[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, so now let's take, let's take negative emotion apart. So, you can differentiate it, and the basic elements of negative emotion, I'll list a bunch of them. Frustration, that's when you're approaching a goal and you're blocked. Disappointment, that's when you're pursuing a goal and it doesn't work. Grief, that's when you lose something. Pain, right? Threat, uncertainty, anxiety, those are all


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Somewhat separable systems too, like the pain system and the anxiety system actually function separately, because anxiety is a marker for pain. Imagine pain is a marker for damage, and anxiety is a marker for pain, or for the possibility of damage, and so,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, that's, that's, that's how you've evolved. You've evolved with that assumption. Better to be anxious and careful than to be hurt and damaged. But you still pay a pretty high price for that because


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The thing is when you're hurt, you're only hurt when you're hurt, but when you're anxious, you're anxious when you could be hurt, and you could be hurt all the time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's a big problem, because it means that there is reason to be anxious all the time, and there's a lot more people than you think that are anxious all the time. And so, you know, that's a very difficult thing to cope with, but that's how it goes. And so, pain. Pain-related emotions seem to be, first of all, you can identify them neurochemically.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because a pain-related emotion can be quelled by opiates. Opiates are analgesic, right? You take them for pain.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so, but opiates work for things that aren't exactly just physical pain.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So they reduce frustration, they reduce disappointment, they reduce grief. And so if you're frustrated, disappointed, and grieving, then opiates actually happen to be a pretty good drug for you. And you think about the opiate epidemic in the United States and its association with phenomena, phenomena like, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Anti-depressants are better drugs for depression, but they also work on pain. This is a useful thing to know. If you know people who are in chronic pain.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's a drug called Cymbalta in particular that's good for that. And so, uhm,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And if people are extraordinarily stressed as well, antidepressants can help with that. Now what antidepressants do actually is increase the...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you're higher up in a positional hierarchy and your life is more stable then it's not necessary for you to feel as much negative emotion when anything painful or threatening occurs because it isn't evidence, it isn't


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Antidepressants appear to do is to increase serotonergic production and mimic


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The state of being higher up in the hierarchy. My observation is being, this is just clinical observation and it's not supported by any relevant research because I don't believe the research is being done.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What I often did in my clinical practice when I was thinking about whether or not to, uh, recommend, suggest, let's say, that the client, uh, have a conversation with their physician about antidepressants, because of course psychologists can't prescribe, was to find out, well, how's your life, generally speaking, compared to other people's lives, you know?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Do you have a job that's reasonably productive and reasonably secure? Are you about as educated as you should be given your background in intelligence? Do you have some friends? Do you have an intimate relationship? How's your family life going? You know, are you suffering from any severe psycholo- like physical or mental illnesses of the sort of non-psychogenic type?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, and do you make reasonably productive use of your time outside of work, at least in principle? If the answer to all those questions was


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes, but you were still depressed, then my observation was you would respond well to antidepressants. Because something had gone wrong, right? You have a life.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But your emotional reactions aren't in keeping with that reality. Then you see people sometimes too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's nothing but trouble with their family. They have something wrong with them physically, and they don't know how to make structured and productive use of their time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My, my experience is being that although the antidepressant might help them start to get back on the right path, there was so much about their life that was in disarray that the chemical means of treating it alone was insufficient. And so that's another useful thing to know, and I said already,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There isn't, researchers haven't done a good job of differentiating those two things, even though I think they're of critical importance. You know, there's some dispute about whether or not antidepressants work, and the answer seems to be


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which might mean that there's a discrepancy between your actual position in the world and your perception of that position, or whether you just have an appalling life.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so, and that's also, you know, extraordinarily and painfully, uh, common. So,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, the gr- the pain-related emotions that are associated with frustration and disappointment, uhm, and, and, and damage tend to elicit anger and aggression, whereas the anxiety-related emotions tend to elicit freezing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Prone to pain, you also tend to be more prone to anxiety and anger. So, you could imagine the negative emotion system as a tree, with a thick trunk.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Why, why does neuroticism function that way? Why do, why do we function that way? We can go back to the idea of the story and the map that I used to outline the situation for extroversion. So imagine we're going from point A to B again. Alright, and so what are the options? Well, the first thing might be, let's say, uhm, let's say there was an obstacle in my path, like a, I don't know, just a footstool or something like that. And then I take a look at that pathway.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If I see an included pathway, even if it's something trivial, then I would be, let's say I moved over here and the footstool is no longer in my way.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And when I look at that, it's gonna make me slightly happier and slightly less possessed by negative emotion.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's a, that's a kind of a useful thing to know because one of the things that determines negative emotion, maybe a primary thing, is how cluttered up is the pathway to your goal.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the more cluttered it is, the more negative emot- because, and it makes sense, eh, because if negative emotion is a sign of, of, of cost, something like that, if I can move right from where I am to where I'm going,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Straight. That's a low-cost solution. But if my path is full of obstacles, then I have to meander around, and that means that I'm burning more resources to gain whatever I'm trying to gain. And so obviously I shouldn't be as happy, I should be less happy and more displeased about that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Landscapes that are cluttered by obstacles produce negative emotion.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so, you know, maybe it's not that easy for you to say, well, straighten out your life. It's like, oh god, straighten out my life. How am I gonna do that? It's complicated. It's like, well, let's make it simple. Let's focus on something straightforward. It's like, what sort of shape is your room in? Well, it's a complete disaster. It's like, well,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] How about the closet? I haven't touched it for five years. How about the left hand side of your closet? Could you do some, really? I'm dead serious about it. It's like,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Could you, could you pick up two pieces of clothing this week and only throw one on the ground?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Say, well, you, you can barely do anything because you're paralyzed with anxiety and pain. You can barely get out of bed. I had one client who was just depressed beyond belief. And he had his reasons, man. He was like 86, and he'd fallen off a ladder, and he'd broken his neck, and they had to fuse it, and so it was fused forward. He was in chronic pain. It's like, you know, it's no bloody wonder he was depressed. And, cause, well, for obvious reasons. He couldn't get out of bed.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what did we do? Well, I started by, he couldn't, I started by trying to figure out if there's anything he could do. Could you read? No. Could you read?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes. Could you look at the cover? Yes. Could you do that for 15 seconds? Yes. It's like, well, what happens? Well, that's movement forward, isn't it? The goal is to get out of bed.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hypothetically, well what does it mean to get out of bed? Well,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Normally it means just to move your legs and get out of bed, but maybe that's way beyond you. Well you decompose that into the smallest possible implementable units. You know, so we started with him just picking up a magazine and looking at it. Well that's a, that's a move towards reading, but it was also


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It wasn't much in and of itself, but it was also an indicator of something broader, you know, and then, well, and then he'd, like, he'd read a sentence aloud, and then I'd get him, think I got him, the next thing I think I got him to do was to swing one leg over so that it was, like, out from underneath the covers, cause that's part of what you have to do if you're gonna stand up.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know, and then I think, I don't know, remember, it's quite a long time ago that I did this, I think it took about two weeks before I had him standing beside the bed.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know, which is a lot different than laying there doing nothing. And then I think it was another week or so when he was walking up and down the hallway. And that's a hell of a lot different than being stuck in bed. And it wasn't like he was still in pain, although one of the best treatments for chronic pain is to get moving again.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now you have to talk to your physician because maybe you're in one of those rare circumstances where movement will make the pain and damage worse, but almost always the treatment for chronic pain is get moving, and that's part of the reason for that is that, again,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It has to do with the relationship between the positive and the negative emotion system. So, the negative emotion system is freezing you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the positive emotion system, which moves you forward towards a goal, releases dopamine. And dopamine is analgesic. Cocaine, amphetamines,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Drugs like that, those are the drugs of abuse that people often use, right, because they potentiate positive emotion. And so they potentiate positive emotion, but


