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[Assistant] They are investing in government bonds. Not only wealthy Americans, but wealthy Americans by and large are the ones who have enough money to actually buy bonds.


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[Assistant] Uh, and so you see here who owns the United States national debt.


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[Assistant] Well, you've got foreign investors, about 30%, but you've got more than foreign investors, you've got United States investors who own the national debt, who buy bonds.


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[Assistant] United States government pays about 1.5 billion dollars in interest payments every day, every day on those bonds.


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[Assistant] And this is, you know, the federal debt. That's what we were talking about a little while ago.


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[Assistant] This is just the other side of the federal. These are the people who collect money on the debt. Which means, as the top marginal tax rate drops and the deficit grows,


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[Assistant] More tax revenue goes to paying interest on the national debt, mostly to the wealthy who got the benefit of the tax cut. I call this the big switch rule.


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[Assistant] This is looking on the inside of the beast to see what's really going on.


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[Assistant] Also, another thing to take note of, and this is important, when the Fed keeps interest rates low,


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[Assistant] Total savings shift into the stock market.


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[Assistant] So people who have a lot of savings, particularly wealthy people who are the only ones who have a lot of savings, what do they do? Well, as interest rates go down,


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[Assistant] They're not gonna go put their money into bonds because they're not very much, you know, they can't get very much out of the bonds.


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[Assistant] They're gonna go into the stock market, which is gonna push up share prices. And remember, what we've already seen is that the richest 1% own half of all the value of U.S. stocks in terms of American ownership, and the richest 10% own over 80% of the stock market. These are all pieces of the puzzle.


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[Assistant] These are all pieces of the puzzle that we started to ask ourselves in the first session of the class, which is why, why do we have stagnants?


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[Assistant] Wages and why have so much of the increase in the economy's gains gone to the top? This is a piece of an answer to the puzzle.


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[Assistant] As more economic gains go to the top 1%, will there be enough total demand in the economy?


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[Assistant] To reduce unemployment and raise the wages of most people. Now by asking this question, I'm leaving this question with you because it's a very subtle but important question. It's the question that Marriner Eccles raised in the 1930s. In fact, he was obsessed by this. And the question is, if


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[Assistant] Who is going to have enough money to buy everything that the economy is capable of producing? At some point, at some point you run out of buyers.


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[Assistant] You've gotta either redistribute or you've gotta have what? Some sort of a universal minimum income?


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[Assistant] It doesn't mean that unemployment is going to be going up because there's always going to be things that people want other people to do and would pay for. What it means is that wages for most people may not go up, they may go down.


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[Assistant] And if technology is making more and more jobs pay less,


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[Assistant] Who's gonna buy the technology? Who's gonna buy the gadgets?


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[Assistant] In the early part of the 20th century, when Ford Motor was building all these Model T Fords, and Henry Ford raised the wages of people on his assembly line. Why did he raise them? He raised them, he said, because he wants more people to buy Model T Fords.


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[Assistant] Now people kind of scratch their heads. That didn't make a lot of sense because people on the assembly line are not going to turn around and buy Model T Fords. A few of them will, but no, Henry Ford had something different in mind. He said to himself, and he wrote down in his diary,


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[Assistant] That if more and more employers followed his example by raising wages, that would mean people would have more disposable income and that would help the economy overall.


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[Assistant] The issues we're talking about today seem abstract. They are very real.


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[Assistant] They are not new, but they take very new dimensions. When next week the Fed meets,


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[Assistant] And decides to raise interest rates, which I am almost certain they will do, watch to see how that is described, analyzed, and covered by the press.


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[Assistant] Watch to see how much of the information the public gets.


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[Assistant] is similar to the information and context and framing you have got today.


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[Assistant] Because in a democracy, if people don't know what's happening, they cannot participate.


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[Assistant] Sea rat will only eat the best. Said rat to himself. I'll put cheese and sausage in the basket. Some bread too.


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[Assistant] Some pressure tests require laser precision. Some require stamina. Some require uninterrupted focus. But.


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[Assistant] A finals week pressure test requires all that and so much more.


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[Assistant] If you want a sense of how hard this pressure test is going to be, look at that Himalayan range of machine equipment. That gives you a bit of a sense of the Everest you're about to climb.


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[Assistant] Welcome back to the My Chef Kitchen. Last year in finals week we were in your restaurant at dinner by Heston in Melbourne.


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[Assistant] Actually, it's time to reveal what you have installed. Okay.


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[Assistant] All I know is reading that recipe, it's so easy to get confused, it's so easy to make little mistakes and I think


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[Assistant] You know at this stage of the competition, a little mistake can be enough to send you home.


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[Assistant] I mean, it just eats well, doesn't it? There's a great range of textures, so it's a pleasure to eat. Yeah.


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[Assistant] From Singapore to South Australia, from your home kitchen to where you are now, which has been the tougher journey on which you proud of.


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[Assistant] We can't put off the moment any longer. It's the moment of truth. Whether you stay or whether you go depends on that dish and what you've done. Away you go.


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[Assistant] So, Chloe, Sashi, it comes down to the two of you and it comes down to the dish.


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[Assistant] One of the dishes had a marginally better consomme and a tartare was marginally better.


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[Assistant] Everything that you've done, all the great dishes you've eaten.


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[Assistant] Next time. A culinary duel. You'll get paired up.


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[Assistant] Chapter 5 Love and Rebellion. Forward.


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[Assistant] So, what is Marius' idea? It is this. He wants to marry Cosette, but he has no money. His grandfather has money. He must ask his grandfather.


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[Assistant] But his grandfather is an old man.


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[Assistant] And old men's ideas do not change easily.


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[Assistant] He shouts at Marius. Marius shouts back. And that is the end of that.


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[Assistant] The next evening, he goes, as usual, to the loo plume. There is nobody in the garden.


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[Assistant] The house is dark. The windows are closed.


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[Assistant] Corsette and her father are gone.


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[Assistant] Marius cannot live without Cosette. He wants to die.


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[Assistant] But Gavros tells him that his friends need him.


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[Assistant] It is June 1832 and students and workers are running through the streets of Paris bringing rebellion to the city.


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[Assistant] And everyone must fight the government.


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[Assistant] Marius is soon at the barricades with a gun in his hand. He is happy!


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[Assistant] Death can come at any moment with a bullet from a soldier's gun.


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[Assistant] Jean Valjean sees Inspector Javert in a street near the Rue Plumée. What is he doing there? Are the police watching his house? Valjean does not wait.


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[Assistant] The same night, he and Cosette leave Rue Plume.


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[Assistant] They move to 7 rue de l'homme armé and begin to get ready for England.


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[Assistant] How can love find a way in these troubled times?


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[Assistant] When the soldiers attacked in front of the Arsenal building, the people turned and ran, this way and that way, through the streets of the city.


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[Assistant] Marius and his friends came to the Rue de la Chavrerie and they built their barricade there.


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[Assistant] It was two meters high, made of wood and stone.


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[Assistant] Behind their barricade, the rebels waited for the soldiers. Night came, but nothing happened.


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[Assistant] Angeloir was the leader of the students. He called Gavroche to him. You're small, he said. Nobody sees you. Go and have a look round the city. And then bring us any news.


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[Assistant] Just after midnight, Gavros was back. The soldiers aren't moving, he said. But there are a lot of them. He stopped suddenly and whispered. Hey, who's that? That tall man over there.


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[Assistant] Angelois and Marius turned to look. I don't know him, said Marius.


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[Assistant] People are coming and going all night, said Angela. Why, Gavroche? Do you know him? Yes, whispered Gavroche. He's not one of us. He's a spy. A police spy. Name of Javert. He stopped me once down by the river.


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[Assistant] Are you certain about this, Gavros? said Marius. I'm certain alright, said Gavros. He's a spy.


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[Assistant] Four of Anjara's men jumped on Javert.


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[Assistant] They went back outside to the barricade and listened for the sound of soldiers.


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[Assistant] Gavros found Marius at the far end of the barricade. Marius! he whispered. On my way back here?


