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[Assistant] I get the orange chocolate, two guitar sheets down, flatten it out, make the disc, done.


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[Assistant] So thin that any wrong movement could snap this disc.


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[Assistant] I'm walking my dish up to the judges. I've never been in this situation before.


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[Assistant] I spent so much time at the start of the cook tempering this chocolate. It came out perfectly.


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[Assistant] It was such a fun challenge, and I think I went into it being like, I'm just gonna give it everything.


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[Assistant] We hope we will have a single theory that governs everything.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Everything was converging toward a simple picture of the known particles and forces, a picture which eventually became known as the Standard Model. I think I gave it that name.


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[Assistant] Beautiful Katrina. Guys, listen up. If you wanna get back in this competition, you're gonna have to step it up again. Only 75 minutes to go, let's go!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Being eliminated just yesterday and spending the most time with these contestants that are currently in, I probably have the best shot of getting the ingredient that I want.


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[Assistant] Well, Desiree doesn't think Justin's good enough for me. But I think we'll see.


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[Assistant] If I lose 50 pounds in a month, I'm gonna shock myself.


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[Assistant] The biggest thing freaking me out is how I'm going to be able to afford this place.


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[Assistant] For now, this is pretty much saving my life. Because if I didn't have that option, I'd be homeless. You wanna come around here and help me? Or have you forgot what your job is?


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[Assistant] I've had a lot of stomach pain that I think is related to the stress.


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[Assistant] But he said that he's going to maybe discharge me soon, since the tests all show that there's nothing serious.


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[Assistant] But I do feel better now because I've lost more weight from the diet and exercising they've had me doing here.


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[Assistant] And the fact that I haven't been able to have cigarettes or anything that I need like that to help calm my nerves. And I know for sure I don't have cancer. So that's good. So I'm in a much better place now and I'm ready to get out.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'd be happier about it if I had a place of my own to go to. But Dave said I could stay with him for a month or two.


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[Assistant] And I'm really thankful that Dr. Nell has given me a second chance.


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[Assistant] But there's absolutely no reason I shouldn't be getting weight loss surgery at this point. So I'm gonna show Dr. Now I'm not giving up.


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[Assistant] I'll get under 500 pounds because I'm gonna keep working hard like I have been. But I don't need rehab though.


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[Assistant] I got home from the hospital yesterday and Dave's been taking care of me and helping me do what I need to stay on track.


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[Assistant] I have a month to lose 45 pounds and he's gonna help to make sure that I eat healthy. And I stick to what I need.


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[Assistant] So, he's a positive influence on me, which is something I could never say about Justin. So I'm really glad he's gone when I think about it.


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[Assistant] Because with Justin out of my life, I have more of a chance of succeeding.


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[Assistant] And that's what I plan to do, so I'm only eating what's on Dr. Nell's diet.


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[Assistant] I just have to focus and try to ignore the things that derail me. Like the stress and drama of my life every day.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It feels like the drama is non-stop with my family mostly. But Dave is a much better communicator than Justin. And he helps me get things off my chest and vent. And that helps me deal with the stress. And you know, I do feel like he listens.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I love my daughter. It's just hard for us right now. Being away from everyone is the hardest part of all this.


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[Assistant] But being able to talk about my life to someone helps a lot, you know?


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[Assistant] Dr. Paradise does that too, but he's not with me every day. So, you know, having Dave to do that with is important for my mental health. So I'm thankful for that and all the support that I have.


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[Assistant] I think it's usually never enough chicken in a salad, but...


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[Assistant] I know I have a lot of people rooting for me, especially back home. I just wish that I could be with all of them right now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the good news is that Mandy's finally going to be able to come down to be with me. She has a baby girl and she hasn't been able to leave her. So she just decided to bring her and come down. So I'm really excited to see her. She's known me my whole life and she's one of the people who got me to do this.


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[Assistant] So I want to show her that it wasn't a waste for her to do what she did for me.


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[Assistant] You know, I wouldn't be here in Houston and have this chance without her help getting me here. I hate those boys. Hey, it looks nice, Angie. Shut the...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I still have to find a place of my own in the next couple months.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And if I get the surgery from Dr. Now when I show him my progress at my next appointment, I'm gonna need help recovering.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I want to try and get the surgery while Mandy's down here so she can help me with that.


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[Assistant] So I'm motivated and more focused than ever to do this.


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[Assistant] I just hope Dr. Now admits he was wrong when he sees how good I'm doing.


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[Assistant] And he doesn't try to save face but still wanted me to go to rehab. Or do any pointless steps that I don't need just because he said so. Because I've worked hard and I'm still working hard.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, I know I've earned the surgery. And I deserve to get it at this point. But I guess it's all gonna come down to what Dr. Now does. And the choices he makes once I show him my progress. Because he has no reason not to do my surgery.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I'm doing my part, so I just hope he's doing his.


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[Assistant] She's been here in this crappy motel for a couple weeks helping me out. And having her here has really helped me do that. And she brought her daughter too. So, it's made me feel special.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's made me want to try harder. So I feel good about how this is going to go today. And I'm hopeful that this appointment is going to end with me getting approved for weight loss surgery.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But it's impossible not to be a little nervous because of what all is relying on the outcome today.


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[Assistant] And ultimately you never know completely how a doctor now appointment is going to go. And what your exact number is going to be.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But you know, no matter what it is, I'm confident I'm going to have some progress.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And it'll be enough to show Dr. Now I deserve to move ahead with surgery. So hopefully it goes like it should today.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Was that all that drama or stupid stuff like the last time I was here? You didn't need my help at all.


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[Assistant] But I've worked really hard at losing the 45 pounds Dr. Nell wanted me to lose. And to try and get from 543 pounds down to 498 today.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I'm confident I did that, and Dr. Now shouldn't have any reason to deny me today.


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[Assistant] That may not be under 500, but that should be enough to show doctor now I'm ready for weight loss surgery.


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[Assistant] So I think I at least earned an apology from him today because he was wrong about the other stuff. I've worked hard for a while now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so, you know, I'm trusting him to see that. And not give me any runaround about it or pointless steps.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because I need to get weight loss surgery now, and if I don't, then I'm not sure what more I can do.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Me and Mandy are at Dr. Now's and I didn't quite make it to where I need. To get weight loss surgery. But I got really close.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, you know, I'm trusting him to see that and not give me any runaround about it or pointless steps. Because I need to get weight loss surgery now and if I don't, then I'm not sure what more I can do.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Even though I'm very stressed out still and a lot is still hitting me left and right, I'm taking it.


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[Assistant] Yes I do. This is my best friend. Remember you met her when I first got here? She's the one that brought us down.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well I did try to smoke when I got out of the hospital, I'm not gonna lie. And then she came and she was like, you're not smoking. I'm here, away from my eight kids, to be with you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So does that mean I'm ready for weight loss surgery? Not quite. Seriously, what more do you want?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Look, I'm really holding up here as best as I can, but I'm taking a lot of hits, doc. And like- I have a lot of pain in my body and my legs still. Where I need something to help me with that pain, so. Are you gonna let me have the pain medicine so I can continue?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I prepped myself for this appointment and I made myself say, I shoot, that's why we were holding hands.


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[Assistant] I feel really good about the appointment today because I proved myself enough to get weight loss surgery.


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[Assistant] I can lose like seven more pounds easily. And I'll consider the rehab because of how Dr. Nau handled it this time. And because he was also willing to start my testing for surgery.


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[Assistant] So I still don't agree with it, but I feel like he knows I can do this and he believes in me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So you know, I'm happy and I'm excited because I'm close to finally getting weight loss surgery and getting my life back.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then, next thing you know, it became intimate. And I thought he was gonna at least give me more time. But I guess I was wrong. And Dave says I have to go. Even if I haven't found a place yet. I would have already left.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But me and Mandy spent most of the past couple weeks while she was here trying to find me a place that I could live, that I could afford. But everything was too expensive. And now Mandy left here to go back to Ohio. So nobody has my back without her. It just sucks. It sucks not having anybody.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I wish he would just let me stay at his place, but I'm not gonna ask. Because I have a lot of pride.


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[Assistant] Hi, I was wondering if you guys have any movers available for today.


