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[Assistant] I was up only tossing and turning thinking about my mom's advice. And I finally decided to do the right thing.


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[Assistant] It's kinda funny, you know, the whole safety patrol thing. Yeah? Ready for the funny part? Well, I'm the one who terrorized those kids!


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[Assistant] So I'd like you to join me on a field trip and I want to go to the beach and take you all to the beach. And so enjoy the sea air and the salt spray. And then let's go down to the water's edge. And what you're going to notice is that we're getting knocked around by the waves and it's really difficult to stay in place, right? But now look down.


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[Assistant] And what you're gonna see is that the rocks are covered by all sorts of sea creatures that are just staying there in place no problem. And it turns out


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[Assistant] If you want to survive in this really demanding environment, your very existence is dependent upon your ability to make glue, actually. So let me introduce you to some of the heroes of our story here, just a few of them.


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[Assistant] So these are mussels and what you'll notice is that they're covering the rocks and what they've done is they've made adhesives and they're sticking down on the rocks.


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[Assistant] And they're also sticking to each other, actually, and so they're hunkered down together as a group. This is a close-up photograph of an oyster reef. And oysters, they're amazing. What they do is they cement to each other


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[Assistant] They build these huge, extensive reef systems. They can be kilometers long, they can be meters deep, and arguably they're the most dominant influence on how healthy any coastal marine ecosystem is going to be, because what they do is they're filtering the water constantly, they're holding sand and dirt in place, they actually other


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[Assistant] If you've been to any rocky beach, pretty much anywhere in the world, you're probably familiar with what barnacles look like. And so what these animals do, and there's many others, these are just three of them, but what these animals do is they make adhesives, they stick to each other, they stick to the rocks, and they build communities. And by doing this,


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[Assistant] There's a lot of survival advantages they get. So one of them is that just any individual is subjected to less of the


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[Assistant] That also, there's a safety and numbers thing because it also helps you, uhm, keep away the predators. Because say a seagull wants to pick you up and eat you, it's more difficult for the seagull if they're all hungry.


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[Assistant] When Mr. and Mrs. Barnacle decide, okay, it's time to have little baby barnacles. I won't tell you how they do that, just to, yeah, but uhm, when they decide it's time to do that, uhm, it's a lot easier and their reproductive efficiency is higher if they're all living close together, right? So, we want to understand,


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[Assistant] How do they do this? How do they stick? And I can't really tell you all the details because it's something we're still trying to figure out.


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[Assistant] Let me give you a little flavor of some of the things that we're trying to do. So this is a picture of one of the aquarium systems we have in our lab. And everything in the image is part of the system. And so what we do is we keep the, you can see in the glass tank there at the bottom there's a bunch of mussels.


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[Assistant] We have the water chilled, we have the lights cycled, we actually have turbulence in the system because the animals make more adhesives for us when the water is turbulent. So we induce them to make the adhesive, we collect it, we study it. They're here in Indiana, as far as they know they're in Maine in February, and they seem to be pretty happy as far as we can tell.


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[Assistant] It's a photo of a small, um, reef in South Carolina. And what we, what we're most interested in is seeing how they attach to each other, how they connect. And so what you can see in the bottom image is two oysters that are cementing to each other. And we want to know what's in between. And so a lot of times we'll cut them and look down. And in the next, um, series of images we have here, you can see


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[Assistant] On the bottom, we'll have two shells with the shell of one animal and the shell of another animal, the cements in between. And if you look at the image on the right,


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[Assistant] What you can maybe see is that there's structure in the shell of each animal, but then the cement actually looks different. So we're using all sorts of


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[Assistant] What's going on in there? And what we're finding is the structures are different, uhm, and the chemistry is actually different, and, and it's, it's quite interesting.


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[Assistant] And then this picture, I guess, let me, let me step back before I tell you what this is.


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[Assistant] Do you know the cartoon The Magic School Bus? Or if you're a little bit older, Fantastic Voyage, right? And you remember they had these characters that they would shrink down to these microscopic levels and then


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[Assistant] They would sort of swirl in and swim around and fly around all these biological structures. I think of this as like that except for it's real in this case. And so what we did is uhm, we have two oysters that are stuck together and this area used to be completely filled in with the cement.


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[Assistant] And what we're finding is that the cement has lots of different components in there, but broadly speaking, they're


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[Assistant] And you break your favorite figurine or a mug or something like that, right? You want to put it back together. So where do you go? So you go to my favorite place in town, which is the glue aisle of the hardware store.


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[Assistant] But before you put, try to put things back together, I want you to try to do it in a bucket of water. It's not going to work, right? We all know this.


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[Assistant] So obviously marine biology has solved this. So what we need to do is figure out ways to be able to copy this ourselves. And one of the issues here is you can't just go and get the materials from the beach, right? Because if you go get a whole bunch of mussels and you try to milk them for their adhesive, you'll get a little bit of material, but you're never going to have enough to actually do anything with. You'll get just enough to see.


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[Assistant] We need to scale this up. Ideally, maybe train car scale, right? So on the top is an image of one of the types of molecules that the animals are using to make their glue. And what they are is they're very long molecules. They're called proteins. And these proteins happen to have some fairly unique parts in them.


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[Assistant] What we want to do is take those little parts of that chemistry and we want to put it into other long molecules.


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[Assistant] Pretty good. What do you do? You start running around the lab, just sticking stuff together. In this case, we just took a tiny bit of glue, and we glued together two pieces of metal, and we wanted to hang something from it to see what it looked like, and so we used a pot of live mussels.


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[Assistant] I thought we were very clever. I don't know. We're obviously much more quantitative about this most often, and so we benchmark against commercial pieces, and we actually have some materials now that are stronger than superglue. So to me, that's really cool. That's a good day in the lab. It's stronger than superglue, right? And here's something else that we can do.


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[Assistant] So this is a tank of seawater, and then in that syringe is one of our adhesive formulations, and what we're doing is we're dispensing it completely underwater on a piece of metal.


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[Assistant] And then we want to make an adhesive bond or joint, right? So we take another piece of metal, we put it on there, and just position it. And you want to let it set up for a while, give it a chance. So we'll just put a weight on it, nothing fancy. This is a tool with lead shot in it, nothing fancy.


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[Assistant] To me, this is really cool. So we can actually get very strong underwater adhesion. Possibly it's the strongest, or at least one of the strongest underwater adhesives that's ever been seen. It's even stronger than the materials that the animals produce. So, so it's, for us it's pretty exciting. It's pretty cool.


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[Assistant] Uh, plywood in, in most structures, uh, the interior of your car, shoes, phone books, things like this. Uh, they're all held together with adhesives and there's two main problems with the adhesives that are used in these materials. The first one is that they're toxic.


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[Assistant] Right, so the worst offender here is plywood. Plywood or a lot of furniture or wood laminate and floors.


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[Assistant] A main component of the adhesives here is formaldehyde, and it's maybe a compound you've heard of. It's a gas, and it's also a carcinogen. And so we're constructing a lot of structures from these adhesives, and we're also breathing a lot of the carcinogen. It's not good, obviously, right? The other issue is that these adhesives are all permanent.


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[Assistant] Right, and so what do you do with your shoes or your car or even your laptop at the end of life when you're done using it?


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[Assistant] For the most part, they end up in landfills. And there's a lot of precious materials in there. We'd love to be able to get out and recycle them, but we can't do it so easily.


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[Assistant] Because they're all stuck together permanently, right? So here's one approach we're taking to try and solve some of these problems. And what we've done here is we've taken another long molecule that we can actually get from corn.


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[Assistant] Very mild conditions, just with water. And so what we can do is we can set things up and we can bond them strongly when we want, but then we can also take them apart when we want.


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[Assistant] Something we're thinking about. And here is


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[Assistant] In this specific case, there's a place where we do not want to be, but we'd like to replace this, right? So, sutures, staples, screws, this is how we put you back together if you've had some surgery or an injury, right? It's just awful. It hurts. In the case of the sutures, look at how much, you know,


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[Assistant] Surgical joinery. So I'd love it if we could get to a place where we can replace systems like this with adhesives, right?


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[Assistant] Uhm, it's not easy. We're working on this, but this is not easy. So think about what you would need for an adhesive in these cases, right? So first of all,


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[Assistant] You need an adhesive that's going to set in a wet environment, right? And if you look at the silly little picture there, it's just to illustrate that our bodies are about 60% water. So it's a wet environment. It's also to illustrate that this is why I'm a scientist and not an artist. I did not miss my calling at all.