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[Assistant] Why? whispered Marius. I was hungry, said Gavros. The woman in your house is nice. She always gives me something to eat. But she had a letter for you. She gave it to me. It came two days ago, she said.


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[Assistant] A letter? A letter from whom? Suddenly, there was hope in Marius' heart. Quick, give it to me. The letter was from Cosette.


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[Assistant] My dearest, father says we must leave at once.


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[Assistant] We go tonight to 7 rue de l'homme amée and soon to England. Oh my dear, how can I live without you? Cosette.


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[Assistant] Mariusz read this letter four times and then kissed it. She still loved him.


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[Assistant] He must write back to her and say his last goodbye.


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[Assistant] There was still no sound of soldiers in the street. He found some paper and a pencil.


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[Assistant] Cosette, dearest, I came to the Rue Plume, but you were gone already. We cannot marry.


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[Assistant] I went to my grandfather, and he said no. I have no money, and you have no money. I love you. I can never forget you. The fighting begins here very soon. When I am dead, don't be sad. Our love was beautiful. Marius.


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[Assistant] I want you to take this letter to the Rue de l'Homme Armée. Can you do that for me? Yes, but not now, said Gavros. I'm staying here for the fighting. I can shoot too, you know. Gavros, you're just a boy.


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[Assistant] We don't want you to die in the fighting. Stay away from the shooting.


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[Assistant] And this letter is very important to me. It must go now.


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[Assistant] I want you to put it into Cosette's hands. Please, Gavrush.


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[Assistant] Oh very well, said Gavros. He took the letter.


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[Assistant] Put it inside his shirt and ran off into the dark.


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[Assistant] When Valjean and Cosette left the house in Rue Plume, Cosette was very sad. Valjean saw this, but he said nothing.


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[Assistant] In the Rue de l'Homme Amée, Cosette stayed in her bedroom. Toussaint took her meals up to her.


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[Assistant] In the night, Valjean could not sleep. The city was quiet but for how long?


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[Assistant] He went outside the house and stood in the street listening. There were voices in the next street and then he heard singing. A boy singing.


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[Assistant] Gavros came up the street, looking at the house numbers. He saw Valjean and stopped. Well, young man, what's the news? said Valjean. The news is that I'm hungry, said Gavros.


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[Assistant] Valjean put his hand in his pocket and found a five franc piece. Gavroche stared at it.


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[Assistant] He didn't see many five franc pieces and he was very pleased to see this one. He put it in his pocket. You're alright, he said. Do you live in this street? Do you know number seven?


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[Assistant] What do you want with number seven? said Valjean. Letter for someone, said Gavroche. A woman! Valjean stared at him. He felt cold. A woman. Cosette?


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[Assistant] He remembered once the young man in the Luxembourg. He tried to smile. Ah.


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[Assistant] That's the letter for Cosette, he said. I'm waiting for it. Yes, that's her. Well, here you are, said Gavros.


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[Assistant] It comes from the barricade in the Rue de la Chauverie. I'm going back there now. Good night Monsieur.


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[Assistant] Jean Valjean went back into the house with Marius' letter. He read it quickly. I love you. I can never forget you.


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[Assistant] His dear, dear daughter was in love.


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[Assistant] She was his world. Without her, his life was nothing. He could not even think about it.


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[Assistant] When I am dead don't be sad. Those words gave him hope.


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[Assistant] So the young man was one of the rebels at the barricade.


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[Assistant] When the soldiers start shooting, he thought, that's the end of all the rebels.


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[Assistant] I do nothing. I say nothing. I keep this letter and poof, nothing changes in our lives. But Valjean did not feel easy.


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[Assistant] He remembered all their happy years as father and daughter.


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[Assistant] And he saw again Cosette's sad eyes when they left the Rue Plume. How could he take her away to England? He turned and went out of the room.


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[Assistant] A little later he left the house wearing dark clothes and carrying a gun and walked away down the street.


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[Assistant] Why do we treat mental and physical illnesses so differently if we think we know that the mind comes from the brain?


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[Assistant] Motivated behaviors fall into two general classes, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.


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[Assistant] With mental health research, you can't just pop open the hood with the press of a button.


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[Assistant] So this is why we do experiments on animals, specifically in my lab, mice. To understand the brain, well, we need to study brains.


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[Assistant] The development of optogenetic tools has allowed us unprecedented control over specific neurons in the brain and how they talk to each other by firing electrical signals.


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[Assistant] This can change an animal's behavior, giving us insight into what that neural circuit can do. Wanna know how scientists figure this out?


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[Assistant] Scientists developed optogenetic tools by borrowing knowledge from other basic science fields.


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[Assistant] Algae are single-celled organisms that have evolved to swim towards light. And when blue light shines onto the eye spot of an algae cell, a channel opens, sending an electrical signal that makes little flagella flap and propels the algae towards sunlight.


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[Assistant] If we clone this light-sensitive part of the algae and then add it to neurons through genetic modification, we can make neurons light-sensitive, too.


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[Assistant] Except with neurons, when we shine light down an optical fiber deep into the brain, we change how they send electrical signals to other neurons in the brain, and thus change the animal's behavior.


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[Assistant] This approach allowed us to test the function of each wire within the tangled mess that is our brain.


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[Assistant] A brain region called the amygdala has long been thought to be important for emotion, and my laboratory discovered that the amygdala resembles a fork in the road, where activating one path can drive positive emotion and approach, and activating another path can drive negative emotion and avoidance.


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[Assistant] I'm going to show you a couple of examples, a taste of raw data, of how we can use optogenetics to target specific neurons in the brain and get very specific changes in behavior.


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[Assistant] Anxiety patients have abnormal communication between two parts of the amygdala. But in people, it's hard to know if this abnormality is cause or effect of the disease.


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[Assistant] We can use optogenetics to target the same pathway in a mouse.


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[Assistant] And see what happens. So this is the elevated plus maze. It's a widely used anxiety test that measures the amount of time that the mouse spends in the safety of the closed arms relative to exploring the open arms.


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[Assistant] Mites have evolved to prefer enclosed spaces like the safety of their burrows, but to find food, water, mates, they need to go out into the open where they're more vulnerable to predatory threats.


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[Assistant] So I'm sitting in the background here, and I'm about to flip the switch, and now ...


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[Assistant] When I flip the switch and turn the light on, you can see the mouse begins to explore the open arms of the maze more. And in contrast to drug treatments for anxiety,


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[Assistant] There's no sedation, no locomotor impairment, just coordinated, natural-looking exploration.


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[Assistant] So not only is the effect almost immediate, but there are no detectable side effects. Now, when I flip the switch off, you can see


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[Assistant] And the mouse goes back to its normal brain function and back to its corner.


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[Assistant] When I was in the lab and I was taking these data, I was all by myself and I was so excited. I was so excited to do one of these quiet screams.


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[Assistant] Flip the switch with my hand and see the mouse change its behavioral state so rapidly and so reversibly, it was really the first time that I truly believed it.


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[Assistant] Since that first breakthrough, there have been a number of other discoveries finding specific neural circuits that can elicit dramatic changes in animal behavior. Here's another example. Compulsive overeating. We can eat for two reasons. Seeking pleasure, like tasty food, or avoiding pain, like being hungry.


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[Assistant] How can we find a treatment for compulsive overeating without messing up the hunger-driven feeding that we need to survive?


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[Assistant] Here we're using optogenetics to target neurons living in the hypothalamus, sending messages down wires aimed at the midbrain. When I turn the light on, right here, boop.


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[Assistant] This seemingly frenzied behavior is about to escalate into something I find really incredible. It's kind of trippy, actually. Ready? It's right here.


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[Assistant] This circuit is sufficient to drive feeding behavior in the absence of hunger, even in the absence of food.


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[Assistant] I can't know for sure how this mouse is feeling, but I speculate these neurons drive craving based on the behaviors we elicit when we target this pathway. Turn the light back off, animals back to normal. When we silence this pathway,


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[Assistant] That making a very specific change to neural circuits in the brain can have specific changes to behavior.