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[Assistant] This just sucks. So my only option is to go to a hotel


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[Assistant] But that's only a temporary solution because in a week I'm not even going to be able to afford that anymore. So after the week's over, I don't know.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've been in this motel for the past week because I don't have anywhere else to go. Or that I can afford.


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[Assistant] But, you know, with what I've had to spend on this, and a storage unit for my stuff, and the movers to get all of it put in a storage unit, I'm broke. Completely broke.


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[Assistant] So, like, in a couple days, I can't afford this place anymore. And I don't know what I'm gonna do. And I'm scared.


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[Assistant] You know, I don't have anyone I can go to to help me. Not even my family, because I'm not gonna put this on Desiree or anyone.


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[Assistant] I feel like I'm losing everything and everyone. Starting with my dad a couple years ago.


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[Assistant] He was the person I felt like I could rely on the most. And losing him was devastating.


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[Assistant] And since then it feels like my life is just getting to where I'm more and more alone. I keep losing people. I had Justin and now I have no one. And it feels like my life is crashing in.


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[Assistant] Right when I thought I was getting the chance to get it back. When Dr. Nao told me I could get weight loss surgery. If I hit his goal and did the things he wanted.


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[Assistant] But I haven't even been able to consider any of that because of all this.


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[Assistant] But if he's mad at me and tells me that I failed, and I have to go home, then that's fine at this point, because that's probably what I'm gonna have to do anyways.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hi, I'm returning a call for Dr. Nauzar and it's Angela Johns.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I know I have to talk to him, but I don't know how to explain to him that my life is falling apart. And everything is-


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[Assistant] I was kicked out of my place, so I had to move. So I've been trying to focus on not being homeless.


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[Assistant] This is just my life and what I have to deal with.


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[Assistant] And like, the stress of all this has even brought back all the pain that I was having in my stomach. So this is literally killing me. I don't understand why he's like this. But in the next couple days, I'm gonna be homeless. And until I can figure something out where I can live then, I can't get surgery. Where am I gonna recover? On the street? I don't know if I'm gonna make it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I feel like I'm getting to the end of my rope and I just don't know what to do.


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[Assistant] And now I'm staying in the park because I have nowhere else to go. So I'm pretty much homeless now.


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[Assistant] Dave's been keeping me company and checking on me, which is nice, I guess. But I could use a place to stay.


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[Assistant] And if he really cared about me, like he says, then he wouldn't let me be on the streets like this. And he'd help me instead of just hanging out. But I've given up on him.


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[Assistant] No, I don't have children with me. So I haven't had any luck so far. I can't believe this.


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[Assistant] Instead, my reward for how hard I've worked is to be here homeless with no options and in a lot of pain. And the pain is getting worse by the hour. I think it's because the heat is getting to me. But if it gets much worse, I'm not going to be able to take it.


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[Assistant] I really don't feel good. The pain is about unbearable and it's scaring me that I'm hitting a limit with my body.


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[Assistant] And I know it's from all the strain of dealing with everything. He seems to be concerned.


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[Assistant] And I shouldn't be in this situation. Because my whole condition is going south fast.


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[Assistant] I called Dr. Nell and left a message at his clinic to let him know I was coming to the hospital and that I'm not doing well and I need help.


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[Assistant] I can feel my body just deteriorating. Being out in the elements of heat like this.


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[Assistant] This has been a nightmare. Every time I think they can't get any worse, it just continues to get worse.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Not that good, unfortunately. I was dehydrated when I got here. My blood pressure was pretty low. But I've been drinking some water quite a bit.


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[Assistant] I've been trapped here at the hospital for the past few days. And at this point, I just want to get out of here. Because no one is doing anything to help me here.


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[Assistant] So it's completely pointless to be here. When it's clear, no one cares what's going on with me and what I need to get better.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] No, I don't want to do everything I want, but I've been cooperating to lose weight up until this point. And I still don't have weight loss surgery. And now I'm hurt and you won't do anything to stop the pain.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You should help me. That's it. So now you got something to say?


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[Assistant] Discharge me now, I'm done. Goodbye.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] After I checked myself out of the hospital, it didn't take long before I started to regret the stuff I said to Dr. Now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Even though Doc made me mad, it doesn't mean that I should give up on my journey.


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[Assistant] So after I calmed down some and thought about what Dr. Nell was saying to me, I figured I owed him an apology.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And he asked me if I'd at least consider going to someone who runs a rehab facility. Just to talk to him about options.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that's where Dave is taking me today, to meet this guy and talk about things. But all I'm doing is having a conversation.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm not gonna be humiliated by being forced to do rehab when I don't need it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And you know, my understanding is that if I do this, then I can have surgery. So that's why I'm doing this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Mmm, I started like a year and a half ago.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I quit for years after that and then I picked it up like a year and a half ago.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I have some things in my, my childhood and my past that, that are not good.


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[Assistant] There's no sense in beating around the bush. Right. I'm 40 years old. And I don't like authority.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's all about control at this point because doctor and I want to play puppet master and I'm not one for authority, see.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I mean, I don't know. I don't know. I have no clue. I have no answer for you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I feel really good about how that went. I like Dr. Flowers a lot, so you know, I think I can do what he's describing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the thought of getting healthy and getting off the drugs and the pain pills is really exciting for me. And I'd be really happy if I could do that because I've wanted to for over 20 years.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I just haven't had the chance, so. I'm glad I came today. And I'm hoping that here soon I'll be a new person. And that I'll get the surgery too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because I've given up everything and sacrificed a lot to get here.


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[Assistant] So I just hope that once I do this, it pays off like I need it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I'm excited, but I also have a lot of anxiety about doing this because I've never had major surgery. So I just hope my body can handle it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] None of this has been an easy process. But the last couple months have been the hardest for me. Because I've stopped taking some of my prescriptions that used to help me get through the day. And that was hard for me. But it's shown me how strong I am.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This was a hell of a ride. It's been ten years I've been seeking this journey.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's been a month since my surgery and so far this recovery has been really tough on me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I managed to get money to stay in hotels the month before surgery.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But I didn't want to stay in a place like that to recover.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But one of my neighbors from back at my old apartment complex, James, told me I could stay with him for a month or two.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And ever since I had surgery, I've been dealing with this nausea. And so far, it hasn't gotten better.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's a new feeling for me. But thankfully I have a place to live. I just didn't think it was gonna be this hard.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I lost 40 pounds, so I'm on track and he says nothing's wrong with me. And that I could go back on solids.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But I'm feeling so sick, it's hard for me to keep anything down. But Dr. Now says nothing's wrong.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that some of this is because of my past painkiller use. And he says it'll all get better. But right now, it doesn't feel like it will.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If people don't understand, this isn't easy, this isn't, like, oh, you know, this is the easy way out, and this isn't easy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Just because it is a tool and it does help, it's not easy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Whatever, and just like doing things differently to try to fix the issue. And so far nothing's worked. But hopefully Dr. Nell is right and this all goes away soon. And things will get better. Because if not, I don't know what I'm gonna do.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm going to my next appointment with Dr. Now to see how my progress is doing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And hopefully to see if Dr. Now can do anything for how sick I'm still feeling. I'm still having trouble keeping things down.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The pain has gotten a little better, but it hasn't gone away.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I'm just hoping that Dr. Nell could tell me why I'm still dealing with this and how to get it to stop. Can't even get around by myself because of that. I mean, Dave basically abandoned me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Guys like him, they do this stuff to women who have low self-esteem.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It was down to 449 the last time I saw Dr. Now. And he told me I should be losing between 20 to 30 pounds a month now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But Dr. Now should at least be happy about my progress. But I just need the pain and sickness to go away. Because I don't know how this could be normal or right.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm good. I'm just dealing with the craziness and the pain. But other than that, I'm fine.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's been ongoing since surgery, so all this time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But I go like, I've been going back and forth like,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I tried to eat like the soups and I, I got some powdered, I know you're gonna flip out. I got powdered potatoes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It seems like it's dry or the meat's dry and I chew and chew and chew. I swallow it, then I throw up this chunky stuff. It's terrible. It hurts when I throw up. I like, it's like strain. That's the word I'm looking for. Strains. It hurts.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] How do I get this stuff back in me if I'm throwing it back up and I can't keep any of it down?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I have been dizzy, and that's another thing. I fell twice this month. And when I get those spells, it's scary, it's scary to me. And me falling like this, like,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's not good because I'm scared and I'm weak. I feel like I'm tired all the time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Doctor, now I'm trying, but you don't understand. Like I feel weak all the time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm at least glad Dr. Now is taking me more seriously about what's going on with me. Because I know this isn't normal.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I need Dr. Now to figure it out and fix it before it gets worse.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I'm feeling really anxious because I know they're gonna find something. And I think it's gonna be bad.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know, even in the past days since I saw Dr. Now, I've gotten worse.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So it's like my body is just decaying and failing me. And it has me really scared. That it's cancer.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I think since all this happened after my surgery, the operation screwed something up. And that's why I'm sick.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so now, with how much I'm throwing up, it's leading me to get malnourished, to where I feel weak and dizzy all the time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And it feels like no matter how hard I fight and what I accomplish, I'm just gonna get knocked back down every time. And I think with Justin leaving me and then Dave abandoning me too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If I was all alone and I didn't have James' support and help, I'd have completely fallen apart at this point.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I just need them to find whatever's wrong so Dr. Now can fix it. Before anything really bad happens and I can't come back because I don't want to die.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My brother Lee has let me stay with him until I can figure out a more long-term option for my living situation. But it's been really nice being around family again.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know, after Dr. Now told me my sickness and pain after surgery was in my head, and that there was nothing physical he could treat to make it better, I figured being miserable was my new normal.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But like four or five weeks ago, I started feeling better and I can eat now and keep it down.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He just really warned me not to fall back into my old habits here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so I've stayed focused with all that, especially with my diet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Me and Mandy are at the clinic here in Ohio to see where my weight's at and how I'm doing. And I think I'm gonna have a good number to share with Dr. No.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The last time I saw him was like three and a half months ago. And I weighed 415 pounds then.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I'm supposed to be losing 20 to 30 pounds a month. So that means I should be between the range of 325 and 355.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Not quite in the 200s, but I'm really close. It's pretty much there, so I'm happy with that. And I think Dr. Now will be too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've been walking. I don't use a wheelchair no more or nothing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, well thank you. That means a lot, Dr. Nell.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He's proud of me, means a lot. Especially after how hard the last two years have been.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But I'm able to make up for that now and be a bigger part of my grandkids lives.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And before all this, I was scared I wasn't ever going to get this chance.