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Drugs that potentiate positive emotion also alleviate pain. It's another thing to know, so if you know somebody who has intractable cancer pain,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The best medication is a combination of opiates and psychomotor stimulates like cocaine and heroin. Now finding a doctor who will prescribe both of those is not possible. But you can use attention deficit disorder medication. Ritalin.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's like, well, if you cut that a little bit with an amphetamine, like Ritalin, which is kind of a low-level amphetamine, then that potentiates the opiate effect, because it's analgesic in and of itself,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Raises positive emotion and increases alertness and activity. Remember, kids who are more extroverted are more active when they're little.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so that's a useful thing to know, and you may, there may come a time when you really want to know that. So,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so you can get sort of a virtuous cycle going again. You know, we got the guy, we got the old guy back home. It took about, I think it took two months.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It might not have been that long, but that was pretty good from basically catatonically frozen in bed to, you know,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As functional as you could hope for under the circumstances, and so, well, so that's, that's, that's a little bit on the treatment of, of like severe depression and anxiety. So, uhm,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Their proclivity to withdraw in social circumstances. And so, uhm, there's a guy named Jerome Kagan who studied inhibited children. And he had a very interesting methodology. He would, uhm, let me make sure I got this exactly right here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Children were assessed in the lab at 21 months for behavior manifested to novel people, rooms, and objects. And so they were 21 months old.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then he screened a fairly large number of children and he found the ones that were the most


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, showed what Kagan described as long latencies to interact with unfamiliar adults. Okay, so how would that manifest itself in an actual child? Okay, so I was at my son's wedding a month and a half ago.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Probably both introverted and high in neuroticism. So he's an inhibited kid. And


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] His father had to walk down the aisle with him. He's about, probably about four, I would say.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The little boy basically hid behind his father's leg, as he was walking up the aisle, and would peek out, but he was pretty much clamped to it, right? And so, he had that dorsal, uhm, contact, which is very soothing. So this is one of the things that's kinda cool about pain-related negative emotion, is that physical proximity is analgesic.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's another thing that's useful to know. So, I mean, what do you do when someone's grieving? What can you do? I mean, you express your condolences, obviously, but about the only thing you can really do is give them a hug.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's what you do to a child that's in pain as well, you know, if they've scraped their knee or whatever, is you give them a path or you give them a hug. And that fit, close physical, proximal contact is actually analgesic. So that's another useful thing to know because


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you happen to be grieving, or if you know someone who's grieving,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then one of the things that you could recommend to them is a massage, because that touch is actually going to be directly helpful to them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They're, part of their sense of security is actually established as a consequence of


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Fit close physical prox- proximate touch. And babies actually die without touch, eh?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If they're not attended to and touched, then a lot of them, the gastrointestinal systems will shut down and they'll...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And they'll die. And even if they don't die, they're unbelievably compromised in their future development. And so, touch is analgesic. So that's kind of a...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Useful thing to know. So anyways, this boy was clinging to his father's leg and, you know, he'd sort of peek out and, you know, if he would have practiced it twenty times.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Look kid, I'm gonna go five feet here, and you can just grab on my leg, but the next five feet, all you can do is hold on to my pant leg.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then you say, okay, well, for the next five feet, you can hold on, but every third step you have to let go. And then you can grab on again. And so, it's that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And it has to actually constitute improvement. It can't just be you're good the way you are with a pat on the head. There has to be improvement built into it. And then you want to find


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Set the challenge so that the probability that you'll attain it is 100% because that means it's something that you already know how to do. Maybe you want to set the challenge so your probability of attaining it is like 75% or something so that you have to stretch yourself, you know, and that stretching is actually useful because it


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So anyway, so imagine you're doing this with this kid, and maybe the third or fourth time you go down the aisle, he's five feet behind you, and the second time, he can walk halfway down with you sitting in the middle. And so,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that, that works. That's, well, they call that habituation, but actually what's happening is the child is learning through observation that their lack of proximity to a figure of security does not result in the apprehended catastrophe. Because the anxiety that


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Freezes the kid is part of that predation response that I described. There's something terrible out there that might get me. And the safest place to be is right here. It's like, well how do you find out if there's something terrible out there to get you?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so all of that separation from the parent is in fact that exploratory behavior, and that's also something that's very useful to know if you're a parent, because what you want to do is facilitate that independent exploratory behavior to the degree that that's possible. Now, Kagan found that, uhm, these kids that


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And they'd stop talking. And that's another example of that withdrawal and freezing, right? Because if you're, if it's a predatory response and you're freezing, you don't want to be playing, because that's pretty obviously, and certain don't want to be talking, because that's going to identify you. So, a noble adult comes in and the kid dies.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's also unbelievably useful to know. Playing actually has its own circuit, right? It's a mammalian behavior, and it has its own biological circuitry. And uhm,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's very easily disrupted by any other motivational state.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So if you see a child playing, you know that all's well with the world. And so one of the ways that you can tell if your household is well structured and you have small children is that they're comfortable playing there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, long periods of proximity to the mother. So then he analyzed, he took the kids that were the most like that and the least like that. And then he followed them up for five years. The kids that were reassessed at four years of age, so remember this is from twenty-one months to four years, so that's a long time in child development.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They, the behavioral differences between the groups were preserved. You could still identify the kids who were more inhibited. They were reassessed at five and a half.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the formerly inhibited children were all less talkative and less interactive across all settings. Laboratory testing set its situation, play with a single unfamiliar peer and a child's school setting, and reassessed again at seven and a half.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so Kagan established that there was long-term temporal stability of high levels of negative emotion, and that goes along with the evidence indicating that there's pretty high test-retest reliability among


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, what Kagan did discover, and this is also useful for people who have high levels of negative emotion as adults, is that voluntary active exploration


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Closer up to the normal range and so, and that's exactly what you see when you're dealing with people who are anxious in a clinical setting. So what you do is you find out, okay,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What are you anxious about? Well, I have this, maybe I have no plan, that's certainly a source of anxiety. Let's say you experience anxiety within your framework going from point A to point B, but one


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Like, there's no constraints on you anymore. So not only do you not experience much positive emotion, because you can't identify a goal and move towards it, but because there's no constraints on your perception and everything there to make you nervous.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, which is why maybe you have a job and you're nervous about the job, but if you're unemployed, you're a lot more nervous about that. It's like the range of terrible possibility is broader without a plan, something like that. Then, when you have your plan and you're moving forward, well,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Obstacles can get in your way, and that causes negative emotion. And the other thing that causes negative emotion is if something unexpected occurs. So that's, that's another thing, is that negative emotion is not only related to pain and the possibility of pain, but it's also related to uncertainty. And that's also partly why people don't like uncertainty. If you're an anxious person, there's something to be said for a routine.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I would say two ways of handling high levels of negative emotion. Three. Good to have a plan.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, don't underestimate the utility of routine. It's not such a bad idea to get up at the same time every day, for example, and to go to bed at the same time every day, and to eat at the same time. If you have an anxious child, putting those islands of stability in their life is a good li- like you don't want to overdo it, but


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You want to scaffold that predictability so that they can explore around the margins. And then the next is to expose yourself to unfamiliar situations voluntarily.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, let's say they're volatile and they experience high levels of withdrawal but what you want to do is protect them from anything that would upset them and if you wanted to design a system that made


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Once you have a plan, it's like, well, what do you see getting in your way? And where are, like, where, what has emerged that's been unexpected?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's the trick with anxiety. And so if you find yourself paralyzed with anxiety, maybe this will be part of procrastination, especially if you're low in conscientiousness. One of the things you want to do is to reduce your ambition.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And you can learn to negotiate with yourself that way, it's like you notice you're avoiding something, you're frozen in fear, whether maybe it's your tax return or something like that, or something you've been putting off at work.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's like you notice that you're avoiding it, you can berate yourself for it, but it's not that helpful because that often just makes you more depressed and anxious. What you might do instead is, well, the same sort of thing that I did with the old guy that was laying in bed, it's like, well,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I don't want to do my taxes. It's like, okay, do you have everything in a file folder? Well no. Do you have a file folder?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, collect 80%, 50% of the relevant papers and just shove them in the file folder. You don't have to look at them, you don't have to organize them, you don't have to get all of them. But now you're halfway there, right? You've got the mess in one place, and you've also demonstrated to yourself that you're larger than the predator.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because what you're doing is you're responding to that threat as if it's something that's there to devour you. And then the issue is, well, who's bigger? I saw this fascinating movie once, uh, The Gods Must Be Crazy, part two, I think it was part two.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's this little kid, a Bushman kid in Africa, and he was being, uhm, stalked by a hyena.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the hyena was trying to figure out if the boy was bigger than him or smaller and so what the boy would do is he had a block of wood.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] With him that was about this big, he just put the block of wood on his head. And when he put the block of wood on his head, the hyena would back up, and when he took it off his head, the hyena would come forward.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so, that's kind of what you're doing, I know it's a strange example, but that's kind of what you're doing when you're wrestling with things that freeze you. The question is, well, are you bigger than the thing that's lurking the menace, the IRS, or the Canadian Revenue Association, which is a pretty decent predator.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, so it's, it's got its eyes fixed on you, are you bigger or smaller, and by