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[Assistant] So naturally, since there was no pressure to be a scientist,


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[Assistant] As a college student, I had to decide whether I wanted to focus on psychology, the study of the mind, or neuroscience, the study of the brain.


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[Assistant] Research from my laboratory suggests that we can begin to tie specific neural circuits to emotional states. And we have found a number of circuits that control anxiety-related behavior, compulsive overeating, social interaction,


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[Assistant] Avoidance and many other types of motivated behaviors that may reflect internal emotional states.


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[Assistant] We used to think of functions of the mind as being defined by brain regions.


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[Assistant] And these functions are partly defined by the paths they take.


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[Assistant] Here's a metaphor to help illustrate how these discoveries change the way that we think about the brain.


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[Assistant] Let's say that the brain is analogous to the world and that neurons are analogous to people.


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[Assistant] And how the people listening respond to the information that they receive. The current state of mental health treatment is essentially a strategy of trial and error. And it is not working.


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[Assistant] The development of new drug therapies for mental health disorders has hit a brick wall with scarcely any real progress since the 1950s. So what does the future hold?


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[Assistant] In the near future, I expect to see a mental health treatment revolution where we focus on specific neural circuits in the brain.


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[Assistant] Diagnoses will be made based on both behavioral symptoms and measurable brain activity. Further in the future,


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[Assistant] By combining our ability to make acute changes to the brain and get acute changes to behavior with our knowledge of synaptic plasticity to make more permanent changes, we could push the brain into a state of fixing itself by reprogramming neural circuits. Exposure therapy at the circuit level.


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[Assistant] Once we switch the brain into a state of self-healing, this could potentially have long-lasting effects with no side effects.


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[Assistant] Then we could immediately get rid of negative perceptions and stigmas that prevent so many people from getting the mental health support that they need. Mental health professionals, we're always thinking about


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[Assistant] As well as everyone else with whom they share the world. Thank you.


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[Assistant] Chapter 5 Vancouver Island


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[Assistant] Toawson was about twenty-three miles south of Vancouver. Nick drove there in his car the next morning for the one o'clock ferry to Vancouver Island. Every five minutes he looked behind him. The road was busy. Black cars, white cars, red cars, green cars,


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[Assistant] At Tawasan, Nick drove his car onto the ferry.


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[Assistant] There were a lot of cars and crowds of people.


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[Assistant] Nick got out of his car and walked up and down the ship. He looked for a man with white hair, but he didn't see one.


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[Assistant] Soon the ferry began to move, and Nick felt better.


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[Assistant] He found the ferry restaurant and got something to eat. More people came in.


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[Assistant] Nick looked the faces of all the older men. Some had hats on. So he looked for somebody tall and thin. But there was nobody.


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[Assistant] Maybe he's not on the ferry, Nick thought. Maybe he's back in Vancouver.


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[Assistant] Later, Nick walked around the ship again. Once, he thought he saw the man with white hair in the crowds, but he could not be sure.


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[Assistant] Ninety minutes after leaving Tawasan.


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[Assistant] The ferry arrived at Swartz Bay on Vancouver Island and Nick went back down to his car.


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[Assistant] Was 20 miles north of Victoria.


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[Assistant] Nick drove quickly. And again.


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[Assistant] Looked behind him every four or five minutes. Once


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[Assistant] He saw a red car about 200 yards behind him.


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[Assistant] Did I see that car on the road from Vancouver to Tawasan? He thought.


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[Assistant] He drove more slowly, but the red car still stayed two hundred yards behind him, and Nick couldn't see the driver's face or hair.


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[Assistant] He was in the busy streets of Victoria.


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[Assistant] And Nick didn't see the red car behind him again.


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[Assistant] Victoria was a city of gardens and beautiful old buildings. Nick liked Victoria very much, but today he wasn't interested in gardens or buildings.


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[Assistant] He found the Empress Hotel, went inside, and walked across to the desk


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[Assistant] Can I help you? A young man asked Nick.


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[Assistant] I'm meeting a friend here this afternoon, said Nick. Miss Hudson. Hudson, said the young man. Wait a minute. He went away and came back.


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[Assistant] Nick took something from his pocket. It was the photograph of Meg and her father from the magazine. This is her, he said. The young man looked at the picture. Oh, right.


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[Assistant] You mean Howard Hudson's daughter, he said.


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[Assistant] She's not staying here, but I saw her ten or fifteen minutes ago. She was with somebody, a man. He asked me about the tea room. The tea room, said Nick. Where's that?


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[Assistant] The man with short white hair was tired. He couldn't sleep and he couldn't eat. He thought about only one thing all the time. He drove and he watched and he waited and he followed.


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[Assistant] When he drove into Victoria, the streets were busy, and suddenly,


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[Assistant] He lost the blue car in front of him. Angrily he drove around the city, past all the big hotels. I must find him.


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[Assistant] Then he saw the Empress Hotel, and in the street outside it, a blue car.


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[Assistant] He drove past the hotel, left his car, and ran back down the street. He went across the road and walked past the downstairs windows. There was a big room with tables and chairs and a lot of people.


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[Assistant] He looked carefully at all the faces. There she is, he said suddenly. There were two men with the girl. He couldn't see their faces, only the backs of their heads, but one of the men was in a green shirt. Mr. Hollywood, the man said and smiled.


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[Assistant] People in the street turned to look at him, but the man did not see them. He walked up to the doors of the hotel and put a hand into his pocket. Inside, the gun was cold and hard.


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[Assistant] The Tang Monk is fine. The demons haven't eaten him.


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[Assistant] I can see everything in the universe.


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[Assistant] I know exactly who those demons are and what they did.


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[Assistant] They tricked you into thinking they'd eaten the Tang monk. They wanted you to give up hope


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[Assistant] Humans feared and coveted the power of the ancients. And so they slaughtered them.


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[Assistant] Stunning 8K resolution meditation app.


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[Assistant] Why don't birds get electrocuted on power cables? Because they wear shockproof shoes. No.


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[Assistant] Electricity is the flow of electrons through conductors It always takes the easiest route.


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[Assistant] Now, the power cables through which electricity flows are made of copper.


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[Assistant] Copper offers the least resistance and is a very good conductor of electricity.


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[Assistant] Besides this, electricity flows from its highest potential to its lowest.


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[Assistant] Now, the power cables usually run at different potentials. If birds' feet are on the same power cable, then they are at same potential. Thus, the bird doesn't get electrocuted.


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[Assistant] However, when the bird touches two cables with different potentials at the same time. Then electricity will flow through the bird to go to the other cable with a lower potential. And the bird will get electrocuted. Why vultures don't get food poisoning? Because they go to regular yoga practice.


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[Assistant] However, vultures have a strong acid in their stomachs that protects them from harmful microbes. But we also have acid in our stomachs, right?


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[Assistant] This means it is much cooler than ordinary ice, which is made up of water. If dry ice comes in contact with our skin, our cells begin to freeze and die within seconds, thus giving us severe frostbite.


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[Assistant] But why? This is because dry ice sublimates. That is, it directly gets converted from solid state to gaseous state. Hence, in airtight containers. The gas produced can build up and exert pressure on the walls of container. Which can lead to a dangerous explosion. Why do birds need gravity to swallow food? Maybe because they are fans of Newton. No.


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[Assistant] When humans eat food, it enters into a muscular organ called food pipe or esophagus.


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[Assistant] In the esophagus, a series of contraction and relaxation takes place that pushes or moves food towards the stomach. This movement is called peristalsis.


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[Assistant] Oh, please listen. In most birds, such peristaltic movements doesn't take place in their esophagus. Hence, they need to depend on gravity to push their food through the esophagus.


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[Assistant] Chapter Two. A Hand in the Back.


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[Assistant] That evening in his hotel room in Vancouver.


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[Assistant] Nick could not stop thinking about the girl in the Whistler Cafe. Why did she come and sit with him? She didn't know him.


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[Assistant] And that story about a party in Toronto wasn't true. And she was worried about something. But what?


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[Assistant] And that kiss. It was nice, of course. But why did she do it? Maybe she liked my face, Nick thought, or my brown eyes. But I'm not going to see her again, so it doesn't matter. Forget it.