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[Assistant] But you know, I let things get bad, and getting better physically, mentally, and emotionally has motivated me to work on things with the people in my life that mean the most to me.


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[Assistant] Especially with Desiree. Because while I was in Houston, I let things get between us. And you know, she was right about Justin.


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[Assistant] So I made it a priority to make things right when I got back. And I have apologized for a lot with her.


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[Assistant] And I told her all I want is a chance to be a part of her and my grandkids lives.


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[Assistant] It kind of affects the other areas. So I'm trying to get right and be where I need to be in all the ways I can. So I can be healthy and stay healthy.


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[Assistant] With all my progress, Mandy said she wanted to treat me to a makeover. Hi, we have an appointment for Angie and Mandy. Okay, come on back.


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[Assistant] And I'm excited because I've never had anything like this. I'm gonna let you be creative.


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[Assistant] Or even been able to fit in a salon chair.


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[Assistant] So I think it's gonna help me take more pride in myself, like Dr. Paradise encourages me to do.


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[Assistant] You know, I feel like a new person, so I wanna look like I feel too.


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[Assistant] I look like a completely different person than I did two years ago.


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[Assistant] I'm not getting emotional. All this is just amazing to me. I just feel really blessed.


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[Assistant] It was a really hard road here, and I know my journey isn't over. But I'm gonna stick to it no matter what.


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[Assistant] It may not be easy, but I just have to work at it, so that's what I'm gonna keep on doing.


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[Assistant] I'll keep working to stay healthy and fight to keep going. Because I'm worth it.


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[Assistant] Hi, I'm John Green and this is Crash Course European History. Today we're going to talk about the Holocaust, which was an integral part of Nazism in World War II. The genocide of the Holocaust, millions of Jewish people were systematically murdered, shows humanity at its most depraved.


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[Assistant] And we've thought a lot about how much footage to show from the camps where so many millions were condemned to death.


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[Assistant] We've decided not to have a Thought Bubble in today's episode, but we will be showing some archival footage.


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[Assistant] Not least because anti-Semitic disinformation campaigns throughout the last 70 years have sought to minimize or outright deny that the Holocaust happened. Maybe there's no countering such conspiracy theories. The evidence of the Holocaust is


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[Assistant] Vast, including hundreds of thousands of witness accounts, testimony from war crimes trials, and extensive documentation by the Nazis themselves of their attempts to systematically eliminate Jewish people from the world.


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[Assistant] And also others deemed inferior, including disabled people, Roma people, many Slavs, communists, and LGBT people. But we think it is important to try to tell the truth, both in what we say and in what we show.


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[Assistant] Some maintain that the Holocaust is incomprehensible, an outsized phenomenon beyond ordinary concepts of good and evil.


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[Assistant] And in some ways that's true, but it ignores the centuries of antisemitism that laid the groundwork for the dehumanization of Jewish people that intensified in the 20th century.


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[Assistant] It is critical that we remember the horrors of the Holocaust.


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[Assistant] History is, in the broadest sense, collective memory. And as Holocaust survivor Elie Wiesel has written, without memory, there would be no civilization, no society, no future. And so, let us try to remember.


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[Assistant] The beginnings of Nazi mass murder occurred late in the 1930s when doctors mobilized to murder some 200,000 disabled people in the T4 project.


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[Assistant] T4 murderers used carbon monoxide gas to kill their victims, including in mobile gas chambers. Many of these victims were taken from institutions without the knowledge of their families. The list of dangerous people or people without value resulted from multiple hatreds of disabled people, but also of Jewish people, and Sinti and Roma people, and certain groups of Slavs such as Poles, Czechs, and Russians.


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[Assistant] Also homosexuals, black people, and Jehovah's Witnesses.


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[Assistant] In the 1930s, political opponents and these marginalized people comprised those in early concentration camps, which were more like large-scale prisons, albeit one where murder was common.


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[Assistant] As distinct from the extermination camps that were set up later in the war.


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[Assistant] And which function primarily as places to systematically murder people. In 1939, as German soldiers moved through Poland, they murdered many Poles, including Polish Jews, especially going after the most literate citizens, like political leaders, teachers, and professors. And as Nazi forces moved eastward, Christian citizens joined in this murderous rampage against Jewish people as a supposedly righteous crusade against those who had killed Jesus.


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[Assistant] Jesus, for the record, was Jewish, and he was killed by Roman authorities, not Jewish ones.


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[Assistant] But none of this hatred was fact-based. Special Nazi forces called the Einsatzgruppen took the lead, but they were joined by civilians and policing officials. Hitler had always aspired to rid Germany of Jews, initially by means like forced migration or the creation of such dire living conditions.


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[Assistant] And the creation of the Warsaw Ghetto embodied this hope for ethnic cleansing. Some 30% of the city's population was jammed into 2% of its space.


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[Assistant] The more that die, the better, enthused Hans Frank, governor of German-occupied Poland. And then, in the early years of the war, the plan for what became the Holocaust took shape. In part because it was felt that Polish people were not being converted into slave labor fast enough,


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[Assistant] And also because it was felt that Jewish people were not dying quickly enough. As the Nazi invasion of the USSR, Operation Barbarossa, began to fail by the end of 1941, Nazi officials set in motion a system of industrial killing modeled on the T4 program.


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[Assistant] Including plans for transport of Jewish and other victims to extermination camps.


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[Assistant] They then communicated these plans to those responsible for carrying them out.


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[Assistant] at the Wannsee conference outside Berlin in January 1942. Jewish leaders were tasked with selecting members of their conquered communities, supposedly to be resettled in the east, but these were not resettlements. Instead, they entailed being transported to the new extermination camps


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[Assistant] And gassed on arrival as was the case for most children and women.