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Facing the thing and approaching it, you indicate to your anxiety systems that you're more competent than the thing is dangerous.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's a really useful thing to do. It's not exactly that you reduce the danger because it's still there, but that's not the issue because things are dangerous. The question is whether or not you can cope with the danger. And that's really what you want to do with yourself and with your children is that you want to raise them to be people who are


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Who are convinced that they can face the things that are the threats, but then who also develop the skills that are necessary to deal with the threats.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But you don't want just foolhardiness. But you know, if you're, so if you're avoiding doing something, then reduce your ambition. It's like, and you might have to, you have to do that in a negotiated way. Because you'll have to,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Imagine you're frozen in place, so this system has got you and it's trying to protect you, even if it's gone a little bit astray.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You have to have a conversation with that little sub-personality. It's like, well, okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What is it that you're willing to let go of? What level of risk are you willing to expose yourself to? And you have to find that out. It's often that you have to aim pretty low. It might even be humiliating to some degree. You think, jeez, you know, really, is that all I can manage? Doesn't matter. Because if you're stuck at zero,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Levels of anxiety that are unbelievably extreme. I've had clients who, they couldn't use the phone.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They couldn't have coffee with me even though I was their therapist.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Really, really just terrified into immobility almost all the time. One person that I worked with, it took a long time, this person, this guy went from


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, being unable to have coffee with me as a therapist to doing stand-up comedy and reading poetry in front of groups. That took about eight years, you know, it was a tremendous amount of work.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And also expanded his social network dramatically as this occurred, and it was all incremental movement forward. And so, anyways, that's neuroticism.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's, so it's the response to chaos, it's the response to the unknown, it's the response to emergent obstacles, it's mediated by the right hemisphere, we'll close with that. So the left hemisphere seems to operate when you know what you're doing and you


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I think here's an example of how it works. So, imagine you're alone at night in your dark house, okay? And maybe you're watching a horror movie just to put you on edge. And, uh, so now you're on edge.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And you decide, just as an experiment, that you're gonna snake your hand in there with the, you know, with the door only partly open and turn on the light. You just watch what your imagination produces. So it'll produce all sorts of images of what might be in there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so what your right hemisphere is trying to do, it looks like, is to try to get a quick and dirty picture of what the thing that you're afraid of might be. And so that's part of the imagination for horror. You know, and so, uhm,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's see, is there anything else I want to tell you about, about neuroticism?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It is definitely the case that everyone has real reason to be anxious and


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Also that we all have a high probability of experiencing pain related emotions, right? Because we're going to be damaged in one way or another. And so, that's very depressing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Conclusion as a clinical psychologist has been that


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As paralyzing and terrible as our propensity for negative emotion is, and as grounded in reality as that propensity might be, uhm,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's more the case that our ability to, that our ability to overcome it is actually stronger than its grip on us. And so that if there's something that you need to manifest faith in, that's a good thing to manifest faith in.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hello friends, and welcome to the distant past, because today we're talking about the past tense, which refers to stuff that has already happened.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There are many ways to form the past tense, but for right now I just want to focus on the basic version, which is just adding E-D. So if you take a word like walk, as in I walk to the store,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] No, not the store too. The moon! I'm going to the moon. On foot. Try and stop me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, that's in the present tense, but if I wanted to put that in the past, I would say, I wa- I walked to the moon.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this sentence is happening now. It's the present.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So the simplest way to figure out whether or not something is in the past tense, or if you want to put something in the past tense, is this thing, this ED ending. So you go from walk to walked. Talk to talked. Sneeze to sneezed.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, if it doesn't end with an e, you add an ed. If it does end with an e, you just add the d.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's how to form the past tense. That's what the past tense does. It's stuff that's already happened, and most of the time, when you want to form the past tense out of a word, you just add E-D. You can learn anything. David out.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For anyone who is written in their bucket list, go skydiving, raise your hands. Today, tomato team is flying up into the heavens. Will Kevin be able to successfully cross skydiving off his bucket list today? Just sit back and enjoy the show.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Skydive Hawaii is one of Oahu's best skydiving companies. And when you're literally going to be jumping out of a plane, it's probably a good idea to find a professional team to guide you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Friends watching this show, keep your excitement in check for now. Because before you go off on your skydiving adventure, you need to review today's lesson.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, definitely easier to take photos in front of, cause like, looking at it from something that people can photograph, it's easier to edit out all the splotches, like,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yo, what's going on guys? Tanmay here for simple snippets and welcome back to another video tutorial on data structures and algorithms.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And as the title of the video suggests, today we are gonna understand the rules and pseudo code of prefix expression to infix expression conversion using a stack data structure. Now before we start off, we've already discussed the reverse process that is infix to prefix using stack data structure. We've also talked about infix to prefix and vice versa process in a manual way. So pen and paper method, we've discussed that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And we've already talked about what is infix, what is prefix, what is postfix, what is stack data structure and so on. So if you have any confusion of all these different topics, do check out this entire DSA course, DSA playlist. I'll drop the link in the video description. And with that being said, let's get started.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you're new to my channel, my name is Tanmay Sakpal and I do a lot of computer science and information technology video tutorials like computer programming, development, technology talks and a lot more on this channel. So if that's something you're interested into, then definitely subscribe and turn on the notifications to get the latest updates and never miss out on such important topics. Okay, so if you've watched the previous tutorial, which was postfix to infix conversion using stack data structure,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And if you observe the rules right now, pretty much exactly the same rules that were there in postfix to infix are applicable in prefix to infix with two minor changes. And we'll talk about that, but for that obviously you need to know postfix to infix. If you don't know that's okay, we're gonna discuss this thoroughly from scratch.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But before we get onto the stack conversion, that is prefix to infix using stack, let's actually see this question.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And convert it manually. So over here you can see question number one, convert prefix to infix. And this is basically using stack. Okay, so we're using this question throughout all these different tutorials because this expression is complex enough to cover all the different scenarios and all the different conditions. So let's see the manual conversion first.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so here we have the question of prefix to infix in manual method. So this is a prefix expression.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I hope you know what is prefix. Prefix is when the operator comes before the two different operands and we are talking about binary operators which means operator is operating on two operands, okay. So over here plus is over here and a and b is over here which means in the infix format plus should come in between these two operands, okay. So this is basic, we wanted to discuss this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This raise to EF will be converted to its appropriate infix format. Then we will assume both of them as x1 and x2. So this is how the expression would look like.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We will assume that as x, y and we will get this that is divide by x, y and g. So only two operands left with one operator divide by. So we will take that in between and this is how you get the solution.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] From here, which would be x5 divided by g.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is the final answer. And when we actually re-substitute these temporary variables of x5, x3, x4, x2 and x1,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, after you're substituting x, y, you will get this result.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] x5 is x3 star x4, right? So x3 star x4 in brackets, then divide by g.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we will re-substitute x3 and x4's value, we will get this and this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And ultimately we will get the final answer which would look something like this. Okay?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now there are a lot of brackets over here and if you're wondering why we have so many brackets, it is because in infix format, the brackets play an important role because they decide which part of the expression is evaluated first. Because in infix we have a confusion, right? In infix we do not know which part of the expression has to be evaluated first.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's why we have the operator precedence and associativity rules. So that's why we are using brackets to demonstrate which part or which sub-expression is evaluated first in the infix format. And that problem does not happen in prefix or postfix. In prefix and postfix, we do not need brackets, we do not have operator precedence, we do not have associativity.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now I'm reiterating all this but we've extensively discussed all this in previous tutorial so I'm not gonna waste a lot of time over here. But ultimately this is the final answer when we manually convert this expression.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So if you observe, this is the same question which is over here, right? Let me just erase these markings and you can see is the same question.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what we'll do, we'll take this entire result and write it over here. So this is the result that we get from the manual conversion.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And now, we are gonna solve this same prefix.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Expression and convert it to infix using stack data structure and then see if you are getting the same result.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this is something that we've done in previous tutorials also just to make sure we are doing or applying the rules and the pseudocode in appropriate way. So now let's actually see the pseudocode.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so this is the pseudo code of prefix to infix in the very center in blue color. On the left hand side, we have rules for prefix to infix using stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, the rules as well as the pseudocode are pretty much one and the same thing. It is just two different representations and the reason why we have a pseudocode is because it gets easier to convert a pseudocode into any programming code, okay. So pseudocode is language agnostic which means that it is independent of any language which means the same pseudocode will work


