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[Assistant] Global temperature patterns have long affected cultures and community decision-making, and the landscape of plants and animals. Thousands of years of atmospheric observations and science have led up to all we know about a region's temperatures, and even how we think about a place. Like, if we know nothing else about the vast region we've long called Siberia, we know that it's cold. Really cold.


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[Assistant] But more broadly, how the science and patterns of air temperatures affect geographical space, place, and human interactions with the Earth. I'm Alizé Carrère, and this is Crash Course Geography.


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[Assistant] So, while we could look up an exact temperature reading, we'd be focusing on a single data point and missing the larger connections that tell the story of the Earth. Like, Siberia can claim the lowest temperature ever recorded where people actually live.


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[Assistant] But that alone doesn't tell us why it has such an enduring fascination as inhospitable, forbidding, and a place of exile. Actually, humans have lived in Siberia for the last 40,000 years. It's been home to many nomad groups, is thought to be the birthplace of the Turkic people,


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[Assistant] Yeah, it's really cold, but we can unpack that simple statement about the Earth's atmosphere and air temperature by using geography to explore the space, place, and human-environment interactions. In fact, we can get a pretty good idea of Siberia's story and air temperature patterns with just four questions. First, what's the latitude of the place?


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[Assistant] As geographers, we want to see how temperature plays into the larger pattern of global weather systems, of biogeography, and as we'll see soon, climate zones and the global distribution of plants and cultural traits.


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[Assistant] So air temperature drops. There's actually a time lag between our sunlight and air temperature cycles because the Earth takes a bit to warm up, which is why the hottest part of the day usually happens a little after 2pm. And this phenomenon is mimicked on a bigger scale throughout the year, as the Earth revolves and the latitude where the Sun is directly overhead shifts north and south between the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer.


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[Assistant] Which is kind of mind-blowing when you think about it. We can't see air around us, but we can map it. These two isopleth maps, or maps that show the continuous distribution of data, show the average air temperatures around the world in January and July using isotherms, or lines joining locations that have the same temperature. In the course of a year, as the latitude where the Sun is directly overhead shifts, the isotherms follow.


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[Assistant] Remember, places get less insulation as we move from the equator to the poles. The isotherms also show how air temperature varies season to season. At the equator, there's almost no difference between seasons.


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[Assistant] But the temperatures at the poles vary a ton. Basically, we can use higher latitude equals colder temperatures as a rule of thumb, and dive deeper to better understand a place. Maps like these are one way we can expand on latitude-temperature patterns, even for a vast geographical region that makes up three-fourths of Russia's total territory like Siberia.


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[Assistant] It's big. Like, we're talking has 8 time zones big. Siberia spans all the way between 50 degrees and 70 degrees north latitude, which means it tips over into the Arctic Circle.


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[Assistant] On our January map, winter in the Arctic and subarctic brings plunging temperatures, like the frigid minus 50 degree Celsius isotherm cuts across northeastern Siberia.


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[Assistant] The just under 1400 people who call the town of Verkhoyansk in the Arctic Circle home deal with average minimum temperatures as low as minus 57 degrees Celsius. So yeah, parts of Siberia are indeed very cold. The extreme cold of the high latitudes means that even though there's lots of land that can be farmed, the short growing season plus the mud created by melting snow and ice make agriculture difficult. Even building roads is a problem.


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[Assistant] So, Siberia remains largely uninhabited except for small scattered lumber and mining settlements. The second question we can ask is, how far away is the place from the ocean or sea? On the isotherm maps, the greatest temperature difference from east to west happens where the isotherms leave large land masses to cross the oceans. Let's follow the 15°C isotherm.


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[Assistant] It lies over central Florida in January. By July, it's moved farther north, where it then loops into northwestern Canada. But the isotherms over oceans shift much less. Land has a low specific heat, or how much heat is needed to raise the temperature 1 degree Celsius.


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[Assistant] On the other hand, water has a high specific heat, so oceans need more heat for temperatures to increase one degree. Water can also store heat by moving it down to mix with deeper, colder waters through convection. So a really important factor for air temperature is ocean distribution. Places far from oceans tend to have a stronger temperature contrast from winter to summer.