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[Assistant] or worked to death, as was the case for boys and men and some women. Some camps, such as Auschwitz-Birkenau, were both labor and extermination camps, while others, such as Chelmno, were solely to murder captives.


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[Assistant] And it should also be noted that mass killings continued around captured cities and towns, not just in extermination camps.


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[Assistant] Nazi soldiers who objected, and there were some, were simply given other assignments.


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[Assistant] It was possible, the record shows, to just say no. But many soldiers and other authorities believed in the so-called final solution of killing all Jewish people. Soldiers and other authorities were often white supremacists, although historians have differing judgments about the weight of other motivations.


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[Assistant] But resistance was incredibly difficult for people who were weakened by starvation and lack of medical care and a range of other physical and mental abuses. Still, in 1943, Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto used guns provided by the Polish resistance to rise up against their Nazi occupiers.


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[Assistant] In the camps themselves, resistance was even less plausible for people living on 200 calories a day and constantly monitored by heavily armed guards. From the beginning, the Nazis, though proudly committed to, in Hitler's words, the destruction of the Jewish race in Europe,


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[Assistant] So imagine the shock as new inmates were stripped of their illusions of safety in the camps.


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[Assistant] You see those flames? One newly arrived wife and mother was asked by a seasoned prisoner.


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[Assistant] That's the crematory over there. Call it by the name we use, the bakery. Perhaps it is your family that is being burned at the moment. Some miraculously survived. Women raised to be guardians of tradition, often celebrated Jewish holidays and the birthdays of their fellow inmates, and cared for one another when possible.


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[Assistant] And they were strengthened by these deeds. One chronicler of the death camps, the Italian chemist Primo Levi, credited his survival to another prisoner who shared his bread rations and did favors.


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[Assistant] Thanks to these acts, Levy wrote, I managed not to forget that I myself was a man. Serving in a camp where overworked and starved prisoners were to be immediately murdered, Levy described how the Nazi regime drained away the divine spark.


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[Assistant] So that prisoners came to feel like non-men.


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[Assistant] But none of those resistors survived. Overall, deaths from the deliberately planned and executed extermination of Jewish people, the Holocaust, or Shoah as it is known in Hebrew, are estimated at 6 million people.


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[Assistant] Not to mention the abuse and torture of those who survived the liberation of the camps in 1944 and 1945. It's tempting to focus on those stories of survival because we have records and accounts of the experiences of people like Primo Levi and Elie Wiesel.


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[Assistant] But we have to remember that most people did not have miraculous escape stories.


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[Assistant] Most people were simply murdered for who they were.


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[Assistant] Of course, combatants in World War II also unleashed additional mass murder besides the Holocaust itself. In 1943, German forces uncovered victims of the 1940 Soviet execution of some 22,000 Polish military officers and professionals.


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[Assistant] Engineers, professors, and warriors, for example, just like Nazi executions of the intelligentsia.


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[Assistant] The goal was to deprive a conquered people of their leadership.


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[Assistant] But Soviet executions did not primarily aim to bolster Russian blood or a Russian race.


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[Assistant] Although, with the outbreak of war, non-Russians were often driven out of businesses and some professions. But the Holocaust was very different because it was a systematic attempt to eliminate a people from the world via mass murder. It was genocide.


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[Assistant] Now as we've mentioned, Jewish people were not the only victims of Nazi mass murder. Millions of non-Jewish Poles were also killed. In the Nazis' so-called racial science, Slavs were not seen as all the same. Slovaks and Croats were seen as superior to Poles and Czechs, for example. And Russians were seen as among the lowest Slavs because they were seen as


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[Assistant] Obviously, although some Bolsheviks were Jewish, many were not. Lenin and Stalin, to name just two of the most notable examples. But German soldiers murdered freely.


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[Assistant] motivated by the propaganda and speechifying filled with hatred for these twin demonized entities. Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Latvians, Belarusians, and others also joined in the slaughter because they too had been taught to hate Jewish people and had age-old animosities toward Russian might in the region.


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[Assistant] And newer animosities toward Bolshevik ambitions for conquest in Eastern Europe.


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[Assistant] Often, individuals didn't need encouragement by the Germans for murder and even murdered in advance of their arrival.


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[Assistant] One notorious case occurred in Jedwabna, Poland, where townspeople rounded up their Jewish neighbors, raped and beat to death many of them, and burned the rest alive in a barn.


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[Assistant] Then, following the Nazi example, they took their neighbors' possessions for themselves. So by the end of World War II, had people taken a lesson from all this? I don't know.


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[Assistant] Racism and jingoistic nationalism remained powerful forces in European life.


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[Assistant] And in human life, as indeed they are today,


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[Assistant] Consistent long-term imagining of Jewish people as evil or inferior or inhuman


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[Assistant] As the Israeli Holocaust scholar Yehuda Bauer has written, thou shalt not be a victim, thou shalt not be a perpetrator, but above all, thou shalt not be a bystander.


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[Assistant] She just started an argument with me over basically nothing and it just...


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[Assistant] I'm offended because I'm like, you don't even, nobody knows what happened at the hospital.


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[Assistant] I'm gonna be making something from my childhood, really classic home food, uhm, but it's just gonna be really tasty.


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[Assistant] I'm rolling the omelette in this wet pan. Rolling it off.


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[Assistant] This is my last chance today. If I don't get Top 4 today, it's all over.


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[Assistant] The dish today is kind of like a Chinese tasting plate. The omelette, the stir fry prawns, the chive pancake, they all work well as a kind of like thing you can kind of pick at.


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[Assistant] When the judge says this, I really want to transport them to Eastern China.


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[Assistant] Shanghai chai pancake, uh, a chai rolled omelette, uh, stir-fried black garlic prawns and a chai vinegar.


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[Assistant] Actually feeling pretty good about my dish. I've done my emulsion, got my fennel puree. Today I'm going to be finishing my bugs on the havachis.


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[Assistant] I have to be super focused. I really want to show the judges that I know what I'm doing and that I'm a confident cook.


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[Assistant] They look really good, the texture's really nice, and I love the flavor.


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[Assistant] Hi I'm John Green and this is Crash Course European History and things are indeed on course


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[Assistant] Because World War I is coming. Decades ago, when I studied European history in high school,


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[Assistant] I learned that there were precise causes of the war, the alliance system, arms buildups, secret treaties, nationalism, and imperialism. That set of causes, launched from above by political leaders, eventually led to war.


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[Assistant] Roads to war, namely roads that passed through social and cultural change at the turn of the century. And those changes, which were experienced by millions of people,


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[Assistant] People's lives were affected by changing family structures, by paradigm shifts in science, disruption of traditional gender roles, achievement of the vote by working men, and ongoing economic advances.


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[Assistant] And the result was disorientation, dislocation, deep resentments, and widespread fear, which of course is not too dissimilar from how an array of changes are affecting people today.


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[Assistant] Before World War I started, strikes, which at time grew violent, abounded across Europe, whether at the oil fields of Baku, the farms of Hungary, or the factories of Italy. Assassinations were common, as was everyday violence against Jewish people and other oppressed ethnic minorities. In 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army, was tried for espionage, convicted, and imprisoned on Devil's Island. The evidence against Dreyfus turned out to be fabricated, complete with forged signatures.


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[Assistant] Further evidence of his innocence was that the espionage continued even after his exile.


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[Assistant] Passions exploded over the case, and anti-Semitism flourished, families quarreled, and assaults took place around questions of whether Dreyfus had committed these crimes.


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[Assistant] Newspapers took both sides as violence grew.


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[Assistant] Then in 1898, fame novelist Emile Zoll was article Jacqueuse exposed trumped-up evidence against Dreyfus and helped build support for him. Dreyfus was eventually pardoned, but facts


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[Assistant] Intense divisions within and between communities were growing elsewhere, too. Ireland, for one, was on the brink of civil war, with both those opposing British rule and those favoring it establishing independent armies. The distant colonial world was increasingly tense, too. Between 1904 and 1908, the German army massacred between 24,000 and 100,000 Herero people, who refused to surrender their lands in southwest Africa.