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[Assistant] So then, and the other requirements that you need for, for a good biomedical adhesive, you also, it needs to bond strongly, of course, right? And it needs to not be toxic. You don't want to hurt the patients. And, and getting any two of those requirements in a material is pretty easy. It's been done many times. But getting all three hasn't been done.


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[Assistant] Uh, and then if you start talking to surgeons, they get really picky. Like so, oh, you know, actually I want the, I want the adhesive to set on the same time frame as the surgery.


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[Assistant] You know, or I want the adhesive to degrade so the patient's tissues can remodel the site. Okay, so this is really hard. We're working on it.


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[Assistant] Uhm, this is just one image that we have, so what we're doing is we're getting all sorts of bones and skin and soft tissue and hard tissue and sometimes we'll whack it with a hammer. Usually we're cutting it in very precise shapes.


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[Assistant] And then we glue them back together. We've got some exciting results, we've got some strong materials, some things that look like they're not toxic, they set wet, looks pretty good, but I'm not going to tell you that we've solved the wet adhesion problem because we haven't, but it's certainly in our sights for the future. So that's one place that we'd like to see things go.


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[Assistant] And so if we can get away from rivets and get away from welding and put more adhesives in there, then, uh, we might be better off with our future generation of transportation. So...


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[Assistant] For us, this all comes back to the beach, right? So we look around and we, we wonder, you know, how do these sea creatures stick? And you know, what can we do with the technology? And, and I would argue that we have really a lot of things we can still learn from biology and from nature. And so what I'd like to encourage you all to do in the future is,


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[Assistant] Put down your non-recyclable laptops and cell phones and go out and explore the natural world and then start asking some of your own questions. Thanks very much.


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[Assistant] You'll soon find out that some wizarding families are better than others, Potter. You don't want to go making friends with the wrong sort. I can help you there.


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[Assistant] I'm Ron, by the way. Ron Weasley. I'm Harry. Harry Potter.


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[Assistant] That was bloody brilliant! Oh, thank you for that assessment, Mr. Weasley.


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[Assistant] Duffman is undergoing hip replacement surgery.


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[Assistant] As is recorded by historical records such as astrolabes, like this one of Hispano-Morish origin and this Japanese hemisphere based on a Korean map of the 14th century.


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[Assistant] But you require some tweaks to account for some anomalous phenomena.


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[Assistant] Epicycles and deference were necessarily a true description of planetary motion. They were more like mathematical contrivances or, uhm,


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[Assistant] sophisticated hypotheses that could save the appearances, that could save the apparent motions of planets in the blue sky at night.


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[Assistant] The French philosopher Pierre Duhem, in a short but very illuminating book, which was written at the start of the 20th century called To Save the Phenomena,


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[Assistant] Duem captures very well the spirit of ancient Greek astronomy as that of saving the phenomena.


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[Assistant] Provide us with a system of hypotheses that could save the appearances. So interestingly enough,


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[Assistant] Not surprisingly, in 1543, when Copernicus' book, the Revoluzione Bosorbium Celestium, was published, the book came out with a letter to the then Pope.


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[Assistant] To try out weather by assigning a certain movement to the earth.


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[Assistant] Despite the apologetic tone, Copernicus didn't hide too much his belief there is a heliocentric hypothesis.


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[Assistant] Was more certain than any of the fictitious hypotheses of his predecessors.


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[Assistant] Which was very carefully crafted by someone called Andreas Osjander.


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[Assistant] The self-same movements, past and future both, can be calculated by means of the principles of geometry. It is not necessary that this hypothesis be true, then it not even be likely.


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[Assistant] And there to say that the Copernican system was actually true of the Evans. That person was Galileo Galilei.


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[Assistant] Do you love Harry Potter? Would you like to be able to understand these movies even without the subtitles?


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[Assistant] Well today, let's train your ears to understand the native speech in Harry Potter just like magic.


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[Assistant] Our community member, Diana, said that thanks to our lessons, she's getting confident listening and even speaking skills.


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[Assistant] You will too, because every week we make lessons to help you understand fast speaking natives without getting lost, without missing the jokes, and


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[Assistant] So join over 4.5 million learners from around the world who are making learning English fun just like Diana did.


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[Assistant] During the upcoming Hogsmeade visit, from which Harry is forbidden, Fred and George Weasley give Harry the Marauder's Map, written by the mysterious quartet of Moony,


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[Assistant] Prongs, Wormtail, and Padfoot.


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[Assistant] This map leads him through a secret passageway into Hogsmeade where he rejoins Ron and Hermione. In the scene, we are going to see identical twins Fred and George Weasley giving Harry Potter the map.


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[Assistant] The phrasal verb pipe down is used in informal situations, similarly to shut up.


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[Assistant] If you tell someone who is talking a lot or talking too loudly to pipe down, you're telling them to stop talking. Let's take a look at this example.


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[Assistant] In American English, we typically only use this expression when someone sneezes.


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[Assistant] However, in British English, they use it more often. Let's have Andrea explain.


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[Assistant] Rubbish in British English is what we call trash or garbage in American English.


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[Assistant] Rubbish is also used figuratively to refer to something that you think is very low quality or not true.


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[Assistant] Wrench is what you call this tool that you use for turning nuts. In British English this tool is actually called a spanner.


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[Assistant] The word wrench also means a feeling of unhappiness when you have to leave a person, place, or thing that you love. Example. It's a real wrench having to leave home.


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[Assistant] The phrase, if you will, is used when politely asking someone to do or consider something.


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[Assistant] If you say something somely, you say it seriously and without any humor. It's often collocated with swear.


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[Assistant] Now let's explore the word swear. If you say you swear that something is true, or that you swear to it, you say it, hesitantly, in a humorous way, firmly that it is true.


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[Assistant] Also, if someone swears, they use language that is considered to be rude or offensive, usually because they are angry. Example, don't swear in front of the children.


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[Assistant] The expression to be up to something means to be doing something. Example. What are you up to at the moment?


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[Assistant] In the movie, the map is normally disguised as a blank piece of parchment.


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[Assistant] To visualize the map, one must tap it with one's wand and recite, I solemnly swear that I am up to no good. The content of the map will then reveal itself.


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[Assistant] You use messers before the names of two or more men as the plural of mister.


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[Assistant] Like many words in English, is derived from French. Messieurs.


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[Assistant] Mrs. Moony, Wormtail, Padfoot and Prongs.


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[Assistant] The Marauder's Map is a magical document that reveals everything about Hogwarts School. It shows every classroom, every hallway, and every corner of the castle.


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[Assistant] It also shows all the secret passages that were hidden within its walls and the location of every person.


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[Assistant] Here, the verb O is used in the sense of being grateful to someone or something because of what they provided or made possible. Example. I owe a lot to my parents. They have always supported and encouraged me. But, no.


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[Assistant] As a noun, the word study also refers to a room, especially in a house, used for quiet work such as reading or writing.


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[Assistant] If someone paces, they walk with regular steps in one direction and then back again.


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[Assistant] We don't actually hear every word pronounced separately. Like, where did you get it?


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[Assistant] It is incredible that this question has five words, but he barely moves his mouth to ask it. This happens because all the words are connected.


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[Assistant] In order to do so, some sounds were transformed and others simply disappeared.


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[Assistant] So instead of, where did you get it? He says, where'd you get it? Now it's your turn to give it a try.


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[Assistant] By the way, do you ever feel lost when we natives speak fast? It's frustrating, isn't it? We cut some words, we connect others, it does not sound anything like what you learned in school.


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[Assistant] That's exactly why in our Fluent with Friends course, we take you outside of the classroom and help you to learn English as it is really spoken.


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[Assistant] And have a ton of fun doing it with friends, which various academic studies show is the best TV series out there for learning English.


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[Assistant] Well, you can! Just like our student Jonas. And guess what? You can try it absolutely free with our three-part masterclass.


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[Assistant] So learn more and sign up by clicking up here or down in the description below.


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[Assistant] The word secret also functions as an adjective to describe something that people are not allowed to know about. A common collocation is top secret.


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[Assistant] A passageway or simply passage is usually a long and narrow part of a building with rooms on one or both sides or an enclosed path that connects places.