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[Assistant] But several months later, it's warm enough to drink some iced kvass. Which, according to the power of the internet, is like a refreshing soda. Though I've never tried it.


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[Assistant] There's actually great landscape and climate diversity within frigid Siberia. Our third temperature-related question is what is the elevation of the place? At high elevation, or how high a point is on Earth's surface relative to sea level,


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[Assistant] There's less air to absorb solar energy, and we feel a drop in temperature. For the same less air reason, we also feel a drop in temperature at high altitude, which refers to the height of an object, like an airplane, above Earth's surface.


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[Assistant] Basically, highlands are always colder than lowlands. Mount Kenya is about 5200 meters high and is located at the equator, yet is still cold enough to have glaciers. The isotherms around the Rocky Mountains dip down in both summer and winter.


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[Assistant] The effect is even more noticeable in the Andes Mountains in South America. The many mountain ranges in Siberia, like the Altai Mountains to the south or the Verkhoyansk Mountains to the east, will be colder than the surrounding lowlands.


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[Assistant] They also mark changes in the ecosystems because of the difference in temperature and moisture that mountains provide. Like, in many of these higher elevations and high latitudes, with cold temperature comes snow and ice, which go on to influence temperature in a feedback loop of sorts. The high albedo, or reflection of insulation, of the snow keeps winter temperatures low by reflecting much of the winter insulation back to space.


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[Assistant] The type of surface can even influence temperature on top of latitude, continentality, and elevation. This idea brings us to our fourth and final question. Is the place an urban area or a rural area? Cities across the world are actually trying to increase their albedo with green roofs, covered in plants, more trees, and painted white surfaces.


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[Assistant] Temperatures above 37 degrees Celsius are common in the summer, and like in other parts of the world, heat-related deaths are a public health issue. And as climate change increases heat in the lower part of the atmosphere, summers are projected to only get hotter and longer.


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[Assistant] On top of that, the effect of urban heat isn't evenly distributed because of land use, like the distribution of highways, parking lots, and parks. Measuring temperatures across various city spaces can reveal a 10 degree difference between neighborhoods less than 2 miles apart.


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[Assistant] For example, wealthier neighborhoods are usually well shaded with trees, while low-income neighborhoods are hardest hit by heat, meaning those communities suffer disproportionately from health threats due to extreme heat.


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[Assistant] Phoenix has introduced a program that treats heat readiness on par with climate change disaster preparedness. Plans include a return to traditional building materials like adobe, redesigning low-income neighborhoods with emergency cooling towers, increasing the city's tree canopy, and orienting new buildings so they shade sidewalks and courtyards, along with alerting residents with text notifications when a heat wave is imminent.


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[Assistant] Studying air temperature also means we have to ask questions about equity. How does temperature affect the people that live in a certain place? And who has access to the public services and facilities to stay healthy and go about their lives? We saw how latitude, ocean proximity, and elevation come together to make Siberia so cold that very little grows and few people live here.


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[Assistant] In the past, the search for valuable fur and minerals, which still continues, stimulated Russian expansion into the vast wilderness of Siberia. Today, melting sea ice in the Arctic Ocean from higher temperatures has opened up shipping lanes, which will bring increased trade and growth to the northern Siberian region. But it also adversely affects indigenous reindeer herders of the Russian Arctic.


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[Assistant] Delays in sea ice freezing disrupt seasonal migration routes, destroying a way of life and economy. The environment creates opportunities and challenges to which humans respond. But human-environment interaction is a two-way street.


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[Assistant] We'll keep examining these issues as we explore larger patterns of global climate and their impact on lives, both human and non-human.


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[Assistant] If you want to help keep Crash Course free for everyone, forever, you can join our community on Patreon.


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[Assistant] Shapes in Tidepools Written by Pam Bull


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[Assistant] There are pools of water on rocky shores. They are called tide pools. Many animals live in tide pools. Can you name this animal? This animal has five arms. It is shaped like a star. It is a starfish. Can you name this animal?


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[Assistant] It is a crab. Can you name this animal? This animal has one foot. It has a shell shaped like a triangle.


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[Assistant] Lesson 105. Full of mistakes. Where's Sandra, Bob? I want her. Do you want to speak to her? Yes, I do. I want her to come to my office. Tell her to come at once.


