn more about a substancc, wc subject it to study.
7. When you arc not sure that your result is right, check it up.
8
. During the
check he found a bad mistake. 9. This Достарыңызбен бөлісу: |


particles arc no longer considered to be non-existent. 3. Radioactivity is
known to be affected by the presence of other elements which are not
radioactive. 4. Air was later found not to be an element. 5. Hydrogen docs
not appear to react quickly with chlorinc in the dark.
6
. Pure liquid HC1
docs not seem to be conductor of electricity. 7. Under certain conditions
an atom of hydrogen may be regarded to be acting as a bond.
8
. There
appears to be no difficulty in determining the rate of this reaction. 9. There
seems to be no evidence in favour of your idea. 10. The phenomenon has
never been observed to occur under ordinary conditions. 11. Chlorinc is
stated to have been discovered in 1774.12. Solid carbon is usually said to
exist in three modifications. 13. Mendeleyev is known to have been bom
in Tobolsk. 14. The law of conservation of mass is known to have been
definitely stated by the great Russian scientist М. V. Lomonosov in 1756.
IS. H
2
S 0
4
docs not appear to have been known to the ancient world.
b) 1. The symbol H
2
SO
4
is interpreted as representing one molcculc of
sulphuric acid. 2. Acids arc usually thought of as being liquids. 3. According
to the atomic theory, a molcculc is considered as being composed o f atoms.
4. The periodic classification should be mentioned as having been the
principal discovery of the 19th century. 5. A nucleus is now regarded as
being composed of fundamental particles.
6
. All substanccs may be
regarded as soluble in water. 7. Atoms arc no longer considered
“imaginary”.
8
. The valency of carbon is usually thought of as four. 9. Water
is known as composed o f two elements: hydrogen and oxygen.
10. Substanccs arc usually defined as having a definite composition.
Ex. 10. Translate the sentences into English.
1
. Джои Дальтон был химиком и физиком. 2. Он жил в Англии
с 1766 по 1844 год. 3. Более всего он известен своем атомистической
теорией. 4. Дальтон выдвинул свою теорию строения элементов в
180S году. 5. Эта теория была подтверждена дальнейшими исследова
ниями. б. Позднее она была развита в соответствии с современными
исследованиями. 7. Современная наука располагает точными знания
ми о структуре и свойствах атомов и молекул.
8
. Теперь никто больше
не может утверждать, что структура и состав атомов неизвестны.
108
1. When was Dalton’s atomic hypothesis put forward? 2. What was
the main idea o f this hypothesis? 3. In what way was the hypothesis
verified? 4. What docs sometimes happen to a hypothesis in the coursc of
history? S. Was Dalton’s hypothesis forgotten later? 6. What do modem
scientists think about Dalton’s theory?


title: Section II - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
Упр. 3. Передайте основное содержание текста в нескольких пред
ложениях.
Упр. 4. Составьте план текста.
Упр. 5. Прочтите предложения и скажите, соответствуют лн они
содержанию текста.
Если нет, неправые их.
1. There was only one atomic theory in the history of chcmistry. 2. The
light that is emitted by atoms of a given substancc gives a distinctive pattern.
3. The line spectrum is the spectrum of an atom but not a molcculc. 4. The
result of early investigations was that the line spcctra of the hydrogen
atom were not alike. 5. Niels Bohr was not interested in studying spectral
lines. 6. The application of the quantum theory helped to understand the
electronic structure of the hydrogen atom better.
Упр. б. Найдите в
тексте н переведите на русский язык предложе
ния, где идет речь об образовании линейного спеюра.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


text:
of the atomic structure? 4. In what way did Bohr’s work develop the atomic
theory? 5. What relationship is there between an atom and its spectrum?
Ex. 5. Discuss the following topics:
1. The Evolution of the Atomic Theory.
2. The Modem Concept o f die Composition and Structure of an Atom.
3. The Basis for Spectral Analysis.
WHAT IS IT?
An optical instrument for forming and examining spcctra.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