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[Assistant] The one-eyed witch passage was a secret tunnel that led from Hogwarts to the cellar of Honeyduke's sweet shop in Hogsmeade.


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[Assistant] Harry Potter first learned of it from Fred and George Weasley when they gave him the Marauder's Map. A cellar is a room under a house or other building, often used for storing things.


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[Assistant] As a verb, the word head means to go in a particular direction. We usually say beheaded, like in this example. Where are you headed? This means the same as where are you going?


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[Assistant] The word head is also commonly followed by the preposition for and towards. Example, they headed towards the castle.


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[Assistant] The structure give it a is used when you want to suggest that someone should do something. Some common phrases are give it a go, try, shot, chance. It means that you want someone to try doing something new. Give it a listen, give it a look, give it a rest. Let's check out some other examples.


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[Assistant] As a verb, tap means to hit something gently and often repeatedly. Example, if you want to start a conversation in the app, just tap on the button, find a new partner.


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[Assistant] Mischief refers to behavior, especially if a child, that is slightly bad, but is not intended to cause serious harm or damage.


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[Assistant] In the film, in order to hide the contents of the map so the parchment appears blank again, you must tap it and recite Mischief Managed.


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[Assistant] Otherwise is used for saying that if one thing does not happen or is not true, there will be a consequence, usually something bad.


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[Assistant] Which words give the opposite idea of rubbish? Junk. Treasure. Valuable.


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[Assistant] What did you hear? Just give it up and say. Adjust it up and say. Just give it a tap and say.


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[Assistant] I remember when I saw this movie for the first time at the cinema and everyone started to clap their hands in that moment. Let's take a look!


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[Assistant] Hi, my name's Richard from the interview training website, PassMyInterview.com. And in this tutorial, I am going to teach you how to answer the first interview question, tell me about yourself. So whenever you attend an interview, either face to face or online, the first thing they will say to you is, tell me about yourself.


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[Assistant] So I'm going to walk through into this interview room and the interviewer is going to say to me, tell me about yourself and I will teach you exactly what to say. Here we go.


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[Assistant] Thank you very much for inviting me to be interviewed for this position today. I have applied for this job because I believe the skills, the qualities and the experience I have are a strong match for the job description. Now, over the years, I've built up lots of skills and qualities that I believe will be a benefit to your organization. I am a very strong team worker.


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[Assistant] So I am very focused on achieving difficult tasks and projects that are aligned to your strategic objectives.


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[Assistant] Now that was a brilliant answer to that first interview question. Tell me about yourself. And before I give you the exact script to use when answering this first interview question, here are three really important tips. Tip number one, a good format to remember


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[Assistant] When you answer the interview question, tell me about yourself is SET. S-E-T. Now this stands for Skills and Qualities.


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[Assistant] Experience and the type of person you are.


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[Assistant] Now before you go into your interview, whether it's a face-to-face interview or it is online, remember the SET FORMAT.


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[Assistant] So you will notice that when I answered the question, tell me about yourself, I started off and I spoke about the skills and the qualities I had that were a match for the job description. I then went on


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[Assistant] To give them a little bit of information about the experiences I had.


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[Assistant] Remember to talk about how you will help them to achieve their commercial goals in your answer.


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[Assistant] And the whole purpose of that is to get someone within their organization who will make a difference.


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[Assistant] So remember to talk about that in your answer, how you are going to help them to achieve their commercial goals and objectives. And tip number three, before I give you the script, don't be afraid to sell yourself.


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[Assistant] Be positive in your answer and big yourself up. It's really, really important and there is nothing wrong.


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[Assistant] We've saying that you are a great team worker and you can work under pressure because they will want to delve deeper into those skills and qualities as the interview progresses. But don't be afraid to really sell yourself.


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[Assistant] And it's also important to practice your answer to the question, tell me about yourself before the interview begins. Because if you can get this first question answered correctly,


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[Assistant] And with confidence, it sets you up for the rest of your interview. So here's a brilliant answer.


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[Assistant] An example script that you can use when answering this first interview question. Tell me about yourself. Here we go.


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[Assistant] Thank you very much for inviting me to be interviewed for this position today. I have applied for this job because I believe the skills, the qualities and the experience I have are a strong match for the job description.


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[Assistant] Over the years, I've built up lots of skills and qualities that I believe


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[Assistant] And I understand that in order to achieve difficult projects and tasks, you must work with other people and you must bring in their skills and their experiences. I am also very good at working under pressure and I actually prefer to be in situations where the pressure is on because I believe this is where I am at my best.


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[Assistant] Experiences and perhaps educational qualifications and finish off and tell them the type of person you are and what you will do in the role if they hire you.


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[Assistant] Now please do make sure you watch my full mock interview by clicking that link at the top of the video. It's right here on YouTube.


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[Assistant] I answer about 12 interview questions in live format, and it's a brilliant example of how


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[Assistant] In fact, 21 great answers to tough interview questions. Click that link right now in the top right hand corner of the video. Head over to my website, PassMyInterview.com and you can download my PDF guide, my interview questions and answers PDF guide that will make a massive difference to your performance at your interview.


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[Assistant] Please don't forget to SUBSCRIBE. We have over half a million subscribers now.


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[Assistant] And lots of you, I am pleased to say, are passing your interviews, which is great news. You can connect with me on LinkedIn if you want to. I've put my LinkedIn link in the description below the video. And finally, please don't forget to give the video a LIKE. That just motivates me to create more content for you. Thank you very much. And I wish you all the best for passing your interview. Have a brilliant day.


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[Assistant] St. Patrick's Day is upon us. And while the Irish holiday has a very rich cultural and religious history that should be respected and at the forefront of any celebration,


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[Assistant] In today's video, we're going to take a look at the pathway alcohol takes as it travels through your body. We're going to see the various organs and tissues that it interacts with along that way, and we're even going to discuss that oh so wonderful feeling called a hangover. There's a lot to do, so let's do this.


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[Assistant] Alcohol, or more properly known as ethanol, is a legitimate toxin. While there are studies that have shown that small amounts of daily alcohol consumption can actually be good for you,


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[Assistant] Those studies are pretty inconsistent with each other, and you'd be hard pressed to find anybody willing to say that alcohol is overall healthy for you. And this is not me judging you by the way. Personally,


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[Assistant] I am a bourbon man. Those are my favorite ways to whine down.


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[Assistant] But there's never been a point, as I'm sipping on the bourbon, that the cells in my body are like, yes!


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[Assistant] More toxic ethanol for us to detoxify and potentially get harmed from.


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[Assistant] But with that said, if you are an adult of legal drinking age,


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[Assistant] And you're partaking responsibly all the power to ya. I'm not gonna get in your way. Just know that it's not good for you. Okay? Okay, I'm glad we had this talk.


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[Assistant] And we can see that very thing right here, but this is a bisected head in the mid-sagittal plane. So that means that we've cut it right down the center.


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[Assistant] Uh, the mandible here, you can see the roof of the mouth with the hard palate and then the soft palate behind it.


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[Assistant] And then this little flappy thing is called the epiglottis, and we'll see that more what it does in just a second. But the thing to really understand is that lining the tongue and lining the cheeks, in fact lining the entire inner surface of your oral cavity, is mucosal tissue. A mucosal lining


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[Assistant] In fact, they did a study with some wine tasters to see how much alcohol is getting absorbed when they're doing their wine tastings. Think about it. As they sip the wine, they slosh it around and spit it out.


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[Assistant] They may not be drinking it, but it's spending a considerable amount of time in their mouth, and it makes sense to figure out if some of that's been absorbed into the bloodstream. And it turns out a very small amount is. And I mean a very small amount. So that means, when you're casually drinking,


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[Assistant] A very extraordinarily small amount of that alcohol is being directly absorbed into your bloodstream from your mouth.


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[Assistant] But the vast majority of it is going to continue on and it's going to bypass the tongue and enter this next area called the pharynx or your throat.


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[Assistant] This is the upper portion of your trachea, or your windpipe.


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[Assistant] And that makes this your voice box, or the larynx. And you obviously don't want the fluid going down into your airway, so the epiglottis diverts it and pushes it


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[Assistant] Or I guess in this instance, it'd be a food and a drink tube.


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[Assistant] In fact, I have another esophagus for us to look at here. Now, this is going to look a little weird and be probably somewhat difficult to wrap your mind around.


