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[Assistant] So in my, in my work over the last 10 years, uh, studying and teaching, uh, about success, one of the most interesting discoveries that I've made, uh, is that


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[Assistant] A great number of the traditional How to Succeed books.


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[Assistant] Although they weren't based on science, turn out to be validated by modern social science.


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[Assistant] Uhm, the, uhm, in the history, America has been, you know, culture preoccupied with success. Uh, the first magazine called Success Magazine was published in the late 1800s and, uh, there are all kinds of, uh, people who've written wonderful books in the 20s and 30s that are still sold today.


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[Assistant] A couple of them, How to Win Friends and Influence People by Dale Carnegie, uh, written in the 1930s, really underlies the


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[Assistant] Uh, but very effective at communicating how to do that. Uh, another classic book in the success literature is a book by a guy named Napoleon Hill called Think and Grow Rich.


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[Assistant] A very provocative title. Uh, but what it's really about is visualization, uh, believing in yourself, uh, what has come to be called mind power as a theory of success.


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[Assistant] Uh, it turns out that modern cognitive psychology, uh, uh, work of people like Carol Dweck who's a psychologist at Stanford has shown that believing in yourself in a certain way, uh, she calls it the growth mindset, uh, absolutely a reliable social science finding about, uh, how


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[Assistant] Uh, how to, uh, amplify your success in life. And, uh, most sports psychology these days, uh, if you look at an Olympics where the athletes are getting ready to go down a hill to, uh, go on a slalom for skiing,


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[Assistant] You'll watch them, they'll be at the top of the hill, they'll have their eyes closed, they'll be weaving back and forth.


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[Assistant] Uh, and they're going through the course in their mind imagining each turn.


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[Assistant] And that's exactly what Napoleon Hill was talking about, uh, when he talked about using the mind and the power of the mind, uh, to visualize the future for yourself. So, uhm, it's a, it's an interesting, uh, fact that the basic how to succeed books turn out to be much more right than you would have expected.


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[Assistant] I've made plenty of money during my life. But I want to do good deeds as well.


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[Assistant] Last night, I checked to see how many Monks I've fed.


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[Assistant] I need to feed only four more in order to fulfill my vow.


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[Assistant] You are special guests! I can't let you leave!


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[Assistant] Residence of the River Turtle. I wonder if the demon is in here.


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[Assistant] Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course app. Supplemental content is now available for these courses.


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[Assistant] So I grew up in a house wrapped around a 300-year-old oak tree. And maybe that's where my fascination with how we adapt to our ever-changing physical environment started. As a kid, I learned to live in constant balance with nature, as it was, quite literally, part of our home.


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[Assistant] And in autumn, we spent hours raking the leaves that buried our house under a golden layer of fallen foliage. Going through my childhood art box shows how intimately the natural world was a part of my life.


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[Assistant] I felt like we lived with it. Didn't all homes sit perched in trees? Or, even better from a drawing that my sister did, weren't all homes basically trees? I grew up with a unique perspective on how impermanent and alive the Earth is, and how constant change, even on geologic timescales, influences our daily lives. The Earth is dynamic.


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[Assistant] Geography is all about appreciating the big picture to reveal the geographic patterns and processes that create Earth's environments and support all living things. So in the big, big picture, about 13.7 billion years ago, the universe began.


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[Assistant] It spun faster and faster and flattened into a disk. Almost all of the nebula's material was sucked into the center, forming the Sun. But a tiny fraction of a percentage spun out.


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[Assistant] It takes the Earth just under 24 hours, or one day, to spin once on its axis. At the equator, the Earth is actually spinning at about 1600 kilometers per hour. Which, to my brain at least, basically sounds like very fast. But to really get a feel for what's happening, let's use a reference point. A cheetah. One of the fastest animals on Earth.


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[Assistant] A cheetah can put on a burst of speed of up to 120 kilometers per hour to bring down that impala it's chasing. No, not the antelope. They could catch those for sure, but I'm talking the car. On a freeway.


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[Assistant] And in either pole, it's the speed of a cheetah napping. So every day, while we're brushing our teeth, or standing in line for bananas, or even sleeping, we're moving faster than a cheetah ever dreamed possible. Well, as long as you don't live near the north or south poles. Everything in person on Earth, including the atmosphere, is rotating with us, which is why we don't recognize that we're spinning.


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[Assistant] We don't have any nearby moving objects we can compare Earth's movement to. While stuck on the surface, we can get some limited help from the main object in our sky, the Sun.


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[Assistant] That gives the impression of the Sun rising in the East, moving across the sky as it climbs, and then setting in the West. And then if we look at the Earth from a distance, like astronauts on the Moon, we'd actually be able to see the Earth rotating, because we wouldn't be rotating with it anymore. In fact, we'd even be able to see the gradual movement of the circle of illumination.


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[Assistant] Which is the dividing line that separates the half of Earth that's currently receiving light and solar energy from the other half that's in total darkness. Though we'd have to watch pretty carefully to notice the Earth doesn't spin perfectly.


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[Assistant] Cycles through several stars over time. Procession is one of the Milankovitch cycles, named after the mathematician who deduced them in the 1940s. Milankovitch cycles influence Earth's climate by changing how much solar energy reaches the Earth. But in 2000, the Wobble took an unexpected and relatively rapid turn east.


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[Assistant] So with the help of the GRACE satellites launched by NASA and the German Aerospace Center to record data on anomalies in Earth's gravity fields,


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[Assistant] Coefficients in the equations that best describe the Earth's wobbling depend on latitude, and the coefficients are biggest near 45 degrees north or south latitude.


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[Assistant] This means that the distance between the Earth and the Sun varies a bit throughout the year. Specifically, the Earth is nearest the Sun, or at perihelion, in January. And the Earth is almost 5 million kilometers farther away from the Sun, at aphelion, in early July. Our varying distance from the Sun isn't really linked to the daily weather here on Earth.


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[Assistant] We'd only see big changes if we were to jump into the orbit of, like, Mercury or Saturn. All the planets in our solar system rotate and revolve around the Sun on elliptical orbits, though on dramatically different timeframes. Because of how the solar system formed from that swirling disk we talked about,


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[Assistant] Which probably happened after some other space object knocked into it billions of years ago. All of these movements, along with the shape of the Earth, influence the amount of sunshine each part of the planet receives, which sets in motion the processes for those windstorms and ocean currents and even weather.


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[Assistant] All of which influence where we grow certain foods and what we need to build shelter. In geography, to be more specific when we're talking about the movement of energy, we call sunshine insolation, which stands for incoming solar radiation.


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[Assistant] It's what drives the different Earth systems, like we talked about last episode. Because the Earth is a slightly pudgy sphere, insulation doesn't end up being equal everywhere.


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[Assistant] Definitely not disaster. More like the recipe for life on Earth. How much sunlight we receive is responsible for everything from how much food we're able to grow to how much water moves around the planet. And whether we have to wear a heavy coat when we go outside.


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[Assistant] In other words, how the Earth moves changes the seasons. The best way to understand the progression of seasons is by following the Earth around its orbit and looking at the insulation. On December 21st, or the December solstice, the south pole is tilted toward the Sun. Everything south of 66.5 degrees south latitude in the Antarctic Circle receives 24 hours of daylight.


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[Assistant] At noon, the sun shines directly over the Tropic of Cancer, the latitude line marking 23.5 degrees north. The Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn mark the boundaries on the Earth where the sun can shine directly overhead.


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[Assistant] If the Earth didn't rotate, half the planet would be an ice dungeon, and half would be on fire.


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[Assistant] If the Earth didn't revolve, the length of a day would remain fixed yet drastically unequal around the world. Our life decisions are influenced greatly by the motion of the Earth. It guides where we decide to live, what food we eat, or even what weather we experience, which we'll start talking about more next week.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Geography, which was made with the help of all these nice people.


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[Assistant] Tell me something, Master, said Wukong. Are you perfect? The monk gave Wukong a confused look.


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[Assistant] Nothing on earth or in heaven is perfect, said Wukong. So why should the true scriptures be any different?


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[Assistant] They'll teach the people of the east how to be good and avoid suffering.


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[Assistant] They will also teach the people that nothing needs to be perfect.


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[Assistant] What is your request? I need a very powerful weapon to defeat the bear monster. He's captured Tripitaka. Ah, I see. I have just the thing to render him harmless. This calabash filled with glue. With this, you will subdue the monster. Take it with my blessing. Goddess, thank you!


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[Assistant] Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course app. Supplemental content is now available for these courses.


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[Assistant] Like a cell membrane, the atmosphere filters what's allowed in and out, like different wavelengths of light. Thomas marveled at how photographs like the famous Earthrise showed the sterile surface of the Moon with the exuberant Earth rising in the background.