Lesson 16
ГРАММАТИКА: Инфинитив и инфинитивный оборот в функции подле
жащего.
Section I
Ex. 1. Practise your pronunciation.
a) molecule ['-molikju:!], peculiar [pi'kjurlio], rearrangement [,п:э‘гет-
d3mont], neutral ['nju:trolj, other [*лдэ], exemplify [ig'zasmphfai], chlorine
[*kb:ri:n], compound ['kompaond], existence [ig'ztstsns], exhibit [ig'zibit], sample
[sa:mpl], diatomic [.daio'tomik]
b) thc^'modcmNchcmist, the^‘smallest\particle, intoj^'chemicalj«\action,
thcu'other\elemcnts, in^'which^'thcyNbcar, ofu thcir^,'own\kind, by^the^'water
Nmolccule, are^of imSportancc
\
c) 'Chemical 'unions | are of 'two 'gencralNtypcs.
Ex. 2. Pay attention to the structure of the following words. Translate
them into Russian.
a) reread, rewrite, reappear, recombine, replace, reproduce, redistribute,
rearrange, remake
b) colour, neighbour, behaviour, favour, vapour
c) friendship, leadership, relationship, hardship, professorship
Ex. 3. Define the meanings of the word kind in the following sentences:
Д. I’m sure, the professor will help you, he is very kind. 2. What kind
o f substance is it? 3. Compound molecules arc composed of two or more
kinds o f atoms. 4. What kind of man is he? 5. Be so kind as to shut the
door. 6. There arc different kinds of animals on the earth. 7. Everybody
knows that your mother is very kind. 8 . 1 don’t like stories o f this kind.
9.1 hear he is good at mathematics.— Nothing of the kind, he always asks
to help him with the problems.
I l l
1. To the modem chemist, the atom is the smallest particle of an element
that can enter into a chcmical reaction. 2. To think of a molcculc is to
think of the atoms which it contains and their proportion. 3. In compounds,
molecules of two or more kinds of atoms bccomc bonded together. 4. For
the reaction to start, two conditions must be met.
Text 16 A
M olecules
To the modem chcmist, the atom is the smallest particle of an element
that can enter into a chcmical reaction. Thus, cach element has atoms that
arc peculiar to itself and different from those of cach of the other elements.
Chcmical reactions occur when atoms of different kinds unite to form
groups in which they bear definite relationships to cach other or when
these groups undergo disruption or rearrangement. Chcmical unions arc
of two general types.
In one type of union, atoms bccomc bonded together to form definite
aggregates that exist as independent, electrically neutral particles and
arc known as molecules (Latin “little mass”). Some elements have atoms
that unite with others o f their own kind to form molecules. These arc
known as elemental molecules and arc exemplified by the chlorinc
molcculc which is made up of two chlorinc atoms. Compound molcculcs
arc composed of two or more kinds o f atoms and arc exemplified by
the water molcculc, which contains two atoms of hydrogen and one of
oxygen.
To give a short definition of a molcculc is not to give a more or less
full account of properties.
Molcculcs arc regarded as the smallest particles or elementary
substanccs that can have independent existence. They account for the
chcmical properties and at least some of the physical properties of the
substancc they constitute. A single molcculc docs not exhibit in full the
physical properties commonly associated with its particular variety of
matter. These properties arise both within the molcculc itself and within
the aggregates of like molcculcs that constitute a sample of the given
substancc. The density of water depends not only on the mass and volume
of indivilual molcculcs but also on the manner in which the molcculcs arc
packed together. Sincc the chcmist works with the aggregates, their
properties arc o f great practical importance.
A molcculc of a compound contains, of necessity, at least two di ffcrent
atoms. An element molcculc may contain only one atom, or it may contain
two or more. Helium has monoatomic molcculcs; chlorinc and hydrogen
cach exist as diatomic molcculcs; and sulphur molcculcs contain eight
atoms. During reactions the atoms of elemental molcculcs usually arc
separated and individually redistributed in new combinations.
Ex. 4. Find the predicate and the subject in the following sentences:
112
Words and Word-Combinations to Be Memorized
arise, be made up of, be of importance, both... and, commonly, constitute,
definition, density, depend (on), distribute, cach other, helium, independent, at
least, manner, more, neutral, pack, particular, rearrangement, relationship,
sample, those, type, union, within
Ex. 5. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:
enter into a chcmical reaction, be different from cach other, occur,
definite relationships, undergo rearrangement, chcmical unions, bccomc
bonded together, form definite aggregates, be exemplified by, give a full
account of, account for chcmical properties, a single molcculc, exhibit a
property, arise within the molcculc itself, density, depend on the mass,
pack the molcculcs together, be o f great practical importance, contain
two or more atoms, exist as diatomic molcculcs
Ex. 6. Give the English equivalents for the following:
каждый элемент, вступать в химическую реакцию, отличаться
от, электрически нейтральный, молекула хлора, состоять из, слож
ная молекула, молекула соединения, состоять из нескольких видов
атомов, молекула воды, краткое определение, более или мснсс пол
ный, по крайней мере, некоторые из свойств, отдельная молекула,
в самой молекуле, образец данного вещества, плотность (удельный
вес) вещества, зависеть от, иметь практическое значение, одноатом
ная молекула
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with prepositions where necessary.
1. The smallest particle of an clement that can enter ... a chcmical
reaction is an atom. 2. The lecture has already begun, don’t enter ... the
classroom, please. 3. Elements differ... cach other. 4. Atoms ... different
kinds can unite and form a molcculc ... a compound. 5. Elemental
molcculcs arc composed ... the atoms ... the same kind. 6. Chlorinc
molcculc is m ade... two chlorinc atoms. 7. This definition docs not give
a full account... the properties of a molcculc. 8. The density... a substancc
can be easily calculated, it depends ... its mass and volume.
Ex. 8. Translate the sentences into Russian, paying attention to different
functions of since.
1. Wc call the atomic hypothesis a theory, since it has been verified
by further discoveries. 2. Bohr’s atomic theory has been known since
1913. 3. Chemistry has changcd greatly since 1869 when the periodic
law was published. 4. The periodic system has long since served as the
greatest contribution to science. 5. Since the combustion of many non-
metals yielded products which rcactcd with water and gave acidic
113
solutions, Lavoisier named the ncwly-discovcrcd gas oxygen (“acid
former"). 6. Ever since Lavoisier in 1792 demonstrated that diamond
and graphite are allotropic forms of carbon, man has been interested in
converting carbon into diamond. 7. They left St. Petersburg in 1996,
they haven’t been there since then.
Ex. 9. Translate the scntcnccs into Russian.
1. To analyse a substance means to define its components. 2. To
have a laboratory practice work is very useful for students of chcmistry.
3. To know the atomic structure is to understand this phenomenon.
4. To give a short definition o f a molecule is not so very easy. 5. For
uranium minerals to be used in industry is not a usual thing. 6. For
atoms to have the same chcmical properties is to be the atoms o f one
clement. 7. To make accurate measurements requires great carc. 8. To
start a reaction is one thing, but to keep it going on is another. 9. For
molecules to have the same composition implies the existence o f the
same structure. 10. To think about ordinary conditions of a reaction
means to think about room temperature and 1-atm pressure. 11. To
speak about the properties o f halogens is first o f all to mention their
extraordinary activity. 12. For compounds to be bonded by a covalent
bond implies having one or more shared electron pairs. 13. To compare
the size o f molecules is rather difficult. 14. To imagine a molecule o f
water means to imagine a certain combination o f hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. 1 S. To obtain a spectrum is to pass a beam of white light through
a spectrograph. 16. To say that the density o f a substance depends only
on its mass and volume is to lose sight o f the manner in which the
molecules are packed together.
Ex. 10. Translate the sentences into English.
1. Атомы каждого элемента отличаются от атомов других эле
ментов. 2. Химическая реакция происходит, когда атомы взаимо
действуют друг с другом и образуют новые комбинации. 3. Молеку
лы, как известно, электрически нейтральны. 4. Молекулы соединений
состоят из двух или более видов атомов. 5. Дать определение моле
кулы — значит сказать о ее составе и свойствах. 6. То, что соедине
ния имеют одинаковые физические свойства, не означает, что их
химические свойства тоже одинаковы. 7. Молекула элемента может
состоять из одного, двух и более одинаковых атомов.
Ex. 11. Answer the following questions:
1. What is a chcmical reaction? 2. What types of chcmical unions do
you know? 3. What is an elemental moleculc? 4. What is a compound
molecule? S. What determines the properties o f a moleculc? 6. What
composition an elemental moleculc may have? 7. What is the difference
between an atom and an elemental moleculc?
114
|