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[Assistant] And went downstairs to the hotel restaurant. But there were no free tables. So he walked down to Gastown and found a restaurant there.


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[Assistant] And Nick liked walking through Gastown and Chinatown, looking in the shops and watching the people.


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[Assistant] It was nearly dark now, and it was a busy time of the evening. There were a lot of cars, and a lot of people.


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[Assistant] After a time, Nick began to walk back to his hotel. He came to a busy street and waited with a small crowd of people to go across.


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[Assistant] A tall woman in a blue dress stood next to him. She turned and smiled at him.


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[Assistant] It's the first warm evening of spring, she said. It's nice to be out after the long, cold winter. Yeaah, said Nick. It's great. It's... Suddenly, there was a hand in his back. And the hand pushed Nick into the road. Nick fell on his face.


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[Assistant] In front of a big green car. People screamed. But the green car stopped only inches from Nick's head. The woman in the blue dress ran into the road and pulled Nick to his feet. Are you okay? What happened? She said. The driver of the green car


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[Assistant] He shouted angrily at Nick, but Nick did not hear him. Somebody pushed me, he said to the woman. I didn't fall. Somebody pushed me. Pushed you? said the woman. Who? I didn't see anybody.


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[Assistant] Nick looked the faces of the people near him, but he didn't know them. Then he saw a man's back. The man was tall and thin and had very short white hair. He walked quickly away down the street and did not look back.


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[Assistant] Hey, you! Nick shouted, wait! But the man did not stop, and he was soon lost in the crowds. Did he push you? Asked the woman in the blue dress. I, I don't know, Nick said. Do you know him? She asked.


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[Assistant] I don't know his name, Nick said, but I know that short white hair. Now where did I see it before?


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[Assistant] The woman began to move away. I must get home, she said. Are you okay now? Yeah, I'm okay, Nick said. And thanks. Thanks for your help.


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[Assistant] Back in his hotel, Nick sat on his bed and thought,


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[Assistant] It was an accident. Nobody pushed me. It was an accident. Nobody wants to kill me.


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[Assistant] And there are hundreds of men in Vancouver with white hair.


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[Assistant] It was one o'clock in the morning but Nick couldn't sleep. He listened to the cars in the road.


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[Assistant] And he looked at the night sky through his hotel room window.


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[Assistant] There were four or five magazines in the hotel room. They were not very interesting, but Nick sat in bed, an open one, and saw a photo of Mystery Girl.


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[Assistant] He looked at the picture very carefully. But yes, it was her. Jan, the girl from the Whistler Cafe.


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[Assistant] She was next to a man of about fifty or fifty-five and they were in the garden of a big, expensive house. They smiled at the camera and they looked very happy.


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[Assistant] Canadian millionaire Howard Hudson and his daughter Meg, it said under the picture, at their home in Toronto. Meg Hudson, not Jan, not mystery girl. Meg Hudson, the daughter of a millionaire. Nick read it again.


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[Assistant] Why did she come and sit with me in the cafe at Whistler? he thought.


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[Assistant] Millionaires' daughters don't sit with strangers in cafes.


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[Assistant] And then give them a big kiss when they leave. Why did she do it? What did she want?


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[Assistant] He thought back to the cafe in Whistler and the girl next to him at the table. Then he remembered something.


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[Assistant] He remembered a man at a table near them in the cafe. A tall, thin man, about sixty years old. A man with very short, white hair.


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[Assistant] Technology is designed to shape our sense of reality by masking itself as the actual experience of the world. As a result, we are becoming unconscious


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[Assistant] Like in digital media, when you encounter people with different opinions, we will unfollow them, remove them completely out of our feet. It cures this allergy by avoiding it.


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[Assistant] The device inside the helmet reshapes reality and projects into our eyes through a set of lenses to create an augmented reality.


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[Assistant] If we are not aware of this, we will keep being vulnerable to many kinds of mental allergies.


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[Assistant] Designs are used to exploit our unconscious biases, algorithms' favorite content that reaffirms our opinions, so that every little corner of our field of view is being colonized to sell ads.


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[Assistant] Keep in mind, this is a conceptual, it's not a real product. It's a web browser plugin.


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[Assistant] It shouts out the hidden filtered voices. What you should be noticing now will be bigger and vibrant,


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[Assistant] Hello everyone and welcome to EnglishPod, my name is Marco.


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[Assistant] I'm doing pretty good. I'm excited about this lesson that you have for us today.


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[Assistant] Great. So, let's listen to this dialogue and when we come back we'll take a look at all the interesting and useful vocabulary that you'll find.


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[Assistant] Yeah, the first one that I want to take a look at is resources.


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[Assistant] Resources. Resources. Resources. And that means, in this text, basically money. Right. So the office doesn't have enough money.


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[Assistant] The timing is just not right. Okay, let's listen to how we can use this entire phrase in a different situation so then we can understand what it means. Let's listen.


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[Assistant] If you have a lot of things to do and I come and help you, that means that I took some of the weight off your shoulders. Yes. Let's look at the next phrase that we have here and it's give me a hand. Give me a hand. Give me a hand.


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[Assistant] Okay, now this is not literal, it's not that I'm gonna give you somebody's hand, right? Let's listen to some examples and then we can come back and explain what it means.


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[Assistant] Exactly, many companies for example now, uh, control how much printing you do.


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[Assistant] Perfect. Okay, I think it's time for us to listen to this dialogue one more time, but I want everyone to listen and see why Tony is surprised at the end when he meets his intern, when he meets his assistant.


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[Assistant] Yeah, I think that's exactly what he was expecting. Maybe this guy is a little bit sexist. He thought that an intern should be a girl, but instead he was surprised.


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[Assistant] But what you're gaining is experience and you're, uhm, learning a lot of things. Everyone who has, uhm, been an intern or had an intern,


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[Assistant] knows that sometimes, uhm, they are not treated all that well. Sometimes they just serve coffee or, or they have to do paperwork.


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[Assistant] Yeaah, I mean, even if you don't get paid, the experience that you get is really good and uhm, that just opens doors for maybe getting another job or sometimes the interns get hired by the company to stay because they do such a good job.


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[Assistant] Yeah, that happened to me once. I started working as an intern and, uh, after three months, I was hired by the company. So, it does happen, believe me.


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[Assistant] And, uh, we'll be back tomorrow with another really cool and really interesting lesson from EnglishPod. Don't forget to come to our website at EnglishPod.com where you'll find some really great and interesting resources to help you learn and improve your English even more.


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[Assistant] Yes. And Lady Koo saw you do it.


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[Assistant] To someone first encountering the works of William Shakespeare, the language may seem strange. But there is a secret to appreciating it.


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[Assistant] Although he was famous for his plays, Shakespeare was first and foremost a poet.


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[Assistant] One of the most important things in Shakespeare's language is his use of stress.


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[Assistant] Not that kind of stress, but the way we emphasize certain syllables in words more than others.


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[Assistant] Poets are very aware of these stresses, having long experimented with the number and order of stressed and unstressed syllables and combined them in different ways to create rhythm in their poems.


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[Assistant] Like songwriters, poets often express their ideas through a recognisable repetition of these rhythms, or poetic meter.


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[Assistant] And like music, poetry has its own set of terms for describing this.


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[Assistant] In a line of verse, a foot is a certain number of stressed and unstressed syllables forming a distinct unit, just as a musical measure consists of a certain number of beats.


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[Assistant] One line of verse is usually made up of several feet.


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[Assistant] For example, a dactyl is a metrical foot of three syllables.


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[Assistant] That tools can create lines that move swiftly and gather force, as in Robert Browning's poem, The Lost Leader.


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[Assistant] Just for a handful of silver he left us. Just for a ribbon to stick in his coat.


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[Assistant] Another kind of foot is the two syllable long trochee, a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one.


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[Assistant] The trokies in these lines from Shakespeare's Macbeth lend an ominous and spooky tone to the witch's chant.


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[Assistant] Double, double, toil and trouble, fire, burn and cauldron bubble. But with Shakespeare, it's all about the I am.