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[Assistant] But this portion, this is the larynx, or your voice box, and this is the Adam's apple. So that means you're looking at an anterior view of the trachea.


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[Assistant] This is the thyroid gland, and that makes this part of the tongue.


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[Assistant] But what we really want to focus on is I'm going to slide the trachea and that nerve with it to the side. And we see this is the esophagus. It's just a muscular tube that is connecting that pharynx up here


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[Assistant] So the stomach is actually going to be the very first real place that alcohol is going to be absorbed into the body. And it's somewhere around 10, maybe 15 or so percent.


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[Assistant] But you can see on this stomach right here, this, if I can hold this up properly, is the end of the esophagus and then it turns into the stomach and it's just kind of curving over to the right.


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[Assistant] But this, I guess I should say here, at the base of the stomach, we have this really important structure called the pyloric sphincter.


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[Assistant] This section of the stomach from here until the small intestine start is called the pylorus. And inside of there is a very strong sphincter called the pyloric sphincter.


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[Assistant] And the reason why this sphincter is so important is because it's literally a gatekeeper. That's what pylorus means. If you drink alcohol on an empty stomach,


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[Assistant] That on an empty stomach alcohol is going to get into your bloodstream quicker.


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[Assistant] But, if you have food or some other drink, what's gonna happen?


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[Assistant] As inside the stomach, a bunch of stomach acid is going to be secreted and this pyloric sphincter is actually going to pinch tight, pinch shut, and it'll slowly start opening. It kind of like just casually opens just a little bit here and there. And that's called gastric emptying. And it's at a very specific rate, well, more or less specific. And that means if you have food with your alcohol, it's going to get into your bloodstream.


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[Assistant] Well, delayed. It's not gonna happen right away.


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[Assistant] At least the majority of it. But like I said, some of the alcohol is capable of being absorbed in the stomach. And in fact, I have a different stomach for us to look at.


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[Assistant] Should be right here if I can get this organized for you.


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[Assistant] And so this stomach has actually been cut. We've removed the pylorus.


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[Assistant] And that allows us to do this. This is one of my favorite things. I love this.


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[Assistant] To reflect it like this so you can see the inside of the stomach.


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[Assistant] And you're looking at all these, uh, folds there. Those are called gastric rugi.


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[Assistant] And that literally means stomach fold. They're just really unique and interesting to look at. What I want you to picture is that this entire


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[Assistant] Is that the alcohol can be absorbed into that mucosal tissue.


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[Assistant] So you can't, this, this is the entire reason why if you take a drink


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[Assistant] After just a couple minutes, you're going to start to feel a rush.


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[Assistant] That's, even though the majority of the alcohol actually hasn't gotten into your bloodstream yet, some of it has because it was absorbed through the stomach here and then went to the liver.


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[Assistant] But the rest of it is actually, if I can pull this back, going to go into your intestines. And I'm going to kind of bring them all over here and we're going to see this a little more clearly in another cadaver to section in a second. But this is where the vast majority of your absorption is going to occur.


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[Assistant] But that is going to take just a little bit more time to pull off. So let's go ahead and look at a different cadaver and finish our journey. Quick recap.


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[Assistant] When you first drank alcohol, it went into your oral cavity or your mouth. Some of it got absorbed into the mucosal tissue and went directly into your bloodstream, but it was a very small amount. You then swallowed it and it went down your esophagus into your stomach.


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[Assistant] So, the stomach on this cadaver here is going to be located, hopefully you can see this.


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[Assistant] Just like that. This is the stomach, and it's hiding behind this massive organ we'll talk about in a second called the liver.


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[Assistant] What's gonna happen, remember as it sends it into the small intestines, the small intestines are going to do that absorbing. So the first place we can see the small intestines coming out on this cadaver is going to be right here. Now, as I move these small intestines, you're gonna notice something's different about it compared to the one we just saw in that other dissection. The intestines are attached to your body. This is called the mesentery.


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[Assistant] And it's, the way I always talk about it with my students is I say like, all those zombie movies, they're wrong.


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[Assistant] In the zombie movies, you get like an abdominal wound and the guts are just like dragging be- I mean, it's possible. It's definitely possible, but that's a pretty serious cut. The intestines are attached.


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[Assistant] And they need to be because what they do is they absorb the nutrients, but they have to absorb them.


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[Assistant] Any nutrients that went into the stomach and got released into the intestines is going to be absorbed into the mesentery and is then going to travel to the liver.


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[Assistant] The same goes for anything that's absorbed by the stomach. And we did just see that alcohol or ethanol is absorbed in some quantity by the stomach itself. So the stomach


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[Assistant] And the mesentery and the intestines are gonna send the alcohol to the liver. And look how big this thing is. On top of it is a diaphragm muscle that I've scooted up so we could get a pretty good view of this liver here.


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[Assistant] It's absolutely enormous. This is the second largest organ in the body if you count the skin as an organ. And this thing is so amazing. It has so many different functions. Uh, but one of the coolest properties, I guess you could say of it, is that it regenerates.


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[Assistant] Most of your body does what's called healing. And healing isn't all that cool. Healing is a mixture of some regeneration, but mostly scarring.


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[Assistant] Not the liver. The liver is capable of true regeneration. And that's because it takes so much abuse. It's not just ethanol. There's other toxins that get into your digestive tract that it has to try and detoxify through some really interesting chemistry. But throughout all that abuse,


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[Assistant] It could take some damage, so it needs to be able to regenerate.


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[Assistant] Oregon. But let's, okay, take a step back again, right? So the alcohol...


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[Assistant] Goes into the liver, and this is where it's going to be met with an enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase. But I should also mention the stomach also had alcohol dehydrogenase.


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[Assistant] What this enzyme does is it interacts with the ethanol and converts it into something called acetaldehyde. Here's the ironic thing.


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[Assistant] Acetaldehyde is actually more toxic than the ethanol itself.


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[Assistant] And if that's where it was left, then we'd have a serious problem. If we left just the acetaldehyde as it was, oh, you'd be in a world of trouble.


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[Assistant] But luckily, the liver is also going to have another enzyme that can convert that acetaldehyde into something that is acetate, and the body can easily take care of acetate, no problem. Here's the thing. The amount of alcohol you consume, and the time frame you consume that,


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[Assistant] Has a pretty strong influence on the liver's ability to convert it all the way into acetate.


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[Assistant] So what'll happen is you drink it, it gets absorbed, it's permeating the tissues, but it isn't able to handle the entire workload all at once. So some of that ethanol is gonna make its way into the bloodstream. Because the liver is then gonna send the blood directly to the heart. And that's what this gigantic thing is here.


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[Assistant] Uh, kind of remove this. This is the pericardium. You can see the heart here.


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[Assistant] And what's gonna happen is the heart is then going to beat and send that blood directly to the lungs right next door. And this is how alcohol can be on your breath.


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[Assistant] Because as the ethanol gets in, remember it's in the blood, but it's going to go to the lung tissue, and inside of the lungs,


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[Assistant] You have all these hollow air sacs that are surrounded in capillaries. And what will happen is the ethanol will evaporate into those little air sacs, and then as you breathe out, so kind of picture of this could inflate, and as you breathe out and it kind of gets squished, what's going to happen is that ethanol is going to go up your respiratory tract and it's on your breath.


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[Assistant] This is the entire premise behind a breathalyzer and why it works.


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[Assistant] So kind of interesting that way that you can actually get rid of alcohol. When you are drinking, you're getting rid of alcohol by simply breathing it out.


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[Assistant] But not all of the ethanol is going to do that. The rest of it's going to go back to the heart and then when that heart contracts, it's going to send the blood all the way up straight to the brain and then start distributing it throughout your entire body. And this is something that's so important to take note of.


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[Assistant] Ethanol is going to interact with pretty much everything in your body, except for bone tissue, because it's just so hard, and fatty tissue, because you have to understand, ethanol is water soluble.


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[Assistant] Fatty tissue is made of lipids, and oil and water do not mix, if you've ever done that experiment maybe back in like elementary school. So,


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[Assistant] Sure, some ethanol can get into your fatty tissue, but it's a very small amount.


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[Assistant] But everything else in your body, so like I just said, your lungs, uhm, I don't know if you're gonna be able to see this all that much, kinda pull this tissue to the side, there's this organ down here called the spleen, uh, your gallbladder,


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[Assistant] Everything in your body is going to interact with the ethanol.