text:
A cup of water taken at random from your nearest supply, would give you at
least one hundred of the original dyed molcculcs. The exceedingly large
number of molcculcs of water in a cup is, of coursc,
directly related to the
fact that each molecule is exceedingly small. Molcculcs arc too small to be
visible in ordinary light. The most powerful and best illuminated optical
microscope has failed to reveal molcculcs by direct vision, although it is
claimcd that they have been resolved in the electron microscope.
Упр. 3. Передайте основное содержание текста в нескольких пред
ложениях.
Упр. 4. Составьте план текста.
Упр. 5. Прочтите предложения и скажите, соответствуют ли они
содержанию текста. Если нет, исправьте их.
1. Molcculcs usually contain several different kinds of atoms. 2. The
water moleculc is composed of two different sorts of atoms. 3. Molcculcs
o f all gases consist of two atoms. 4. Molcculcs may be molecular, atomic
or ionic in structure. 5. There is no difficulty in comparing molcculcs by
their size. 6. Molcculcs are too small and cannot be seen by ordinary means.
7. The electron microscopc is the most powerful instrument that is used
for molecular investigations.
Ex. 6. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения,
где идет речь о молекулах, состоящих из разнородных атомов, а также
предложения, в которых дается характеристика таких молекул.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Scction Ш - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
Model: —
A disjunctive question.
—
An answer. (+, -)
Ex. 3. Make up short dialogues according to (he model.
Example: — You are a student, aren’t you?
— Yes, I am. / No, I’m not.
Ex. 4. Give detailed answers to the questions.
1. What is a molcculc? 2. What determines the properties o f
molcculcs? 3. What kind of molcculcs arc there? 4. In what way can the
molcculcs be investigated? 5. What is the difTcrcncc between the molcculcs
of elements and compounds.
Ex. 5. Discuss the following topics:
1. Kinds of Molcculcs.
2. Molccular Composition and Structure.
3. Definition of a Molcculc.
WHAT IS IT?
The smallest particlc of matter that has the same chcmical properties
as the whole mass.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title:
Lesson  17
ГРАММАТИКА: ГерундиГ! н герундиальный оборот в функции подле
жащего.
I

text:
layer, have no force of attraction from molcculcs above. Some o f the more
rapidly moving molcculcs overcome the cohcsivc force of their neighbour
and leave the surface. The tendency to leave the surfacc or to evaporate
varies from liquid to liquid, and it increases when the temperature is raised.
The pressure causcd by the evaporation o f molcculcs from a liquid,
measured at equilibrium with the returning molcculcs at a given
temperature, is callcd the vapour pressure. In general, vapour pressure
increases when the temperature rises. With continued addition of heat the
vapour pressure rises still more until the vapour pressure reaches the vapour
pressure o f the atmosphere above the liquid. The evaporation goes on
throughout the liquid, and the liquid is boiling. Obviously the act of boiling
can be accomplished either by raising the temperature o f the liquid or by
reducing the pressure o f the atmosphere above the liquid.
W ords a n d W o rd -C o m b in atio n s to Be M em orized
accomplish, ammonia, attraction, average, compress, consequence, equal,
equilibrium, evaporation, expansion, extent, fast, flow, go on, layer, litre,
mercury, motion, the number of, obviously, occupy, overcome, per, pressure,
principle, raise, rate, reducc, regardless of, restrict, result in, return, as a rule,
stream, tend, tendency, throughout, unlike, vapour, velocity, weight
Ex. 5. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:
as a consequence of this principle, the gram-molecular weight, calculate
by different methods, be accurate within 0.1 %, move at the same rate, to a
greater extent, give cvidcncc of, the force of cohesion, from this cvidcncc,
flow
in a continuous stream, below the surface layer, overcome the force,
rise still more, throughout the liquid, accomplish the boiling, either... or...,
* reduce pressure
Ex. 6. Give the English equvalents for the following:
равный объем, независимо от состава, одинаковое число моле-
кул, при
температуре, под давлением в одну атмосферу, быть ограни
ченным, в меньшей степени, таким образом, нагревание жидкости,
как правило, приводить к, двигаться с большой скоростью, оказы
вать влияние на, со срсднсй скоростью, при данной температуре, на
поверхности жидкости, в отличие от, сила притяжения, тенденция к
испарению, достичь атмосферного давления, продолжать нагревание,
очевидно, или... или...
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with prepositions where
necessary.
1.
Liquids turn to form drops ... a greater or less extent. 2. One mole
... ammonia gas weighs... 17.073 grams, occupics a volume... 22.4 litres
... standard temperature and pressure. 3. The number ... molcculcs ...
gram-molc was calculated... different methods. 4 .... the same temperature,
119
molcculcs ... a liquid move ... the same rate as those ... a gas. S. The
effect ... increasing pressure ... the volume ... a liquid is only slight.
6. The tendency to evaporate varies ... liquid ... liquid. 7. ... general,
vapour pressure increases when the temperature rises.
Ex. 8. Translate the sentences into Russian, paying attention to different
functions of
as.
I. A sa consequence of Avogadro’s principle, it is possible to determine
the volume occupied by the gram-molccular weight of any gaseous
substance at standard temperature and pressure. 2. Molcculcs of a liquid
move at the same rate
as those in a gas at equal temperatures. 3. Liquids
can flow
as a stream. 4.
As a rule, there is a tendency o f the molcculcs to
occupy more space when they move at a faster rate. 5.
As it was rather late,
they decided to put off their work for the next day. 6. Technically, the
proccss of obtaining oxygen is complicated
as it requires one of the lowest
temperatures used industrially -194.4°C. 7.
As the hydrides of the alkali
decompose in water, hydrogen is being released. 8. In the laboratory,
hydrogen is made by the reaction of an acid such
as sulphuric acid, H2S 0 4,
with a metal such
as zinc. 9. Mendeleyev is famous
as the discovcrcr of
the law of periodicity. 10. The molcculcs move faster
as the temperature
rises. 11.ТЪе explosion occurcd
as the mixture was being heated.
Ex. 9. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Discussing the topic helped both of us to understand it better.
2. Working in the laboratory is the most important step in training chemists.
3. Professor N ’s participating in this conference attracted many other
scientists. 4. His having made detailed notes at the lecture helped him to
successfully pass the examination. 5. Our article being accepted in the
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина - бет 77