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[Assistant] Ah, yes, Sandra. How do you spell intelligent? Can you tell me?


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[Assistant] You've typed it with only one L.


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[Assistant] This letter's full of mistakes. I want you to type it again.


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[Assistant] What is it? It's a dictionary. I hope it'll help you.


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[Assistant] Nigel is our new next-door neighbor. He's a pilot. He was in the RAF. He will fly to New York next month. The month after next, he'll fly to Tokyo. At the moment, he's in Madrid. He flew to Spain a week ago. He'll return to London the week after next. He's only forty-one years old.


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[Assistant] And he has already been to nearly every country


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[Assistant] Written by Elizabeth Jane Pastilnik Focus Question


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[Assistant] What makes coyotes interesting mammals?


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[Assistant] Coyotes have a pointy face and pointy ears. Coyotes are mammals.


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[Assistant] Coyotes have long bushy tails. Coyotes are mammals.


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[Assistant] Create a poster about coyotes. Draw a picture and write three facts about coyotes. Science.


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[Assistant] It is hers indeed, I know, for I was the one who gave it to her. Then what are we to make of this letter the monk brought? Is it possible we've been duped?


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[Assistant] I'm still waiting for your proof. You must back up your accusations, Hunter. I shall. See for yourself, Your Majesty.


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[Assistant] That woman is a scorpion spirit. She is very dangerous.


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[Assistant] He was teaching his students one day and saw that scorpion creeping toward him. He tried to move it away, but it stung him. The pain was horrible. He told his guards to capture the scorpion, but it escaped to Earth.


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[Assistant] Hey kids, now we're going to write the letter K, as in koala. K, k, koala.


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[Assistant] First, we'll write the capital K. That's the big K. Start at the top and make a line down.


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[Assistant] Next, go back to the top and make a line down to the left.


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[Assistant] Then make a line down to the right. Let's try it again. Down, down to the left, down to the right. Now you try.


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[Assistant] Now we're going to write the lowercase k. That's the small k.


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[Assistant] Start at the top and make a line down.


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[Assistant] Next, go to the middle and make a small line down to the left. Then, make a small line down to the right.


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[Assistant] Let's try it again. Down, down to the left, down to the right. Now you try.


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[Assistant] Next time, we'll write the letter L. Don't forget to subscribe to our YouTube channel.


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[Assistant] It was supplied by the waters of the Amu Darya and Sir Darya rivers, and the soil nearby grew a lush variety of plants. But during the Soviet era, fields of cotton and rice took over the region, using most of the waters of these rivers and their tributaries.


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[Assistant] And by the 1980s, only a trickle of new river water made it to the Aral Sea. So it began to shrink. As the liquid water molecules evaporated, they left behind all the salt that had been dissolved in this water.


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[Assistant] This salinization covered the newly exposed soil in a salty white crust, which then blocks plants from being able to absorb water and nutrients. In the nearby fields, aril sea water would still be pumped in for the crops, but rapid evaporation continued to leave behind a thick crust of salt on the soil.


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[Assistant] So the sea was being destroyed to grow crops, but the crops couldn't grow because of more salinization. As the Aral Sea continued to shrink and more sediment was exposed, the salt and dirt, along with fertilizers, pesticides, and other pollutants that built up over time,


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[Assistant] And one moral of this real-life parable is that the soil is a living, dynamic, and precious substance that's deeply affected by how we manage our land and resources. With the right composition, care, and natural cycling, soil supports entire ecosystems. So we shouldn't take it for granted. I'm Alizé Carrère, and this is Crash Course Geography.


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[Assistant] Like a rich carrot cake that needs just the right amounts of flour, water, spice, carrot, and cream cheese frosting to make a delicious treat. Soils are a complex collection of minerals, organic material, air, and water in just the right proportions for plants to thrive. The flour in our soil cake is the parent material. Rocks that are broken down by plants, animals, wind, and water.


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[Assistant] The size of these rock particles determines a soil's texture and structure. Like, sandstone is very strong, so it makes a chunky, coarse textured soil. All the non-living inorganic soil minerals come from the parent material rocks. So we usually end up with elements commonly found in rocks like silicon, aluminum, oxygen, and iron.