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[Assistant] Those who weren't massacred were driven into distant territory to starve. Some say that slaughter was a training ground for European soldiers who would soon engage in further war. Around the same time, the French closed the University of Hanoi and arrested or killed


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[Assistant] Look at these men with blue eyes and yellow beards. They are not our fathers, nor are they our brothers. How can they squat here?


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[Assistant] And the Boers, that is farmers with Dutch heritage, of South Africa, likewise rebelled against the British as the 20th century opened. They were only defeated after many civilians, confined to concentration camps, died of disease or starvation. South Asians demanded reform, too. They became more militantly anti-British and launched boycotts of British goods. In 1900, a conglomerate of colonial nations massacred Chinese civilians involved in the Boxer Rebellion.


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[Assistant] If you've been following this series, or our other series in history,


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[Assistant] You'll know that war was often happening. If anything, peace to whatever extent humans have experienced it.


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[Assistant] That's important to remember when thinking about the ultimately disastrous system of alliances that Europe had developed. That system was created by politicians to try to prevent


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[Assistant] Or at least to manage any on the continent. Foremost among those politicians was our old friend Otto von Bismarck, who'd had no qualms about starting wars to help Germany build its empire, but then declared Germany a satisfied nation.


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[Assistant] Oh the adjectives that haunt us. Bismarck wanted peace in Europe and so he organized an alliance system to that end, binding Germany and Austria in the Dual Alliance of 1879.


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[Assistant] Then adding Italy to a triple alliance in 1882. He also allied Germany with Russia in the Reinsurance Treaty, another attempt to build coalitions so formidable that large wars would become impossible. But all that was about to change when William II, aka Kaiser Wilhelm, came to power in Germany.


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[Assistant] He rattled the sword and called Bismarck's alliances the work of an outmoded old man. Under William II, the treaty with Russia was cancelled, which drove Russia to sign an alliance with France in 1894. William also called for Germany to gain power around the world, expanding into tropical colonies to create a German


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[Assistant] Which if you want to do, you could just try to take southern France. Oh, right, you will.


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[Assistant] I'll try to take Southern France. Meanwhile, the French and British secretly built another alliance, the Entente Cordiale. And I'll remind you, I've had three years of high school French.


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[Assistant] But as they were on taunting, Europe's powers were also growing their militaries. Standing armies grew to hundreds of thousands of troops. General staffs demanded larger stockpiles of weapons and got what they wanted. The most costly were the dreadnoughts, or these massive battleships with unprecedented firepower.


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[Assistant] Britain launched the first of these in 1905, but others followed. The construction of battleships in these years employed tens of thousands of workers, so through their staffs of public relations experts, military hawks threatened that cutting the production of dreadnoughts would lead to mass unemployment and revolution.


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[Assistant] We want eight and we won't wait was a popular British chant for more ships.


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[Assistant] So yeah, America did not invent the military-industrial complex.


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[Assistant] But we did perfect it. So William II also wanted dreadnoughts because he hoped to win the British over to an alliance of Teutonic peoples, including especially Germans, that together could defeat the Latins, or Gauls, of southern Europe


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[Assistant] Creating an atmosphere of turmoil in German policy through erratic militarism. So despite all these attempts to control war through alliances, the early decades of the century were also deadly because of revolution and local wars within Europe.


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[Assistant] In 1905, the people of Russia rose up against the Tsarist regime. They were hard-pressed in their daily lives due to a conflict between Russia and Japan over competing claims in East Asia. And the Japanese, who'd been developing a modern army and an industrial economy, attacked and crushed the Russian fleet in 1905.


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[Assistant] Ordinary people paid the price for these losses and rebelled.


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[Assistant] But then, Tsarist promises of reform, combined with armed force, eventually restored calm and preserved the Romanov grip on power.


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[Assistant] In the face of such resistance Turkish nationalists demanded a strengthening of military and administrative institutions in the Ottoman Empire.


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[Assistant] They ultimately pushed aside the Sultan and replaced him with a pliable brother,


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[Assistant] Who was more submissive to the Young Turks, albeit guided by a constitution and parliament. The Young Turks responded to other people's nationalist dreams by squashing demands for self-rule from Balkan ethnic groups. Even as the Young Turks inspired many groups, both in Europe and around the world, Austria-Hungary used their revolt as a distraction, during which it scooped up Bosnia. That caused outrage among Serbs as they had wanted to add Bosnia to a greater Serbia, while all Balkan people's anger against the Young Turks


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[Assistant] Building on this anger, the Balkan governments of Montenegro, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece unleashed the First Balkan War in 1912 against the Ottoman Empire. They quickly won, only blocked when they tried to march on Constantinople.


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[Assistant] But there was jealousy among the victors over splitting up the territorial gains, as there so often is.


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[Assistant] So in spring 1913, the Second Balkan War erupted. The main issue this time was the territory awarded to Bulgaria in the settlement. Serbia, which was backed by Russia, gained territory from the Second War, making Austria-Hungary and Germany


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[Assistant] Anxious, not least because the Habsburgs were nervous that Austria-Hungary's Slavic population might want to be part of this exciting new Greater Serbia.


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[Assistant] German public relations people swung into action, planting hysterical stories on the growing and lethal threat from Slavs. So if you're wondering if misinformation can contribute to a global sense of dis-ease, confusion, and polarization,


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[Assistant] Yes, yes it can. The heir to the Habsburg imperial throne, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, had a solution for all these problems. Restore absolutism as it had existed before the revolutions of 1848 and the general liberalization of politics.


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[Assistant] The parliamentary form of government has outlived its usefulness. An advisor to Franz Ferdinand had written as early as 1898, the so-called individual freedoms must be curtailed.


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[Assistant] Princip thrived on reading Sherlock Holmes mysteries and Sir Walter Scott's heart-pounding stories of heroic medieval knights.


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[Assistant] And the Habsburgs had blocked that dream by annexing Bosnia in 1908. Princip, along with several friends, decided something had to be done. And when the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie came to Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, the conspirators saw their chance.


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[Assistant] The Archduke and his wife were traveling unprotected in a convertible.


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[Assistant] Who proceeded to shoot dead both Franz Ferdinand and his wife.


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[Assistant] Thanks, Thought Bubble. Some people celebrated the death of the opinionated radical heir to the Habsburg throne, and others were not surprised at the murder, given that assassination was an occupational hazard of leadership in these decades. After the assassination, heads of state and high officials still went on planned vacations because everyone expected a diplomatic solution. Again, assassination was pretty common, and diplomatic solutions always followed. People were gripped not by the assassination, but by a scandal in France.


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[Assistant] Seems like the wrong guy to shoot. And yet, the European powers moved almost imperceptibly toward war. General staffs and some officials had been planning for it, as we've seen, while competition for empire and the conduct of empire itself were war-like.


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[Assistant] And overall, social and cultural change had made people tense and even violent toward one another. Moreover, wasn't Europe, from Ireland to Russia, simply a violent place where individuals and governments alike were always primed for war? As the chief of the German general staff put it in 1912, given Europe's track record, quote, I consider a war to be inevitable.


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[Assistant] And the sooner the better. We can wonder what might have happened if the Archduke's driver hadn't taken that wrong turn, or we can wonder what might have happened without Europe's particular configuration of alliances, or if militarization hadn't made war seem unavoidable. As Margaret Atwood writes in the testaments,


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[Assistant] Very little in history is inevitable. But the lead up to the war was marked not by one cause, or even by a few politicians making a few decisions.


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[Assistant] But by many people making many decisions, from spreading fake news stories to pressing for more battleships, that altogether contributed to an environment that made war progressively more likely.


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[Assistant] In short, it wasn't only the Archduke's driver who made a wrong turn. Thanks for watching. I'll see you next time.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching Crash Course, which is filmed here in the Jaden Smith Studios in Indianapolis. And thanks to all of our patrons at Patreon.com slash Crash Course for making it possible. We've got lots of cool new learning playlists, including one in business entrepreneurship. I hope you'll check out. Thank you again for watching. And as they say in my hometown, don't forget to be awesome.


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[Assistant] Round one, all about game meat. This is good, I love game meat.


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[Assistant] I want to be here for the long run. I mean it to win it. So going home now is not an option.