text:
пературс и давлении нсависимо от состава. 2. При одинаковой тем*
пературс средние скорости движения молекул жидкости и газа оди
наковы. 3. Нагревание тела, как правило,
приводит к увеличению его
объема. 4. Как у жидкости, так и у газа не все молекулы движутся с
одинаковой скоростью при данной температуре. 5. Тенденция к ис
парению увеличивается,
когда
повышается температура. 6. Нельзя
сказать, что всс жидкости испаряются с одинаковой скоростью. 7. Точ
ка кипения жидкости определяется температурой и давлением.
Ex. 11. Answer the following questions:
1. What docs Avogadro’s principle state? 2. In what way can the number
of molcculcs per mole be determined? 3. What forces act between the
molcculcs in a gas and in a liquid? 4. What affects the molccular motion?
5. What process is callcd evaporation? 6. What is the vapour pressure?
7. What docs the boiling point of a liquid depend on?
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


text:
substancc, they arc moving at the same average velocity, the motion o f
molcculcs in a solid must be confined, and, probably, it is a vibration or
oscillation about a fixed point.
Crystals composed of molcculcs may evaporate in a manner similar to
that of liquids. This phenomenon is callcd sublimation, and it may.be
noticcd in solid carbon dioxide (dry icc), paradichlorobcnzcnc, camphor,
and many odorous solids. Non-molccular solids show little tendency to
sublime. The Van dcr Waals force between the particles in molecular solids
is, apparently, less in general than the coulomb forces between ions in
non-molccular solids. As with liquids, solids vary greatly in their tendency
to sublime, and the rate of sublimation varies with the temperature and
inversely with the pressure. In some solids the ciystal is composed of
molcculcs in a pattern that repeats.
Упр. 3. Передайте основное содержание текста в нескольких пред
ложениях.
Упр. 4. Составьте план текста.
Упр. 5. Прочтите предложения и скажите, соответствуют ли они со
держанию текста. Если нет, исправьте их.
1. Liquids and gases usually have the form of their container.
2. Characteristic feature o f solids is that they have their own form.
3. Crystalline solids cannot evaporate like liquids. 4. Sublimation is the
evaporation of solids. 5. The rate of sublimation increases with the rise of
the temperature and the pressure. 6. Planar structure o f the carbon atoms
in graphite makes its properties different from those o f a diamond.
Упр. б. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложе
ния, в которых говорится о движении молекул внутри вещества.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Section Ш - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
бором сейчас, вы можете выполнить свои измерения. 6. Она внесла
предложение поехать за город вместе. 7. Он произвел на нас очень
хорошее впечатление.
Ex. 3. M ak e up sh o rt dialogues according to th e m odel.
Model'. —
A request.
—
An answer. (+, -)
E xam ple:
— Give me your pen, please.
— Here you are. (Sony, but I’m writing just now.)
Ex. 4. G ive d etailed answ ers to th e following q uestio n s:
1. What is the essence of Avogadro’s principle? 2. In what way can
Avogadro’s principle be used? 3. What do you know about the molccular
motion? 4. What is the principal difference between gases, liquids and
solids? 5. What is the difference in properties between crystalline and
non-crystalline solids?
Ex.
S.
D iscuss th e follow ing topics:
1. The Characteristic Features of Gases, Liquids and Solids.
2. The Difference of the Molccular Motion in Various States of a
Substance.
3. The Influence of the Temperature and the Pressure on the
State of
a Substance.
W H A T IS IT ?
A compound o f oxygen and another clement (metallic or non-mctallic).
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: part of the work is the most difficult