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] On pretty much any other general purpose programming language only the syntax will vary, only the syntax will differ. So that's the beauty of pseudocode.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The rules are pretty much basic English statements which state what happens in the conversion. However, it is not very easy to take these rules and directly convert them in code. That's why we have pseudocode.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So basically both of them are one and the same thing. If you've seen the postfix to infix conversion, the rules are pretty much exactly the same with only two basic differences.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So for those who already watched that the two differences are point number one. So step number one over here is reverse the prefix expression or scan the prefix expression from right to left. That is from the last element to the first element in this order or you can completely reverse this


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] String reverse this expression when it comes to coding using reverse functions or if you're gonna go in the reverse order, you can use a for loop which starts from the end of the string end of the expression and go backwards. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Intermediate expression that is infix expression which, which had the entire


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Expression using op1, op2 and the prefix of i which is gonna be the actual operator. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in postfix we had OP2 and OP1, but over here it is OP1 and OP2 because we are scanning the entire expression in reverse order.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's actually take this pseudocode, go step by step, dry run this pseudocode onto our


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because as I mentioned, the rules and pseudocode are pretty much too separate or too different representations of the same thing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So every rule will have its appropriate line of pseudocode over here and vice versa.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So starting off, this pseudocode is basically a function which is saying prefix to infix which takes a prefix string.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And at the end you can see it returns s.top which is actually gonna be a complete infix string. Okay. Let's see how we get till step number 3. So first step is to create a stack data structure. So we say stack s. So obviously when we write a code, we will create a stack, right.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this is that stack, let's assume that this is that entire stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Point or second step is to loop from i equals to prefix.length minus one.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now when we are applying the pseudocode programmatically, this entire prefix string is basically gonna be kind of like an array, right? Because each character in this string will have an index position. So this is how it would look like, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The first character in this prefix string will be at index position 0. And the last character will be at index position 12. So the size of the array is actually 13. Or size of this string basically is 13. So the loop says prefix.length. The length of this prefix string is 13. Minus 1 is gonna be 12. Right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So basically what we are doing is we are gonna start from the end, that is, index position 12.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And we will go till the start that is index version 0. So from 12 to 0, okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So prefix.length-1 will give us the last index position of the string and it might vary, right? That is obviously the length of the prefix string will change depending upon the expression. Right now we are taking this expression, so the length is, that is the size is 13.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hence we are starting from index position 12 and we will go till 0 in reverse way. So this corresponds to rule number 1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That is reverse the prefix string or scan the prefix string from left to right. We are basically using this type because we can either use reverse the prefix string or we can scan from right to left. So we are going with the right to left methodology.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You can also go ahead by reversing the prefix expression and when you reverse the prefix expression, in that case, the loop has to go from


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 0 to 12, which means from left to right, okay. So keep that in mind. Okay, so let's move inside


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in the loop we have one if and one else if. Okay, which means we have two subparts which can happen one at a time. And what are those subparts? It says if prefix of i that is the symbol that we are scanning currently from, you know, right to left.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If it is a operand, then you have to push it onto the stack. You can see s.push prefix of i.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Else if it is an operator, we have to create op1, that is operand 1. We have to take it from s.top, that is stack of top. Then we have to pop that top. Then we have to take operand 2, which is gonna be the new stack of top. Store it in op2. Remove that as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then form this expression which is gonna be a infix expression.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because we will have prefix of i which is the operator in between op1 that is operand1 and operand2 and push it onto the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We do not have brackets, we do not have opening and closing brackets. So the only two possible cases of the character, that is the only two things that the character can be is either a operand, a operand is variables, you know, a comma b, or it can also be constants, one comma two comma three, or it can be sub-expressions. a plus b entirely can also be a operand. So imagine a plus b star,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So for the star operator, this is one complete operand.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this also can be an operand, right? So this is one scenario, and the second scenario is obviously, if it is not an operand, then it is gonna be an operator. What is an operator? Operator is plus, minus, divided by star, that is multiplication, and raised to. In our case, we are only considering these five operators.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Or it can be a operator. So that's why we have only two conditions. Okay? So if it is an operand, we have to simply push it onto the stack. If it is an operator, we have to pop


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then you again push that entire sub-expression, that is sub-infix expression that you formed, you push it back into the stack. So again, this is pretty similar to postfix to infix. If you watch that, things are gonna be much faster and easier to understand. But now, let's actually dry run this entire pseudocode because


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's how we actually understand exactly what is happening in the stack and how we get the entire infix expression from this prefix expression. Okay, so first things first, we create this stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Step number 1 is done. At step number 2, we are gonna loop from prefix dot length minus 1 which is 12 to 0. Okay, so we will start from index position 12. At index position 12, we check if prefix of i is operant. What is prefix of i right now? It is g.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] G is operand, right? So for operands, you can see 2.1 will be executed.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 2.1 says if prefix of i is operand then we go inside and we have 2.1.1 which says s.push prefix of i. Now if you see the corresponding rule for this 2.1 point, you can see it is over here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That is point number two or rule number two. If the incoming symbol is an operand, push it onto the stack. Simple enough.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For 2.2, that is, when the prefix of i is an operator, in that case we have rule number 3, which says, if incoming symbol is an operator, pop two operands from the stack, add the incoming operator in between the two operands, add opening and closing brackets to the whole expression, and push this whole expression back into the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Point number 3 in the pseudocode that is return s.top which says at the end, pop and print the full infix expression from the stack. Okay?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So all the rules and the pseudocode is pretty much similar to each other and all of them are covered individually.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But anyways, continuing with 2.1.1, we say s.push. So now,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] G is gonna be pushed into the stack. So this G is the new top of the stack. Okay?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Since this if block is executed, obviously the else if will not be executed. So that's how programmatically if and else works, right? So either 2.1 will be executed or 2.2 will be executed depending upon what is prefix of i. If prefix of i is operant, obviously 2.1 will go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If prefix of i is operator, obviously 2.2 will be executed.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So for now, 2.1.1 is executed and then we will come at the end of the loop.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Since 2.1 is executed after this, we will directly come at the end of the loop. We will go at the start of the loop and now I will become.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 11. Okay, so I was initially 12, we were at end. So let's track I over here, I will now become 11. So we are at this index position.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now what is at index position 11? It is f. So f is also an operand, so we will directly push it onto the stack. Now this becomes the new top of the stack. Right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Again, 2.1 is executed, 2.1.1 is executed. We will come at the end of the loop. I will now become 10. So, we will be at index position 10.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It is e, e is again an operand, again pushed onto the stack. e is new top of the stack. Again we move forward, i now becomes 9. So we are at this index position.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So prefix of i, that is prefix of 9 now is an operator. You can see it is a race to sign. So in that case, when it is a race to sign,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We say else if prefix of y is operator, yes it is operator.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Step number 1 inside 2.2 is 2.2.1 which says op1 is equal to s.top.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So we will create op1 which is going to be equal to s.top. What is currently at the top of the stack? It is e. So let me write e over here. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When we say s.pop, we simply mean that we remove the top of the stack. So e is thrown outside the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So let me just erase this out. And now the new top of the stack is obviously F, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So now again, moving forward at 2.2.3, we say op2 is equal to s.top. Let's create op2. I'm gonna write op2. What is op2? op2 is s.top.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which is the new current top of, top of the stack? It is f. So I'm gonna write f over here. We move forward, we go to 2.2.4, we say s.pop. So again, we remove f from the top of the stack. The new top of the stack now becomes g. Okay? Now we go to 2.2.5, we say exp is equal to, so let me write exp over here, equal to