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[Assistant] To what degree does it happen, does the ethanol have an effect on it? There's a lot of factors that go into it.


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[Assistant] It depends on how vascular that organ and structure is in the first place. It depends on your genetics. It depends on your overall health. So it's hard to give you a real solid answer on that. But a real interesting one is what it does to muscle tissue.


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[Assistant] Actually, I should probably take a quick step back. We're gonna see the brain here in a second, but you need to understand that ethanol actually stimulates what's known as your sympathetic nervous system. This is your fight or flight aspect of your nervous system.


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[Assistant] And what that means is it's going to accelerate the heart rate. So the heart's gonna just start beating. And as it starts beating, it's gonna start pushing the blood even more forcefully.


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[Assistant] To things like muscles, it's also going to cause you to sweat. This is why if you're drinking, you'll start sweating because your sympathetic nervous system isn't going off.


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[Assistant] Think of all the ethanol is hitting this skeletal muscle tissue, and that can actually have an effect


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[Assistant] On protein synthesis. So let's say you went to the gym earlier that day, and you got a really great workout in, and then later that night you decide to have a few drinks. Well those drinks...


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[Assistant] Could possibly negate, maybe not entirely, but a significant portion of your gains. Because the alcohol prevents proteins from being built inside of the muscle tissue.


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[Assistant] Absolutely fascinating what's going on there. So, alright, alcohol is now, if we kind of take a step back to kind of make this kind of a process.


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[Assistant] Alcohol is now heading straight for the brain. So what we're gonna do is we're gonna jump on over to


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[Assistant] Some brains and check it out. Okay, so blood is pumping straight to the brain and that's what we have here.


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[Assistant] So this upper portion is called the cerebrum. It's highly folded and such an amazing video. In fact, I did an entire video on just this one section here called the prefrontal cortex. So you should definitely go check that out after this video.


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[Assistant] This lower portion is called the cerebellum, but what we really want to look at because it's so cool is if I flip it over, you can see


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[Assistant] That there, if you look closely that is, there's this grey outer portion and then this white inner portion. This is grey and white matter respectively.


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[Assistant] Grey matter is where the cells of the brain called neurons are communicating with each other. So picture.


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[Assistant] Billions upon billions of connections, all happening in just this tiny little area I'm traversing with the probe, and that's where they're just talking, and they talk with the use of something called neurotransmitters.


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[Assistant] There's other ones like GABA and glutamate that ethanol is also going to affect.


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[Assistant] That you normally wouldn't do, right? Like when you're drinking alcohol, all of a sudden you get this great idea. What if I took off my pants, I jumped on the table, and I just screamed, I'm king of the world!


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[Assistant] Anybody who's not drinking, that is a terrible idea, but someone who's five shots of tequila in, that's smart. Not only is it smart, it's necessary. Right? That just goes to show your choice-making ability has gone out the window, but you're literally thinking slower. But you're also euphoric.


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[Assistant] You're happy about it. It's a really strange combination, but that is only the effect that it has on the neurological tissue.


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[Assistant] It's also going to affect your hormonal system. So what I want to do is look at another dissection and it's that sagittal head that we've already seen. So we can focus on these two structures here.


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[Assistant] So this first one that I'm traversing with my probe is called the hypothalamus. And this is going to be just above another really famous one known as the pituitary gland.


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[Assistant] And that's a big word that's really not all that necessary to remember. Just understand that these two structures control your entire hormonal system.


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[Assistant] The hypothalamus is more or less in charge of the pituitary gland, so it'll secrete hormones that boss around the pituitary gland. But the hypothalamus is constantly monitoring


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[Assistant] Your body. So when you start drinking, the hypothalamus is aware of it.


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[Assistant] And it's going to start adjusting based off of the ethanol. In fact, it's going to basically tell the pituitary gland to


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[Assistant] Start bossing around your adrenal glands, and your adrenal glands are what secrete cortisol, which is your stress hormone, and epinephrine and norepinephrine, also known as adrenaline. So think about it, as you drink,


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[Assistant] Not only do you have diminished choice-making ability, your inhibitions are gone, but now you're stressed and you have adrenaline coursing through your system. If you remember just a moment ago, we talked about the sympathetic nervous system and the heart rate increasing and all that. So this is a pretty potent mixture, but not only that,


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[Assistant] So a diuretic is something that causes you to urinate.


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[Assistant] would mean that you would hold on to water, but what instead happens is ethanol


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[Assistant] This is a really cool dissection. So you can see a bunch of amazing structures in here, and these are just renal pyramids. In this outer portion,


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[Assistant] See blood gets pumped, see if I can grab this, through this artery here, called the renal artery, and that is then going to go to the outside of the kidney and get filtered


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[Assistant] Now, the ADH isn't being secreted, the blood vessels. So think about that. So another name for ADH, or antidiuretic hormone, is vasopressin. And I like that name.


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[Assistant] Because it sounds like you're pressing on blood vessels. Because that's what it'll do. It'll actually constrict the blood vessels inside of the kidney, meaning less blood volume is able to go and get filtered, meaning you make less urine. But, if you're drinking alcohol, what's gonna happen instead is you are going to


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[Assistant] Be peeing a lot. I remember I used to, before I knew any of this, years ago, I used to be confused. Like, I'd have one beer. Like, I'd try to do the math in my head. I'm like, okay, I drink that much, but I peed.


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[Assistant] That much. Like, it never made any sense to me, but that's because...


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[Assistant] of the lowered ADH. But what that means is you are now dehydrating yourself. You're getting rid of all this fluid.


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[Assistant] In order to make this whole process efficient, the kidney is gonna start dropping electrolytes into the urinary tract.


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[Assistant] And so that means as you urinate, you're going to start losing electrolytes.


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[Assistant] And this is going to be kind of important when we're talking about, or maybe important.


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[Assistant] With hangovers, but just think about it like this. Not only are you dehydrated, you're also lowering your ability to rehydrate.


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[Assistant] Because electrolytes are what attract water back into your body.


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[Assistant] So I'm sure you're starting to see where this is all going.


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[Assistant] Jacked out of your mind on adrenaline and stress hormone, you are making bad decisions, you're happy about it, and you gotta pee all the time.


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[Assistant] I mean, if that does not sum up the alcohol experience, I don't know what does. At the same time though,


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[Assistant] Alcohol doesn't affect every single individual in the exact same way. There are certain things that affect


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[Assistant] How it affects you. So for instance, sex is a large one. You see, females have a higher body fat percentage. And so let's say I had a male and a female who weighed the exact same.


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[Assistant] And they drink the exact amount of, same amount of alcohol. Well what would happen since the female has a higher body fat percentage, that also means she actually has less blood volume. So that same amount of alcohol,


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[Assistant] But things like age are also gonna play a giant role. Uhm, you have things like, uh,


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[Assistant] Genetics. There's certain people just aren't able to produce the enzymes in enough quantity to properly break down alcohol.


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[Assistant] Like we mentioned earlier, do you have food in your stomach? Do you have drink in your stomach? These things are all going to play a pretty big role. But!


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[Assistant] We haven't even talked about what happens after all of this. After all the fun. The hangover.


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[Assistant] Hangovers are actually still pretty mysterious. Like, we have general ideas, like, I can tell you a hangover is essentially because you're dehydrated, uh, lack of sleep,


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[Assistant] Uh, just maybe physically beat up because who knows what you're doing, like jumping on tables saying you're the king of the world. Like we can say like generally there's all these little things that add up to create the hangover. But if you actually start trying to break down specific pathophysiology, the real causes, it gets kind of hard to figure out what's going on.


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[Assistant] One of the leading culprits, at least what we think, is that acetaldehyde that we mentioned earlier.


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[Assistant] So remember acetaldehyde is more toxic than the ethanol itself.


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[Assistant] And so the idea is that too much acetaldehyde can actually start to create that hangover, or at least some of the symptoms of that hangover. Which I should probably mention the symptoms, I mean they're gonna be things like


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[Assistant] Everybody, and these are all everybody's favorite, right? You've all been there. Uh, diarrhea, um, nausea, possible vomiting.