text:
part of the work is the most difficult
one. 10. They parted in 1985 when she went to Moscow. 11. In crystals
the atoms arc in a regular order. 12. The director ordered him to come at
once. 13. Wc measure weight by grams, kilograms, tons, etc. 14. A kilogram
is a weight measure.
Text 1 A
Hypotheses, Theories and Laws
When wc find that an idea explains or correlates a number o f facts, wc
call this idea a hypothesis. Wc can subjcct it to further tests and to
experimental chccking of deductions. If the hypothesis continues to agree
with the results o f experiment, wc call it a theory or a law.
A theory, such as the atomic theory, usually involves some idea about
the nature of some part o f the Universe, a law represents a summarizing
statement about observed experimental facts. For example, there is a law
of the constancy of the angles between the faces of crystals. The law states
that whenever wc measure the angles between corresponding faces o f
5
various crystals of a pure substancc, they will have the same value. It docs
not explain the fact. Wc find an explanation of the fact in the atomic theory
of crystals, the theory that in crystals the atoms arc in a regular order.
Chemists and other scientists use the word “theory” in two different
senses. The first meaning of the word is the meaning described above —
namely, a hypothesis that has been verified. The second use of the word
“theory" is to represent a systematic body of knowledge, compounded of
facts, laws, theories, deductive arguments and so on.
Thus, by the atomic theory wc mean not only the idea that substances
consist of atoms, but also all the facts about substanccs that can be explained
and interpreted in terms o f atoms and the arguments that explain the
properties of substanccs in terms of their atomic structure.
Words and Word-Combinations to Be Memorized
also, angle, atom, atomic, body, check, consist of, correspond, crystal,
example, for example, experiment, fact, further, hypothesis (hypotheses), idea,
involve, in terms of, law, measure, namely, not only... but, observe, order,
represent, result, same, state, statement, subject, such, test, theory, thus, universe,
usually, various, verify, whenever
Ex. 6. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:
find, a number o f facts, idea, subjcct to, experimental checking, agree
with smth. (smb.), such as, the atomic theory, usually, involve, law,
represent, for example, the faces of crystals, state, whenever, a pure
substancc, the same value, explain, in a regular order, in a sense, the
meaning o f the word, above, namely, verify a hypothesis, a body of
knowledge, and so on, thus, not only... but, in terms of
Ex. 7. Give the English equivalents for the following:
объяснить факт, ряд экспериментов, подвергуть гипотезу про
верке, экспериментальное подтверждение, согласовываться с резуль
татами, называть законом, атомная теория, такой как, обычно, вклю
чать в себя, вселенная, утверждение, например, угол между гранями
кристалла, измерять, различные вещества, то же самое значение,
описанный выше, и так далее, таким образом, не только... но и, с
точки зрения
Ex. 8. Fill in the blanks with prepositions where ncccssary.
o f to, with, for, in, by, in terms o f
I. If an idea explains or correlates a number ... facts, wc call it a
hypothesis.
2
. Scientists subject the idea ... experimental checking. 3. If
the hypothesis agrees ... the results ... experiment, wc call i t ... a theory
or ... a law. 4. ... example, everybody knows the periodic law. 5. The
explanation... the fact i s ... the atomic theory.
6
crystals the atoms arc
6
... a regular order. 7
the atomic thcoiy wc mean that substanccs consist
... atoms. 8. Scientists explain facts ... atoms and their structure.
Ex. 9. Practise the numerals.
a)
1
,
2
,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,
8
, 9 ,
10
,
11
,
12
,
100
,
1,000
b) Суффикс -teen образует числительные от 13 до 19,
всегда
ударный.
Иногда при добавлении суффикса происходят изменения основы слова.
Model: 14 — fourteen
Исключения: 13 — thirteen
15 — fifteen
13,14,15,16,17,18, 19
c) Суффикс-о* служит для образования десятков, неударный.
Model: 60 — sixty
Исключения: 20 — /wenty
30 — thirty
40 — forty
50 — fifty
2 0,30,4 0 ,5 0 ,6 0 ,7 0 ,8 0 ,9 0
d) Сложные числительные.
Model: 21 — twenty-one
2432 — two thousand four hundred and thiity-two
23,46 ,3 4 ,2 7 ,9 3 ,6 2 , 87,55,71,953,281,450,374,799,543, 827,
665,1946,5812,2432,7250,1240,9824,7561
с) Суффикс -th служит для образования порядковых числительных.
Model: four — fourth
Исключения: I -й — first
2
-fi — sccond
3-й — third
5-Й — fifth
5-H, 6-й, 7-й, 8-й, 9-й, 10-й; 56-й, 73-и, 89-й, 94-й, 25-й, 63-й; 914-й,
852-й, 263-й, 427-й, 791-й; 2406-й, 1433-й, 5813-й, 4743-й, 3585-й
0 Числительные, обозначающие даты.
Model', до 2000-го года: 1946 — nineteen forty-six; 2000-й год: two thou
sand; после 2001-го года: 2004 — two thousand and four
1945,1917,1812,1799,1242,1961,1957,1825,2001,2003,2005
Ex. 10. a) Read the following forms of the verbs; mind different ways of
reading -s and -ed.
explains, correlates, continues, calls, involves, states, uses, verifies,
means; called, subjected, checked, involved, represented, observed,
corresponded, used, described, consisted
b) Give the three forms of the following verbs:
be, have, find, do, mean, give
с) Translate the sentences into Russian.
I. A theory usually involves some idea about the nature of some part of
the Universe. 2. The periodic law represents a summarizing statement about
the properties o f elements. 3. The scientists verified die hypothesis and it
became a theory. 4. A law will not explain the fact, it only states the fact.
5. Early scientists would use the word “theory” in two different senses, now
wc do the same.
6
. A hypothesis usually explains or correlates a number of
facts. 7. Now wc arc speaking about hypotheses, theories and laws.
8
. The
atomic theory explains and interprets the facts in terms of atoms. 9. A good
theory will live a long life. 10. Will you tell us what you know about a
hypothesis? 11. What do wc call a law? 12. Early scientists did not think of
atoms. 13. Now the atomic theory is more popular than it used to be.
14. Before the nineteenth century chcmists would not think about families
of elements. 1 5. The periodic law docs help chcmists in their work. 16. Have
you translated the sentences about the atomic theory? 17. By the atomic
theory of crystals the atoms in them will be in a regular order.
Ex. 11. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Закон — это такое утверждение, которое суммирует наблюдае
мые экспериментальные факты. 2. Теория даст экспериментально под
твержденное объяснение фактов. 3. Вы поняли, что такое гипотеза?—
Да, это идея, которая объясняет или сопоставляет ряд фактов. 4. Когда
эксперименты действительно подтверждают какую-то гипотезу, мы
обычно называем сс теорией. 5. Ученые знают много гипотез, которые
стали теориями или законами, б' Химики широко пользуются атомной
теорией. 7. Древние ученые думали о структуре веществ.
8
. Мы объяс
няем свойства веществ с точки зрения их атомной структуры.
Ex. 12. Make up questions to the italicized parts of the sentences.
1. Chemists use the word theory in two different senses (3)*.
2
. Wc
usually subject a hypothesis to further tests (2). 3. Every science lias its
laws (
2
).
Ex. 13. Answer the following questions:
1. What is a hypothesis? 2. Do you know what a law is? 3. Do you
know any laws? 4. What is a theory? 5. What theories do chcmists use in
their work?
6
. What do wc mean by the atomic theory? 7. When did you
hear about the atomic theory for the first time?
Достарыңызбен бөлісу: |


title:
Lesson  18
ГРАММАТИКА: Придаточное предложение в функции подлежащего.
Scction I