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[Assistant] And we get different compounds of those elements as chemical processes break down the rocks. Unlike the inorganic minerals, the organic material in soil, or humus, comes from living things like leaves and partly decomposed plants and animals.


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[Assistant] Humus supplies energy and nutrients and influences the color, texture, structure, and chemical properties of a soil, and how much water and air it can hold. The organic material is like chunks of carrots and walnuts in our cake.


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[Assistant] And just like in a cake, the right amount of water and air help create the perfect texture. Let's coat a wedge of our soil cake to see how it all comes together. This slice is a soil profile with layers called soil horizons that each have different properties. On the surface is the O horizon, made of some of that humus, like extra chopped walnuts we sprinkle on top of our cake.


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[Assistant] Soils rich in humus are workable, which means they have good porosity or capacity for holding water. Below this is the A horizon, commonly called topsoil, which is like the top layer of our cake with a rich cream cheese frosting slathered on top. It has tons of nutrients and decomposed organic material.


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[Assistant] So like if we lived in a world where frosting is nutritious. The O and A horizons hold a vast hidden world of biodiversity, or all different plants, animals and microbes that exist.


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[Assistant] In fact, a quarter of our planet's biodiversity is made up of soil organisms in the ground. Small land mammals burrow and redistribute the soil, earthworms aerate soil and improve soil structure, and microscopic organisms break down organic material, hold important nutrients, or bind soil particles together. But this teeming life in soils wouldn't be possible without precipitation. Just like a cake would be dry without liquids. Water absorbs minerals in the soil and becomes soil water.


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[Assistant] Carrying nutrients farther down so plants can absorb them with their roots. Any extra soil water that beads and sticks to soil particles is called capillary water.


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[Assistant] Which plants can use during dry periods. But soil water doesn't stop at plant roots. It can filter down to deeper levels and keep leaching or depleting the nutrients from the topsoil. A well-made cake is moist, but also light and fluffy, so the spaces between soil particles not filled with water hold soil air.


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[Assistant] Which supplies oxygen and carbon dioxide necessary for life. Below the A horizon are layers of basically all the extras from the topsoil.


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[Assistant] Certain soils have an E horizon, made up of coarse sand and silt. Here, finer clay and iron oxide particles are leached and carried even further down with the soil water.


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[Assistant] This process is alluviation, which is where the E comes from. All leached materials from the A and E layers accumulate in the B horizon, which is kind of like the storage center for minerals and nutrients that get leached down. Scientists usually only use the word soil to talk about the A through B horizons.


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[Assistant] That's where plant roots are, and the layers actively change through interactions with weather, nutrients, plants, and animals.


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[Assistant] But our full soil cake is bigger. The next layer is the sea horizon, or regolith, which comes from partly broken down parent material.


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[Assistant] This layer is pretty unaffected by all the stuff happening above, and finding plant roots or even soil microorganisms here is pretty rare. And the R horizon is the lowest layer, made of unbroken parent material or bedrock. It's kinda like the plate the cake sits on, if the plate were made of hardened flour or something much older than the soil.


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[Assistant] The inorganic minerals and rocks in upper layers might have come from breaking down some of the bedrock, or they could have been carried by streams, glaciers, waves, and wind from far away. A soil profile is a complicated recipe to develop, but I think Paul Hollywood would give a star baker. And maybe even a Hollywood handshake.


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[Assistant] Plants can't grow and entire economies are changing, like from the salinization of the Aral Sea. It's a hard problem that we've given soil scientists, who are kind of like doctors, and look after soils to prevent such disasters from happening again.


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[Assistant] They map and analyze soil types, determine their suitability for different uses, and lead conservation efforts using science from all sorts of fields like physics, mineralogy, hydrology, climatology, and more. To best understand the way to protect soils, understanding the different characteristics of soil across Earth can help.


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[Assistant] Like, if we could walk along the 20 degree meridian, we'd see many specific soil-forming processes as we moved between climates. We'd start in the shady cool of the Congo rainforest under a dense canopy of tall trees.