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[Assistant] Uhm, just a fatigue, you're just exhausted and you have an extreme loss of appetite, which is interesting because if we're talking about how to overcome the hangover,


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[Assistant] There's also not a lot of real understanding as to what can solve it other than time.


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[Assistant] I don't know about you, but I've heard probably every single remedy under the sun.


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[Assistant] I used to be in the United States Marine Corps, and if any of you know about United States Marines, we like to drink!


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[Assistant] And so I remember hearing so many different remedies after a weekend of just harsh, inappropriate drinking. And my go-to was actually, please don't judge me too harshly for this, my go-to was about as greasy,


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[Assistant] of a breakfast sandwich from McDonald's as I could possibly get.


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[Assistant] And then some kind of sports drink, like a Gatorade or Powerade, and I did that because


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[Assistant] Someone told me that would fix it at some point and I just kept on doing it.


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[Assistant] There's no evidence that that actually helps all that much. Uhm, some people will say coffee. Some people will say a shower. Uh, sleep is obvious. That's definitely gonna help, but the only thing that's actually been proven is time itself. You have to wait it out.


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[Assistant] If you, if you're just depending, like there's no magic pill. Although I am curious to see if you can leave it in the comments below what you may have heard or what you do or what you swear by because don't get me wrong, like I still to this day, despite everything I know, if I, if I do have a hangover, like my first inkling is like, I gotta go get like some really gross breakfast sandwich and that's going to fix it. And what's funny is it never does.


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[Assistant] But I keep doing it anyways. Again, please try not to judge me.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching everyone. I had a blast filming this video, but I wanted to take a moment and just give my thanks to those who donate their bodies to science because while I'm trying to make this lighthearted and fun so we can at least enjoy this, I also want to be respectful and understand


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[Assistant] The amazing gift that they have given because without their generous gifts.


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[Assistant] You know, five minutes with a kidney or five minutes with any structure really is


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[Assistant] You learn more than in five hours in the classroom. Or maybe you learn something different that you just couldn't learn in the classroom. And so,


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[Assistant] As fun as we're having with this video, it's nice to be able to see these structures so you can better understand and hopefully make better decisions.


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[Assistant] With your drinking, especially the St. Patrick's Day or, I don't know, maybe it's Wednesday.


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[Assistant] But again, I just wanted to extend my thanks and gratitude to those who donate their bodies to the science. But as always, please like, comment, subscribe if you haven't already, which if you haven't, what are you doing? We try to make videos like once a week, sometimes twice a week, and if the stars align, we would love to push it to three to four videos per week.


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[Assistant] Please do so responsibly and try not to take your pants off and say you're king of the world. If you don't do that, as far as I'm concerned, it's a win.


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[Assistant] So, what does deep learning have to do with the brain? At the risk of giving away the punchline, I would say not a whole lot. But let's take a quick look at why people keep making the analogy between deep learning and the human brain. When you implement a neural network, this is what you do, void prop and back prop.


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[Assistant] And I think because it's been difficult to convey intuitions about what these equations are doing, really gradient descent on a very complex function, the analogy that is like the brain


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[Assistant] has become, uhm, really an oversimplified explanation for what this is doing. But the simplicity of this makes it, you know, kind of seductive for, uh, people to just say it publicly, as well as for media to report it. And it's certainly called the popular imagination. And there is a very loose analogy between, let's say, a logistic regression unit, uh, with a sigmoid activation function, and


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[Assistant] Here's a cartoon of a single neuron in the brain. In this picture of a biological neuron,


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[Assistant] Uhm, this neuron, which is a cell in your brain, receives electric signals from


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[Assistant] A simplistic analogy between a single logistic unit, between a single neuron in a neural network, and a biological neuron like that, shown on the right.


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[Assistant] I think that today even neuroscientists have almost no idea what even a single neuron is doing. A single neuron appears to be much more complex than we are able to characterize with neuroscience.


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[Assistant] And while some of what it's doing is a little bit like logistic regression,


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[Assistant] There's still a lot about what even a single neuron does that no one, that no human today understands.


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[Assistant] For example, exactly how neurons in the human brain learn is still a very mysterious process.


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[Assistant] And it's completely unclear today whether the human brain uses an algorithm that does anything like backpropagation or gradient descent or if there's some fundamentally different learning principle that the human brain uses.


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[Assistant] So when I think of deep learning, I think of it as being very good at learning very flexible functions, very complex functions to learn x to y mappings, to learn input output mappings in supervised learning.


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[Assistant] And whereas the, it's like the brain analogy, maybe that was useful once, uhm, I think the field has moved.


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[Assistant] To the point where that analogy is breaking down and I tend not to use that analogy much anymore.


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[Assistant] So that's it for neural networks and their brain. Uhm, I do think that maybe the field of computer vision has taken a bit more inspiration from the human brain than other disciplines that also apply deep learning, but uhm, I personally use the analogy, you know, to the human brain less than I used to.


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[Assistant] So that's it for this video. Uh, you now know how to implement forward prop and back prop in gradient descent even for deep neural networks. Best of luck with the premier exercise and I look forward to sharing more of these ideas with you in the second course.


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[Assistant] Uhm, this is a short game that, uhm, makes sense in effect in the last period, so, the second last period, the first period, so.


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[Assistant] So with a two head rule, like you have a 75% chance of having another game. So with those payoffs, uhm, even one period, the payoff of cooperating twice is the same as defecting once. So, like, additional periods.


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[Assistant] We don't know when the game is going to end or if it's going to end, so there's no last period.


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[Assistant] Oh wait, where, oh the repairs are north, northeast a little. From, from the cabin, I think.


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[Assistant] Oh, now, nice, nice, nice, nice, nice, nice. Hey, now what?


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[Assistant] I'm just gonna say I went ahead and actually decided to go to the helipad. While they're all distracted, I'm gonna go sabotage. Okay, sounds good.


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[Assistant] Who's imposter? I'm- I am Traders with Albin.


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[Assistant] I'm like, where are you guys, where are you guys? I'm pretty close. Just, just hold on a trail. Wait, which way though? I'm really cold. Wait, I'm gonna, I'm gonna head back but, uh, the second objective is electronic scraps.


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[Assistant] I dare you to, uh, sabotage the power station if you can.


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[Assistant] Yeaah, yeaah. I wonder if Ike is down or if he went to bed or-


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[Assistant] Oh, I mean, it's just doing the objectives. I'm pretty sure it's really easy to- Yeah. Y'all figuring it out.


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[Assistant] Oh yea, I think the best strat is to spam bunkers. Yea yea. Yeaah. Oh, I think Ike's joining?


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[Assistant] Are you online on Steam?


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[Assistant] You have a, in the second period you have a temptation to play CC even if the person defected on you.


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[Assistant] So with a two head rule, like you have a 75% chance of having another game. So with those payoffs, uhm,


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[Assistant] Even one period, the payoff of cooperating twice is the same as defecting once, so like additional periods.


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[Assistant] It's better if you can continue cooperating and the percentage is high enough that


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[Assistant] Ha! That does look like a smile. But unfortunately, this tree, er, uh, uh, tree-von is in the way of the new portico that we're building for McMullen Tower.


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[Assistant] I'm the only one tall enough to get it down from there.


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[Assistant] Okay, let me put this in place. Crank, crank, crank. Now let's test it. Roll it!


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[Assistant] The movie looked perfect on the clean white screen.


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[Assistant] Not till tonight. Okay, gotta lift some beams into place at the snack stand. Vroom!


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[Assistant] Uh oh. I think you've got something on the screen, stinky and dirty. Let me just clean it off for you.


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[Assistant] Whoa! I-I-I think I'm stuck to the screen!


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[Assistant] It's so huge. The screen is too big. It won't fit.


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[Assistant] Oh no, but I can't see over Big Ben. I don't wanna be in Tall's way. I can try one of those what-ifs.


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[Assistant] Well, the realists are not gonna be impressed. And here are two possible realist rejoinders.


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[Assistant] So the scientific realist will claim that she has a story to tell about what makes a theory successful, namely that the theories that survive are successful.


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[Assistant] Because they are true, because the entities that they postulate are real and because what the theory says about those entities is true or approximately true.


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[Assistant] Didn't survive, the theory that failed, failed, because there were simply faults, like the ether theory, or the phlogiston theory, or the caloric theory.


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[Assistant] So this is the first rejoinder, uh, against von Frass and the reformulation of the numerical argument.