text:
Ex. 2. Pay attention to the structure оГ the following words. Translate
them into Russian:
a) somebody, someone, something, somewhere, somehow, somewhat,
sometime, sometimes
b) important, pleasant, abundant, resistant, brilliant, disinfectant,
lubricant, significant
c) freedom, kingdom, wisdom
Ex. 3. Define the
meanings оГ the word point in the following scntcnccs:
1.
Point A on the graph corresponds to the boiling
point of a solution.
2. The reaction goes to completion when the temperature is kept in the range
of25-30°C, this is a particularly important
point. 3. At this
point he stopped
for a minute and then continued his explanation. 4. There arc different
points
of view concerning the hypothesis. 5. The
inchingpoint of crystalline iodine
is 114°C. 6. The proccss of melting can be described from the molccular
viewpoint. 7. Up to this
point everything was all right, but then something
happened and the proccss became unstable. 8. It must be
pointed out that
only a crystal is characterized by regular anangemcnt of atoms and molcculcs.
9. It is a very
interesting point, wc shall discuss it later.
Ex. 4. Find the predicate and the subject in the following sentences:
1. That the properties of liquid iodine and solid iodine arc different is
quite obvious. 2. That the density o f a liquid is less than that of a
corresponding crystal can be easily explained. 3. How wc are to make
measurements will be dear from the instruction. 4. Whether high pressure
is ncccssary is to be known from the articlc.
Text 18 A
The Nature of a Liquid
When iodine crystals arc heated to U4°C, they melt forming liquid
iodine. The temperature at which the crystals and the liquid arc in
equilibrium — that is, at which crystals have no tendency to melt or the
liquid has no tcndcncy to freeze— is callcd the
melting point of the crystals,
and the freezing point of the liquid. This temperature is I I4°C for iodine.
Liquid iodine differs from solid iodine (crystals) mainly in its fluidity.
Like the solid, and unlike the gas, it has a definite volume (1 g occupics
about 0.2 cm’), but it docs not have a definite shape: instead, it fits itself to
the shape of the bottom part of its container.
From the molccular viewpoint the proccss of melting can be described
in the following way. As a crystal is heated, its molcculcs arc increasingly
agitated, and move about more and more vigorously, but at lower
temperature, this thermal agitation docs not carry any one molecule any
significant distance away from the position fixed for it by the arrangement
of its neighbours in the crystal. At the melting point the agitation finally
124
bccomcs so great that it causcs the molcculcs to slip by one another and to
change somewhat their location relative to one anothcr. Thcy continue to
stay close together, but do not continue to retain a regular fixed arrangement.
Instead, the grouping o f molcculcs around a given molcculc changcs
continually, sometimes being much like the close packing of the crystal,
in which cach iodine molcculc has twelve near neighbours, and sometimes
considerably different, the molcculc has only ten or nine or eight near
neighbours. Thus, a liquid, like a crystal, is a condensed phase, as contrasted
with a gas, the molcculcs being piled rather closcly together; but whereas
a crystal is characterized by regularity of atomic or molccular arrangement,
a liquid is characterized by randomness of structure. The randomness of
structure is usually the reason why the density o f a liquid is somewhat less
than that of the corresponding crystal.
W ords an d W o rd -C o m b in atio n s to Be M em orized
away, bottom, characterize, considerably, container, contrast, differ from,
differ in, distance, finally, fit, fix, freeze, increasingly, instead, mainly, melt,
melting point, phase point, melting, random, regular, relative, shape, significant,
sometimes, somewhat, stay, that is, thermal, viewpoint
Ex. 5. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:
be in equilibrium, the tcndcncy for crystals to melt, freeze the liquid,
differ in properties, unlike the liquid, have a definite volume, instead, fit
itself to the shape of, in the following way, carry away, changc somewhat,
stay elose together, the elose packing of the crystal, considerably different,
a randqm structure, the density of a liquid
Ex. 6. Give the English equivalents for the following:
naipcTb до, точка плавления вещества, отличаться от, иметь опре
деленную форму сосуда, с точки зрения, изменить местоположение,
ipynmtpoBKa молекул вокруг, ближний соссд, плотная упаковка, ха
рактеризоваться чем-л., произвольное расположение молекул, не
сколько меньше, каждая молекула йода, относительно друг друга,
отличаться чем-л., в отличие
от газа
Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with prepositons where ncccssary.
1. Crystals ... iodine melt when they arc heated ... I14°C. 2. Liquid
iodine differs ... solid iodine... its fluidity. 3. Usually, liquid fits itself...
the shape... the bottom spacc ... its container. 4. The proccss... melting
can be described... the following way. S. This proccss is intcrcsing... the
molccular viewpoint. 6. Regularity... atomic or molccular arrangement is
characteristic ... a crystal. 7. A liquid is characterized ... randomness ...
structure. 8. A solid occupics ... a definite volume.
125


title: -in g - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
форму сосуда, в котором она содержится, но сс объем не зависит от
объема сосуда. 5. В отличие от газа, у кристаллов и жидкостей моле
кулы располагаются довольно близко друг к другу. 6. То что структу
ра является одной из важнейших характеристик состояния
вещества,
необходимо помнить всегда. 7. Кристаллы имеют упорядоченную
структуру, а структура жидкости произвольна, поэтому плотность
жидкости несколько меньше, чем у соответствующего кристалла.
Ex. 11. Answer the following questions:
1. What temperature is callcd the melting point? 2. What is the
difference between liquid and crystalline iodine? 3. In what way is it
possible to explain the change from the solid to the liquid? 4. What is the
principal difference between solid and liquid from the structural viewpoint?
5. What does the molccular motion depend on?
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Scction II - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
rest being empty space. Thus, 1 g of solid iodine has a volume of about
0.2 cm5 (its density is 4.93 g/cmJ), whereas 1 g of iodine gas at 1-atm
pressure and at the temperature of 184°C (its boiling point) has a volume
of 148 cmJ, over 700 times greater. The volume of all the molcculcs in a
gas at ordinary pressure is accordingly small compared with the volume
of the gas itself. On the other hand, the diameter of a gas molcculc is not
extremely sniall compared with the distance between molcculcs; in a gas
at room temperature and 1-atm pressure the average distance from a
molcculc to its nearest neighbours is about ten times its molecular diameter.
Упр. 3. Передайте основное содержание текста в нескольких пред
ложениях.
Упр. 4. Составьте план текста.
Упр. 5. Прочтите предложения и скажите, соответствуют ли они
содержанию текста. Если нет, исправьте их.
1. Molecules of a gas move freely in a volume o f its container. 2. The
Van dcr Waals forces don’t act between the molcculcs of a gas. 3. The
molcculcs of a gas arc rather elose together at ordinary pressure. 4. The
volume occupicd by a gas is considerably greater than the volume of a
solid of the same element. 5. The distance between the molecules of a gas
at 1 -atm pressure is greater than the diameter of the molcculc itself. 6. The
temperature has no influence on the gas volume.
Упр. 6. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения
в которых содержится описание самого отличительного свойства газа.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


text:
5. По-моему, Петр — ненадежный человек. — Я бы этого не сказал,
он всегда делает то, что говорит. 6. Тебе некогда будет читать завт
ра. — Наоборот, завтра у меня нет занятий.
Ex. 3. Make up short dialogues according to the model.
Model: —
A statement.
—
A question.
—
An answer.
Example: — I like reading vciy much.
— What do you like?
— Reading.
Ex. 4. Give detailed answers to the following questions:
1. What happens to a crystalline substance when it is heated? 2. What
is the melting point of a substance? 3. What arc the characteristic features
of a liquid? 4. What are the characteristic features of a gas? 5. What docs
die physical state o f a substance depend on?
Ex. 5. Discuss the following topics:
1. Factors that Influence the Physical State of a Substancc.
2. Solids, Liquids and Gases from the Molccular Point o f View.
3. An Example of Transformation of the Same Substancc into Different
States.
WHAT IS IT?
The measure o f the degrees of hotness or coldness o f a substancc or
a body.
5
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title:
CrtntHOal