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We have opening brackets, so we have opening brackets as it is.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we say plus OP1. What is OP1 over here? OP1 is E, remember? So let's write E over here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In the exp, that is in the expression. Then again we have plus prefix of i. What is prefix of i currently? We are at raise to sign. So let's write raise to


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we have plus OP2. OP2 is F. So let's write F. Then we have a closing bracket. So let's write closing bracket. And this is the infix sub-expression which is formed using these three symbols.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, we formed a infix string using these three symbols we took the race to sign in between them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So we've got that and when we move forward, if you see at step number 2.2.6, which says as dot push this expression into the stack. So we will take this same expression that we've just formed and we will simply push it onto the stack. So now this is going to be the new stop of the stack. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so this was 2.2, which means whenever we get prefix of i as an operator.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] All these things happen and we create a small infix subexpression and push it onto the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's move forward. Now obviously at the end of 2.2.6 we will come outside the loop and I will now become 8. So we are at index position 8 now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At 8, we have d, d is operand. Let's quickly push it onto the stack because when it is an operand, we simply push it onto the stack. So d becomes new top of the stack. Then i becomes 7.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We are at this index position and again it is a race to operator. So this time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] From the top of the stack. So the new top of the stack is this sub infix expression, right? Then we say 2.2.3 is op2. Let's create op2 and it is going to be equal to s.top which is this sub expression only. So let's write that sub expression over here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we say 2.2.4, we say s.pop, again remove this top of the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So the new top of the stack is G. Now we take these two operands.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] D, but before OP1 we have a opening bracket. So let's use another color opening bracket. Then we have D. D is OP1, you can see.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] After that we have prefix of i. What is prefix of i? It is a race2 sign. So let me write race2 over here. So this is done. After that we have op2. What is op2? op2 is this sub-expression. So I'm gonna write this sub-expression over here as it is. And lastly we have a closing sign or closing symbol. So one more closing symbol. And this is the new expression formed which we will take and push it onto the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because 2.2.6 says so as dot push this expression onto the stack and now this becomes the new top of the stack. So this is the new top of the stack and you can see slowly


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At the end of 2.2.6, again 2.2 is done. So we will go at the start of the loop and I will now become 6. So we will come over here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At index position 6, we have CC is operand, simply push the operand onto the stack. If it is operand, we have to simply push it, right? This is the new top of the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now similarly if you observe 5 and 4, both of them are also operands. So obviously they are directly gonna go onto the stack. So let's skip those steps. Let me just directly push them onto the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so I have directly pushed C, B and A onto the stack. Those are operands. And now we will be at index position 3, so I will become 3. And now we have a plus sign.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So when we have a plus sign, what do we have to do? We have to follow 2.2. 2.2 says create op1


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At 2.2.5 we form this expression, we say exp is equal to, uh, opening bracket. Let's write opening bracket.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Simply take this expression and push it onto the stack. That's how you do it. This becomes the new top of the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The end of the l-sif, that is end of 2.2, we come at end of the loop, i now becomes 2.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So when i becomes 2, we again get minus. So minus is again an operator, so obviously, again we have to follow 2.2. That is this lsif part. We say op1 is equal to s.top, which is a plus b right now. So I'm gonna write a plus b over here. Then we remove this top of the stack at 2.2.2. So the new top of the stack is c.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Opening brackets, A plus B closing brackets, so I'm gonna write it as it is.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we're gonna say prefix of i. What is prefix of i? Prefix of i is minus. So let's write minus. And then we have op2. What is op2? It is c. So let's write c. And then we have lastly a closing bracket.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this new exp is gonna be pushed onto the stack at 2.2.6. So take this expression, push it onto the stack, and this becomes the new top of the stack now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And you can see how slowly the sub and fix expressions are slowly getting built up.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So after 2.2.6 obviously we will come at the end of the loop. I will now become 1. And again at index position 1 we have


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A star operator, which is again a multiplication operator. So again, 2.2.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So again, 2.2 is gonna be executed all these six steps. So let's do that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in 2.2.1, we say op1 is equal to s.top. What is s.top? s.top is this current in fix expression. So let's write that in op1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let me just take this entire OP1, OP2 and the expression formation on over here, okay? Because we don't have enough space over there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So we remove this top of the stack by putting it in op1. Now the new top of the stack is


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This expression, so that is stored in OP2, so let me write OP2 over here and let's take this expression and put it in OP2.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then at 2.2.4 we again pop that out as well. So the only thing remaining in the stack is G.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So now how the expression is gonna be formed, the expression exp is gonna be equal to, at step number 2.2.5 we say opening brackets. So opening brackets. Then we have op1, so let's copy this and paste it. We have op1. It's going a little outside, but I hope you're getting it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we have prefix of i. What is prefix of i? Prefix of i is a star operator. We are, we are at i equal to 1. So, prefix of 1 is star operator. So, let's write star. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we have OP2. What is OP2? OP2 is this sub-expression. Let's take this and paste it over here. And lastly, we have one extra closing bracket. So let's add that closing bracket. Okay, there you go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then at 2.2.6, this expression is pushed onto the stack. So let me write, uh, you know, minified version of it quickly. Okay, so this is that entire expression. I've compressed it and put it into the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because at 2.2.6 we push this expression onto the stack and this now becomes the top of the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So after this, obviously we come at the end of the loop. I now become zero. We are at


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Basically at the last, which means that we have done pretty much scanning.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So the last symbol obviously is again an operator, so again 2.2 will be executed. We say op1. op1 now is gonna be this entire expression. So let's store it in op1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So at 2.2.1 we say op1 s.top, after that we say 2.2.2 s.pop. So we remove this top of the stack. Now the top of the stack is this single element g. Then we say 2.2.3 op2 is equal to s.top which is g now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We remove that as well. From the top of the stack add 2.2.4. Stack is basically empty.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 2.2.5 say create this expression using OP1 and OP2.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So the expression, let me write it over here, exp becomes opening brackets. So first thing is opening brackets. Then we have op1. What is op1? op1 is this entire expression. You can see over here also. Then we have prefix of i. What is prefix of i? Prefix of i is this divide by operator now. Right? So let's write that over here. Divide by return. Then we have op2. What is op2? op2 is g. And then we have one last closing bracket.


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[Assistant] And now at 2.2.6 we push this entire infix expression which is formed back into the stack. So this goes back into the stack. This is gonna be the top of the stack.


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[Assistant] And then we will end this loop because i has become 0.


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[Assistant] Rule number four, that is, at the end, pop and print the full infix expression from the stack, which is gonna be at the top of the stack.


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[Assistant] And this, my friends, is basically the final answer, and if you just crosscheck this,


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[Assistant] Result with the manual conversion result, it is gonna be exactly same, which means that we've pretty much successfully applied prefix to infix conversion using stack data structure and applied the rules and pseudocode correctly.


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[Assistant] So I hope you've understood the entire process of prefix to infix conversion using stack data structure. We've understood the rules and the pseudocode. We took an example and applied the pseudocode onto that example.


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[Assistant] For better clarity you can take other examples, simple examples and apply the same pseudocode as well. Make sure you note these rules and pseudocode down.


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[Assistant] To implement this prefix-to-infix conversion using a stack data structure,


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[Assistant] And obviously I'm gonna be sharing all the details like these rules, the pseudo code, the actual C++ code.


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[Assistant] With you guys on our official website so you can check the link in the video description.


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[Assistant] Subscribe if you haven't already because we have a lot of tech educational content on this channel and I'll see you guys in the next video. Peace!


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[Assistant] Oh, check it out. This has to be it. This is a sundial.


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[Assistant] Well, we need to pay for parking before we head to Chinatown. This is a good spot and I think we can probably...


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[Assistant] Park for maybe two hours? Sure we pay for two hours?


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[Assistant] Okay, let me just grab a card, cause I don't have any coins available. We'll just do card.


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[Assistant] They keep wanting me to put in three and a half hours. Alright, two hours. That's good.


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[Assistant] Come on, wake up. Wake up. Yeaah, approved. Okay, I think, uhm.


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[Assistant] Patrick! Patrick! We're always losing Patrick here. Here we go, okay. Alright, so, let's see what Chinatown might look like. Oh look, there's a gazebo across the street.