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[Assistant] This distinction has been at the center of a very voluminous literature, which I won't have the time to cover today.


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[Assistant] Philosophers have been concerned about the way in which this distinction is drawn or can be drawn.


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[Assistant] To deliver us a reliable image about what there is, why should we trust our naked eye more than our scientific instruments?


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[Assistant] So here I want to enter into the intricate details of the arguments pros and against the observable and observable distinction.


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[Assistant] The response says that we are justified to believe in unobservable entities.


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[Assistant] That leads us to unobserved observables. So, what is an unobserved observables? Well, consider the many ways in which


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[Assistant] Perfectly observable objects may go unobserved.


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[Assistant] None of us has ever seen a dinosaur. Yet, if we could travel back in time...


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[Assistant] So a dinosaur is a classical example of an unobserved observable. So people like Kitcher and Lipton have been arguing that


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[Assistant] Is that we infer the hypothesis which would, if true, provide the best explanation of the available evidence.


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[Assistant] Thus we infer the existence of marine anthropodes, like trilobites, because this is the best explanation for these fossils.


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[Assistant] Namely, we choose from a pool of competing explanatory hypotheses the one that we regard the best, the one that if true would provide a deeper understanding of the available evidence.


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[Assistant] It shows that scientific hypotheses that we choose and we are willing to believe tend to be those that would provide


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[Assistant] This is what science is all about. We don't rely necessarily on our eyes or technological instruments to believe in the unobservable entities.


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[Assistant] In order to draw conclusions about how our universe is going to be like.


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[Assistant] The sound of silence. Simon and Garfunkel wrote a song about it. But silence is a pretty rare commodity these days.


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[Assistant] And we're all paying a price for it, in terms of our health. A surprisingly big price, as it turns out.


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[Assistant] Luckily, there are things we can do right now, both individually and as a society, to better protect our health that give us more of the benefits of the sounds of silence.


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[Assistant] Whenever you leave a concert or a bar and you have that ringing in your ears, you can be certain that you have done some damage to your hearing. Likely permanent. And that's very important.


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[Assistant] However, noise affects our health in many different ways beyond hearing. They are less well known, but they are just as dangerous as the auditory effects.


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[Assistant] Well, noise is defined as unwanted sound, and as such both has a physical component, the sound, and a psychological component, the circumstances that make the sound unwanted. A very good example is a rock concert.


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[Assistant] A person attending the rock concert being exposed to 100 decibels does not think of the music as noise.


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[Assistant] This person likes the band and even paid a hundred dollars for the ticket. So no matter how loud the music, this person doesn't think of it as noise.


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[Assistant] In contrast, think of a person living three blocks away from the concert hall. That person is trying to read a book, but cannot concentrate because of the music.


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[Assistant] And although the sound pressure levels are much lower in this situation, this person still thinks of the music as noise and it may trigger reactions that can, in the long run, have health consequences.


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[Assistant] Because noise affects our health in so many ways beyond hearing. However, it's becoming increasingly difficult


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[Assistant] To find quiet spaces in times with constantly increasing traffic, growing urbanization, construction sites, air conditioning units, leaf blowers, lawn mowers, outdoor concerts and bars, personal music players and your neighbors partying until 3 a.m.


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[Assistant] In 2011, the World Health Organization estimated that 1.6 million healthy life years are lost every year due to exposure to environmental noise in the Western European member states alone.


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[Assistant] You may have to raise your voice to be understood. In extreme cases, you may even have to pause the conversation.


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[Assistant] It's also more likely to be misunderstood in a noisy environment. And these are all likely reasons why studies have found that children who attend schools in noisy areas are more likely to lag behind their peers in academic performance.


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[Assistant] Another very important health effect of noise is the increased risk for cardiovascular disease and those who are exposed, uh, to relevant noise levels for prolonged periods of time.


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[Assistant] Noise is stress, especially if we have little or no control over it.


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[Assistant] Our body excretes stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol that lead to changes in the composition of our blood and in the structure of our blood vessels, which have been shown to be stiffer after a single night of noise exposure.


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[Assistant] Epidemiological studies show associations between the noise exposure and an increased risk for high blood pressure, heart attacks and stroke.


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[Assistant] And although the overall risk increases are relatively small, this still constitutes a major public health problem because noise is so ubiquitous and so many people are exposed to relevant noise levels.


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[Assistant] A recent study found that US society could save 3.9 billion dollars each year by lowering environmental noise exposure by five decibels, just by saving costs for treating cardiovascular disease.


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[Assistant] There are other diseases like cancer, diabetes and obesity that have been linked to noise exposure, but we do not have enough evidence yet to in fact conclude that these diseases are caused by the noise.


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[Assistant] Yet another important effect of noise is sleep disturbance. Sleep is a very active mechanism that recuperates us and prepares us for the next wake period.


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[Assistant] And our auditory system has a watchman function. It's constantly monitoring our environment for threats, even while we're sleeping.


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[Assistant] So noise in the bedroom can cause a delay in the time it takes us to fall asleep. It can wake us up during the night.


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[Assistant] We have the hypothesis that if these noise-induced sleep disturbances continue for months and years, then an increased risk for cardiovascular disease is likely the consequence.


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[Assistant] However, we're often not aware of these noise-induced sleep disturbances because we're unconscious while we're sleeping.


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[Assistant] And research subjects would often wake up in the morning and say, ah, I had a wonderful night. I fell asleep right away, never really woke up.


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[Assistant] When we would then go back to the physiological signals we had recorded during the night, we would often see numerous awakenings and a severely fragmented sleep structure.


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[Assistant] These awakenings were too brief for the subjects to regain consciousness and to remember them during the next morning, but they may nevertheless have a profound impact on how restful our sleep is.


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[Assistant] A good sign of too loud is once you start changing your behavior.


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[Assistant] You may have to raise your voice to be understood or you increase the volume of your TV. You're avoiding outside areas or you're closing your window.


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[Assistant] Many people will move away to less noisy areas, but obviously not everybody can afford that.


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[Assistant] So what can we do right now to improve our sound environment and to better protect our health?


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[Assistant] For example, many owners of movie theaters seem to think that only people hard of hearing are still going to the movies.


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[Assistant] If you complain about the noise and nothing happens, demand a refund and leave. That's a language that managers typically do understand.


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[Assistant] Also, talk to your children about the health effects of noise and that listening to loud music today will have consequences when they're older.


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[Assistant] You can also move your bedroom to the quiet side of the house, where your own building shields you from road traffic noise.


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[Assistant] If you're looking to rent or buy a new place, make low noise a priority.


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[Assistant] In general, seek out quiet spaces, especially on the weekend or when you're on vacation. Allow your system to wind down.


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[Assistant] When I returned to the United States and entered the airport, a wall of sound hit me.


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[Assistant] This tells you that we don't realize anymore the constant degree of noise pollution we're exposed to and how much we could profit from more quiet spaces. What else can we do about noise?


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[Assistant] Well, very much like a carbon footprint, we all have a noise footprint, and there are things we can do to make that noise footprint smaller. For example,


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[Assistant] Don't start mowing your lawn at 7 a.m. on a Saturday morning. Your neighbors will thank you. Or use a rake instead of a leaf blower.


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[Assistant] In general, noise reduction at the source makes the most sense. So whenever you're looking to buy a new car, air conditioning unit, blender, you name it, make low noise a priority.


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[Assistant] Many manufacturers will list the noise levels that devices generate and some even advertise with them. Use that information.


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[Assistant] Many people think that stronger noise regulation and enforcement are good ideas, even obvious solutions perhaps.


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[Assistant] But it's not as easy as you may think, because many of the activities that generate noise also generate revenue.


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[Assistant] Our research tells politicians at what noise level they can expect a certain health effect, and that helps inform better noise policy.


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[Assistant] Robert Koch supposedly once said, one day mankind will fight noise as relentlessly as cholera and the pest. I think we're there, and I hope that we will win this fight. And when we do, we can all have a nice, quiet celebration. Thank you.


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[Assistant] Ugh, nice smelling you again, truckster. Back to your stinky self, eh?


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[Assistant] If you have what looks on the surface at least to be a no-win decision, that is, if somebody's going to be mad at you no matter what, then I think the best thing to do is to take it head on right from the beginning and say, I have reached the decision that I believe is best for the company, for the foundation, for the, you name it.