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[Assistant] This two syllable foot is like a reverse trochee, so the first syllable is unstressed, and the second is stressed. As in, to be or not to be.


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[Assistant] Shakespeare's favourite meter in particular was iambic pentameter, where each line of verse is made up of five two-syllable ions for a total of ten syllables.


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[Assistant] And it's used for many of Shakespeare's most famous lines.


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[Assistant] Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?


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[Assistant] Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon.


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[Assistant] Notice how the iam's cut across both punctuation and word separation. Meter is all about sound, not spelling.


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[Assistant] Iambic pentameter may sound technical, but there's an easy way to remember what it means.


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[Assistant] The word I am is pronounced just like the phrase I am.


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[Assistant] Now let's expand that to a sentence that just happens to be an iambic pentameter. I am a pirate with a wooden leg.


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[Assistant] The pirate can only walk in irons, a living reminder of Shakespeare's favourite meter.


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[Assistant] Iambic pentameter is when he takes ten steps. Our pirate friend can even help us remember how to properly mark it if we imagine the footprints he leaves walking along a deserted island beach. A curve for unstressed syllables, and a short line for stressed ones.


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[Assistant] Of course, most lines of Shakespeare's plays are written in regular prose.


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[Assistant] But if you read carefully, you'll notice that Shakespeare's characters turn to poetry.


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[Assistant] And iambic pentameter in particular for many of the same reasons that we look to poetry in our own lives. Feeling passionate, introspective, or momentous. Whether it's Hamlet pondering his existence, or Romeo professing his love.


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[Assistant] The characters switch to iambic pentameter when speaking about their emotions and their place in the world. Which leaves just one last question.


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[Assistant] Why did Shakespeare choose iambic pentameter for these moments rather than, say, trochaic hexameter or dactylic tetrameter?


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[Assistant] It's been said that iambic pentameter was easy for his actors to memorize, and for the audience to understand, because it's naturally suited to the English language. But there might be another reason.


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[Assistant] The next time you're in a heightened emotional situation, like the ones that make Shakespeare's characters burst into verse, put your hand over the left side of your chest. What do you feel? That's your heart, beating in ions. Da dum, da dum, da dum, da dum, da dum.


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[Assistant] Shakespeare's most poetic lines don't just talk about matters of the heart, they follow its rhythm.


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[Assistant] Hello English learners and welcome to EnglishPod, my name is Marco. I'm Amira. Amira and I are here today with an interesting lesson about a hotel situation. Amira, why don't you give us a little bit more information?


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[Assistant] An upgrade. Okay, that's an interesting word. Why don't we listen to the dialogue and then we'll come back and explain all this vocabulary.


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[Assistant] Yeah, the guy is really excited that he's gonna get the presidential suite.


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[Assistant] Alright, uhm, the first one, and this is really useful for all of our listeners who travel a lot, this phrase will come in handy. And it is, I have a reservation under the name. Under the name.


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[Assistant] Under the name. Under the name. So before we explain this phrase, let's listen to some examples on how it is used in other situations and then we'll come back and give you more information.


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[Assistant] But just in case, let me explain it real fast. Under the name means that when you go to the restaurant or a hotel and you tell them your name, they know that you are the person that they have been expecting. They have been waiting.


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[Assistant] Okay, the next word that we should take a look at is overbooked.


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[Assistant] Overbooked. Overbooked. Overbooked. What does that mean? So if a hotel or a flight is overbooked, it means that they are full. They are more than full.


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[Assistant] Exactly, that's really common. Okay, let's take a look at the last phrase for today, and that is complementary upgrade. Complementary upgrade.


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[Assistant] Complementary upgrade. Complementary upgrade. So this means that, for example, when the hotel is overbooked and all of their standard rooms are full, they will give you a better room, a more expensive room, but free.


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[Assistant] Right, this also happens sometimes if you're lucky on airplane flights.


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[Assistant] So if you are an economy class and an airplane, but for some reason it's overbooked, they will move you to business class or first class for free.


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[Assistant] Yeah, especially since he was expecting just a really normal room and now he's gonna be treated like a king.


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[Assistant] Yes, yes I did. When I was traveling through India, I bought a normal seat in the train, but for some reason, it was overbooked. So I talked to the station manager and I got a complimentary upgrade to first class.


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[Assistant] Wow, that's really cool. I would prefer a first class upgrade on an airplane. Yea, any day.


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[Assistant] And you get all the drinks you can get, right?


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[Assistant] Wow, that, I would be really happy there. Alright everyone, we're out of time today, but be sure to listen tomorrow because we'll be back again with another great podcast. And also, don't forget to go to our website at EnglishPod.com and leave us all your questions and comments in our community forum.


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[Assistant] Chapter 4 Everybody loves a winner.


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[Assistant] When Jason got home, his mother was very excited.


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[Assistant] We saw you on the news last night, she said.


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[Assistant] You're rich and famous. I'm in trouble mum, said Jason. Please phone the police, say.


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[Assistant] My son was at home on Saturday afternoon. He watched the football on television. Please.


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[Assistant] I can't say that, said his mother. It isn't true. Would you like ten thousand pounds? asked Jason suddenly. No, said Lily Williams. I always tell the truth. Twenty thousand, said Jason.


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[Assistant] Why do you want me to tell a lie to the police? asked Lily.


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[Assistant] What did you do on Saturday afternoon? She looked at Jason. You did something bad.


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[Assistant] Is that it? And now you want me to tell a lie for you. But I don't tell lies. Thirty thousand, said Jason. Please mum, help me.


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[Assistant] I slept in a police cell last night, and I was in court this afternoon.


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[Assistant] Now, they're going to send me to the Crown Court. Mum, thirty thousand pounds. Think about it. Okay, son, said Lily Williams slowly.


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[Assistant] For £30,000? I think I can tell a lie.


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[Assistant] But what did you do on Saturday afternoon? Tell me. Nothing, said Jason. I didn't do anything.


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[Assistant] So why are they sending you to the Crown Court? Jason didn't answer. And his mother looked at him. And what about your dad?


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[Assistant] He was at home on Saturday afternoon. You weren't. And he knows that.


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[Assistant] What do you want him to say to the police? Okay, okay, said Jason. Dad.


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[Assistant] Can have £30,000 too. But not today. My lottery check is at the court.


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[Assistant] And I've only got £2 in my pocket.


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[Assistant] On Wednesday morning at 10 o'clock, he went to the police station. I'm here, he said. You've got a visitor, said the policeman. It's your wife. She wants to see you. Jason's mouth opened. My wife, he said. But,


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[Assistant] The policeman opened a door and called, He's here Mrs Williams. A young woman came into the room.


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[Assistant] She had long yellow hair and a big red mouth. She looked at Jason, but she talked to the policeman. Jason is my husband, she said.


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[Assistant] Our son was born two years ago. His name's Jack.


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[Assistant] I loved Jason, but he wasn't very nice to me. Sometimes he hit me.


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[Assistant] One night he broke two of my teeth.


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[Assistant] Then the baby was ill and cried a lot. Jason hit him too.


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[Assistant] Jack was only two months old and Jason hit him. A little baby. That's a lie, said Jason.


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[Assistant] I didn't. Oh yes, you did. Fiona said. She spoke to the policeman again. So.


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[Assistant] I left him and took the baby with me.


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[Assistant] Jason didn't look for us. He didn't want us. And he never gave me any money for our son. He went home to his mother and father.


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[Assistant] And he forgot about little Jack and me. I forgot about Jason too. Then I saw him on television.


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[Assistant] With a cheque from Sunshine Lotteries for five million pounds. Well, I'm his wife. Jack's his son. And we want half of his money.


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[Assistant] Well, Mr Williams, said the policeman, is this woman your wife?


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[Assistant] Don't ask him, ask me, Fiona said.


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[Assistant] He's my husband. And I can prove it.


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[Assistant] I'm going to get a good lawyer and I'm going to get that two and a half million pounds. Everybody wants my money, said Jason. I'm going to see my lawyer. So on Wednesday afternoon, Jason went to Sally Cash's office.