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[Assistant] We notice it when bad weather inconveniences us, or appreciate it when enjoying the outdoors. But it's been 5 billion years in the making, and it's how we and every other cell of life are able to survive. I'm Alizé Carrère, and this is Crash Course Geography.


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[Assistant] Tasteless, colorless, formless, and blend together so well that they tend to act like a single gas. The recipe close to Earth's surface is 99% nitrogen and oxygen, slightly less than 1% argon, and a tiny percent of volume comes from minor gases, like carbon dioxide.


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[Assistant] Each layer has a different starting temperature that decreases or increases as we move towards outer space. Temperature even affects the thickness of the layers, the layer closest to the Earth where all the weather and most of the air molecules exist, the troposphere.


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[Assistant] So in winter or near the poles, the troposphere is thinnest, and it's thickest where the air molecules spread out, like in warm places at the equator. When we move to the stratosphere, the next layer,


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[Assistant] Compared to that, the atmosphere seems like the peel of an orange. This thin layer of gas is so critical for life to exist, which is why it's so important to talk about early on in our journey into physical geography. Without the atmosphere, none of the processes we'll study in the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere would function.


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[Assistant] Energy from the Sun is constantly passing through the different layers of the atmosphere's waves, landing on and being absorbed into the Earth's surface to provide the heat and warmth for life. Really, that energy is electromagnetic radiation, or different wavelengths of energy that travel away from the surface of an object.


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[Assistant] All objects, like the Sun, the Earth, our skin, are constantly emitting waves of electromagnetic radiation. Very hot and high energy objects, like the Sun, emit vast amounts of energy as short wavelengths, or solar radiation, in the form of light.


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[Assistant] Cooler objects, like the Earth, emit much longer heat waves, or terrestrial radiation. Since there's constant sunlight passing through the atmosphere, we might expect temperatures to keep increasing, like when you're sitting under a blanket and you get so hot that you want to throw it off.


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[Assistant] Fortunately, the Earth doesn't get swelteringly hot because the Earth and the atmosphere naturally balance the short wave solar energy that arrives with the long wave energy sent back to space.


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[Assistant] This is the atmospheric energy budget, which is achieved with three types of energy transfers. The first type of energy transfer is that radiation we've been talking about, which is more generally the transfer of energy through waves, like when we warm our hands over a campfire.


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[Assistant] The atmosphere protects the Earth by filtering sunlight, so there are quite a few obstacles to make it through. If our sunbeam has 100 units of radiant energy, most of those units will be intercepted before we make it to the surface.


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[Assistant] And in the troposphere, water vapor in the clouds is the enemy. Overall, 19 units of radiant energy from our sunbeam are intercepted by absorption. Other particles in the air are pesky too. Dust, smoke, and volcanic emissions scatter radiation and change the direction of the light's movement without altering its wavelength.


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[Assistant] Like a mirror bouncing the energy back into space. And even when we make it to the surface, our sunbeam isn't safe. The ground can reflect shortwave radiant energy too. Snow and ice have higher albedos and reflect most of the solar energy that hits them.


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[Assistant] 47 units or so of radiant energy gets through to the ground as a combination of direct radiation that doesn't get absorbed, scattered, or reflected, and diffuse radiation that got scattered briefly but still makes it through the atmosphere. As my personal hero David Attenborough might say,


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[Assistant] That 47% is just enough for life on our planet. Any more and the surface might be too hot for life, like Mercury. Any less and it would be too cold for life as we know it. After being absorbed into the surface, incoming radiation is eventually re-radiated by the Earth as terrestrial radiation.


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[Assistant] Here, the two other types of heat transfer have a role in moving heat energy away from Earth's surface to the atmosphere and out into space.


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[Assistant] Heat is carried upwards from the Earth in convection currents. For example, insulation heats water from the Earth's surface, which evaporates, becomes water vapor, and condenses into clouds in the troposphere. As the water vapor condenses and changes from a gas to a liquid, the energy that gets released heats up nearby air molecules. This is like when water is boiled.


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[Assistant] So the small amount of heat transferred through conduction ends up being carried further upwards by convection. So the solar radiation coming in equals the terrestrial radiation plus convection plus conduction coming out of Earth.


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[Assistant] These greenhouse gases do the same thing in our atmosphere. Greenhouse gases get a lot of negative attention, but without the natural greenhouse effect, Earth's surface would be too cold for human life. But we're running into problems because human activities, like burning fossil fuels and massive deforestation,


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[Assistant] ...have increased the concentrations of greenhouse gases, so more heat energy stays in the atmosphere. This produces a warming trend, which upsets the ecological systems of Earth.


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[Assistant] When the atmosphere energy systems become unbalanced, there's a cascading effect on other physical and biological processes, from sea levels rising to changing distributions of plants and animals. Where we are in the globe plays a big role in how much energy is trapped by the greenhouse effect or allowed to escape.


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[Assistant] In our previous episode, we learned every location on Earth doesn't get the same amount of solar energy because of how the Earth tilts and moves.


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[Assistant] The atmosphere ends up emphasizing this imbalance. For example, at the equator when the Sun is overhead, the incoming radiation only has to get through the vertical thickness of the atmosphere, and a fairly large amount does get through. But at high latitudes, the insulation doesn't hit head-on and has more atmosphere to make it through.


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[Assistant] So there's more opportunity for scattering and reflection. In theory, if the vertical atmospheric energy budget was all we had, tropical areas would actually get warmer, and the Arctic and Antarctic even colder.


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[Assistant] But this doesn't happen. Instead, large horizontal circulation systems, like ocean currents and wind systems,


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[Assistant] Move the excess heat the Earth receives at low latitudes to the poles. Soon we'll see how this energy transfer from the equator to the poles is one of the fundamental driving forces behind the general circulation of the atmosphere around the globe. In the next several episodes, we'll explore how the atmosphere and its energy systems are the basic ingredients for weather and climate.


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[Assistant] Like how the atmosphere ultimately makes it possible for rice to grow in hot and wet places like Vietnam.


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[Assistant] Or why in cold, snowy places like Siberia, houses have steeply pitched roofs. So much of how humans interact with our environment is shaped by how energy, heat, and water move through the atmosphere.


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[Assistant] Far from being a boring blanket of air, the atmosphere is an intelligent, sophisticated shield that performs complex functions to make life viable on our planet.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Geography, which was made with the help of all these nice people.


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[Assistant] If you want to help keep Crash Course free for everyone, forever, you can join our community on Patreon.


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[Assistant] I like the colour very much. It's a lovely dress, but it's too small for me. What about this one? It's a lovely dress. It's very smart. Short skirts are in fashion now. Would you like to try it? Alright.


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[Assistant] I'm afraid this green dress is too small for me as well. It's smaller than the blue one. I don't like the colour either. It doesn't suit me at all. I think the blue dress is prettier. Could you show me another blue dress? I want a dress like that one, but it must be my size. I'm afraid I haven't got a larger dress.


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[Assistant] Before there were weather satellites and sophisticated forecasting technology, clouds were the best way to predict what weather was coming.


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[Assistant] Clouds high up in the sky or no clouds at all meant fine weather, but clouds moving low in the sky or dark clouds meant rain was on its way. Common sayings even sprung up from our cloud observations, like red sky in the morning, sailors warning, red sky at night, sailors delight.


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[Assistant] And there are many more across time in different cultures. Today, geographers and meteorologists still rely on clouds to forecast the weather, by studying how and why they form.


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[Assistant] Clouds give us important information on the temperature and amount of moisture in the atmosphere, which can help us predict weather, from cloudless summer afternoons to overcast winter mornings. More than that, a map of the world's clouds tells us about today's energy flows and weather patterns.


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[Assistant] Clouds are often described with dramatic words like ethereal or ominous. They seem alive, born from the atmosphere, appearing as mysterious objects like UFOs. But clouds are also useful atmospheric data. Clouds are basically big water buckets floating in the atmosphere.


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[Assistant] For example, we often see a villainous type of cloud hanging over cities called smog.


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[Assistant] A London physician first coined the word smog in 1900 to describe the combination of smoke and fog, the layer of cloud on the ground, that cast a pall over the city. Smog is pollution that harms our lungs, irritates our eyes and throat, and even corrodes structures over long periods of time.


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[Assistant] Let's go to the Thought Bubble to meet them. As modern storm chasers, we're ready to drive for hours to document unique cloud formations and send data back to local meteorologists.


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[Assistant] But they're even better at trapping long-wave radiation trying to move back out to space, insulating and warming the Earth's atmosphere as part of the natural greenhouse effect. Miles down the road, the sky is filled with dull, gray, flat, horizontal layers of low-level clouds below 2000 meters.