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[Assistant] I'm annoyed at myself because I actually got two round the wrong way. So if they were right, I'd be up there.


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[Assistant] I've got a beautiful piece of kangaroo and the garden is full of beautiful native Australian ingredients that I can really hero against the kangaroo. I need to definitely play to my strengths.


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[Assistant] I'm cooking a Montreal and Guangdong glazed kangaroo with Jerusalem artichokes.


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[Assistant] Okay, so I've got my glaze, uhm, reasonably finished. Uhm, just balancing that before I get ready to cook the kangaroo.


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[Assistant] The flavor's pretty close to what the end result needs to be. So I'm gonna start cooking this kangaroo.


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[Assistant] It needs as much resting time as possible to make sure you don't lose all those beautiful juices. You want 20 minutes to rest it.


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[Assistant] I want my kangaroo to be cooked more on the rare side.


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[Assistant] I'm cooking a manchurian and guandong glazed kangaroo with Jerusalem artichokes.


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[Assistant] It looks beautifully cooked, but this cook is all about the game. And if I haven't cooked the kangaroo right, I'm going home today.


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[Assistant] If this piece of kangaroo isn't right, I don't know if I've got time to actually cook my second piece perfectly. I think I've left this too late.


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[Assistant] I'm going to have to sacrifice some resting time, which is not ideal. And I'm really worried. I need six or eight minutes to cook this.


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[Assistant] I just hope that the cook on the kangaroo is good enough to keep me in this competition.


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[Assistant] It's a Muntry and Kondong glazed kangaroo loin with Jerusalem artichokes. How you doing mate? You look very nervous. I am. I am honestly really nervous.


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[Assistant] Obviously I had to cook a second lot of kangaroo, which put me under a fair bit of pressure. I would have loved this to have rested a lot longer than it did. All right. Thank you guys. Cheers.


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[Assistant] I can understand one. You are her best friend after all.


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[Assistant] As he settled down with his father, after a most exciting day.


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[Assistant] That's a way of understanding the biggest things in the universe. Things like stars and galaxies.


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[Assistant] But the littlest things in the universe, atoms and subatomic particles, play by an entirely different set of rules called quantum mechanics.


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[Assistant] These two sets of rules are each incredibly accurate in their own domain. But whenever we try to combine them to solve some of the deepest mysteries in the universe, disaster strikes.


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[Assistant] Over the next 14 billion years, the universe expanded and cooled into the stars, galaxies, and planets we see today.


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[Assistant] If we run the cosmic film in reverse, everything that's now rushing apart comes back together.


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[Assistant] So the universe gets smaller, hotter, and denser as we head back to the beginning of time. As we reach the Big Bang, when the universe was both enormously heavy


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[Assistant] And incredibly tiny, our projector jams.


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[Assistant] Our two laws of physics, when combined, break down.


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[Assistant] But what if we could unite quantum mechanics and general relativity and see the cosmic film in its entirety?


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[Assistant] Well, a new set of ideas, called string theory, may be able to do that. And if it's right,


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[Assistant] It would be one of the biggest blockbusters in the history of science.


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[Assistant] Someday string theory may be able to explain all of nature from the tiniest bits of matter to the farthest reaches of the cosmos using just one single ingredient.


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[Assistant] But why do we have to rewrite the laws of physics to accomplish this?


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[Assistant] Why does it matter if the two logs that we have are incompatible?


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[Assistant] Well, you can think of it like this. Imagine you lived in a city ruled not by one set of traffic laws, but by two separate sets of laws that conflicted with each other. As you can see, it would be pretty confusing.


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[Assistant] But before we can find that theory, we need to take a fantastic journey to see why the two sets of laws we have conflict with each other. And the first stop on this strange trip is the realm of very large objects.


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[Assistant] To describe the universe on large scales, we use one set of laws, Einstein's general theory of relativity, and that's a theory of how gravity works.


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[Assistant] General relativity pictures space as sort of like a trampoline, a smooth fabric that heavy objects like stars and planets can warp and stretch. Now according to the theory, these warps and curves create what we feel as gravity.


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[Assistant] That is, the gravitational pull that keeps the Earth in orbit around the Sun is really nothing more than our planet following the curves and contours that the Sun creates in the spatial fabric.


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[Assistant] But the smooth, gently curving image of space predicted by the laws of general relativity is not the whole story.


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[Assistant] To understand the universe on extremely small scales, we have to use our other set of laws, quantum mechanics. And as we'll see, quantum mechanics paints a picture of space so drastically different from general relativity that you'd think they were describing two completely separate universes.


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[Assistant] And as we leave the world of large objects behind.


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[Assistant] That approach to the microscopic realm, the familiar picture of space in which everything behaves predictably, begins to be replaced by a world with a structure that is far less certain.


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[Assistant] And if we keep shrinking, getting billions and billions of times smaller than even the tiniest bits of matter, atoms and the tiny particles inside of them, the laws of the very small quantum mechanics say that the fabric of space becomes bumpy and chaotic.


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[Assistant] Eventually, we reach a world so turbulent that it defies common sense.


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[Assistant] Down here, space and time are so twisted and distorted that the conventional ideas of left and right


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[Assistant] Or, maybe I arrived here, before I arrived here.


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[Assistant] In the quantum world, you just can't pin everything down. It's an inherently wild and frenetic place.


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[Assistant] The fluctuating, jittery picture of space and time predicted by quantum mechanics is in direct conflict with the smooth, orderly, geometric model of space and time described by general relativity.


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[Assistant] But we think that everything from the frantic dance of subatomic particles to the majestic swirl of galaxies


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[Assistant] Should be explained by just one grand physical principle. One master equation.


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[Assistant] If we can find that equation, how the universe really works at every time and place will at last be revealed.


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[Assistant] You see, what we need is a theory that can cope with the very tiny and the very massive. One that embraces both quantum mechanics and general relativity and never breaks down. Ever.


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[Assistant] For physicists, finding a theory that unites general relativity and quantum mechanics is the holy grail because that framework would give us a single mathematical theory that describes all the forces that rule our universe. General relativity describes the most familiar of those forces, gravity.


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[Assistant] But quantum mechanics describes three other forces. The strong nuclear force.


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[Assistant] That's responsible for gluing protons and neutrons together inside of atoms. Electromagnetism.


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[Assistant] Every event in the universe, from the splitting of an atom to the birth of a star,


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[Assistant] Is nothing more than these four forces interacting with matter.


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[Assistant] Albert Einstein spent the last 30 years of his life searching for a way to describe the forces of nature in a single theory.


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[Assistant] And now, string theory may fulfill his dream of unification.


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[Assistant] For centuries, scientists have pictured the fundamental ingredients of nature, atoms and the smaller particles inside of them, as tiny balls or points.


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[Assistant] But string theory proclaims that at the heart of every bit of matter is a tiny vibrating strand of energy called a string.


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[Assistant] And a new breed of scientist believes these minuscule strings are the key to uniting the world of the large and the world of the small in a single theory.


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[Assistant] But not everyone is enamored of this new theory.


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[Assistant] So far, no experiment has been devised that can prove these tiny strings exist.


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[Assistant] From the start, many scientists thought string through is simply too far out. And frankly, the strange way the theory evolved in a series of twists, turns, and accidents only made it seem more unlikely.


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[Assistant] In fact, even its birth has been turned into something of a myth, which goes like this.


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[Assistant] In the late 1960s, a young Italian physicist named Gabriele Veneziano was searching for a set of equations that would explain the strong nuclear force, the extremely powerful glue that holds the nucleus of every atom together, binding protons to neutrons.


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[Assistant] As the story goes, he happened on a dusty book on the history of mathematics.


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[Assistant] And in it, he found a 200 year old equation, first written down by a Swiss mathematician, Leonhard Euler.


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[Assistant] Veneziana was amazed to discover that Euler's equations


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[Assistant] Long thought to be nothing more than a mathematical curiosity, seem to describe the strong force.


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[Assistant] He quickly published a paper and was famous ever after for this accidental discovery.


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[Assistant] However it was discovered, Euler's equation, which miraculously explained the strong force, took on a life of its own. This was the birth of string theory.


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[Assistant] He understood that this ancient formula described the strong force mathematically.