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[Assistant] It was in a big building with Evans, Robinson, Dennis and Day over the door. Why isn't your name there too? asked Jason.


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[Assistant] Because I'm young and not very important, said Sally with a smile. I work for Mr. Dennis. Sally's office was very small.


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[Assistant] There were books on the table and on all the chairs. Sally moved the books off one chair and Jason sat down. So Jason, Sally said, you have a wife and son.


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[Assistant] How do you know that? said Jason.


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[Assistant] Your wife's lawyer telephoned me this afternoon, said Sally. Your wife wants some of your lottery money.


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[Assistant] And because she's your wife and has a two-year-old son, she can get it easily.


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[Assistant] I'm not going to give her anything, Jason said. She left me. She went away with a new lover and she took our baby with her. She never wrote or telephoned.


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[Assistant] I looked for her, but I couldn't find her. I cried every night.


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[Assistant] Your wife tells a different story. She left you because you hit her and the baby. Is that true? I don't remember. Jason said angrily. It was a long time ago. She just wants my money. Everybody wants my money. But it was my lottery ticket.


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[Assistant] Perhaps it was Mrs Emma Carter's lottery ticket.


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[Assistant] She remembered the numbers because they were important to her. Huh, said Jason.


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[Assistant] That old woman just wants my money because she saw me on television.


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[Assistant] She thought of a good story about the numbers. And now she says that it was her ticket. Did the ticket have her name on it? No. There are no names on lottery tickets.


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[Assistant] So she can't prove that it was her ticket, said Jason. She can't take my money away from me.


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[Assistant] Perhaps she can, and perhaps she can't. We don't know. But she's going to need a good lawyer. And lawyers are expensive. It isn't going to be easy for her.


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[Assistant] So that old woman wants all the money. Fiona wants half of it.


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[Assistant] My dad wants £30,000. You're forgetting me, said Sally. I don't understand, Jason said. I told you, lawyers are expensive and I'm doing a lot of work for you.


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[Assistant] You can't pay me now because your cheque is at the court. But I can wait.


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[Assistant] Oh, thanks very much, said Jason. Very kind of you. Sally smiled. Now.


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[Assistant] Let's talk about the bag snatching. I didn't do it. Sally looked tired. Jason, I want to help you, but it's very difficult.


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[Assistant] Mrs Carter saw your face in the street and then she saw you on television. She's going to stand up in the court and say,


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[Assistant] That's the man. He stole my bag, my money and my lottery ticket. But it isn't true, said Jason. I was at home. I watched the football on television. Ask my mum. How much money are you giving her, Jason? Sally asked quietly. Thirty thousand pounds, was it?


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[Assistant] Jason's face went red. He wanted to hit Sally. She looked at his red, angry face and waited. Then she said, Jason, in the Crown Court, a lot of people are going to look at you. They're going to think, this is a nasty young man. He hits people. His wife.


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[Assistant] His baby. Old women in the street. He steals things. He wins five million pounds in the lottery.


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[Assistant] But he doesn't want to give a penny to his wife and son. And he tells lies. They're not going to like you Jason. And that's not going to help you.


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[Assistant] So please tell the truth. Say that you're sorry. You're young.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You can begin again. Stay out of trouble.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Perhaps I took the old woman's bag.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But that lottery ticket wasn't in her bag.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's my ticket. I bought it. I paid for it. With my money. Okay? Sally Cash did not answer.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] She looked at Jason for two or three long minutes. Then she said slowly, Okay, Jason, you stole the bag, but it was your lottery ticket.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, and take out whatever's making my tongue tingle.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What's going on with this place? With you. And please don't play dumb.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, you'll have to give me a harder one next time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Seriously, what's going on? You've been weird all day.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, got sent to another world. Apparently, there's at least a few more than one. Is that right? I'd explain.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh, I'm still pretty pissed. Just got bigger fish to fry.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now let's go get Sephiroth. He's hiding up north. North? Trust me, he is. Soldier's intuition.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Aerith, I will stop Sephiroth. Trust me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Would you like to sing it? Me?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Master was still mortal before we reached the western paradise. He couldn't be carried then. Wu Jing looked ahead.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I think I know why he dropped us, Master. You must face 100 challenges in order to become a Buddha!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wukong nodded. I hope there won't be too many more problems.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] She told us that an ancient city lies just beyond these woods, and that the Sentra built a very special altar there. That's where she's headed, I'm sure of it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Is it just me or is there something weird about this nest?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Despite having sailed over it for thousands of years now, we still know shockingly little about the seafloor. Like, as of 2017, only 6% of the ocean floor had been mapped in detail. But one thing we do know is that the ocean floor is not a flat, featureless landscape.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Just like the world above the water, it's full of valleys, canyons, mountains, and plains. It is also home to some of the biggest events shaping our planet. And we would know a whole lot less about all of that without the work of a researcher named Marie Tharp.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Who successfully changed our understanding of the ocean and also


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The entire world. Tharp's story began in 1948, when she was employed at what's now the Lamont-Darity Earth Observatory in New York. At the time, her job was to do drafting and computing for graduate students, one of whom was Brian Hazen. Before Tharp joined the group, Hazen had collected extensive data about the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. But since he was often away at sea, and because regulations didn't allow women to sail on research vessels, Tharp


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Took over the task of organizing his data. Before long, she was working on Hazen's project exclusively, and that turned out to be huge.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There were, of course, though, some problems with this. Like, sounding was often inaccurate because the weight would rarely fall straight down. Also, that gives you one data point at a time, which means it was exhausting to map a big area. So the advent of sonar drastically improved things. Instead of a rope,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The ship would produce sound waves and measure the amount of time it took for the waves to bounce off the seafloor and return to the ship. Then, because we know the speed of sound in water, researchers could calculate the depth of the ocean with some quick math. Thanks to sonar, Hazen had compiled tons of data, but Tharp


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] She made hand-drawn diagrams that plotted the ship's paths and their depth measurements. Then, by stitching them together, she created what were basically topographical maps of the seafloor. And as she did, she found something unexpected.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A cleft in the center of the North Atlantic Ocean, kilometers wide and hundreds of meters deep. She thought that this looked a lot like a rift valley, a feature first observed on land that forms when two tectonic plates


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Tectonic plates being the giant slabs that make up the Earth's surface. Except, at the time, the idea that these plates could pull apart and that the continents were moving was not widely accepted, because it just, like, seemed a little unlikely. Instead, a lot of people, including Hazen, held up an idea called expanding Earth.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which said that the continents were pulling apart because the actual volume of the Earth was increasing, like we're a balloon.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That just looked suspiciously like a place where tectonic plates were pulling apart. And today, we know that's exactly what it is. We call it the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and there, the tectonic plates


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] girl talk and asked her to redo her calculations. And so Tharp did, and she found, like maybe unsurprisingly, there was a rift valley.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Still there! Also, to add even more evidence, it turned out that another assistant in the lab was making a map of earthquake epicenters. And the earthquakes were forming in the same spot as Tharp's Rift Valley. Since earthquakes are formed by the movement of tectonic plates, this made it clear


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They were. And it might have taken us longer to understand that without Tharp's maps. In the end,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] An enormous shove in the right direction. We now have a new appreciation for the world beneath the water and how rift valleys are changing the world beneath our feet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Speaking of the world beneath our feet, if you've grown up thinking the inside of the Earth looks like this, with nice, neat layers, you might want to check out another one of our episodes next. And as always, from the entire team here at SciShow, thank you for watching this episode as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] versions of a particular model, it is going to take care of the process of making sure that it's not subject to these kinds of SQL injection attacks. But if ever you're writing a web application that is directly executing SQL code, which you might imagine doing, you do want to be careful about making sure that you're not exposing the application to be vulnerable to these kinds of threats as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that then are potential threats to come about when we're just talking about what's happening on the server.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But we also can think about what might happen when we're interacting with other servers, when we're interacting with APIs, for example. And so we talked about JavaScript and using JavaScript to be able to make additional requests to APIs or to other services that are able to return back