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[Assistant] I think that it won't make anybody fully happy. And I'm sorry about that.


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[Assistant] In the end, it was my call to make, I did, I consulted with all of you, I listened, I looked at all the facts, I thought about this nine different ways, and I made this decision. And I do want you to know I did hear you, I did try to take into account your interests, and here is why I made the decision I did. In other words, if you're going to make a decision that makes everybody mad, and everybody includes people you need,


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[Assistant] There are some times when the blizzard of conflicting facts make a decision much more like pursuing an answer in a scientific lab than doing a math problem, for which there is a, an actual and provable answer.


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[Assistant] Like, uh, White-Eyes now are working out the logistics in the Normandy invasion.


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[Assistant] He actually was right about most of them, but the main thing was there was a plan. There was an execution strategy and it was well led. So it didn't matter that.


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[Assistant] By the certainty that there'll be some failure, that you can't act.


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[Assistant] Uh, either because you decided your previous position wasn't right, or because circumstances have changed dramatically.


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[Assistant] Sometimes a refusal to change your position in the face of dramatically changed circumstances can put your whole enterprise at risk.


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[Assistant] So you have to remember, you got hired to lead a parade of people committed to a common destination.


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[Assistant] And you don't want to just put a big rock in the middle of the road to the destination. You can't do it. So I think it shows strengths not weaknesses when you change position for the right reason. Who could possibly be right?


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[Assistant] And boy, if you stay in politics any time, but if you're in business 20 years, you'll be asked your opinion about 30 things, 50 things, 100 things.


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[Assistant] Now, if you made a mistake that had calamitous consequences and you won't own it, well that's one thing. But a lot of times,


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[Assistant] Or just people who are dying to say, I told you so, or play the blame game. You don't want that. You want, you can live with whatever happens as long as you can say, I think I had a good framework through which I saw the problem. I think we had good analysis of what, where we wanted to go and what it would take to solve the problem. And we had a good, diverse, honest team that did their best. If you can do that, then,


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[Assistant] Most problems can be corrected and better addressed.


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[Assistant] In such a circumstance, how do you decide whether to deal with the problem now or whether to kick the can down the road? And most tough-minded grown-ups would say,


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[Assistant] Making a lot of decisions is you have to decide whether your problem


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[Assistant] You have an abscessed tooth, or your kid has an absitute.


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[Assistant] If you scratch it, it'll just get worse and could get infected and could be terrible. But if you have the patience to wait it out, it will probably get better. Now, I'll give you a simple example before that may not apply anymore.


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[Assistant] But before the recent, more aggressive nationalist stand taken by China.


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[Assistant] I thought the success of and independence of Taiwan was a scab on the knee. That is, they had 20 million or so people working in mainland China for Taiwanese companies. It was clear that they had worked out, uh, a way of dealing with each other that was going to be taken care of over time.


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[Assistant] The worst thing we or anybody else could have done is to make it worse. It's the scabble and they let it alone. Now, President Xi all of a sudden says like out of the blue,


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[Assistant] You know, Taiwan is our sacred interest and I do not intend to pass this problem on to another Chinese leader.


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[Assistant] Bluffin', is it just bravado? Do they, or they want to go take the Taiwanese defense system out?


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[Assistant] But the point is, it forces the United States and other friends of Taiwan.


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[Assistant] Uh, Hilary says it all the time. Chelsea says it all the time. And, you know, I try to model it.


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[Assistant] Get caught trying to do the things that you said you'd do when you got the job. Somebody hired you or the voters hired you.


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[Assistant] The winds may change dramatically after you take this leadership position.


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[Assistant] And you said you would do something that you probably is going to be much harder to do. Then you should sit and think.


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[Assistant] How can I keep my word to do this or to try to do this? It's almost impossible that we can succeed now. Is there a way I can get caught trying that will build support? Not just for my leadership, but for what we're trying to do so that if there is any chance


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[Assistant] And the circumstances under which you're dealing with this, whatever it is, are totally different. If you still think it needs to be done, you should get caught trying. You have to recognize that, like everyone else who's ever lived, you will not get everything you want.


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[Assistant] You are doing something that you deeply believe in is right. Sometimes it has to be enough to get caught trying. And if you are reluctant to try for fear of failure or exhaustion or criticism or anything else,


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[Assistant] You miss out on a big part of living. For, you know, human striving is in itself a beautiful thing.


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[Assistant] They have to first do everything they can to accomplish what they said they would do.


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[Assistant] Second, they need to deal with the incoming fire, with things come up. Things always come up in life. And to complicate it just a little more.


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[Assistant] To think about what's going to be like 5, 10, 15 years from now and what decisions you can make now often times at very low cost that will have enormous consequences then. For example, uh,


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[Assistant] The two that always come to mind are the three billion dollars I spent of Americans' tax money on sequencing the human genome. It has now sparked somewhere between


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[Assistant] 4 and 700 billion dollars of direct economic activity. The best investment America ever made. But at the time,


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[Assistant] We didn't know, I just knew that it had to be done looking down the road. Something even smaller was the signing.


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[Assistant] By DARPA, by the Defense Department, by American taxpayers' money.


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[Assistant] Uh, and there was real worry that we were giving some enormous advantage to our adversaries.


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[Assistant] And we could save a lot of lives. It could be fewer auto accidents. We could find people as we did in Haiti as early as 2010. We found a lot of people buried beneath the rubble because of GPS connecting to their cell phones.


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[Assistant] Looking to the future that maybe only your children or grandchildren will live, but trying to avert the worst consequences that you can foresee


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[Assistant] And grasp the best ones that you can foresee. You've got to do that. So you have to implement your agenda, deal with the incoming problems, and look around the corner. If you do all three, you can be a really fine leader.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When negotiating, what are the most effective things you can do?


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[Assistant] Is to help the other side see why a proposal you advocate is also good for them. It's something I've tried to do throughout my career. If I had a difference with Boris Yeltsin over expanding, uh, NATO in the central Europe and the Baltics, for example.


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[Assistant] I would tell them why I thought it was over the long run.


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[Assistant] Please think about the Poles and the Czechs and the Hungarians and think what they've been through.


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[Assistant] Please think what it's been like for the Baltics since the 1930s. We got there, but first I said, you have to decide how to define your greatness.


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[Assistant] And it sounds fairly contemporary, as I said to Yeltsin, you know you have.


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[Assistant] Staggering capacities and computer technologies. So you're not going to win on the nuclear battlefield. We don't want to do that.


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[Assistant] And you now don't have a particularly strong economy and you do.


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[Assistant] Have the ability to leverage your neighbors because you have so much oil and gas and you control a lot of the pipelines. But that's not a lasting solution. But you could have Silicon Valley in Moscow. You can become a great source of creation of wealth and opportunity for the Russian people. So you may be tempted to say,


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[Assistant] Our greatness is about our vastness and our mineral wealth and our ability to control our neighbors. And then to


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[Assistant] We can our adversaries by using this new power.


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[Assistant] And some very impressive scientific advances. After all, Sputnik went up first in the space.


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[Assistant] And it was a debate I was winning with Yelson. And I said, look, I want you to succeed, but you have to define success.


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[Assistant] That led in 1995 and 1996, the lead up to it, were the budget fights there, where the government was shut down twice.


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[Assistant] Block granting the Medicare, Medicaid and food stamp programs so the states could.


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[Assistant] Cut for people basically their access to healthcare and food and children and do all these other things. And you know, the Democrats were, you know, about to scream and everybody was mad. And I said, I said, I said, we need to stop. I pointed at the president's chair behind the desk at the Oval Office. I said,


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[Assistant] Is to get somebody else sitting behind that chair. I said, I don't care if my popularity drops to 10%. I would rather be thrown out of here than put this on the American people. I'm not going to do it. It just stopped the meeting.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When I said you have to have someone else sitting in that chair to get this. Then they realized.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You have to say no as well as yes, but you have to know when you'll quit. When you're the negotiator, you have to know.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What you won't do. And at some point.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because otherwise you can't embrace what you will do. And no one's free enough to do it. Because both sides are sitting there still hoping that they can bully or pressure or fool someone to agreeing into something that they have no intention of doing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So sometimes you just have to clear the air, and when you do clear the air, you risk having the whole thing break down. If you really want to engage in serious negotiations, you have to have inside yourself an absolute conviction.