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[Assistant] When they, you know, try to design what Chinatown might look like, it's a really


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[Assistant] Busy streets for when you have to cross the street. Basically what you do is you go up here and you look for the one that's vertical


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[Assistant] That's the funny part, because fortune cookie is always gifted to people after, uhm, dinner, and uhm, when you crack open.


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[Assistant] So you can have any kind of smoothie or milk tea you like and add boba to it. Or like aloe vera or like grass jelly. Ugh. Okay. Okay. Do you see pomegranate something? Careful with the steps.


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[Assistant] I don't know, I think that's like a modern misunderstanding of like how a culture affects a country. So if I think of Italy, I don't think of everyone just constantly eating pizza and pasta all the time. So, I mean, I would be...


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[Assistant] It would be awesome to see all the same architecture and all the things that, you know, date back to, you know, forever ago. That would be awesome. But, you know, if I go to Shanghai or Beijing, I don't really necessarily expect to see everyone, you know, walking around, you know, Chinatown.


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[Assistant] Today, our lovely host got up very early, saying that she'd make us a simple and traditional American breakfast. Let's go and see how she is doing.


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[Assistant] Butter, scrambled eggs, and cereal are common American breakfast items.


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[Assistant] Hello everyone, I am your teacher Jesse and today we will read this book.


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[Assistant] Who owns these bones? Oooooh. What are bones? These here are bones. Look at this.


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[Assistant] These are bones, alright? Bones are biol. Biol are bones. Say it with me. Bones.


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[Assistant] Now, the name of the book is Who Owns These Bones?


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[Assistant] Who owns these bones?


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[Assistant] What do we have? We have some teeth here, like this, and it's very long. Who owns these bones? It's a... Right. Do you know what that is in English?


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[Assistant] Good. Yes, a snake owns these bones.


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[Assistant] Let's find out about more bones in Who Owns These Bones by Jennifer Murray.


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[Assistant] We were right, see? A snake owns those bones. The answer was a snake. Now,


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[Assistant] The bones are inside the snake, right? Because they are inside your body.


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[Assistant] Right? This is the snake's body.


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[Assistant] Alright, the snake has many, what are these things called? See these things here? Mmm, those are the snake's scales.


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[Assistant] Outside of the body, a snake has scales.


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[Assistant] Inside the body? A snake has?


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[Assistant] Very good. Yes, inside a snake has bones. This is a snake. Let's go to the next animal. Hmmmm. Who owns these bones? Here we have a head.


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[Assistant] Here we have a long bone, right? Very long. Here we have what looks like a tail, right? Some kind of tail.


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[Assistant] Here we have many bones, many small bones, all going along there.


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[Assistant] Yes, sometimes we see these bones when we eat dinner. Do you know what this is?


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[Assistant] I have scales and fins, okay? You remember a snake has scales, right?


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[Assistant] This animal has scales too. 이 동물은 scale 있어요. I have scales and fins. Okay, fins. fins은 이거래요. Right? 이거래요. Fins.


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[Assistant] Fins help you swim. Okay. Animals can swim if they have fins. Hmmmm. Think hard. Okay. I can breathe in the water. Uh huh.


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[Assistant] 물 밑에서, 바다 밑에서, 강 밑에서 breathe 할 수 있어요. Breathe.


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[Assistant] Is it a cat? No, cats can't breathe underwater and cats don't have fins. No!


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[Assistant] Pigs can't breathe underwater and pigs don't have fins. Is it a chicken?


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[Assistant] No. A chicken has wings. A chicken has wings. This has fins.


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[Assistant] What is this? Guess. This is a...


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[Assistant] Let's find out. Oh, I am.


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[Assistant] A fish. This is a fish. 물고기. 생선. This is a fish. Yes, see? Here, 뱀처럼. scales. 많아요.


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[Assistant] They have fins. A shark has fins. A fish has fins. And, what are these? Right here?


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[Assistant] This is not a scale. This is gills. Okay, say it after me. Gills.


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[Assistant] What do a gill? What does a gill do?


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[Assistant] Fish swim by moving their body from side to side.


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[Assistant] That's how fish swim. 사람들이 어떻게 수영해요? 발 이동하러요.


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[Assistant] People swim by moving their arms. Fish swim by moving their body. Okay. And fish also use their fins to swim. Yes. Fish use their fins to swim. 수영하러 fins 서요. Do people have fins? No. People use their arms


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[Assistant] Now, why do fish have gills? 생선 왜 길 있어요? Let's find out.


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[Assistant] Fish have gills so that they can breathe underwater. Aha, remember. 생선, 물고기들이 물 밑에 살아요.


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[Assistant] So, they have to breathe.


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[Assistant] underwater.


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[Assistant] Right? With our mouth and our nose. Okay? Fish breathe with gills.


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[Assistant] It looks a little bit like a fish, right?


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[Assistant] Look at this. It's got a really big head.


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[Assistant] Wow, that's a really big head and it's got a really big mouth. 진짜 커요. Okay? 바다에서 사는데 물고기 생선 아니에요. Do you know what it is? Who owns these bones? 이 뼈들이 누구의 뼈예요? The answer is


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[Assistant] In English, we can say, In English, we can say, In English, we can say,


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[Assistant] That is the end of part one of who owns these bones. Join me soon for part two.


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[Assistant] Hello, I'm Jesse, your teacher, and it's time for part two of the book, Who Owns These Bones? All right, so.


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[Assistant] We looked at the bones of a snake.


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[Assistant] And we looked at the bones of a fish, and we looked at the bones of a whale. Who owns those bones? Who owns these bones? Let's take a look. 음, 하늘에 날고 있어요.


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[Assistant] Right? It's in the sky. Is it under the water?


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[Assistant] No, the fish and the whale are under the water. Is it on the land?


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[Assistant] Hmm, who owns these bones? Let's read.


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[Assistant] I stand on two feet. Okay. 두 발로 서요. I stand on two feet. 사람이에요? 사람도 두 발고 서요? Is it a person? No. Look at this. 이거 사람처럼 발이에요?


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[Assistant] 이거 사람처럼 머리에요? No, it's not a person.


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[Assistant] I have legs, yeaah, okay. 여기서 다리 있죠? Right? But no arms, huh? 발 없어요. 이거 발 아니에요. 이거 뭐예요? Who am I? 나는 누굴까? Do you know? Who is it?


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[Assistant] Really? You think so?


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[Assistant] Wow, you're right. I am a bird. Bird. Say nun. Bird. Say it with me. Bird.


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[Assistant] Very nice. Yes, this is a bird. See? It has no arms. It has these. Right? Like that. And it has no teeth. It has this. Uh huh. And it has very short teeth.


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[Assistant] Beaks. Yes, this is called a beak.


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[Assistant] Okay, people have mouths. Birds have beaks. Say it with me. Beak.


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[Assistant] But can people fly? 사람들이 날 수 있어요? No. Birds can fly. Why? Because birds have wings, right? Wings. These are wings. 윙 때문에.


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[Assistant] A bird can fly with wings.


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[Assistant] Most birds use their wings for flying.


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[Assistant] But birds have light bones. Why?


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[Assistant] This helps the birds fly.


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[Assistant] 날 수 있어요. A bird can fly because its bones are very light. 가벼워요. Interesting. Let's look at the next picture. What is this? Hmm, okay. Like a bird, this animal also has a


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[Assistant] You remember? Does it have a mouth? No, no mouth. It has a?


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[Assistant] Yes, this has a beak. Okay, okay, okay. And uh, also,


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[Assistant] Right? What is this? This is a


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[Assistant] Right, very good. Yes, it has a beak, it has a wing, and it has legs. Hmm, is it a bird? Actually, this is a chicken. Yes, this is a chicken.


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[Assistant] Is a bird? Yes, a chicken. 치킨은 새 한 가지에요.


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[Assistant] Okay, a chicken is a type of bird. An eagle, 독수리는, bird. 펭귄, 펭귄도, bird. And a chicken is also a bird. 갓지도, 갓지 is also a bird. But birds can fly, right? Can a chicken fly? 닭은 날 수 있어요?


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[Assistant] Noooo. Some birds can't fly. Chickens can't fly. Alright. Penguins can't fly. Mhmm. A chicken can't fly. But...


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[Assistant] These bones are a chicken's bones.


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[Assistant] There we go. See? It's a chicken. Ta-da!


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[Assistant] That's a chicken. A chicken owns these bones.