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] With certain types of information and with APIs, there are a number of techniques that we can use in APIs to allow them to be more scalable, to allow them to be more secure.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] One is this notion of rate limiting, where we might want to make sure that no user is able to make more than a certain number of requests to an API in any particular amount of time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is in response to a security threat that has to do with the scalability of a system, which is known as a DOS or denial of service attack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Where effectively, if you just make a whole bunch of requests to a single server over and over and over again, you could potentially shut down that system because you're making so many requests that it's not able to handle that many requests all at the same time. And for that reason, because it's so easy to make an API request, you can do so using just a single line of like Python or JavaScript, for example.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] APIs will often institute some kind of rate limiting to limit the number of requests you can make so that you're not going to overwhelm the server or overwhelm the database that needs to be queried in order to respond to those requests. And so this kind of limiting might work as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Effectively like a password that they need to pass around any time they're making an API request to your API. And that allows you to then be able to look at that key and verify that they are who they say they are.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now with those API keys comes other potential security vulnerabilities to be mindful of. One is that just as you should never be putting like passwords inside of your source code inside of your Git repository, for example, you likewise generally shouldn't be putting your API keys


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Inside of your web applications as well, inside of the source code of those web applications, because then anyone who has access to the source code for the web application can see what your API key is. Could then use the API key to pretend to be you, and therefore get access to potential API routes that they should not be able to access.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] One common solution to this is to use what are known as environment variables, where effectively


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You and your program say that your API key is not going to be some predetermined string that is in the text of your program, but instead is going to be drawn from the environment in which the program is being run. And then on the server,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When you're running the web application, you'll first make sure the server has all of those environment variables set correctly so that rather


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then have the API key actually in the source code of the program. The API key is simply in the environment on the server where the web application is running and the server can just draw that information from the environment so that it knows what the API key should be without the API key actually having to be inside of the web application source code.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so as we begin to deal with APIs, you might notice that many APIs will require you to have an API key. And often it's for these sorts of reasons. To make sure that we're able to authenticate users effectively and also to make sure that we're able to limit users to make sure that they're not making too many requests to the server or to the database at any particular time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But this then starts to get us into other potential vulnerabilities. In particular, vulnerabilities concerning JavaScript. JavaScript again is a programming language that we use in order to write code that runs inside of our web browser. A browser like Chrome or Safari or something like that. And as a result,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] JavaScript has a lot of power to manipulate things on the page. It can simulate the clicking of buttons, it can change the content of what happens to be on any particular page, and as a result there are many, many vulnerabilities that come about when it comes to thinking about JavaScript.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And one such vulnerability is this notion of cross-site scripting. That in general, when on your web application, you only want JavaScript to run if you yourself have written it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Cross-site scripting is a potential threat where someone else might be able to get JavaScript code to run on your website when it's JavaScript code that someone else wrote instead of you yourself. And this is a potential vulnerability because if someone else can write the JavaScript code, they can manipulate


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The contents of what happens to be on your website, they can potentially manipulate the user experience to get a result that is not actually desired. Let's go ahead and take a look at one example of cross-site scripting.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, so I've prepared a web application in advance. It's called Security, inside of which is a single Django app called XSS for cross-site scripting.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And inside of here, we'll first take a look at the URLs. So there's a single URL that just allows us to provide any path, and then it's going to load the index view. And on the index view,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We're going to display an HTTP response that says here was the path that just happened to be requested. So you might imagine this is a simplified version of what you might see on other websites, for example, where websites might show you on any particular page what path you're on in order to get to that page, some sort of indication of where you are inside of this web application. So I'll go ahead and cd into security.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And run the server, python manage.py, run server.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I am now running the server and I'll now go ahead and go into


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My web application slash hello, for example. And so what I see here is a requested path. Hello, which is what I would expect it to be. I can change it to something else like hi.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So here's requested path high, here's high slash two for example. Whatever page I visit, it gives me a page that says requested path and then whatever path I happen to be visiting.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I run it, and suddenly an alert shows up on my page that says hi, and I press okay and it says alright, requested path.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That alert was a JavaScript alert. It was JavaScript code running on my web application. But it was not code that was JavaScript code inside of my web application. It was someone else who wrote based on the URL.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Is potentially dangerous. It leaves open the possibility that someone else could run JavaScript code on my page. And it might not just be something like a script. You might imagine someone not just displaying an alert.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But modifying something inside of the DOM, changing the contents of the web page, making API requests, doing other types of tasks that you can do using JavaScript inside of a web browser.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That ultimately leave my page open to potential security vulnerabilities.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so these are cases where it's important to be mindful of when you're designing these pages. If ever there's a possibility that someone could inject their own JavaScript into your page somehow, you'll want to either detect that or escape it in some way or take other precautions to make sure that this kind of cross-site scripting


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Isn't going to be possible. You might imagine that in a messaging application, for example, if you're messaging back and forth, you don't want it to be the case that if you message someone else,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Some JavaScript code that when they receive it, that code actually ends up running as some JavaScript that runs on that particular page. You want to be sure to escape that information so that they just see the text of the JavaScript code, but the code isn't actually executed.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And this is a similar threat to that threat of SQL injection. It all comes back to the idea of not wanting to allow someone else


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] To be able to inject their own code into your program. You don't want someone else to be able to inject SQL code into the queries you run on your database. And you don't want someone to be able to inject JavaScript code into your webpage because that leaves open potential security vulnerabilities as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] One type of security vulnerability that Django is quite good at defending against is one that we've seen before, but we'll explore in more detail how it might work. And it's this idea of cross-site request forgery, where you fake a request to a website when you didn't intend to actually make a request to that website. So you might imagine that if your bank, for example,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We've had a URL that allowed you to transfer money from one person to another person. We've talked about this idea a little bit, but imagine now how you could implement this if it really was just a URL that you could go to like slash transfer and say as get parameters, who am I transferring money to and what is the amount that I'm transferring? Then someone else on some other website could in the body of their page just have a link.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Where that link says click here and it links to yourbank.com or whatever your bank is transferring money like to me in this amount and if some user unknowingly just clicked on that link not knowing where it would take them this website might be able to forge a request


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] To the bank. Make it seem like the user had gone to the bank and tried to initiate some kind of transfer and ultimately tried to transfer money. And it doesn't even necessarily need to be in a link. How else might you get some new request to happen inside of the web browser? You might imagine, though it might seem a bit strange, to put this inside of an image.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Image source, the source of the image is this particular URL, the bank's transfer page. Now that doesn't really make any sense. The transfer page is not an image, but it doesn't matter. All an image tag is going to do is try to make a request


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] To this source URL to get that image and then try to display it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In the user's web browser, but the first part is what's important. The fact that this source ends up being requested by the web browser without the user having to click on or do anything. They might try and request from yourbank.com slash transfer this particular request, which might initiate some sort of bank transfer without the user even realizing it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That is going to allow for the manipulation of some kind of state that allows for some change to happen, something like transferring money. You don't want that to be via a get request, something you could just load in an image or load by clicking on a link that takes you to another page. You don't want that to happen because then it makes it very easy for someone else to fake a request to your page by just