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[Assistant] Because they can be so thick and reach so far high up into the atmosphere, they generally reflect as much energy away from the Earth as they absorb to warm the Earth. So they're basically neutral in terms of warming the atmosphere. If we're lucky driving through this hot afternoon, we'll see the bright lumpy cumulus clouds keep growing higher and thicker.


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[Assistant] Cumulonimbus clouds are towering rain clouds which showcase a powerhouse of energy exploding as big storms. Thanks Thought Bubble!


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[Assistant] And cloud names actually describe this. So just like people can be complex, we could have, say, lumpy cumulus clouds growing in the middle above 2,000 meters but below 6,000 meters at the alto level.


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[Assistant] These are called alto cumulus, or we could have horizontal stratus clouds way high above 6000 meters, forming icy cirrostratus layers. Cirrus, or the prefix zero, means high level, alto refers to the mid-level, and low-level clouds are just plain stratus or cumulus.


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[Assistant] Maybe with a nimbus cacton if it's raining. But no matter where or what they are, clouds naturally cool and heat the lower atmosphere. Though how much depends on the altitude, cloud type, amount of cloud cover, and thickness. Basically, if we imagine clouds as floating water buckets, each type holds different amounts of water.


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[Assistant] The water vapor stores this extra energy as latent heat of evaporation. For a gram of liquid water to turn into water vapor, it absorbs 585 calories, which for us would be like eating five large-ish bananas. This is why when sweat evaporates from our bodies, it usually has a cooling effect.


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[Assistant] In general, the air at high latitudes like the Arctic and the Antarctic is naturally colder because of less sunlight. So it has much less water vapor and is less humid. Places like the Caribbean or other tropical and equatorial regions of Earth have hotter air with more water vapor and more humidity. Because water vapor can store energy as latent heat of evaporation, humidity is linked to how much energy is available in the atmosphere to produce weather.


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[Assistant] I know a thing or two about that. In weather reports on the news when they talk about a warm front moving in and 55% humidity outside, back to you, Barbara. They're actually talking about relative humidity.


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[Assistant] Relative humidity is a comparison between the actual amount of water vapor in the air and how much could be in the air. When air at a certain temperature is at 100% relative humidity, it contains the maximum amount of water vapor possible.


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[Assistant] So it's saturated, like a sponge full of water that can't soak up anymore unless you squeeze it out. Except squeezing water out of the atmosphere is rain. Any kind of humidity strongly depends on the air temperature and how much moisture is available.


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[Assistant] So in hotter areas, the air can hold more water. Of course, just because warm air can hold more water doesn't mean that there's always water vapor around. Inland regions, like the central Sahara Desert, are very dry because they're far from the oceans and there's not a lot of liquid water available to be evaporated. But let's say we're staying in a cabin by a lake, so there's plenty of liquid water around.


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[Assistant] The same relative humidity can feel very different depending on the air temperature. On a hot day, 70% relative humidity can feel heavy, sticky, and uncomfortable, almost like standing in a cloud.


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[Assistant] Because the air can hold more total water, 70% of saturation is a lot of vapor. Plus, when we're hot, we sweat, and when there's a ton of moisture already in the air, our sweat can't evaporate as easily, so we're stuck feeling damp. On a cold day, 70% relative humidity is much more comfortable because the colder air can hold less water, so 70% of saturation isn't as much water vapor.


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[Assistant] Which is really just a cloud on the ground. So at the dew point, our metaphorical sponge would be full, and a cloud can be born. If we compare dry regions such as the Sahara Desert to a humid region such as Mississippi,


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[Assistant] Like the outside of a cold soda can. So there's one key ingredient of clouds that we haven't mentioned yet. Condensation nuclei.


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[Assistant] These are microscopic particles like sea salt spray, dust, smoke, pollen, and volcanic material in the atmosphere that provide a surface for condensation to take place. As trillions of our water molecules cling to specks of dust and form billions of tiny liquid water droplets, and sometimes freeze into ice crystals after that, we get a cloud.


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[Assistant] So I guess clouds are more like a big bucket of dusty water. The condensation phase of the hydrological cycle releases all the stored up energy in that water vapor.


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[Assistant] For every gram of water, 585 calories, or five large-ish bananas, are freed as the latent heat of condensation. So if a small, puffy cumulus cloud holds 500 to 1000 tons of moisture droplets, that's a tremendous amount of energy being released that can power a storm. Every cloud is really the result of cooling.


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[Assistant] Each cloud is one of a kind, just like even though we can generalize about how people are born and grow up, there are so many intricacies that make a person who they are. Even whether our cloud will be a small, puffy cumulus cloud or an ominous cumulonimbus cloud depends on so many factors.


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[Assistant] Like the specific temperature and humidity of the initial air, and changing atmospheric conditions as our evaporated water molecules rise. And with 50% of the Earth covered by clouds at any given moment, there are so many possible shapes and sizes, it's no wonder clouds are such an ever-changing and beautiful aspect of our environment. All of these elements come together to deeply affect the Earth, and us humans too.


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[Assistant] We've paid attention to clouds for thousands of years, not just because of their beauty, but because they absorb, scatter, and reflect rays from the sun, influence the global energy budget, and circulate the key ingredient for life around the globe. But more on that and raindrops next time.


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[Assistant] You were deceived by an illusion. Now you can see it's a witch's fortress.


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[Assistant] I don't believe it! One-Horned Buffalo stole our weapons again!


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[Assistant] I need to ask Buddha for help. Wukong told the guard. It's about the Tang monk's journey.


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[Assistant] Lousy doesn't like me much. Thought the monkey. He won't be happy to see me.


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[Assistant] The Tang Monk was captured by a demon called One-Horned Buffalo.


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[Assistant] Well, he did. Said Wukong, getting annoyed. And he's planning to eat the Tang Monk! Your buffalo also has a metal ring.


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[Assistant] I don't think we should. Master, let's walk along the banks. Maybe we'll find help. Let's go, everyone.


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[Assistant] I'll go and test the ice and see if it's safe for us to cross. That'd solve our problem. Be careful monkey.


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[Assistant] So, what happened down there? We really tried. The catfish was too fierce for us. But we can't just leave the master. Our only chance will be to trick the fish somehow. But for the life of me, I can't think of a way. We could really use some help.


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[Assistant] Where's Guan Yin? Ask the monkey. She's making a basket.


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[Assistant] I'm not an evil demon anymore. And I have you to thank for that.


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[Assistant] You and I have a lot in common. We were both evil, causing all sorts of problems. Now we're both Buddhists.


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[Assistant] That's a nice basket, Bodhisattva. But what is it for?


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[Assistant] I guess you need to try again, Bodasatva. That's not the demon.


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[Assistant] That means it's been on Earth for a few years!


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[Assistant] But we can stay only one more night to rest. In the morning we must leave. We still have far to travel.


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[Assistant] True shape? Well if he isn't really a giant then what is he?


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[Assistant] Huh? You can't tell me this is the master.


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[Assistant] I'm afraid it's true. Well I'm not so sure I want to change him back. He'll probably just banish me again.


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[Assistant] Welcome pilgrims. I'm glad you have come. I have something to show you. Huh?


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[Assistant] Maybe one of us can sneak into the cave and steal that metal ring.


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[Assistant] I'm sorry, what were we talking about? The potato has many claims to fame around the world, from the devastating Irish potato famine of the 1840s to the salty magnificence of french fries.


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[Assistant] But this humble tuber originated neither in Ireland nor France. It was domesticated, the process of adapting plants and animals for human use, about 7,000 to 9,000 years ago near Lake Titicaca, now on the border of Bolivia and Peru in the central Andean highlands where it's known as Mama Jatha.


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[Assistant] It's the cornerstone of food security for millions of people. Like in 2019 alone, we produced 371 million tons of potatoes worldwide. Which is like 96 pounds of potatoes per person. Today, the top producers of potatoes are China, India, Ukraine, Russia, and the US. But potatoes are still integral to their South American homeland.


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[Assistant] Weather and climate are not the same thing. Weather is what's going on in the atmosphere at any given time and place. Today it's dry and sunny, but tomorrow it may be cloudy and rainy.


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[Assistant] Just like my mood can change if I eat fresh hot french fries or cold soggy ones, weather happens in the short term and is difficult to predict. But climate is a region's average weather over many years, which is much more predictable and based on trends. So we don't know what the weather will be like in New York City on January 20th, 2025.


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[Assistant] But we do know that it's usually chilly because New York City has a cold winter climate. It's like what former president of the American Meteorological Society, Dr. J. Marshall Shepard, famously probably said, weather is your mood, climate is your personality.