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[Assistant] Alright, that's everything for part two of Who Owns These Bones. Join me soon for part three.


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[Assistant] It's time for part three of who owns these bones. Yes. So far we've guessed many animals bones. We saw some snakes bones. We saw


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[Assistant] We saw chickens bones, we saw a birds bones, we saw a fish bones, we saw some whale bones. Who owns these bones? Hmm, let's take a look.


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[Assistant] First, does this animal have wings like a chicken or a bird? No.


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[Assistant] Long arms. This animal has long arms. And this animal has long legs. Right? And this animal has a tail.


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[Assistant] And this animal's head, look. Oh, this animal has teeth. Is this animal a person? 사람이에요?


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[Assistant] Nooooo. People have no tails, right? That's a tail. People don't have tails. Pfft. No.


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[Assistant] Let's find out what animal this is. My arms are thin.


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[Assistant] Thin is nalsinhada, okay? Thin.


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[Assistant] This is thicc.


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[Assistant] Thin. Right? His arms are thin. Hmm. I use them to swing. Oh, do you know swing?


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[Assistant] 좋아요. 이동물은 홀이 있어서 밸런스 잘해요.


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[Assistant] Okay, this animal has a tail to help him balance.


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[Assistant] What animal swings in trees and has a tail with long thin arms? What am I? 나는 누굴까? Let's find out. Oh, what animal is this?


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[Assistant] In English, what is Wonsungi?


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[Assistant] Magnificent. Yes, this is a monkey. Right? See? Here's the monkey's tail. Here's the monkey's feet. Right? And here is the monkey's hands. So uhm, let's read about the monkey. I am a monkey.


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[Assistant] That's a monkey, right? Monkeys hold onto branches with their hands and feet.


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[Assistant] Okay, first, monkeys hold onto branches. Alright? A branch is on a tree. Here is a tree.


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[Assistant] Right? This is a branch of a tree. The monkey


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[Assistant] A monkey can hold the branch with its hand. A monkey holds the branch with its hands and its feet. Okay? Sondeo baldo branch jabayo. Their tail helps them balance. Okay? Tail daemune neomuchiji anayo. It doesn't fall. Mmm. Monkeys make


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[Assistant] Loud noises. Yes. Right? Monkeys make loud noises.


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[Assistant] They also make faces as they talk to each other.


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[Assistant] As they talk to each other, 다른 원숭이랑 얘기하면서 monkeys make faces. Make faces 뭐예요? 재밌는 표정 해요. Right now, I'm making an angry face. Right now, I'm making a silly face.


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[Assistant] Right? I am making a silly face.


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[Assistant] Make a happy face. You, make a happy face. Good.


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[Assistant] Let's make a scary face.


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[Assistant] 원숭이도 다른 원숭이랑 얘기하면서 they make faces.


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[Assistant] Who owns these bones? Hmm.


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[Assistant] It looks a little bit like a monkey, doesn't it? 원송이처럼 쫌 보이죠? Look, 원송이처럼 긴 발.


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[Assistant] It has long arms, like a monkey.


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[Assistant] And, like a monkey, it has long legs. Alright. Is it a monkey? No. 원숭이보다 더 커. Alright. Also, a monkey has a tail. 호리 있잖아요. But this has no tail. Hmm. Is it a person? 사람이에요?


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[Assistant] Short arms, right? Not short, but medium. Do people have long arms? No, just 보통. Right? Yeaah, this is not a person.


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[Assistant] No. Do you know what animal this is? It goes like this. Right? King Kong is a very, very big


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[Assistant] Great! This is a great gorilla. Yes, a gorilla has no tail, but...


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[Assistant] It's time for a game! Alright, here we have some animals, right?


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[Assistant] An animal, an animal, an animal, an animal, an animal, an animal. And here we have some bones, or byotagi, skeletons, right?


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[Assistant] Bones, bones, bones, bones, bones. Hmm, who owns these bones? How about this one here? What about this? This is a horse, right? Which one matches the horse?


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[Assistant] That matches the horse. Very good. Alright. What about, what about this one here? What is this? This is a crocodile. Agle. Crocodile. Yes. Where is the crocodile bones? Are they here?


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[Assistant] No, no, no, no, no. Crocodile bones are here!


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[Assistant] Yes, there's a big mouth with many teeth. Here are the crocodile bones.


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[Assistant] Where are the frog bones? Are these frog bones? No. No, these are too big. Right?


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[Assistant] Here are the frog bones. Here are the frog bones. Let's draw a line. Frog bones. And after that, we have a dog, right? Where are the dog bones?


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[Assistant] No, it's too big. Look at the head. Is that the dog's head? No.


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[Assistant] These are dog bones. Small head. And finally, who remembers what animal is this? In English?


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[Assistant] Wonderful! And here are the wonderfully big whale bones. Whale bones are very big.


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[Assistant] This thing, the whale's head is bigger than me. Yeaah.


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[Assistant] A horse owns these bones. What about these bones? Who owns these bones?


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[Assistant] A frog owns these bones. Fantastic! Alright, let's keep going. What about this one? Who owns these bones? This is a


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[Assistant] A whale owns these bones! Wonderful whale! Yes! Excellent!


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[Assistant] And finally, do the omaji mac, finally, we have these bones here. Who owns these bones? It is...


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[Assistant] A crocodile. A crocodile owns these bones. How many did you get right? Did you get five?


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[Assistant] Wow, wonderful. Fantastic. Five, four. That's pretty good.


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[Assistant] Alright, that is everything for who owns these bones. See you next time!


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[Assistant] Hi kids! How are you today? I'm Brian, your teacher, and today we're studying a new book with Brain Bank.


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[Assistant] What is the title of our book? But look, look at the picture. Wow. That's a big animal.


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[Assistant] The title of this book is Mighty


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[Assistant] Mammals, right? M-M, mighty, mammals. What is mighty? Mighty is big,


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[Assistant] And strong, right? Like this animal here. Mighty. In Korean, you might say, kodaehan.


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[Assistant] Mammal is a type of animal, a type of animal that has fur or hair.


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[Assistant] In Korean, you might say po-yu dong-mul, right? Po-yu dong-mul. Mammal.


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[Assistant] Are you a mammal? Yes, we are mammals. Are we mighty? Well, maybe not, some people, but there are some really big mammals, mighty mammals. Let's talk about them in this book. Here is a mighty mammal. Is it a horse?


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[Assistant] No, it's not a horse. Do you know this animal? This animal is called a giraffe. Giraffe.


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[Assistant] It's really tall. Look how tall it is. Wow.


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[Assistant] This is a man here. He's that tall. He's that tall.


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[Assistant] He's not even up to here. He's small. You and I are small next to a giraffe.


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[Assistant] Look at the giraffe. He's climbing a ladder. He's climbing a ladder. He has to climb up


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[Assistant] To see the giraffe in the eyes. So a giraffe is a mighty mammal. Very, very tall.


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[Assistant] We'll talk about giraffes later on. We'll see more about them. Okay, let's begin.


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[Assistant] We're going to talk about different animals. Let me give you some hint or clue.


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[Assistant] I'll describe the animal. Can you guess? Do you know the animal? Let's read together. This mighty mammal lives in the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean.


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[Assistant] Very cold. Really cold. It's far north. Lots of snow and ice. Ooh, so cold. It, it, this mighty mammal has a mustache.


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[Assistant] A mustache, right? What is a mustache?


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[Assistant] Gottsuyam, right? You say gottsuyam. That's a mustache. Do you have a mustache?


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[Assistant] No, I don't think so. Okay, I don't think so. Next, it has two long tusks. Tusks. Tusk is like teeth.


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[Assistant] Ip-baal, right? Or Ip-baal, sorry, Ip-baal, right?


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[Assistant] Two very long teeth. Tusks, like this. Not Dracula, right? No. But really long teeth. Really long. Dracula has small. This animal has really long teeth. Only two. Not all of them. Not all of them. Only two. Dugeman.


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[Assistant] It eats shellfish.


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[Assistant] So shellfish is like choge. Choge, right? Do you eat? Do you like choge? Do you like shellfish? This animal eats shellfish.


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[Assistant] What do you think it is? Moi oh, what is it?


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[Assistant] Can you guess? Well, let's look at a picture of where it lives.