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Creating an image or a linking to somehow a website like transferring funds from one user to another. So a solution to this is we've talked about.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Is that generally we only want post requests to be able to manipulate something inside of the database to be able to actually initiate a transfer.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] From one user to another user, but even then this is not perfectly secure that you could still be tricked into submitting a post request. Imagine an adversarial website that had a form like this, a form whose action was yourbank.com slash transfer and whose method was post.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And now here to input fields whose type is hit, meaning you won't actually be able to see those input fields when the user is looking at the page. They'd only know about it if they inspected the source code of this particular HTML page.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Here there's a hidden input whose name is 2, meaning the person I'd like to transfer money to. Here's the amount, the value that I would like to transfer. And all the user is going to see is a button that says click here. They're not going to see either of the input fields because they're hidden. But if they do, click the click here button.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Maybe this seems like, oh, it's not a big deal because the user still needs to click a button and the user shouldn't be clicking on a button if they don't know what the button is going to do. Well, for one,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's probably reasonable to imagine that an adversary might embed this button inside of a page where it looks totally safe to be able to click on a button. But moreover, the user doesn't even need to click on it in order to submit the form. We can just add a little bit of JavaScript. You might imagine that an adversary could do something like this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Add an onload attribute to the body that says when the body of the page is done loading, go to document.forms, meaning all of the forms for this web page, get the first one, and submit it. Submit the form.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And what that's going to do is even without the user doing anything, even without the user clicking on the click here button, as soon as this page is loaded, this form is going to submit, submitting a post request to the bank and attempting to transfer funds from one user to another.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so this is what we might call a cross site request forgery where some adversarial website has forged a request to our website and ideally we wouldn't like for that to be able to happen. So how did we guard against this?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, what Django allows us to do, and a very common approach, is to add a CSRF token, a cross-site request forgery token, that is going to be regenerated for every session.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We can include the CSRF token inside of this HTML form and as a result make sure that we're able to transfer money only when the CSRF token is present.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The various different tools and technologies we've been using, Python, HTTP, Django, HTML, uh, in terms of creating these web applications using JavaScript and the APIs we might be interacting with.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There are security considerations all throughout. We've only touched on a couple of them here, but just goes to show how it's important to be mindful as you think about the practice of web programming, thinking about what you're going to add to your web applications and what features your web application supports.


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[Assistant] To think about what the potential vulnerabilities there are as well. How someone might exploit your web application in order to do something with it that they probably shouldn't.


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[Assistant] And as you take your web applications from applications that are just running on your own local computer,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] To applications that are running in some web server that many people are starting to use, these are the types of questions to start to be asking. How can you make sure that your web application is scalable? How can you make sure that your web application is secure? So now that we've explored that a lot of web programming


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What comes next? In this course we've explored a number of different tools and technologies and languages.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But there are many other web frameworks and ways you can build web applications as well. We spent most of our time looking at the Django web framework written in Python, but you can use other programming languages to build web applications as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Express.js, for example, is a very popular JavaScript framework for building web applications. Ruby on Rails is a popular server-side web framework built using Ruby.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And there are many others as well. And there are also client-side frameworks used primarily with JavaScript to be able to build user interfaces. We've seen a little bit of React to build dynamic and interactive user interfaces. Other popular client-side frameworks include AngularJS and VueJS and a number of others as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then you might imagine wanting to take these applications and deploy them to the web. And to do that, there are a number of ways we can do this as well. A number of different services including Amazon Web Services, AWS, Google Cloud, and Microsoft Azure that can be used in order to deploy these web applications.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Heroku is a service that uses AWS and tries to simplify the process of making it easier to deploy your web applications. And if your web application is really just static, it's just HTML and CSS and JavaScript, well then you can use something like GitHub Pages.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] To be able to host a web application for free on GitHub's own servers instead. And there are many other ways you can imagine deploying web applications as well. Different services that you can use in order to take the web applications that you have been building or web applications you might build in the future and make them available on the internet for others to be able to use as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So as we look back on the various topics within web programming we've explored, we've seen a lot of tools and technologies we can use that we can leverage in order to build interesting web applications. We started.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] By taking a closer look at HTML and CSS, diving into how we can use that to describe the structure of our page, and then taking advantage of tools like SAS that allow us to generate CSS that allows for much more complex styling for our website that would have been much more difficult to do with just CSS alone.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As we started to build larger web applications, we took a look at Git, version control tools that we can use in order to make sure that we keep track of versions and changes we make to our code, allowing multiple people to collaborate on a project simultaneously.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We then took a look at Python, looking at various different features that the language offered, functions and conditions and loops as we've seen in many other programming languages, but also object oriented programs.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The ability to represent objects and methods and functions that operate on those particular objects which prove especially powerful in the context of dealing with data inside of our web applications.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Django was the example of a web framework written in Python that we used to very quickly be able to start up a web application that's able to listen for requests and make responses. Django has a whole lot of features built in that really make it easy to get started with building a web application. And in particular, it makes it easy for writing web applications that deal with data.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So Django allows us the ability to build models that interact with SQL without us having to actually write any SQL code. Django can generate the SQL for us just using these models.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And migrations then allow us to continually apply changes that we make to our database, that as we add new tables, add and modify existing fields on those tables, Django can take care of all of that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] After that, as you'll recall, we took our attention towards the second of the main programming languages in the course, JavaScript.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which was, has a lot of uses and is very, very popular, but we primarily used on the client side to be able to build interesting user interfaces.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Using JavaScript to manipulate the DOM, the structure of the page to change what it is the user sees and also to add event handling so that when the user clicks on a button, when the user hovers over something, when the user interacts with the page in some sort of way, our code is able to respond to it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And we saw React, a web framework that, a client-side framework that uses JavaScript in order to allow us to create really interesting and interactive user interfaces with not all that much code at all.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then finally in these last couple of lectures, we've been looking at some best practices. How we can design tests, test the server, but also the client.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We've been talking about issues about scalability and security, especially important as we begin to take our application and move them to the web. We want to make sure that these applications are scalable, that they're able to handle multiple different users, and also to make sure that they're secure, that we're not exposing ourselves to potential vulnerabilities like someone who might


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Inject, uh, SQL or inject JavaScript code into our pages or who might try to access some data that they're not supposed to access. We want to make sure that when we go about designing these web applications, we're able to do so in a scalable and ultimately in a secure.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So hopefully you enjoyed this exploration into the world of web programming with Python and JavaScript. Best of luck with the web programs that you yourself might build with the tools we've seen here today and also other tools that are inspired by or use similar tools and techniques and ideas as the things that we've ultimately talked about here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A big thanks to the course's teaching staff and the production team for making this entire class possible. I look forward to seeing the web applications that you might go on to create. This was Web Programming with Python and JavaScript.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hello English learners and welcome to EnglishPod, my name is Marco.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well so am I, because here at EnglishPod, we're giving you real English.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Perfect, so I think it's time for us to take a look at our preview.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Actually, a computer virus is a program that is designed to harm or to damage your computer.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's the technical explanation. Okay, let's take a look at our second word for our preview today, and that would be froze. So if your computer froze, it means that


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Your applications or your programs stop working and you just can't do anything.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay great, so let's listen to our dialogue. It's gonna be a little bit fast, but...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, I completely understand this guy. When my computer freezes, I kick it and punch it and do everything to it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Infected file. And what is an infected file?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ah perfect, that's really clear. What is our second word for the language takeaway today?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Not up to date. And what is it when something is not up to date?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, perfect. Now let's listen to some examples.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I can't find the street. Are you sure this map is up to date?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, for example, we can say, this is a new map. This is the most up-to-date map.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'll be right up. Now, we can use this phrase in a lot of different situations, so let's listen to some examples.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Aha, yes, that's common, I had that too when I was young. Okay, now our second phrase is, it turns out that. It turns out that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sure, for example, I can say, Frank didn't come to work today, and it turns out that he was sick.


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[Assistant] Okay, great, so let's look at Fluency Builder.


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[Assistant] Right. So many students would probably say, his computer was acting strangely. His computer isn't working properly. Exactly. And that's perfect and that's fine.


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[Assistant] It sounds really natural. Okay, we're ready to listen to our dialogue a third time, but this time,


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[Assistant] Well, maybe your antivirus software isn't up to date.


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[Assistant] Alright folks, we're out of time now, but be sure to go to our website at EnglishPod.com where you can leave all your questions and comments.


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[Assistant] Chapter 3 Jason in Trouble


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[Assistant] At ten o'clock on Monday night, Jason was a very happy man.


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[Assistant] He was in a big room in a hotel with a lot of people in beautiful clothes.


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[Assistant] There were television cameras, reporters, people from Sunshine Lotteries. Everybody had a drink in their hands.


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[Assistant] And a girl went round the room with a bottle of champagne. Have some more champagne, she said to Jason. Jason's face went very red. He snatched the bottle and took a long drink.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The champagne ran down his new blue shirt. He laughed. Kiss me, he said to the girl. Suddenly the door opened and two men came in. Hello, said Jason. Come in and have some champagne. It's okay. Sunshine Lotteries are paying for it.