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[Assistant] But beneath the abstract symbols, he had caught a glimpse of something new.


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[Assistant] Susskind wrote up his discovery introducing the revolutionary idea of strings.


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[Assistant] But before his paper could be published, it had to be reviewed by a panel of experts.


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[Assistant] As Susskind drowned his sorrows over the rejection of his far-out idea, it appeared Stringfury was dead.


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[Assistant] Meanwhile, mainstream science was embracing particles as points, not strings.


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[Assistant] For decades, physicists had been exploring the behavior of microscopic particles by smashing them together at high speeds and studying those collisions. In the showers of particles produced,


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[Assistant] They were discovering that nature is far richer than they thought.


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[Assistant] And in this zoo of new particles, scientists weren't just discovering building blocks of matter, leaving string theory in the dust.


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[Assistant] Physicists made a startling and strange prediction.


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[Assistant] That the forces of nature can also be explained by particles.


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[Assistant] Now, this is a really weird idea, but it's kind of like a game of catch in which the players, like me, and me, are particles of matter.


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[Assistant] And the ball we're throwing back and forth is a particle of force. It's called a messenger particle.


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[Assistant] For example, in the case of magnetism, the electromagnetic force, this ball would be a photon. The more of these messenger particles or photons that are exchanged between us, the stronger the magnetic attraction.


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[Assistant] And scientists predicted that it's this exchange of messenger particles that creates what we feel as force.


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[Assistant] Experiments confirm these predictions with the discovery of the messenger particles for electromagnetism, the strong force and the weak force. And using these newly discovered particles,


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[Assistant] Scientists were closing in on Einstein's dream of unifying the forces.


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[Assistant] Particle physicists reasoned that if we rewind the cosmic film to the moments just after the Big Bang, some 14 billion years ago, when the universe was trillions of degrees hotter,


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[Assistant] The messenger particles for electromagnetism and the weak force would have been indistinguishable.


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[Assistant] Just as cubes of ice melt into water in the hot sun, experiments show that as we rewind to the extremely hot conditions of the Big Bang, the weak and electromagnetic forces meld together and unite into a single force called the electroweak.


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[Assistant] And physicists believe that if you roll the cosmic film back even further,


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[Assistant] The electroweak would unite with the strong force and one grand super force.


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[Assistant] Although that has yet to be proven, quantum mechanics was able to explain how three of the forces operate on the subatomic level.


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[Assistant] The inventors of the Standard Model, both the name and the theory, were the toasts of the scientific community.


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[Assistant] Receiving Nobel Prize after Nobel Prize.


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[Assistant] Although the standard model explained three of the forces that rule the world of the very small, it did not include the most familiar force.


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[Assistant] Overshadowed by the standard model, string theory became a backwater of physics.


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[Assistant] But the more these diehards delved into string theory, the more problems they found.


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[Assistant] Only a few young physicists were still wrestling with the obscure equations of string theory.


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[Assistant] One was John Schwartz, who was busy tackling string theory's numerous problems. Among them, a mysterious massless particle predicted by the theory, but never seen in nature.


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[Assistant] And an assortment of anomalies or mathematical inconsistencies.


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[Assistant] For four years, Schwartz tried to tame the unruly equations of string theory, changing


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[Assistant] Adjusting. Combining and recombining them in different ways. But nothing worked.


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[Assistant] On the verge of abandoning string theory, Schwartz had a brainstorm. Perhaps his equations were describing gravity.


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[Assistant] Posing that strings were a hundred billion billion times smaller than an atom, one of the theory's vices became a virtue.


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[Assistant] The mysterious particle John Schwartz had been trying to get rid of now appeared to be a graviton.


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[Assistant] The long sought after particle believed to transmit gravity at the quantum level.


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[Assistant] Stringfury had produced the piece of the puzzle missing from the standard model.


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[Assistant] Schwartz submitted for publication his groundbreaking new theory describing how gravity works in the subatomic world.


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[Assistant] Once again, string theory fell on deaf ears. But Schwartz would not be deterred. He had glimpsed the Holy Grail.


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[Assistant] If strings described gravity at the quantum level, they must be the key to unifying the four forces.


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[Assistant] He was joined in this quest by one of the only other scientists willing to risk his career on strings, Michael Green.


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[Assistant] But for Green's confidence to pay off, he and Schwartz would have to confront the fact that in the early 1980s, string theory still had fatal flaws in the math known as anomalies.


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[Assistant] An anomaly is just what it sounds like. It's something that's strange or out of place. Something that doesn't belong. Now, this kind of anomaly is just weird.


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[Assistant] But mathematical anomalies can spell doom for a theory of physics. They're a little complicated, so here's a simple example.


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[Assistant] Let's say we have a theory in which these two equations


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[Assistant] Describe one physical property of our universe. Now, if I solve this equation over here and I find x equals one.


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[Assistant] And if I solve this equation over here and find x equals 2, I know my theory has anomalies because there should only be one value for x.


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[Assistant] Unless I can revise my equations to get the same value for x on both sides, the theory is dead.


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[Assistant] In the early 1980s, string theory was riddled with mathematical anomalies kind of like these, although the equations were much more complex. The future of the theory depended on ridding the equations of these fatal inconsistencies.


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[Assistant] After Schwartz and Greene battled the anomalies in string theory for five years, their work culminated late one night in the summer of 1984.


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[Assistant] Amazingly, it all boiled down to a single calculation.


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[Assistant] On one side of the blackboard, they got 496.


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[Assistant] And if they got the matching number on the other side.


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[Assistant] It would prove string theory was free.


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[Assistant] The matching numbers meant the theory was free of anomalies and it had the mathematical depth to encompass all four forces.


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[Assistant] But this time, the reaction was explosive.


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[Assistant] In less than a year, the number of string theorists leapt from just a handful to hundreds


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[Assistant] String theory was christened the theory of everything.


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[Assistant] In early fall of 1984, I came here to Oxford University to begin my graduate studies in physics.


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[Assistant] Some weeks after, I saw a poster for a lecture by Michael Green.


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[Assistant] I didn't know who he was, but then again, I really didn't know who anybody was. But the title of the lecture was something like The Theory of Everything, so how could I resist?


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[Assistant] Every atom is made of smaller bits of matter. Electrons orbiting a nucleus made of protons and neutrons.


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[Assistant] Which are made of even smaller bits of matter called quarks.


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[Assistant] But string theory says this is not the end of the line.


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[Assistant] It makes the astounding claim that the particles making up everything in the universe are made of even smaller ingredients. Tiny wiggling strands of energy that look like strings.


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[Assistant] In fact, if an atom were enlarged to the size of the solar system,


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[Assistant] A string would only be as large as a tree.


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[Assistant] Just as different vibrational patterns or frequencies of a single cello string,


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[Assistant] Create what we hear as different musical notes.


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[Assistant] The different ways that strings vibrate give particles their unique properties, such as mass and charge.


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[Assistant] For example, the only difference between the particles making up you and me and the particles that transmit gravity and the other forces is the way these tiny strings vibrate.


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[Assistant] The universe can be thought of as a grand cosmic symphony.


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[Assistant] And this elegant idea resolves the conflict between our jittery, unpredictable picture of space on the subatomic scale and our smooth picture of space on the large scale.


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[Assistant] And it's the jitteriness of quantum theory versus the gentleness of Einstein's general theory of relativity that makes it so hard to bridge the two, to stitch them together.


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[Assistant] Now what string theory does, it comes along and basically calms the jitters of quantum mechanics.


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[Assistant] It spreads them out by virtue of taking the old idea of a point particle and spreading it out into a string.


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[Assistant] So the jittery behavior is there, but it's just sufficiently less violent that quantum theory and general relativity stitch together perfectly within this framework.


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[Assistant] With nothing but these tiny vibrating strands of energy.


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[Assistant] String theorists claim to be fulfilling Einstein's dream of uniting all forces and all matter. But this radical new theory contains a chink in its armor.


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[Assistant] Is that in order to work, the complex equations require something that sounds like it's straight out of science fiction. Extra dimensions of space.


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[Assistant] To be taken seriously, string theorists had to explain how this bizarre prediction could be true.