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[Assistant] And my personality is a proud potato fan, even though we've all had disappointing fries before. Just like there are endless human personalities based on our DNA and how we grow up.


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[Assistant] All the possible combinations of temperature, precipitation, wind, and ocean currents give us a variety of global climates.


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[Assistant] And all of those processes begin with patterns of insulation, or incoming solar radiation, across the globe.


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[Assistant] For example, mountains have complex climate patterns, or the somewhat predictable variation in climate. These mountain climate patterns come from the way insulation and temperature change as we go higher in elevation, or the height of a point on Earth's surface above a reference, like sea level.


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[Assistant] In fact, no matter where we are on Earth, for every 1000 meters we go up in elevation, the air temperature decreases by 6.5 degrees Celsius on average, which is the normal lapse rate.


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[Assistant] If you've ever hiked or driven up from the base of a mountain, you've probably felt the air get chilly or brought extra layers to handle the cold temperatures. The normal lapse rate has big implications for Latin America's physical geography, especially near the equator. As we climb the Andes Mountains from sea level, we can define our major climate zones based on elevation that have dramatic changes in plant life.


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[Assistant] At the foot of the mountain is Tierra Caliente, or Hot Country, a low land zone of broadleaf evergreen tropical rainforest. The warmth and humidity here allow extensive tall trees and a dense year-round leaf canopy to develop. At about 900 meters, we begin to see mild temperate conditions and deciduous forests in the Tierra Templada. Then, as we continue our climb,


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[Assistant] This is the zone of perpetual snow that makes up the snow caps on mountains. The final zone has very little plant or animal life.


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[Assistant] Parts of Latin America use this terminology to describe mountain climate patterns, but different vertical zones and geographic terms exist around the world.


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[Assistant] Each mountain also has unique attributes, like its slope or total elevation.


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[Assistant] The process of paying attention to geographic conditions, like mountain climate patterns, and using them to answer questions like why were potatoes domesticated in the Andes Mountains and not anywhere else,


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[Assistant] is called geoliteracy. A geoliterate person understands that the world works as a set of physical, biological, and social systems, and that processes within these systems connect places to each other.


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[Assistant] We can use these observations to interact with our environment and create particular outcomes. And even though geoliteracy might be a modern term, engaging with the world with a geoliterate lens is something people have been doing for thousands of years. Like 7 to 9 thousand years ago, Andy and Farbers observed how a mountain was made of spaces with different climates and ecological niches, which is where certain plants can thrive but not others.


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[Assistant] And they passed this knowledge down over generations, using their geographical understanding to select plots of land. Even today, farmers all over the world need to think through all the ingredients for weather and climate to plant crops. And we have all sorts of technology to help them track air pressure, precipitation levels, and more.


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[Assistant] But ancient Andean farmers didn't have these same tools. Let's go to the Thought Bubble. The Andean foothills and mountains are used to grow lots of crops, like tomatoes, beans, and maize.


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[Assistant] But the diversity of potatoes is a source of pride and a cultural symbol of traditional Andean agriculture, food systems, history, community, and identity. Historically, we think one way time was measured here was by how long it took to cook a pot of potatoes. Even today, potato seeds can be gifted to young couples setting up a household.


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[Assistant] And farmers in the high Andes measure land based on the area a family needs to grow their supply of potatoes. Over the years, farmers realized that when they plant their crops could make a difference between a good harvest and a poor one.


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[Assistant] But some years, there's a pooling of warm water along the Peruvian coast, which can bring drought until the ocean currents change again. Without the aid of satellites or an understanding of ocean currents, Andean farmers began to notice that if the stars, especially the Pleiades stars in the Taurus constellation, were hidden by water vapor in the atmosphere and hard to see around the winter solstice in late June,


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[Assistant] It indicated an El Nino year, which is linked to reduced rainfall several months later. So they'd plant their potatoes earlier to take advantage of whatever rain that fell. If they could see the stars clearly, they knew they'd get enough water to plant the potatoes a little later. Basically, Andean farmers were geographers who observed the relationship between clouds in the atmosphere and rainfall patterns later in the season.


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[Assistant] Which in turn helped people survive in the Andes for centuries. Thanks Thought Bubble.


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[Assistant] But those can be hard to see, and something like vegetation growth is much more obvious. In general, natural vegetation starts with a tropical rainforest at the equator, and transitions into ice and snow and sparse vegetation as we get to the poles.


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[Assistant] Divide a classification system in the early 1900s called the Coppen system. It's still widely used today with many improvements by many people and with many terms that reference a type of climate and type of natural vegetation, like the tundra or the rainforest. Specifically, the Coppen system divides the world into six major climate categories.


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[Assistant] Using the visible vegetation as a guide, Coppin came up with precise definitions for each climate region based on average monthly temperature, average monthly precipitation, and total annual rainfall. The first four categories are based on moisture and temperature characteristics, and they're usually labeled with capital letters.


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[Assistant] Like, A represents tropical climates, which are known for having high temperatures and receiving a lot of rain.


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[Assistant] And E represents polar climates, which tend to be cold and dry. Then the last two categories are based on moisture and elevation instead of temperature.


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[Assistant] Like H represents the highland climates in the world's mountainous regions. Like where our original Andean farmers grew potatoes. Then within each of these big categories, there are subcategories marked with additional letters to break climate ups into even more precise groups. So let's use potatoes as our example.


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[Assistant] They thrive in cold weather, so if we look at a cop and climate classification map of South America, it makes sense that they thrive in the Andes. In the west along the Andes, there are bands of H, which means highlands, and BWK, which says the area is arid, desert, and cold.


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[Assistant] Those are some ideal potato growing conditions. If we overlay a full cop and climate classification map with a map of everywhere potatoes are grown, we see that potatoes are really hardy, because there's a lot of overlap with different climates. We know that many species of potato were domesticated by Andean farmers, but we also know that plants are adaptable.


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[Assistant] Those farmers used their geo-literacy to grow more plentiful crops, but also to begin breeding plants to tolerate different temperatures. The Andean empires flourished because of food security from crops like potatoes. And thanks to global trade and the hardiness of potato species,


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[Assistant] Today, potatoes are grown in over 100 countries, from India in the tropics to Finland close to the Arctic Circle. From hot and cold regions to dry and wet regions, and all climate combinations in between.


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[Assistant] Humans have adapted to the natural environments around us and used our growing geoliteracy to thrive.


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[Assistant] But increasingly, the Earth's environments are also impacted by our choices. In future episodes, we'll look at how and why maps of global climates, vegetation, soils, and ecosystems are changing.


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[Assistant] And our response to those changes. And we'll hit the ground running in the next episode when we discuss how these themes relate to climate change. Many maps and borders represent modern geopolitical divisions that have often been decided without the consultation, permission, or recognition of the land's original inhabitants.


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[Assistant] Many geographical place names also don't reflect the Indigenous or Aboriginal peoples' languages.


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[Assistant] So we at Crash Course want to acknowledge these people's traditional and ongoing relationship with that land and all the physical and human geographical elements of it. We encourage you to learn more about the history of the place you call home through resources like nativeland.ca and by engaging with your local indigenous and aboriginal nations through the websites and resources they provide.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Geography, which is filmed at the Team Sandoval Pierce Studio and was made with the help of all these nice people.


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[Assistant] If you want to help keep Crash Course free for everyone, forever, you can join our community on Patreon.


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[Assistant] Hey kids, now we're going to write the letter H, as in hen. Huh, huh, hen.


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[Assistant] You'll need a practice sheet and a pencil.


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[Assistant] First, we'll write the capital H. That's the big H. Start at the top and make a line down.


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[Assistant] Then, go back to the top and make another line down.


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[Assistant] Next, go to the middle and make a line across.


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[Assistant] Start at the top and make a line down.


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[Assistant] Next time, we'll write the letter I. Don't forget to subscribe to our YouTube channel.


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[Assistant] Wukong has made fake versions of me, Bajie, and the Tang Monk. He's planning to make the journey without us.


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[Assistant] I just saw him on the fruit and flower mountain. I don't know how he got here before me.


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[Assistant] Go to Mount Podolatka. Guan Yin will be able to tell who is who. I will return to the Tang Monk to tell him what's going on.


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[Assistant] You're evil, Wukong. You can't go to the Western Paradise with me. Now leave before I recite the Tidehead Band spell.


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[Assistant] Or down the block to the bagel place because bagels are a hugely important food group and I could eat them for every meal. But I don't have to grow the ingredients myself, which is at least in part thanks to floods. Let me back up about 15,000 years and explain.