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[Assistant] In this rainforest climate, rocks break down rapidly and minerals are decomposed as part of a chemical process called laterization. We call the soil that forms laterite, meaning brick-like, because it's mostly a hardened bee horizon made of iron-rich clay mixed with quartz and other minerals.


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[Assistant] In fact, it's so hard it's used as building material. Moving north, we find ourselves in the tropical grasslands, which transition into semi-desert scrub, and then the true desert of the Sahara, as there's less and less moisture.


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[Assistant] In climates like these, when there's not a lot of moisture for trees to grow but grasses thrive, the soils form through calcification. Over thousands of years, calcium carbonate leaches down to the B horizon and creates a hard layer called caliche.


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[Assistant] And more calcification happens as grasses draw up calcium from the A horizon and return it to the soil when they die. Crossing the Mediterranean Sea and heading into the Alps, the topography or shape of the land influences soil development.


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[Assistant] Like on steep slopes, water quickly flows downhill without absorbing into the soil.


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[Assistant] And because of increased erosion, soils also have less time to develop. The sun also plays an interesting role in the highland climates of the mountains. South-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere that receive the sun's rays at a steeper angle are warmer, and their soils are drier. After crossing the Alps, we reach the coniferous forests of northern Europe.


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[Assistant] Here, the soil forms from podzolization, which is a word that comes from the Russian word, podzol, which means ashy. As pine needles decompose, they make the soil more acidic, which leaches out aluminum and iron compounds from the A horizon.


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[Assistant] The remaining silica gives the E horizon a distinctive ash-gray color. That was just one little stretch of one meridian, but even there, no two soils are alike.


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[Assistant] And their development and distribution depends on spatial factors like climate, vegetation, topography, parent material, and time. No matter where we are, soils are the foundation of life on Earth, from the local ecosystems of plants and animals, to the crops we grow and food we eat.


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[Assistant] Good fertile soils are like gold we seek out at any risk, like planting crops in the shadows of volcanoes or in the flood zone on the banks of rivers.


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[Assistant] The UN Food and Agriculture Organization celebrates December 5th as World Soil Day, because soil should be celebrated. But also because our soils are at risk. Soils are a bridge between all four of Earth's physical geography systems, but especially the biosphere and the lithosphere.


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[Assistant] Or Earth's solid realm, which forms a platform for plant, animal, and human life. The lithosphere is shaped by internal and external processes that build it up and wear it down. And we'll start exploring that next time when we look at how rocks and minerals are formed.


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[Assistant] Many geographical place names also don't reflect the Indigenous or Aboriginal peoples' languages.


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[Assistant] So we at Crash Course want to acknowledge these people's traditional and ongoing relationship with that land and all the physical and human geographical elements of it. We encourage you to learn more about the history of the place you call home through resources like nativeland.ca and by engaging with your local indigenous and aboriginal nations through the websites and resources they provide.


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[Assistant] If you'd like to keep Crash Course free for everyone forever, you can join our community on Patreon.


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[Assistant] This is What If, and here's what would happen if half the world's population suddenly disappeared. With 50% of the population disappearing in the blink of an eye, there would be mass chaos. One thing that's bound to happen, plane crashes.


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[Assistant] Since it would be completely unpredictable where these unmanned planes would crash.


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[Assistant] You wouldn't want to be undergoing surgery at the time. Imagine lying on the operating table in the middle of a procedure when all of a sudden the surgeon disappears.


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[Assistant] If you were to survive all the chaos and destruction that would follow this mass vanishing, it wouldn't be such a joyous moment.


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[Assistant] Half of your family and half of your friends would be gone. Sorry about that.


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[Assistant] However, once you get over the crushing and confusing loss of your loved ones, this could be a good thing. But not right away.


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[Assistant] At first, civilization would have to deal with losing people who held essential jobs around the world.


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[Assistant] Massive blackouts would occur, and people would generally be less safe.


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[Assistant] For a short time our food supply would suffer severely.


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[Assistant] The number of people who grow or make food, sell it and ship it would be significantly reduced.


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[Assistant] But what happens after the dust settles? And civilization is able to adjust to this new world.


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[Assistant] Well, believe it or not, humanity has already dealt with something very similar to this event, known as the Black Death.