Part  T h r e e

text:
Part T h r e e
THE OBJECT
Lesson 19
ГРА М М А ТИ КА : М есто дополнения в предложении. Сущ ествительное и
местоимение в
функции дополнения.
Section I
E x. 1. P ractise y o u r p ro n u n ciatio n .
a) originally [a'ndsonoh], stereochemistry [.steno'kemistn], final ['fainnl],
postulate ['postjoht], draw [dn>:], concise [ksn'sais], qualitative ['kwohtativj,
numerous [*nju:mon>s], electronic [ilek'tromk], culminate ['kAlmineit], completion
[кэт'рНг/эп], emphasize ['emfosatz], clarify ['kkenfai], isomer ['aisomoj
b) thc^'structurc^of4.molecules, compo'sition^of^a4. substance, theu
'natureyOfythcj-cNaction, theu'theoryuof\valence, 'afterutheudis\covery-
an^elec 'tronicNtheoiy, 'thesej^deas, all3ofu'thesc4students
c) The 'nature of the ‘bond | was com'plctcly un\known.
E x. 2. P ay a tte n tio n to th e s tru c tu re o f th e follow ing w ords. T ran slate
th em in to R ussian.
a) stereotype, stereochemistry, stereophonic, stereoscope, stereometry
b) dihedral, trihedral, tetrahedral, pentahedral, octahedral
c) neighbourhood, childhood, boyhood, manhood
Ex. 3. Define th e m eanings o f th e w ord
part
in th e follow ing sentences:
1. A theory usually involves some idea about the nature of some
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


part
of the Universe. 2. One of the most valuable parts of the chcmical theory
is the periodic law. 3. Hard alloys arc applied to the surfaces o f metal
parts, increasing the life of the parts many times. 4. The substances taking
part in the reaction should be pure. S. Partly, you can find the
necessary
information in this monograph. 6. V. Tikhonov played the part of Bolkonsky
130
in llic IVar.and Peace. 7. They parted at 6 o’clock. 8. The firm was only a
partial success. 9. Under certain conditions, hydrogen atoms in this
compound may be in part substituted by sulphur.
Ex. 4. Find the predicate, the subject and the object in the following
sentences:
1. In the nineteenth ccntury the valcncc bond was represented by a line
drawn between the symbols of two chcmical elements. 2. Lewis’ paper written
in 1916 is considered to be the basis o f the modern electronic theory of
valcncc. 3. These ideas were further developed by many investigators.
Text 19 A
The Study of the Structure of Molecules
The study o f the structure o f molcculcs was originally carried on by
chcmists using methods of investigation that were essentially chemical
in nature, relating to the chcmical composition o f a substancc, the
existence o f isomers, the nature of the chcmical reactions in which a
substancc takes part and so on. From the consideration of facts o f this
kind Frankland, Kckulc, Coupcr and Butlerov were led a ccntury ago to
formulate the theory of valcncc and to write the first structural formulas
for molcculcs, van’t Hoff and le Bel were led to bring classical organic
stereochemistry into its final form by their brilliant postulate of the
tetrahedral orientation o f the four-valcncc bonds o f the carbon atom,
and Werner was led to his development o f the theory o f the stereo
chemistry of complex inorganic substanccs.
In the nineteenth ccntury the valcncc bond was represented by a line
drawn between the symbols of two chcmical elements, which expressed
in a concisc way many chcmical facts, but which had only qualitative
significance with regard to molccular structure. The nature of the bond
was completely unknown. After the discovery of the clcctron, numerous
attempts were made to develop an electronic theory of the chcmical bond.
These culminated in the work of Lewis, who in his 1916 paper, which
forms the basis of the modem electronic theory of valcncc, discussed not
only the formation of ions by the completion o f stable shells of electrons
but also the formation of a chcmical bond, now callcd the covalcnt bond,
by the sharing of the two electrons between two atoms. Lewis further
emphasized the importance of the phenomena of the pairing of unshared
as well as of shared electrons and of the stability o f the group of eight
electrons (shared or unshared) about the lighter atoms. These ideas were
then further developed by many investigators; the work of Langmuir was
especially valuable in showing the great extent to which the facts of
chemistry could be coordinated and clarified by the application of the new
ideas. Many of the features of the detailed theory that is discusscd were
suggested in the papers of Langmuir and others written in the dccadc
131
following 1916, or in (he book Valence and Structure o f Atoms and
Molecules written by Lewis in 1923.
All of these early studies, however, contained, in addition to suggestion
that have sincc been incorporated into the present theory, many others that
have been discarded.
W ords a n d
Word-Combinations
to Be M em orized
complex, consideration, coordinate, dccadc, discard, discuss, draw,
cspccially, essentially, formation, incorporate, lead to, line, numerous, originally,
paper, phenomenon, with regard to, relate, and so on, stability, stable, structural,
take part, valence, valuable
Ex. S. Give th e R ussian equivalents fo r th e following:
cany on the study, essentially chcmical in nature, take part in a reaction,
from the consideration of facts, formulate the theory of valcncc, structural
formulas for molcculcs, final form, tetrahedral orientation o f the bonds,
represent the bond by a line, draw a line between, have qualitative
significance, with regard to molccular structure, form the basis of a theory,
share the electrons between the atoms, the features of the detailed theory,
be incorporated into
E x. 6. Give th e E nglish eq u iv alen ts for th e following:
изучение структуры молекул, методы исследования, первоначаль
но, химический состав, существование изомеров, природа химичес
кой реакции, и так далее, принять участие в реакции, такого рода
факты, столетие тому назад, написать структурную формулу, четыре
валентные связи атома углерода, теория стереохимии, провести ли
нию, многочисленные попытки, сделать попытку, развить теорию,
электронная теория валентности, образование химической связи, ко
валентная связь, поделить электроны между чем-л., подчеркнуть зна
чение чего-л., применение новых идей, предложить теорию, кроме,
первые исследования
Ex. 7. Fill in th e b lan k s w ith p repositions w here necessary.
1.
Early chcmists carried ... the study ... the structure ... molcculcs
... the methods that were essentially chcmical ... nature. 2. The first
structural formulas ... molcculcs were written ... more than a ccntury
ago. 3 .... the 19th ccntury the valcncc bond was represented ... a line
... the symbols ... two chcmical elements. 4. The nature ... the bond
was completely unknown. 5. ... the discovery ... the electron attempts
were made to develop an electronic theory ... the chcmical bond. 6 ....
1916 Lewis formed ... the basis ... the modem electronic theory ...
valcncc. 7. Early studies contained ... some suggestions that were
discarded later.
132
Ex. 8. Translate the scntcnccs into Russian, paying attention to different
functions of the word regard.
1. At the beginning o f the 19th century, atoms were regarded as the
smallest constituent particles o f matter. 2. Equal volumes o f gases arc
stated to contain the same number of molcculcs at the same temperature
and pressure, regardless of composition. 3. Unfortunately, it’s not always
that the young have great regard to their parents. 4. Particular attention
must be paid to the chaptcr regarding the conditions of synthesis. 5. Many
chcmical facts were described which had only qualitative significance with
regard to molccular structure. 6. The work of Lewis was most important
as regards the development of the electronic theory o f valence.
Ex. 9. Translate the sentences into Russian.
a) 1. These results arc not in agreement with the theory. 2. They did
their work in time. 3. Register the readings and then begin the calculations.
4. Put the burner on the table. 5. The discovery of the electron stimulated
the development of an electronic theory. 6. The information was given to
a numerous audicncc. 7. The rate o f the reaction often depends on the
temperature. 8. The heating resulted in the explosion. 9. Give this
instruction to the students. 10. Give the students this instruction.
11. Lowering the temperature o f a liquid lessens the kinetic energy.
12. Hydrogen-has 3 isotopes. 13. The study of the structure o f molcculcs
has been carried on by scientists sincc early tim es..
b) I. Have you seen him? 2. Did you speak to her yesterday? 3 .1 don’t
know anything about the author of this monograph. Do you know anything
about him? 4. It is a very good apparatus, everybody likes to work with it.
5. The bottle with H2S 0 4 is on that shelf, bring it, please. 6. The temperature
must be 25°C, don’t forget it. 7. They think it necessary to attend all the
seminars. 8. The teacher made it dear that the examination will be difficult
to pass. 9. Avogadro’s principle let one calculate the number of molcculcs
per gram mole of a gas. 10. Chemistry helps one to understand other fields
o f scicncc better. 11. The properties of HC1 make it a useful laboratory
reagent. 12. Consideration of all the facts enabled us to draw a very
important conclusion. 13. They don’t think it possible to work with this
substancc, it is not pure enough.
Ex. 10. Translate the scntcnccs into English.
1. Проблема структуры молекулы давно интересовала химиков.
2. Структурная формула — это формула, которая показывает, как
сгруппированы элементы и как распределяются связи в молекуле.
3. Бутлеров был первым из русских ученых, кто написал структур
ную формулу. 4. В XIX столетии валентную связь представляли ли
нией, которую проводили между символами двух химических эле
ментов. 5. Природа связей тогда была совершенно неизвестна, б. При
изучении структуры молекул было открыто существование изомерии.
133
7. Изомеры — это соединения, которые имеют одну и ту же молеку
лярную формулу, но разные структуры.
Ex. 11. Answer (he following questions:
1. Whal methods were used in the first investigations of the structure of
molcculcs? 2. What do you know about isomers? 3. Who formulated the
theory of valcncc? 4. What is particularly interesting as regards the valcncc
bonds of the carbon atom? 5. In what way was the valcncc bond represented?
6. How did the discovery of the clcctron affcct the development of an
electronic theory? 7. What do you know about the work of Lewis?
Достарыңызбен бөлісу: |