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[Assistant] When people started moving from hunting and gathering to agriculture, communities sprang up along rivers.


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[Assistant] Rivers provided water and even food like fish. But more important was the land alongside the river that holds water when a river floods, or overflows its channel. The floodplain. Alongside rivers, agriculture bloomed in areas like the Fertile Crescent, in what we now know as the Middle East and North Africa region.


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[Assistant] Regular floods along the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates rivers replenish the soil with nutrients. Which makes them perfect for growing some of the first wheat varieties, along with dozens of other foods cultivated for the first time thousands of years ago.


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[Assistant] Floodplains led to a food surplus, which eventually meant not everyone had to produce food, which is really important for our communities today. But there's also a price for living on a floodplain.


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[Assistant] We have to contend with seasonal flooding or even catastrophic flooding from dam failures or intense rain during severe storms. So for millennia, humans have tried to strike some sort of balance and understand why floods happen, both in spite of us and because of us. I'm Alizé Carrère, and this is Crash Course Geography.


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[Assistant] Last episode, we explored how a river or a stream, which is a body of water that flows through a channel and uses gravity to move from high elevation to low elevation, shapes a landscape and all the characteristics that make a river a river. Of course, the most essential element of a river is, well, the water.


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[Assistant] Which actually depends on where the stream gets its water. Stream levels can change as overland flow changes, which is water that flows over the Earth's surface from precipitation or snowmelt that doesn't infiltrate, or absorb into the surrounding soil. But actually, much of the base flow, or the average constant level of the stream, doesn't come over land.


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[Assistant] Underground, water makes its way through soil until it reaches an aquifer, river, lake, or ocean.


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[Assistant] A seasonal or ephemeral stream will only have water if there's been enough precipitation.


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[Assistant] But perennial streams usually flow all year and are fed by underground sources. Basically, because of the way groundwater is stored and because it evaporates slower,


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[Assistant] Groundwater flow is more consistent than overland flow, which depends on the sometimes fickle precipitation. But if either of those sources suddenly increases, how much water is in the stream and how fast it's moving can also increase, leading to a flood.


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[Assistant] In fact, messing with these sources are fundamental ways humans can influence the flow of a stream, either accidentally or intentionally. So we have to be somewhat diligent.


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[Assistant] To keep track of river levels, particularly after a storm, we can construct a hydrograph.


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[Assistant] Or a chart that shows how much water leaves a stream or discharges over time. With a hydrograph, we can understand how the stream responds to things like average rainfall and snowmell, or tides and storm surges. And we can see how often those natural processes add a sudden influx of water to the stream, and when that might cause a flood. Take for instance Indonesia, specifically the island of Java.


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[Assistant] Most of the rivers on Java are seasonal because the island has distinct dry and wet seasons and a tropical monsoon climate. We can see from this climograph, which shows the relationship between two climate elements, that the wettest months are January and February, but rain is common from November to April.


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[Assistant] It rains more in the mountains where the headwaters are, so even if there isn't a lot of rain at sea level, the people there can still be impacted. The river then has to handle all that water.


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[Assistant] But if the basin is full of less permeable rock, like pavement, shale, and sandstone, then the extra water has nowhere to go except the river itself. Because Java is mostly made of volcanic rock, which is good at absorbing water,


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[Assistant] We might expect there to be a lot of water infiltration, and we'd be mostly right. But while volcanic rock can be quite porous, Java is very mountainous. So there's a steep drop from the headwaters to the river basin that keeps the water zipping along without absorbing into the rock.


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[Assistant] And the city of Jakarta, the largest city on the island, has a really high population density.


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[Assistant] This tells us that the area around the city probably has a lot of urbanization.


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[Assistant] So there are lots of buildings and less vegetation, and a lot of surfaces that are impervious, or can't absorb fluids, which impacts the ability of the area to absorb extra rainwater.


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[Assistant] And like we saw before, Java has a lot of rainwater. So the climate and geology of the drainage basin, along with human involvement, can set the scene for major flooding. In particular, Jakarta has at least three major factors that cause serious flooding almost annually.


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[Assistant] First, Jakarta is a delta region, which is an area at the mouth of a river where sediments are deposited.


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[Assistant] The full volume of water from the drainage basin flows through the delta. And in Jakarta's case, not just one river and river channel ends here, but 13 major rivers flow through Jakarta to the Java Sea. Secondly, as sea levels rise, the base levels of all those rivers move inland.


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[Assistant] Like we talked about last time, that shifts the way the river flows in its channel, and can make it tricky to predict where water will flow in a flood situation. Finally, Jakarta gets most of its drinking water from underground water found in aquifers. As that water is removed, the river water zipping down from the headwaters is moving too fast to absorb into the floodplain and replenish the aquifer at the same rate.


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[Assistant] And in the floodplain in Delta, intense urbanization with lots of impervious surfaces keeps floodwaters from being absorbed into the surrounding soils. With a monsoon climate, seasonal flooding is nothing new in Java.


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[Assistant] But now there's less groundwater flow and a lot more overland flow, which upsets how the river usually responds to extra water. River systems naturally move water through a region, but when that flow is altered, the water still has to go somewhere.


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[Assistant] Which means less time to tell people to evacuate, and more damage to property. Altering the floodplain itself can also exacerbate these factors. Like, if we modify the river's channel by adding dams, the river's natural course gets disrupted and water can pool in places it doesn't normally, like the lake behind a dam. In larger rivers, especially ones we use to transport a lot of stuff,


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[Assistant] We'll sometimes try to channelize the river, which is when we cut a straight, deep channel to prevent the river from twisting and turning naturally. But without these meanders, the river can't do its erosional work or absorb into the floodplain, which usually slows down the water.


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[Assistant] So the velocity increases, and with nowhere else for the stream's energy to go at times when there's a lot of water in the river, the water will overflow the channel. But urbanization isn't the only factor to blame.


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[Assistant] The agricultural parts of Java also make the watershed more impervious. Historically, Java was covered in rainforests with mangroves on the coast. A well-vegetated landscape like that slows down any precipitation, giving it enough time to be absorbed into the soil.


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[Assistant] Which is key to recharging groundwater stores, like aquifers. But when the vegetation is removed, precipitation can hit the ground fast enough to keep moving until it meets a river rather than infiltrating the soil. It can be particularly devastating when we modify wetlands, which are the parts of the floodplain or delta covered in standing water for at least some of the year.


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[Assistant] They tend to have soils that absorb a lot of water, which slows down the flow. So they naturally filter out impurities and pollutants, like our kidneys do in our bodies. Wetlands are so amazing at storing and filtering water that we sometimes build artificial wetlands to help control flooding or to filter pollution. Like in mining areas, it's common to see yellow or orange water, which is not a good sign.


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[Assistant] This water is acid mine drainage, which is acidic water full of heavy metals like manganese, iron, and aluminum that can pollute the entire watershed. But wetlands are such powerful filters that when acid mine drainage flows through a wetland, the water that comes out tends to be less acidic, or even neutral.


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[Assistant] The suspended metals are naturally filtered out, and we can collect and remove them.


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[Assistant] So we've actually constructed wetlands at the mouths of mines specifically to clean the polluted water coming out. Though, while constructed wetlands can do amazing things towards cleaning up pollution, there are debates about how ethical it is.


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[Assistant] Wetlands like floodplains are ideal building and farming sites.


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[Assistant] Once drained, wetlands have nutrient-rich soils, are usually flat, and are near freshwater supplies. So sometimes developers will swap a wetland, destroying one and building another somewhere else.


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[Assistant] But wetlands aren't interchangeable, and the role of a wetland in a particular stream system often can't be replicated. Getting rid of wetlands means that there's no longer a natural sponge in the stream system that absorbs and slowly releases excess runoff.


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[Assistant] With nowhere for water to go, it will move really fast through the floodplain and into the next body of water, causing, you guessed it, frequent flashy flooding. These spaces have particular flora and fauna too, and those don't necessarily move with the reconstructed wetland.


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[Assistant] As wetlands are paved over, entire ecosystems are lost. So there's a continuous battle between how rivers want to shape the landscape and how we want the landscape to be shaped.


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[Assistant] Rivers have supported us since before we founded our earliest communities. But we're still learning how to coexist. We still start massive watershed construction projects, like channelizing rivers or even moving the whole direction in which rivers flow.


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[Assistant] And while those modifications might help human settlements for a time, rivers and wetlands tend to revert back to their original function with each major flood.


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[Assistant] And those floods get worse the more modified the watershed is. Humans try to bridge this gap by constructing new wetlands or replanting mangroves. As we learn more about the benefits of flood plains and wetlands, we're finding more ways to work with nature instead of against it. So consider getting to know your watershed.