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[Assistant] In the mid-1300s, Europe was met with a bacterial infection that wiped out 25 million people, equal to about half of the continent's population at the time.


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[Assistant] Although the world was met with tons of death and despair, there were also benefits that resulted from this event.


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[Assistant] During a time when food supplies were scarce, food became more plentiful due to there being fewer mouths to feed. The same could be applied to the world today.


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[Assistant] Approximately 36 million people die each year from hunger.


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[Assistant] With 50% fewer people to feed, and the world having the same amount of food as it did before, the bellies of the world would be much more full.


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[Assistant] Another thing that happened during the Black Death that would happen in our scenario? You'd be a lot richer.


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[Assistant] Assuming the world economy stabilizes after this huge event, you'd be able to charge a lot more for your skills.


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[Assistant] You could end up being the only person in your town who knows how to repair a car or perform surgery or even cook a decent meal.


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[Assistant] With fewer people, your skills would be in higher demand, resulting in you earning more money.


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[Assistant] And speaking of money, wherever you choose to live would be much cheaper, since there'd be so many more available homes. You'd no longer be spending your entire paycheck on rent.


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[Assistant] Well, the Earth would slowly begin to heal itself from climate change.


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[Assistant] Fewer people means less pollution and less harm to the environment.


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[Assistant] With 50% less people on Earth, there's a good chance we'd be able to live comfortably on Earth for the next 100 years.


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[Assistant] Unlike what will happen if we keep up our current population size.


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[Assistant] Once you forget about the horrible mass elimination that occurred, this world sounds pretty good.


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[Assistant] Unfortunately, in a couple of centuries or so, we'd most likely be back to where we started.


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[Assistant] But even if that happens, the world may still end up surviving.


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[Assistant] The core problem is not how many of us there are, but how we use the planet and share its resources.


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[Assistant] In theory, we could have 14 billion people and still have a thriving planet, as long as we use our resources correctly.


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[Assistant] Now, what would happen if this were to actually happen? And the world's population suddenly doubled? Well, that sounds like a story for another WHAT IF.


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[Assistant] Scary looking place, but there are no monsters. Poor fellows don't know what they're missing. This place looks like it was made for monsters.


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[Assistant] Stir the lemon juice into the pot.


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[Assistant] What are three safety rules you should follow when cooking? Share your ideas with a partner.


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[Assistant] Someone is pretending to be me! And he's living on my mountain!


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[Assistant] I'm going there right now. I'm going to destroy him. I'll go with you.


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[Assistant] Guan Yin will easily see that I am the real Wukong. It is a good idea.


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[Assistant] It's raining! That means you don't need to water the garden!


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[Assistant] I believe my pet beast, Curious Ear can help.


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[Assistant] Why are there many ways to remove snow?


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[Assistant] Some places get a lot of snow.


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[Assistant] Where does a dump truck take snow? a snow dump


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[Assistant] Draw and label three pictures. Science


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[Assistant] Learn more about snow with your class.


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[Assistant] Written by Elizabeth Jane Postilnik Illustrated by Rick Powell Focus Question


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[Assistant] My family celebrates Kwanzaa.


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[Assistant] Kwanzaa is an African American holiday.


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[Assistant] My family lights candles. We celebrate Kwanzaa.


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[Assistant] My family drinks from a special cup.


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[Assistant] We celebrate Kwanzaa.


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[Assistant] My family tells stories.


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[Assistant] We celebrate Kwanzaa.


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[Assistant] My family works together.


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[Assistant] We celebrate Kwanzaa.


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[Assistant] My family shares a gift.


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[Assistant] We celebrate Kwanzaa.


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[Assistant] My family makes crafts.


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[Assistant] We celebrate Kwanzaa.


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[Assistant] My family eats a feast.


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[Assistant] We celebrate Kwanzaa.


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[Assistant] Kwanzaa is a time to celebrate our African heritage. Happy Kwanzaa! Connections Writing


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[Assistant] Create a poster showing some ways people celebrate Kwanzaa. Social studies.


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[Assistant] How is Kwanzaa the same as another holiday you know? How is it different? Create a Venn diagram to compare the holidays.


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[Assistant] He'll be able to see which of you is the real Wukong. And he's powerful enough to destroy the fake one.