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[Assistant] And they claim that the far out idea of extra dimensions may be more down to earth than you'd think. Let me show you what I mean.


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[Assistant] I'm off to see a guy who is one of the first people to think about this strange idea. I'm supposed to meet him at four o'clock at his apartment on Fifth Avenue and 93rd Street on the second floor. Now in order to get to this meeting I need four pieces of information.


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[Assistant] One for each of the three dimensions of space. A street, an avenue, and a floor number. And one more for time. The fourth dimension.


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[Assistant] As it turns out, the strange idea that there are additional dimensions stretches back almost a century.


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[Assistant] Our sense that we live in a universe of three spatial dimensions really seems beyond question.


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[Assistant] But in 1919, Theodor Kaluza, a virtually unknown German mathematician, had the courage to challenge the obvious. He suggested that maybe,


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[Assistant] Just maybe our universe has one more dimension.


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[Assistant] You see, Calutza had sent his idea about an additional spatial dimension to Albert Einstein.


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[Assistant] And although Einstein was initially enthusiastic, he then seemed to waver, and for two years held up publication of Kluetz's paper.


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[Assistant] Eventually, Kaluca's paper was published after Einstein decided extra dimensions were his cup of tea.


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[Assistant] Here's the idea. In 1916, Einstein showed that gravity is nothing but warps and ripples in the four familiar dimensions of space and time.


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[Assistant] Just three years later, Kaluza proposed that electromagnetism might also be ripples.


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[Assistant] But for that to be true, Calutza needed a place for those ripples to occur. So, Calutza proposed an additional hidden dimension of space.


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[Assistant] But if Calutza was right, where is this extra dimension? And what would extra dimensions look like? Can we even begin to imagine them?


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[Assistant] Well, building upon Calutza's work, the Swedish physicist Oskar Klein suggested an unusual answer.


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[Assistant] Take a look at the cables supporting that traffic light. From this far away, I can't see that they have any thickness.


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[Assistant] Each one looks like a line, something with only a single dimension.


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[Assistant] But suppose we could explore one of these cables way up close, like from the point of view of an ant.


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[Assistant] Now a second dimension, which wraps around the cable, becomes visible.


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[Assistant] From its point of view, the ant can move forwards and backwards, and it can also move clockwise and counterclockwise.


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[Assistant] So, dimensions can come in two varieties. They can be long and unfurled, like the length of the cable, but they can also be tiny and curled up, like the circular direction that wraps around it.


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[Assistant] Calutza and Klein made the wild suggestion that the fabric of our universe might be kind of like the surface of the cable, having both big extended dimensions, the three that we know about, but also tiny curled up dimensions, curled up so tiny, billions of times more than even a single atom, that we just can't see them.


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[Assistant] And so our perception that we live in a universe with three spatial dimensions may not be correct after all. We really may live in a universe with more dimensions than meet the eye.


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[Assistant] So, what would these extra dimensions look like?


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[Assistant] Kaluetz and Klein proposed that if we could shrink down billions of times, we'd find one extra, tiny, curled up dimension located at every point in space.


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[Assistant] And just the way an ant can explore the circular dimension that wraps around a traffic light cable,


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[Assistant] In theory, an ant that is billions of times smaller could also explore this tiny, curled up circular dimension.


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[Assistant] This idea that extra dimensions exist all around us lies at the heart of string theory.


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[Assistant] In fact, the mathematics of string theory demand not one, but six extra dimensions, twisted and curled into complex little shapes that might look something like this.


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[Assistant] But how could these tiny extra dimensions, curled up into such peculiar shapes, have any effect on our everyday world?


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[Assistant] Well, according to string theory, shape is everything.


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[Assistant] Because of its shape, a French horn can produce dozens of different notes.


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[Assistant] You change the note because you change the shape of the space inside the horn where the air resonates.


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[Assistant] And we think the curled up spatial dimensions in string theory work in a similar way.


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[Assistant] If we could shrink down small enough to fly into one of these tiny, six-dimensional shapes predicted by string theory.


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[Assistant] We would see how the extra dimensions are twisted and curled back on each other influencing how strings, the fundamental ingredients of our universe, move and vibrate.


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[Assistant] And this could be the key to solving one of nature's most profound mysteries.


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[Assistant] You see, our universe is kind of like a finely tuned machine.


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[Assistant] 20 fundamental constants of nature that give the universe the characteristics we see today.


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[Assistant] These are numbers like how much an electron weighs,


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[Assistant] The strength of gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the strong and weak forces.


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[Assistant] Now, as long as we set the dials on our universe machine to precisely the right values for each of these 20 numbers,


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[Assistant] The machine produces the universe we know and love.


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[Assistant] But if we change the numbers by adjusting the settings on this machine even a little bit, the consequences are dramatic.


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[Assistant] For example, if I increase the strength of the electromagnetic force,


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[Assistant] Atoms repel one another more strongly so the nuclear furnaces that make stars shine break down. The stars, including our sun, fizzle out. And the universe as we know it disappears.


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[Assistant] So, what exactly in nature sets the values of these 20 constants so precisely?


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[Assistant] Well, the answer could be the extra dimensions in string theory.


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[Assistant] That is, the tiny, curled-up six-dimensional shapes predicted by the theory cause one string to vibrate in precisely the right way to produce what we see as a photon.


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[Assistant] And another string to vibrate in a different way, producing an electron.


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[Assistant] So, according to string theory, these miniscule, extra-dimensional shapes really may determine all the constants of nature.


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[Assistant] Keeping the cosmic symphony of strings in tune.


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[Assistant] By the mid-1980s, string theory looked unstoppable.


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[Assistant] But behind the scenes, the theory was entangled.


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[Assistant] Over the years, string theorists had been so successful that they had constructed not one, but five different versions of the theory.


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[Assistant] Each was built on strings and extra dimensions. But in detail, the five theories were not in harmony.


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[Assistant] In some versions, strings were open ended strands. In others, they were closed loops.


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[Assistant] At first glance, a couple of versions even required 26 dimensions.


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[Assistant] All five versions appeared equally valid.


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[Assistant] But which one was describing our universe?


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[Assistant] This was kind of an embarrassment for string theorists because on the one hand we wanted to say that this might be it, the final description of the universe, but then in the next breath we had to say, and it comes in five flavors, five variations.


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[Assistant] There's one universe you expect there to be one theory, not five. So this is an example where more is definitely less.


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[Assistant] String theory seemed to be losing steam once again.


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[Assistant] And frustrated by a lack of progress, many physicists abandoned the field.


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[Assistant] Will string theory prove to be a theory of everything? Or will it unravel into a theory of nothing?


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[Assistant] Hi, I'm John Green, and this is Crash Course European History. So World War I unleashed seemingly endless violence, but while it was happening, even more violence was taking shape across Europe, most notably the Russian Revolution and Civil War.


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[Assistant] The failure of Tsar Nicholas II's government in directing the war effort caused immense suffering. He built no efficient administration to ensure adequate weaponry or transportation.


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[Assistant] Bullets, for instance, and soldiers often went without boots, instead wearing rags on their feet. Some generals were first-rate, but others were totally uninstructed in modern techniques and more concerned with conducting pogroms against their own Jewish troops.


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[Assistant] As hundreds of thousands of wounded people and millions of refugees crossed back into an entirely unprepared Russia from 1915 on, soldiers deserted while civilian organizations picked up where the Imperial administration failed. Local organizations called Zemstvaz took responsibility for civilian well-being, joining other groups to take care of the wounded and maintain the home front more generally. And throughout history, when people see such groups doing the work that governments traditionally do,


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[Assistant] On the warfront, the government wasn't much more inspirational. After a string of Russian defeats, Tsar Nicholas decided that he should personally oversee the battlefront.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which made him appear incompetent because, you know, to be fair, he was, and also he seemed uninterested in the survival of ordinary Russians, which


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] different calendar, which is why the International Women's Day we are about to talk about happened in Russian February


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, because the memorization of dates is overrated, we are not going to overanalyze this, but for the record, everyone should use the exact same calendar all the time. Specifically, this vintage cat calendar. Okay, so on Russian February 23rd, 1917, it was International Women's Day.