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[Assistant] Understand how it drains, and where additional vegetation might help break up a flashy tendency.


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[Assistant] Many maps and borders represent modern geopolitical divisions that have often been decided without the consultation, permission, or recognition of the land's original inhabitants. Many geographical place names also don't reflect the indigenous or aboriginal peoples' languages.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So we at Crash Course want to acknowledge these people's traditional and ongoing relationship with that land and all the physical and human geographical elements of it. We encourage you to learn about the history of the place you call home through resources like nativeland.ca and by engaging with your local indigenous and aboriginal nations through the websites and resources they provide.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Geography, which is filmed at the Team Sandoval Pierce Studio and was made with the help of all these nice people.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That fan's wind magic is powerful. How did the monkey steal it?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hey kids, now we're going to write the letter T as in turtle. T, t, turtle.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You'll need a practice sheet and a pencil.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] First, we'll write the capital T. That's the big T. Start at the top, and make a line down.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then, go back to the top and make a line across.


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[Assistant] Then, go back to the middle, and make a line across.


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[Assistant] Next time, we'll write the letter U. Don't forget to subscribe to our YouTube channel.


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[Assistant] Mount Sumeru, said Wukong. The Bodhisattva Linji lives there.


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[Assistant] Maybe he can help me deal with the Iron Immortal. He was able to stop the Great King Yellow Wind's wind magic.


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[Assistant] The Bodhisattva Linji gave me a magic stone, said Wukong. Your fan can't blow me away now.


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[Assistant] Tire Town School. Episode 27. Roar!


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[Assistant] Suddenly, Zippy flew by. And he jumped out of the way.


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[Assistant] Zippy skidded fast across the lot. His tires left long dark marks. Smoke filled the air.


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[Assistant] That was cool, Zippy, said the van. I know, said Zippy. Zippy took off again. He stopped far away. His engine rumbled. Watch this, Zippy yelled. Roar! Zippy zoomed back toward everyone. He made a sharp turn. Then he skidded in circles.


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[Assistant] Yes I am, said Zippy. Suddenly, ROAR!


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[Assistant] Tire Town School Episode 26 Skidding


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[Assistant] Cried a Jeep. He zoomed through the construction site.


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[Assistant] He flew through the air. Then he skidded through the dirt.


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[Assistant] The full proper name of this instrument, the violon cello, is a little inaccurate.


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[Assistant] The exact meaning would translate as little violone. In other words, a miniature sized bass viol.


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[Assistant] But actually, there's no direct relationship between the double bass and the cello.


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[Assistant] It's also not related to the viola da gamba, an older instrument of the same basic range.


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[Assistant] The cello owes its existence to the development of the violin, and is firmly a member of that family.


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[Assistant] It shares the same principles of construction, with a somewhat shallower body and a more resonant sounding board than the older style viols. The strings also have greater tension and projection, and are tuned in fifths like the violin and viola.


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[Assistant] This deeper range is responsible for a 180 degree reversal of the instrument. Where the violin and viola are placed under the chin, with the highest strings on the right,


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[Assistant] The cello sits on the floor with the fingerboard positioned in the opposite direction.


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[Assistant] The base of the cello is propped up by an adjustable peg that slides in and out of the tailpiece.


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[Assistant] The body of the instrument rests against the seated player's knees with a scroll near their left shoulder. This makes the process of playing very intimate as the sound resonates across the player's body.


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[Assistant] This reversal of direction means that higher fingering positions move progressively away from the player's eye, instead of closer to it, as on the violin and viola.


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[Assistant] However, the left hand must still cross over the fingerboard to play the lower strings.


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[Assistant] While the cello's construction, just like the violas, relies on a series of acoustical compromises, the strings are at a more ideal length, and the body a much more resonant cavity.


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[Assistant] This makes the tone quality of the cello much richer across all the strings, especially with the lowest C, which is an enormously flexible sonic landscape.


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[Assistant] To begin with, it has power and projection in playing a firm bass note, showing how cello can stand on its own as the fundamental note in an orchestral chord.


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[Assistant] The C string also has a great capacity for lyricism, sharing much of the qualities and range of vocal basso.


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[Assistant] Finally, the C string sounds ferocious when pushed dynamically, gruff and forbidding.


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[Assistant] The G string follows the general pattern of the third string blues we've seen across the whole violin family.


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[Assistant] Somewhat understated in tone, and less capable of projection than its neighbor strings.


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[Assistant] Yet it's still capable of eloquence in a certain gentle dignity and melodic passages, and some degree of power and incisiveness in more forceful playing.


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[Assistant] With a D string, the tone of the cello starts to take flight.


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[Assistant] Here's where the cello changes from a competent bass instrument into a luxurious, practically limitless tenor.


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[Assistant] Some of the greatest orchestral melodies have been composed around the cello's D string.


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[Assistant] This expressiveness reaches its ultimate fulfillment in the top A string, which is often compared in tone quality to the human voice.


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[Assistant] It's much more like the violin's top E string than the viola's top A. There's a soaring quality, with a unique resonance that doesn't have a ceiling on the tone.


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[Assistant] The combination of these uniquely colorful strings adds up to a powerful instrument.


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[Assistant] With a vast solo and chamber repertoire. Not to mention a supremely important role in the orchestra.


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[Assistant] But it's the way in which these tones combine that makes the cello so special, which we'll explore in the next video.


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[Assistant] As we mentioned in the previous tutorial, microorganisms play a vital role in human survival. In fact, life as we know it would be impossible without them. But how does that work exactly? How does our dependence on bacteria begin? Let's start from conception.


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[Assistant] As a human fetus develops, it's protected within the sterile womb of its mother. As soon as it's born, an infant is immediately exposed to microbes from both its mother and the surrounding environment.


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[Assistant] Protective microbes begin to grow first on the infant's skin, then their oropharynx, which is the back of the throat. The gastrointestinal tract is colonized next, followed by other mucosal surfaces.


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[Assistant] These populations of bacteria are called microbial flora, and they perform a wide variety of crucial tasks. They help protect us from infection by virulent microorganisms. They stimulate the immune response.


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[Assistant] As we age, the balance of microbes that are on us and in us are influenced by factors such as what we eat, our overall health, hormonal changes, and personal hygiene.


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[Assistant] Drastic changes in any of those factors can disrupt the intricately balanced ecosystem of microbes, which can in turn make us sick.


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[Assistant] For example, taking antibiotics can wipe out all of the good and bad bacteria in the gut, completely disrupting the equilibrium of microbial populations within.


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[Assistant] Now let's get a bit more specific. When you're exposed to a microorganism, there are three possible outcomes. The first of these is called transient colonization.


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[Assistant] The second is called permanent colonization, and the third outcome is disease.


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[Assistant] The language here can be a little bit tricky, so let's make sure we understand the difference between colonization and disease.


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[Assistant] Microorganisms that colonize humans, whether transiently or permanently, do not interfere with normal bodily functions. They're just present, along for the ride, so to speak.


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[Assistant] However, disease occurs when microorganisms cause damage to a human host. A bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease is called a pathogen.


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[Assistant] Let's explore this in more nuance. For the most part, diseases are not simple. In fact, most organisms do not cause a single well-defined disease. It's far more common for a single bacterial pathogen to cause different types of disease depending on the setting.


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[Assistant] Staphylococcus aureus, for example, can cause food poisoning, pneumonia, or a wound infection.


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[Assistant] In that same vein, some diseases can be caused by a wide range of organisms.


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[Assistant] Interestingly, meningitis, which is an inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites.


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[Assistant] Additionally there are relatively few organisms that can be classified as always being pathogenic.


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[Assistant] Some examples of always pathogenic microorganisms are the rabies virus, plasmodium species, and bacillus anthracis.


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[Assistant] For the most part, microorganisms are only able to cause disease under specific circumstances.


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[Assistant] Let's make another distinction. Disease that arises from exposure to an external source is called an exogenous infection.


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[Assistant] Examples of pathogens in this category include the influenza virus, the bacteria that causes gonorrhea, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, or the bacteria that causes tetanus, Clostridium tetani, all of which we will look at in more depth very soon.


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[Assistant] By contrast, disease that arises from a person's own microbial flora spreading to inappropriate sites in the body is called an endogenous infection.


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[Assistant] There is the virulence, or the degree of pathology of the organism.


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[Assistant] And there is the host's ability to respond to the organism.


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[Assistant] All of these determine whether the complex interaction between a human host and a microorganism will result in a long term symbiotic relationship, a short term colonization, or disease.


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[Assistant] Finally, there are a few terms we should know that describe a microbe's propensity for causing disease.


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[Assistant] A strict pathogen is an organism that is always associated with human disease.


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[Assistant] Examples include mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes, as one might guess, tuberculosis.


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[Assistant] Plasmodium species, which cause malaria, and the rabies virus, which causes rabies.


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[Assistant] But most human infections are caused by opportunistic pathogens, which are typically part of the normal microbial flora.


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[Assistant] These organisms establish disease when they take advantage of an opportunity not normally available, like a weakened immune system, disrupted microbial flora, or breached barrier introduced by a wound.


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[Assistant] Obviously there is a lot more to discuss here, but it helps to learn many of these basics up front before diving into the wide variety of things that can infect us, and how they work.


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[Assistant] To dive a little deeper, let's focus on bacteria first, so that we can talk about how we've come to make sense of them and how we classify them.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching, guys. Subscribe to my channel for more tutorials, support me on patreon so I can keep making content, and as always, feel free to email me at


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[Assistant] Tire Town School, episode 36, Across the Bridge.


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[Assistant] Eddie thought. Then a stronger wind blew.


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[Assistant] Poppy drove onto the bridge. Everyone else followed Poppy.


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[Assistant] Soon everyone was on Eddie's side. Thanks, Eddie, said Poppy.


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[Assistant] Yes, I can make a circle. Can you make an X? Yes, I can make an X. Can you go up? Yes, uh-oh.


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[Assistant] Firefly! It's too fast for us.


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[Assistant] And nut-brown hairs start making their way towards home. But, there was still time for one last game along the way.


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[Assistant] A smile costs nothing, but gives much.


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[Assistant] Be more concerned with your character than with your reputation.


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[Assistant] For your character is what you are, while your reputation is merely what others think you are.


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[Assistant] If you want to change people, why not begin on yourself? That is a lot more profitable and a lot less dangerous.


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[Assistant] Develop success from failures. Discouragement and failure are two of the surest stepping stones to success.


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[Assistant] Criticisms are like homing pigeons. They always return home.


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[Assistant] Listening carefully to a person is the greatest compliment we can give him.


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[Assistant] People sometimes became invalids in order to win sympathy and attention and get a feeling of importance.


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[Assistant] People rarely succeed, unless they have fun in what they are doing.


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[Assistant] Is because they are not trying to impress other birds and horses.


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[Assistant] If you want to gather honey, don't kick over the beehive.


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[Assistant] Personally, I am very fond of strawberries and cream, but I have found that for some strange reason fish prefer worms. So when I went fishing, I didn't think about what I wanted. I thought about what fish wanted.


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[Assistant] Two men looked out from prison bars. One saw the mud. The other saw stars.


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[Assistant] Criticism is dangerous because it wounds a person's pride, hurts his sense of importance, and arouses resentment.


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[Assistant] You can make more friends in two months by becoming interested in other people than you can in two years by trying to get other people interested in you.


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[Assistant] If you want to keep happiness, you have to share it.


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[Assistant] You will never achieve real success unless you like what you're doing.


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[Assistant] Flaming enthusiasm backed up by horse sense and persistence is the quality that most frequently makes for success.


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[Assistant] Every successful person loves the game. The chance to prove his worth. To excel. To win.


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[Assistant] Inaction breeds doubt and fear. Action breeds confidence and courage. If you want to conquer fear, do not sit home and think about it. Go out and get busy.


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[Assistant] People are more likely to accept an order if they had a part in the decision that caused the order to be issued.


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[Assistant] The man who goes furthest is generally the one who is willing to do and dare.


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[Assistant] Success in dealing with people depends on a sympathetic grasp of the other person's viewpoint.


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[Assistant] Every man is a damn fool for at least five minutes every day. Wisdom consists in not exceeding that limit.


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[Assistant] It is a matter of discerning what they truly want and offering it to them in a mutually beneficial package.


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[Assistant] The only way to influence people is to talk in terms of what the other person wants.


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[Assistant] Three-fourths of the people you will ever meet are hungry and thirsty for sympathy. Give it to them, and they will love you.


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[Assistant] So that their creative works would be dedicated to them.


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[Assistant] Everything that is in agreement with our personal desires seems true. Everything that is not puts us into a rage.


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[Assistant] Those who dream by day are cognizant of many things.


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[Assistant] Never to suffer would never to have been blessed.


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[Assistant] If you wish to forget anything on the spot, make a note that this thing is to be remembered.


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[Assistant] Beauty of whatever kind in its supreme development.


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[Assistant] To elevate the soul, poetry is necessary.


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[Assistant] To die laughing must be the most glorious of all glorious deaths.


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[Assistant] A short story must have a single mood, and every sentence must build towards it.


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[Assistant] Experience has shown, and a true philosophy will always show.


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[Assistant] A man's grammar, like Caesar's wife, should not only be pure but above suspicion of impurity.


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[Assistant] Mysteries force a man to think, and so injure his health.


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[Assistant] There is an eloquence in true enthusiasm.


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[Assistant] When a madman appears thoroughly sane. Indeed.


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[Assistant] Imperceptibly, the love of these discords grew upon me, as my love of music grew stronger.


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[Assistant] Loneliness in old age often means a deterioration in relationship with the remaining relatives and friends as the elderly person begins to demand constant attention from them. The best cure for loneliness in old age is a pet.


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[Assistant] Even for those to whom life and death are equal jests, there are some things that are still held in respect.


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[Assistant] There is no passion in nature so demonically impatient as that of him who, shuddering upon the edge of a precipice, thus meditates a plunge.


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[Assistant] As a poet and as a mathematician, he would reason well. As a mere mathematician, he could not have reasoned at all.


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[Assistant] Who has not a hundred times found himself committing a vile or a silly action for no other reason than because he knows he should not?


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[Assistant] And have I not told you that what you mistake for madness is but over-acuteness of the sense?


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[Assistant] That man is not truly brave, who was afraid either to seem or to be, when it suits him, a coward.


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[Assistant] If we cannot comprehend God in his visible works, how then in his inconceivable thoughts that call the works into being?


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[Assistant] It would be mockery to call such dreariness heaven at all.


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[Assistant] If you are ever drowned or hung, be sure to make a note of your sensations.


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[Assistant] Let's talk about help again. Listen and repeat.


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[Assistant] I have a loose tooth. I have a loose tooth. I'm taking medicine. I'm taking medicine. I have a runny nose. I have a runny nose. I have a scratch. I have a scratch. I got a shot. I got a shot. I'm sick. I'm sick. I'm going to sneeze.


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[Assistant] I have a stomach ache. I have a stomach ache. I have a sunburn. I have a sunburn. I used a thermometer. I used a thermometer. I'm going to throw up. I'm going to throw up.


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[Assistant] Let's try it one more time with noooo repeat. Here we go.


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[Assistant] I have a loose tooth. I'm taking medicine. I have a runny nose. I have a scratch. I got a shot. I'm sick.


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[Assistant] I'm going to sneeze. I have a stomach ache. I have a sunburn. I used a thermometer. I'm going to throw up. I have a toothache.


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[Assistant] A little fast, but good job kids. Good job. Thank you very much.


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[Assistant] We'll see you next time! Bye! See ya!


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[Assistant] But chaos. We almost add a y sound. Chaos. It was an absolute chaos. The same with the adjective form. It was chaotic. Okay, number three. We have...


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[Assistant] Okay, number five is this one. If you like cooking, then you should have seen this word before. And...


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[Assistant] It does sound like fun. I suppose it wouldn't hurt to try.


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[Assistant] Hmm, why don't you tell each other stories?


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[Assistant] Well, what if we all stay very quiet and listen to the night sounds?


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[Assistant] Ah, he makes that sound by rubbing his wings together. See?


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[Assistant] Hmm, we could go down to the river and splash cool water on our faces.


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[Assistant] Up you come, little field mouse. I'll give you a ride.


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[Assistant] What would you like to do next, little nut brown hair?


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[Assistant] That's alright, little nut-brown hair. You did see lots of lovely night-time things, didn't you? Like the shooting stars? Yes.


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[Assistant] And best of all, because you went to sleep, now you can play with your friends instead of spending the whole day sleeping.


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[Assistant] That's very wise of you, little nut-brown hair. Nighttime is best for sleeping, and daytime is best for playing. Unless you're a little white owl, that is. Now, guess how much I love you.


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[Assistant] Typhoid fever is a life-threatening illness that is usually food-borne and often associated with international travel. The main symptom of this disease is a sustained high fever that can be as high as 103 to 104 degrees Fahrenheit.


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[Assistant] Other symptoms may include stomach pain, diarrhea or constipation, cough, weakness, or headache. If left untreated, someone infected with typhoid fever can continue to have a fever for weeks or months, which can cause a variety of complications.


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[Assistant] Without treatment, about 30% of infected people will die from these complications.


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[Assistant] Typhoid fever is very uncommon in the United States, Canada, Australia, Western Europe, and Japan. However, it's more common in many other countries, affecting over 22 million people each year.


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[Assistant] About one in twenty people are asymptomatic carriers after they recover from the disease, and are able to pass it on to others.


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[Assistant] In fact, you may have heard of typhoid Mary, a famous carrier of the typhoid bacterium who was allegedly responsible for multiple outbreaks of typhoid fever in New York City and Long Island between 1900 and 1907.


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[Assistant] Mary was a cook, and due to improper handwashing as well as lack of knowledge about the disease, 51 typhoid cases and three deaths were directly attributed to her, even though she herself was immune to the bacteria.


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[Assistant] Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella serotype typhi, which is a member of the Enterobacteriaceae family.


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[Assistant] To give you some context, the Enterobacteriaceae family is the largest and also the most heterogeneous collection of medically important gram-negative rods. These bacteria are typically found in water, vegetation, soil, or intestinal flora.


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[Assistant] In short, they're everywhere. Salmonella species are gram-negative, they have flagella that help them move around, and they are facultatively anaerobic, which means they can adapt whether oxygen is present in their environment or not.


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[Assistant] Salmonella typhi is always associated with disease, in contrast to opportunistic pathogens like E. coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae. Let's talk about how these bacteria cause damage.


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[Assistant] For the most part, S. typhi is spread from person to person, via the fecal-oral route. This means that most infected individuals ingest the bacteria from contaminated food or water, and like many foodborne illnesses, lack of proper handwashing is often to blame.


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[Assistant] Once ingested, S. typhi can survive passage through the stomach thanks to their acid tolerance genes. After surviving the acidic pH of the stomach, they pass through to the small and large intestines.


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[Assistant] There they invade the mucous membrane of the intestines, specifically the epithelial cells.


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[Assistant] Invasion of the epithelial cells triggers an inflammatory response, causing tissue damage and diarrhea.


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[Assistant] The bacteria can also spread to the liver, spleen and bone marrow, causing systemic disease.


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[Assistant] The only way to know for sure if someone has been infected with S. typhi is to test a blood or stool sample in the lab.


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[Assistant] For the most part, symptoms of typhoid fever begin after an incubation period of 10 to 14 days. CDC recommends that anyone with a fever higher than 102 degrees Fahrenheit should see a doctor immediately.


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[Assistant] Once diagnosed, typhoid fever is treated with antibiotics.


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[Assistant] For some patients, symptoms may go away just after they start taking the antibiotics, but it's incredibly important that they finish the full course of treatment. That's because the danger of typhoid fever doesn't end when the symptoms go away.


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[Assistant] Patients can pass the bacteria to other people, or they might develop antibiotic resistance that will make a future infection more difficult to treat.


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[Assistant] When traveling, especially to regions of the world that are high risk for typhoid fever, CDC recommends getting vaccinated before leaving, and being extremely careful about what you eat and drink.


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[Assistant] For instance, boiling water before drinking, avoiding ice in drinks, eating only thoroughly cooked foods, and avoiding raw vegetables that can't be peeled. Those are the basics regarding typhoid fever.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching, guys. Subscribe to my channel for more tutorials, support me on patreon so I can keep making content, and as always, feel free to email me at


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[Assistant] It's, it's a hard one to follow and they went, Capcom went in some different directions in the past couple years and I think they brought it right back to the roots with this one and I think they hit it out of the park and I think they got their, uh, their rhythm down now and that's why I'm super excited for RE3 personally.


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[Assistant] Oh, my buddy, uh, let's see, back in like 90, 98, my buddy asked me if I wanted to sleep over and play this, uh, zombie game.


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[Assistant] Yeah, and he's a stunt guy, he's a coordinator, he's a very physical person, uh, very intense on set, and he's the essence that they needed to play Birkin, and I believe I captured one fight, uhm, I forget which form it was, maybe, uh, uh, Form 4, uhm,


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[Assistant] I need to figure out what's going on, and he says those exact lines, and the game takes a turn there for him, and I think it was a really emotional scene, very quiet and somber, and I liked it a lot. That was one of my favorites filming, and Ken Lally, who did the mocap and voice for Kendo,


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[Assistant] He's a great actor. Very, very intense. Uhm, and in the second scene, another really emotional one was when I confronted Ada at the very end.


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[Assistant] And I just think those are pivotal in the, uh, in the whole timeline of Resident Evil. And I remember, I'll just spit it out, uhm, we did an exercise, uh, you don't mind me saying this, Julian, the exercise that we did for this? Feel free.


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[Assistant] The whole equity split always is really interesting to me with startups, like I think everyone has like a different, um, a different prescription for like, uh, how you should split up. One of, I think it's, your friend, I can't remember his name, is like, you should never have equal share, that's terrible. And then I hear you should have equal share. I think like,


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[Assistant] The startup equity split is one of these things that has always befuddled me. Like, I don't quite understand it. I don't quite understand why people split it the way they do. Uhm, it turns out that like,


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[Assistant] Uhm, and the work people have put in before or after, and make sure to treat your employees really well. And like, when you bring on people and you have a large, you know, option pool, make sure to be generous, because those are the people that are gonna stay with you until like 4am. Absolutely.


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[Assistant] I do feel like just anecdotally that like, uhm, there's this weird dynamic where like, you know,


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[Assistant] Founders at a certain point just get orders of magnitude than like the first few employees and that's really a function of taking money from venture and having an option pool and having to budget for hiring your first like say 20 people.


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[Assistant] So, the way these days to make lots of money in terms of equity, uhm, in a startup is to join very early on. And it really is a risk-reward ratio. Uhm, or there's a relationship there. And I'm not sure I'm excited about that.


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[Assistant] You know, uhm, relationship, but uhm, I think that, as you'll see, people have to raise less and less to get started, and that means, uhm, you know, early employees are getting better and better deals.


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[Assistant] Food chant. Listen and repeat. Here we go.


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[Assistant] Apple. Apple. I like apples. Apple. Apple.


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[Assistant] I like apples. Potato. Potato. I like potatoes. Potato. Potato.


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[Assistant] I like potatoes. Hamburger, hamburger, I like hamburgers. Hamburger, hamburger, I like hamburgers. Carrot, carrot, I eat carrots.


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[Assistant] Carrot. I eat carrots. Tea. Tea. I drink tea.


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[Assistant] Tea, tea, I drink tea. Milk, milk, I drink milk. Milk, milk, I drink milk.


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[Assistant] Eggplants are purple. Orange, orange, oranges are orange. Orange, orange, oranges are orange. Candy, candy, candy is sweet. Candy, candy, candy is sweet. Cake, cake, cake is sweet. Cake, cake, cake is sweet.


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[Assistant] Cookies, cookies, cookies are delicious.


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[Assistant] Cookies, cookies are delicious. Onion, onion, onions are stinky. Onion, onion.


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[Assistant] Onions are stinky. Grapes, grapes, small purple grapes.


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[Assistant] Grapes, grapes, small purple grapes. Cucumber, cucumber, long green cucumber. Cucumber, cucumber, long green cucumber. Tomato, tomato, round red tomato. Tomato, tomato.


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[Assistant] More rice, please? Rice. Rice.


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[Assistant] More rice, please. Juice, juice. More juice, please. Juice, juice. More juice, please.


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[Assistant] Legionnaires' disease, also called legionellosis, is a severe, often lethal form of pneumonia, which just means lung inflammation.


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[Assistant] Symptoms may include cough, muscle aches, diarrhea, fever, and chills. In the US, somewhere between 10,000 and 18,000 people get infected every year, some of which end up in intensive care units.


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[Assistant] We first learned about this disease in 1976, when a mysterious outbreak of pneumonia occurred at an American Legion convention in Philadelphia, hence the name.


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[Assistant] Because of the fatal nature of some of the cases, health officials launched an intensive investigation that resulted in the definition of a new family of pathogenic bacteria.


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[Assistant] The family Legionellaceae consists of a single genus, Legionella, with 48 species and 70 serogroups. These bacteria are slender, gram-negative rods that are pleomorphic, which means they can change shape in response to their environment.


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[Assistant] Infection with Legionella pneumophila has three possible outcomes. One is no symptoms at all.


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[Assistant] Two, an influenza-like illness called Pontiac fever. And three, Legionnaire's disease, a severe form of pneumonia.


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[Assistant] Legionella is naturally found in freshwater lakes and streams, but can be particularly dangerous to humans when it spreads in man-made building water systems