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[Assistant] In this area where it's orange, orange color, it lives way up here, far in the north.


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[Assistant] It looks like this. This is its home. Oh, too cold.


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[Assistant] If we live there, we need a big coat. So what is it? Can you guess?


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[Assistant] Ta-da! It's a walrus, right? It's the walrus. Here are the two long teeth. The two tusks. Tusks. These are the two long tusks.


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[Assistant] A walrus can weigh up to, up to, right? It can get up to four thousand pounds. Four thousand pounds? What does that mean?


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[Assistant] That's around Ichon kilogram, right? Around Ichon kilogram. That's a lot. Ichon kilogram?


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[Assistant] That's about as much as your car weighs. Maybe a Musso, you know Musso, a car, very big car, that's about the same weight, really heavy.


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[Assistant] Wow. Do you weigh ichan kilogram? No, I don't think so. But the walrus can weigh up to ichan kilogram or 4,000 pounds. Its tusks can grow up to three feet long. Three feet?


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[Assistant] What is three feet? That's one meter. Wow! That's really long. Joshim Hale, right? That's very, very long.


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[Assistant] The walrus has to brush its teeth rea- maybe for one hour, right?


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[Assistant] Of course not, but if you had teeth that long, it would take you a long time to brush your teeth. Okay.


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[Assistant] Its body can grow up to 12 feet. 12 feet long. 12 feet? 4 meters. Wow, that's really long.


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[Assistant] So the body can grow up to 12 feet 4 meters long.


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[Assistant] Right? Do yours, does your family have a sports car? Really fast car? But even not a sports car, a regular car, or an SUV, like Musso car, right?


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[Assistant] That would be as big as a sports car. If you see the walrus, you say, oh, musou!


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[Assistant] Oh, I'm sorry. Okay. Maybe it's too long. Hey, I'm sorry, but it's like a big car is coming as big as a big car like Musso. Okay. So it is a walrus.


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[Assistant] Next animal, Daum Dongmul. What is it? Let's look at some hints.


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[Assistant] This mighty mammal lives in Africa. In Africa. Here is Africa. Here is Korea over here. Here is Africa. It, it, this mighty mammal.


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[Assistant] It can swim. Ah, suyong chalheo.


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[Assistant] It can stay underwater for six minutes. Six minutes? Can you stay underwater for six minutes?


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[Assistant] I don't think so. I can only stay underwater for about two minutes. Okay? Okay. It eats grassy plants. So it eats grassy plants. Blah. It likes it.


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[Assistant] It likes to sit in mud. It likes to sit in mud. Ooh, it's cool, right? But dirty.


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[Assistant] It lives in this type of home. What is this? This is a lake and you can see many plants growing on the surface of the lake, on top of the lake.


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[Assistant] So, what is the animal under the water? It is a hippo. A hippo.


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[Assistant] In a long word, we say hippopotamus. Hoho. Hippopotamus. That's a long word. Many people just say hippo. Whooo. Hippo. It is a hippo.


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[Assistant] A hippo can grow up to 15 feet long. Longer than a walrus. 15 feet? That's about 5 meters. Ol meter.


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[Assistant] It can grow up to five feet tall.


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[Assistant] 15 feet long, 5 meters long, and 5 feet tall. That's almost 2 meters. 5 feet tall, it would be about right here on me. I'm 6 feet tall. 2 meters. But 5 feet, about this high. It can weigh up to 10,000 pounds. About 5,000 kilometers.


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[Assistant] More than two cars. That is more than two cars. Woah. That's a really big, mighty mammal.


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[Assistant] Wow. Okay, so we looked at the walrus and we looked at the hippo.


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[Assistant] Which one is bigger? The hippo is bigger. The hippo is mightier than the walrus.


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[Assistant] What other animals are there? Well, we'll talk about those in part two. But for right now, we're going to say, see you later. Okay, that's the end of part one. Okay, come back and let's learn more about mammals in part two. See you then. Goodbye.


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[Assistant] Hi kids, welcome back to part two of Mighty Mammals. Remember, mammals, po-yu-dong-mul, right? Mighty, big and strong.


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[Assistant] So, let's take a look at another mighty mammal.


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[Assistant] Here are some clues, some hints about the next mammal. What is it? Let's find out.


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[Assistant] This mighty mammal lives in Africa and Asia.


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[Assistant] So in Africa, here is Africa and here is Asia.


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[Assistant] This animal lives in both places. Of course, Asia is up here too, but it's too cold. This animal lives in Southern Asia, Nam Asia, right? So, Africa and Asia. It, it,


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[Assistant] Mighty mammal. This mighty mammal. It has one or two


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[Assistant] Horns. Horns on its nose. Isn't that strange? Horn is like bull, right? It has a horn on its nose? Wow.


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[Assistant] Right? Its nose is really big, but it has a horn, one or two. Hmm, interesting.


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[Assistant] It eats plants. It eats plants. Do you eat plants? Yes, sometimes. I hope so. You should eat some plants. It's good for you. But not all plants, right? Okay. It can run.


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[Assistant] It can run up to 30 miles an hour.


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[Assistant] 30 miles an hour? That's about 40 kilometers an hour. Can you run 40 kilometers an hour?


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[Assistant] It lives in Africa and Asia. It has horns on its nose. It has thick skin and it eats plants


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[Assistant] And it runs really fast. What is it?


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[Assistant] What is it? What do you think it is?


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[Assistant] Here is where it lives. This looks like in Africa. This is the home of the mighty mammal. Is it a bird? No, birds are not mammals. It is a rhino. Wow. Look at that. A rhino. Rhino


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[Assistant] Is a short name for Rhinoceros. Can you say that? Rhinoceros. Rhinoceros. Rhinoceros. Rhinoceros.


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[Assistant] It is a rhino. This rhino has


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[Assistant] Two horns. It has a long horn and a short horn. Some rhinos only have one horn. Let's read more about the rhino.


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[Assistant] What is that? We know kilograms. Five thousand pounds, that's around Ichon Obeg kilogram. Ichon Obeg, around there. Ichon Obeg kilogram. It's bigger horn.


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[Assistant] The bigger horn, the dokun horn, can grow up to four


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[Assistant] Feet long. Four feet? That's more than one meter.


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[Assistant] That's really, really long. Ho!


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[Assistant] 무서워요. I'm scared. That's a really long... 무서워요. 무서워. 무서워. Rhino is 무서워 in Korean. Oh my gosh, 무서워. Oh, 재미없어요. I'm sorry.


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[Assistant] Okay, so anyway, the horn can be four feet long, more than one meter. It's very scary. Okay, I'm sorry.


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[Assistant] A rhino can grow up to 6 feet tall. That's as high as I am. I am 6 feet tall. That's about 2 meter, e meter tall.


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[Assistant] Okay? Well, six feet tall is almost two meters. Not exactly. I'm not really two meters. That's really tall. But about that.


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[Assistant] That is as tall as an adult person. Okay? I'm an adult. I'm about six feet tall. The rhino can be as tall as I am. But it weighs five thousand pounds. That's me. That's the rhino.


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[Assistant] The rhino is much bigger, right? He doesn't grow up, he grows long, right? He doesn't grow up, the rhino grows long.


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[Assistant] So look at that, very thin, I wish, uh, very thin person and very dung-dung-hada.


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[Assistant] Rhino. Wow. That's amazing. Okay. So that's a really mighty mammal.


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[Assistant] Hi kids! How are you today? I'm Brian and we're talking about part three of Mighty Mammals.


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[Assistant] We talked about already, uh, four animals. Two in part one.


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[Assistant] Two more in part two, and now in part three, we have two more mammals, two more animals to learn about.


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[Assistant] What's the first animal? Well, here are some clues or some hints, right? Let's read them together and think.


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[Assistant] What animal is it? Are you ready? Let's begin.


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[Assistant] Right? Mighty. Big and strong. Mammal.


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[Assistant] And in Asia, but Southern Asia, Southern Asia, like India and Thailand, Thailand, right? In Africa and Asia, it has


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[Assistant] Tusks. Do you remember tusks? In part one, we talked about an animal that has tusks. Really long teeth. Right? Not Dracula, but a mammal. It was a walrus.


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[Assistant] A walrus has really long tusks. They can get to be almost one meter long. Wow. Okay.