text:
structures; a discussion of valcncc and the
chcmical bond now must take
into account this information as well as the facts of chcmistry.
The rcfinmcnt of the electronic theory of valcncc into its present
form has been ducf almost entirely to the development of the theory of
quantum mechanics, which has not only provided a method for the
calculation of the properties of simple molcculcs, leading to the complete
elucidation of the phenomena involved in the formulation of a covalcnt
bond between two atoms and dispersing the veil of mystery that has
shrouded the bond during the dccadcs since its existence was first
assumed, but has also introduced into chcmical theory a new conccpt,
that o f resonance, which, if not entirely unanticipated in its applications
to chcmistry, nevertheless, has not before been clcarly rccognizcd and
understood.
Упр. 3. Перелайте основное содержание текста в несколькнх пред
ложениях.
Упр. 4. Составьте план текста.
Упр. 5. Прочтите предложения н скажите, соответствуют ли онн со
держанию текста. Если нет, исправьте их.
1. Structural chcmistry hasn’t changed since the 19th ccntury. 2. The
pictures of molcculcs presented by modem chcmistry and classical
structural chcmistry arc not the same. 3. Electronic structures arc
investigated only by chcmical methods. 4. The development o f the theory
o f quantum mechanics affcctcd the refinement of the electronic theory.
5. A conccpt of rcsonancc was introduced in terms o f the theory of
quantum mechanics. 6. Application o f quantum mechanics enabled
scientists to develop a method for the calculation of the properties o f
simple molcculcs.
Упр. б. Найдите в тексте описание различий между современной
•' структурной химией и классической и переведите эти предложения на
русский язык.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу:


title: Scction III - Санкт-петербургского государственного университета высшее профессиональное образование т. А. Степанова, И. Ю. Ступина

text:
Ex. 2. Translate (he
sentences
into English.
1.
Я выполнил эту работу под руководством профессора N. 2. Сту
денческое научное общество работает под руководством доктора N.
3. Группа, которой руководит доктор N, недавно опубликовала очень
интересную статью о своих последних исследованиях. 4. Под чьим
руководством вы проходите практику? 5. Мы занимаемся в лаборато
рии качественного анализа под руководством N. б. Моя подруга вы
полняет свою курсовую работу под руководством N, ей очень нра
вится работать с ним. 7. Я не знаю, под чьим руководством мы будем
работать в следующем учебном году.
Ex. 3. M ak e u p s h o rt dialogues ac co rd in g to th e m odel.
Model'. —
A question.
—
An answer. (+, -)
—
A request.
Example: — Are you going to the dean's office today?
— 1 think so.
— Could you give my application to the secretary?
Ex. 4. G ive d etailed answ ers to th e follow ing questions:
1. What can you say about the early studies conccming the structure of
molecules? 2. What important discoveries were made in the coursc of structural
investigations? 3. In what way was the valcncc bond understood in the 19th
ccntury? 4. What investigations laid the foundation of the modem electronic
theory? 5. What methods were used to study the structure of molcculcs?
Ex. 5. D iscuss th e follow ing topics:
1. The Contribution of the Great Scientists of the Nineteenth Ccntury
to the Structural Theory.
2. The Methods Used in Structural Investigations.
3. The Refinement o f the Electronic Theory of Valence.
W H A T IS IT ?
The combining power of an atom, equal to the number of hydrogen
atoms which an atom will combine with or replace.
Достарыңызбен бөлісу: