[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in summary, we took an important problem, the dynamic connectivity problem. We modeled the problem to try to understand precisely what kinds of data structures and algorithms we'd need to solve it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We saw a few easy algorithms for solving the problem and quickly saw that they were inadequate for addressing huge problems. But then we saw how to improve them to get efficient algorithms.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then left us with applications that could not be solved without these efficient algorithms.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] All of this involves the scientific method for algorithm design.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, where we try to develop mathematical models that help us understand the properties of the algorithms that we're developing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then we test those models through experimentation, enabling us to improve algorithms, iterating, developing better algorithms and more refined models until we get what we need to solve the practical problems that we have of interest.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's gonna be the overall architecture for studying algorithms that we're gonna use throughout the course.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He's locked up in a cage, said the other boy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Humans have been talking about feedback for centuries. In fact, Confucius, way back in 500 BC, talked about how important it is to be able to say difficult messages well. But to be honest, we're still pretty bad at it. In fact, a recent Gallup survey found that only 26% of employees strongly agree that the feedback they get actually improves their work. Those numbers are pretty dismal.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It doesn't have to be this way. I and my team have spent many years going into different companies and asking who here


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] is a great feedback giver. Anybody who's named again and again, we actually bring into our labs to see what they're doing differently.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It lets the brain know that feedback is actually coming. It would be something, for example, like, do you have five minutes to talk about how that last conversation went? Or I have some ideas for how we can improve things.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This micro yes question does two things for you. First of all, it's going to be a pacing tool. It lets the other person know that feedback is about to be given. And the second thing it does is it creates a moment of buy-in. I can say yes or no to that yes or no question.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And with that, I get a feeling of autonomy. The second part of the feedback formula is going to be giving your data point. Here you should name specifically what you saw or heard and cut out any words that aren't objective. There's a concept we call blur words.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A blur word is something that can mean different things to different people. Blur words are things that are not specific. So for example, if I say, you shouldn't be so defensive. Or, you could be more proactive. What we see great feedback givers doing differently is they'll convert their blur words into actual data points. So for example, instead of saying,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know, you aren't reliable. We would say, you said you'd get that email to me by 11, and I still don't have it yet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Or, I really liked how you added those stories because it helped me grasp the concepts faster. It gives you a sense of purpose and meaning and logic between the points which is something the brain really craves. The fourth part of the feedback formula is a question.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Great feedback givers wrap their feedback message with a question. They'll ask something like, well, how do you see it? Or, this is what I'm thinking we should do.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But there's one last thing. Great feedback givers not only can say messages well, but also they ask for feedback regularly. In fact, our research on perceived leadership shows that you shouldn't wait for feedback to be given to you, what we call push feedback, but rather you should actively ask for feedback, what we call pulling feedback.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Polling feedback establishes you as a continual learner and puts the power in your hands. The most challenging situations are actually the ones that call for the most skillful feedback. But it doesn't have to be hard. Now that you know this four-part formula, you can mix and match it to make it work for any difficult conversation.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We've learned from by trial and error that keeping them in a BOMA environment for those minimum of 4 weeks, 46 weeks.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Means that they settle down and not only do they settle down, most importantly, they get used to these boxes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We find that if we had to just put the animal straight from the felt into a box like this and transport them to their new destination, they would fight the crate all the way and as a result would injure themselves.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] By the time these rhino are ready to leave here, they get so used to these boxes that they'd probably sleep for almost the entire duration of their journey.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I read a lot slower than I once did, so while this video technically spans multiple weeks, we cover two books.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] By Boyfriend Material. Most certainly did, didn't steal it, so there's that. This I saw Talia Hibbert talk about. She said it is one of her favorite books. I don't know, she showed a very annotated copy on TikTok.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which apparently is where I get all of my book recommendations at this point. Talia said read it and obviously I'm gonna listen to her because she knows more than I do. I also got It Happened One Summer by Tessa Bailey. Now, this is a little scandalous, this is a little uh-oh because I have


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Weirdly, very about construction and I did not give a flying fuck. Not to mention the one sex scene in Tools of Engagement that took place in an unfinished house where there was like,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Finish the love hypothesis, because I know that if I don't finish the love hypothesis, I won't be able to focus on the two assignments I have to write. I am at about 80%.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I can feel shit getting real, I'm hitting the drama, and I'm not prepared. I'm going to go finish this fucking book, maybe cry about it a little bit, and then I'm gonna finally actually get down to business and write some fucking essays. Yes. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this is my first Mafia romance. The thing that I've noticed the most about it is that when we're in the girl main character, Elena's point of view, I'm like okay with it. It's not the best thing I've ever read, but I'm having a good enough time. And then when we switch to her love interest, whose name is Nico, his POV,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, he irks me. He's like a mafia boss, and I realize that, you know, he's...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now I feel like nothing's happening. Uhm, the second thing though, on a more positive note is, we have met the characters that I know are the mains for the second book, which I think is called like, His Maddest Obsession or something, uh, Gianna and Christian.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You can see this older dung, we're just supplementing it with some fresh stuff just before the release. When we give them dung, even that's been aged for up to 32 days, it still conveys messages to them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Communicates the things that they need to know about the environment and about the other rhino around them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that they don't rush around the landscape quite so much and they settle quickly into their new home.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] She's over here and so she's hardly moved again today.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, our basic array implementation of stacks had the defect where we required clients to provide the maximum capacity of the stack ahead of time. Now we're going to look at a technique for resolving that problem.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, how do we, uh, we do not implementing the API. Uh, the API says we should just be able to create a stack and it should be able to grow and shrink to any size. So, how are we going to grow and shrink the array?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, first thing you might think of is when, uh, the client pushes a new item onto the stack, uh, increase the size of the array by one, and when it pops, decrease the size of the array by one. Uh, that's easy to code up, but not worth it because it's much too expensive to do that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The reason is that you have to create a new array, size one bigger, and copy all the items to that new array.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, so, uh, inserting the first n items would take, uh, time proportional, uh, if the tax, stacks of size n minus 1, it's going to take time n, n minus 2, time n minus 1. So first n items would take the sum of the first n integers, uh, which we know, uh, is about n squared over 2.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So the challenge is to do the resizing but somehow ensure that it happens infrequently.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A well-known technique for doing that called repeated doubling is to, when the array fills up, create a new array of twice the size and copy all the items over. Then we don't create new arrays all that often. So here's an implementation of that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, we start with an array of size one. Uh, if we have a full stack, which we know by testing, uh, n, which is the number of items in the stack versus the array length, then we just resize the array into one of twice the length.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Before inserting the item. And how do we resize to a new capacity? We create a new array of that capacity and just go ahead and copy our current stack into that, into the first half of that and then return it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that will, uh, reset our, uh, instance variable, which is our stack, uh, to this new, uh, bigger array.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, the idea and the consequence of this is, if you insert n items into an array, into a stack with this array representation, the time will be proportional to n, not n squared.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, and the reason is that, uh, you only create a new array every time it doubles. Uh, but by the time that it doubles, you've inserted, uh, that many items into the stack. So on average, it's like adding one operation, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, so if we just, if you just calculate the cost in inserting the first n items.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, you're going to have, instead of the sum of the integers from 1 to n, you're going to have the sum of the powers of 2 from 1 to n. And that will give a total cost of about 3n. So that's array accesses. So for the copy, there's two array accesses. So to insert n items, it's about three array accesses.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This plot is another way of looking at it, which is the number of array accesses taken as you implement push operations. Every time you hit a power of two, you take that many array accesses, but in a sense, you've already paid for them by putting those items on the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that's called amortized analysis where we consider the total cost averaged over all operations. And this is a fine example and useful example of amortized analysis to get efficiency in the stack implementation.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, now we have, what about the pop? We have to think about how to shrink the array. Uh, so, you might think, well, we doubled it when it was full, why, why don't we cut it in half when it gets to be half full? We don't want the array to get too empty.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, well that one doesn't, uh, exactly work because of a, a phenomenon called thrashing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, if you, if the client happens to do push pop, push pop, alternating when the array is full.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, then it's going to be doubling, having, doubling, having, doubling, having, uh, creating new arrays on every op, operation. Take time proportional to n for every operation, uh, and therefore quadratic time for everything. So, I don't want to do that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, the efficient solution is to wait until the array gets one quarter full before you have it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, and that's, uh, very easy to implement. We just test if the array's one quarter full. If it is, we resize it to half full. And so then, at that point, it's half full. Uh, and it can either grow, uh, by adding stuff or.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, shrink by subtracting stuff, but there won't be another resizing array operation, uh, until it either gets totally full or, uh, half, half again full.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, so the invariant of that is that the array is always between 25% and 100% full, number one. And number two, that every time you resize, you've already paid for it in an amortized sense by inserting, pushing or popping.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, and you can see at the beginning it doubles from one to two to four. Uh, but once it gets to four, it stays, uh, and once it gets to eight, it stays at that size for a while, even though there's some operations. And it doesn't shrink back to four until after there's only two items in there and then it shrinks and so forth.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, array resizing doesn't happen that often, but it's a very effective way of implementing the stack API with an array where the client does not have to provide this maximum capacity of the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But still, we're guaranteed that the amount of memory that we use is always only a constant multiple of the number of items actually on the stack.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, the analysis now says that the average running time per operation for whatever the sequence of operations is, the average running time is going to be proportional to a constant.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, there is a worst case, uh, that is at the point when the stack doubles, it takes time proportional to n, so it's not quite as good performance, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As, uh, we might like, uh, but, uh, it's what we, uh, the advantage that we get is very fast pushes and pops, just access array and increment it and very efficient.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, for most operations and for many, many clients, uh, that's an effective trade-off to make.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what about memory usage? Well, this is the analysis of memory usage for stacks. And it's actually less memory than for strings. The amount used is between 8n and 32n depending on how full the array is.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And just a quick analysis of the amount of space that arrays take in Java.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what are the trade-offs between, uh, using a resizing array versus a linked list? Those are two different implementations of the same API, and the client can use them interchangeably. Which one is better?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In many situations, we're going to have multiple implementations of APIs and depending on properties of the client program, we're going to have to choose which one is the better one to use.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So for link lists, uh, every operation takes constant time in the worst case. Uh, that's a guarantee. Uh, but we have to use a little extra time and space to deal with the links. Uh, so it's going to be slower.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, resizing array implementation, uh, we have a good amortized time, uh, so total averaged over the whole process, uh, is good. Uh, we have less wasted space and probably faster implementation of each operation.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so for some clients maybe that makes a difference. Perhaps you wouldn't want to use a resizing array implementation at the moment that your plane's coming in for a landing. You wouldn't want it to all of a sudden not implement some operation quickly.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you need that kind of, or maybe in an internet switch where packets are coming through at a great rate, you wouldn't want to be in a situation where you're missing some data because something got slow all of a sudden.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, so that's a trade-off that the client can make. If I want that guarantee, if I want to be sure that every operation is going to be fast, uh, I'll use a linked list. Uh, and if I don't need that guarantee, if I just care about the total amount of time, uh, I'll probably use the resizing array because, uh, the total, uh, will be much less because individual operations are fast.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So even with these simple data structures, we have really important trade-offs that actually make a difference in lots of practical situations.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Goodness. It's been a roller coaster getting to finals week. Got myself eliminated, got myself back into the competition and here I am. I've got to look towards the finish line now. That's my goal to win now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I take the lid off my mystery box and inside is some basil and a, and a letter with my name on it. Straight away I recognise the handwriting on the letter. I can tell it's from my wife Abby.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's exactly what I need at this time of the competition. That little inspiration to kick me forward in this finals week.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Dear Tim, it's been hard without you here. I miss you so much. We've sacrificed


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My wife Abby is my rock. I couldn't be here without incredible support from her. She's been with me every step of the way.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've chosen basil as your ingredient today because you know how much I love your green eggs and ham.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Abby loves my green eggs and ham. I think that's what's inspired the Fazzle choice today.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'll often make it after we've had a few too many wines the night before and it's pretty much a scrambled eggs with pesto through it. Pretty simple but delicious.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So after getting your letter today, it's inspiring and I'm going to do pesto and pork loin. Today I'm going to do, uh, a porchetta wrapped with prosciutto. I'm going to do a pesto to put in the middle and I'm going to roll the pork loin.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I'm going to do a roast pumpkin puree with some basil chopped through it. Just hero basil.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 60 minutes is gonna be stretching it to get my dish done today. Pork yetter is usually a whole side of pork over a big spit. But I've chosen pork loin today, so I'm confident that it'll cook in time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] To make the pesto, I get some of that beautiful basil in a processor with some pine nuts and parmesan and some garlic and olive oil and mix that till it's nice and combined. I haven't had a win in a mystery box since a long, long time ago, so I really want this one. I'm gonna fight hard.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He's always gonna do a timbre only. Thank you, I'm listening.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The judges are worried that I'm using pork loin instead of pork belly. I need to rethink my idea for the dish. If I don't get this perfect, I could get myself into some strife.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I told the judge it was porchetta because it's sort of inspired by porchetta but probably shouldn't call it that. I'll have Italians chasing me down the street.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, so I'm changing the name to a pork roll. I thought I'd better otherwise I could get myself into a bit of trouble.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My pork roll's in the oven. I've got some fennel charring on the pan. I'm just doing my pumpkin puree now and just bringing everything together.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So to play it up, I'm happy with the pesto, I'm happy with the flavour of the puree, I have a little bit of the pork roll and that's nice and yeah, Bob's your uncle.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What are your ideas? With my bone marrow, I'm gonna obviously oven roast some. I'm doing a bone marrow crumb. Yeah. And going to serve it with Brussels sprouts.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay. Yeah, just as a contrasting flavour. Nice, lovely. If we've got some brussels sprouts.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Today I'm making T-Bones Marrow. So, I'm taking inspiration from one of my idols, Curtis Stone, who says bone marrow is uhm, the butter of the gods.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, and what are you making here? Uhm, a little, little cracker, just so you can, uhm, dip, dip the, or get some of the bone marrow on a bit, on a cracker and eat that, because I think that goes really well. Okay. Then I'm mixing, I'm gonna put some flavour with some chilli and fennel seeds as well, just to accentuate flavour, we're in the flavour business.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm definitely pushing myself with this cook. I haven't made a cracker yet. I want the texture to be nice and crispy. There is a lot of pressure to really get it right. Okay, go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So to plate up, I get some of those Brussels sprouts on the plate. I top the Brussels sprouts with some of the bone marrow crumb. Get a piece of that beautiful bone marrow and get my crackers in there as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Tell us about it. Alright, so I'm calling this T-Bones Marrow. So it's oven roasted bone marrow, and then I've got a bone marrow crumb, some Brussels sprouts, and a cracker.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's really lovely to have that comforting note and just knowing that there's that support back home.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Just got my thyme twill in the oven. I've got my grapes macerating in some white wine and sugar.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My dish is a goat's cheese and thyme parfait with macerated white wine grapes and walnuts a couple of different ways.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've got Morton Bay Bugs. Yum. I love Morton Bay Bugs. They're so sweet and beautiful. I'm so lucky.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Come on Nicole. Come on, get something in. Yeah. Time's slipping away and I've got to finish off my bisque. My uncle-litties aren't looking that great. Nickers. Get something in the pot. I'm gonna do them again. I just want them to be perfect.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is the dish that is supposed to keep me safe from the pressure test. Come on Nicole, work fast. I am so stressed. I can't believe I'm doing this with five minutes to go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Time's slipping away. My ungloddies aren't looking that great. I'm gonna do them again. I just want them to be perfect.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've decided to leave the scallops off this dish. It gives me a couple of extra minutes to get my dish together. I just don't have time at this stage.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My angelottis still aren't perfect. They just look like ravioli. But I just need to get them into my boiling water. I don't have any time at all. And I just need to get them cooked and ready to put on a plate.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's such a rush towards the end of this cook. I've got all my elements there. I don't have the scallops on the plate, but I don't think they're needed. I just need to make sure that these two elements are perfect.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I chose to cook Morton Bay Bug ravioli with a bisque made from the shells of Morton Bay Bug and prawns.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Journey to the West Chapter 40 The Magic Gourd


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Two small demons entered, dragging Wu Jing and the Tang Monk.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In another room inside the cave, Golden Horn talked to some smaller demons.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They all laughed when Goldenhorn told them Wukong was trapped under three mountains.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] How will I ever get out of this? Thought the monkey.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wukong jumped to his feet and looked around. A spirit stood nearby.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The spirit bowed and then vanished with the mountains.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He spotted a small demon coming down the road. The demon was carrying a gourd.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wukong made himself look like a demon and stepped back onto the road.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh really? asked Wukong. How will you catch him? The demon showed Wukong his gourd.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The monkey recited a quick spell and left his body standing on the road. He flew fast up to heaven.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Chapter 3. Darnley and Riccio.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At first, I wanted to marry the son of the King of Spain, Don Carlos. But he was a Catholic, of course. And my Scots lords did not like that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It was difficult for me James. I wanted to please myself.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I wanted to please my friends and family in France and to please my people too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then, there was the Queen of England.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At first I wanted very much to be friends with Elizabeth. We wrote many letters and talked about a meeting. A meeting between two sister queens.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Our two countries need to be friends. You need a husband. I need a friend. Why not marry my friend Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester? He is a tall, strong man. I think he could be a good husband for you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I was very angry about this letter. There were a lot of stories about Elizabeth and Robert Dudley. They were good friends. He often danced and sang and talked with her. Sometimes, people said, he stayed in her room all night.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Mrs Dudley had a wife, but one day she died very suddenly. It was an accident. She fell down the stairs, they say. But then, perhaps she was unhappy because of her husband and Elizabeth.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And she writes to me about a man like this, I thought. She wants him to marry me because he is her friend, her lover perhaps. She wants her lover to be King of Scotland. I found a better man than Dudley, James. I found Henry Darnley, your father.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He was 19 years old and I was 23. He was a tall man with a beautiful face and big green eyes. He talked and sang well and I liked dancing with him.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He often wore expensive black clothes and he laughed a lot when he was with me. He was very young and friendly and I felt happy when I was with him. I liked him very much and I thought he loved me too. He was an important man too. We were cousins. His grandfather


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] was King of Scots and his great-grandfather was Henry VII of England.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In July 1565, I married him. Elizabeth was very angry. And so were a lot of the Scots lords.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My half brother, the Earl of Moray, tried to stop the marriage. I had to fight him and he ran south to England. But I was happy. Your father and I laughed every day. He was now Henry, King of Scots. After one or two weeks, the laughter stopped.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A king has a lot of work, James. You know that. He has to read hundreds of letters, talk to people, and think about a lot of important things.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I did those things every day. But now, I thought, I had a man to help me. My Lord Henry, I said, would you like to read all the letters with me? You can sit next to me and you can work with me every day.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm not interested in work like that, he said. I don't understand it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Of course not, I said. You're a young man, my love. But I can teach you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For one or two days he sat down with me and I tried to teach him. But it was true. He was not interested in the work and he did not try to understand it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You do it, Mary. He said, I'm going out with my friends. We're going to ride and drink and swim. So I did all the work. Me too. He often went out with his friends in the town. They drank a lot and laughed and sang. And there were often fights. But no one said anything.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because he was the king, my husband. What could people say? They were unhappy, but they were afraid of him. Some of them went to England, to the Earl of Moray.


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[Assistant] At this time, I was often very tired, because I was pregnant. You, my son, James, were alive inside me.


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[Assistant] But I did all, and I needed friends too.


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[Assistant] One of these friends was a young Italian.


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[Assistant] Riccio was and he was not tall or beautiful or strong.


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[Assistant] But he was a very clever, interesting man. He wrote many of my letters for me, and helped me. He sang well too, and I sometimes sang with him in the evenings.


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[Assistant] I liked him very much. And at first your father liked him too. But then More's friends began to talk about me and Riccio.


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[Assistant] David Riccio is in the Queen's rooms every night, they said to your father. She laughs and sings and dances with him. My Lord, it is not right. He is not a Scotsman and he is not her husband. He is always with her.


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[Assistant] Perhaps they said other things too. I don't know.


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[Assistant] But I tell you, James, before God, I did nothing wrong. David Riccio was a good man.


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[Assistant] He worked hard, and he helped me, so of course I liked him. Your father did not work. He went out to the town every night with his friends and drank. And then one night, your father came home.


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[Assistant] Thinking it might be a huge, unknown species of North American lion, Jefferson warned explorers Lewis and Clark to keep an eye out for this mysterious predator.


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[Assistant] But Jefferson's box of bones didn't come from a lion. They came from an extinct giant sloth.


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[Assistant] Some ground sloths, like the megalonychid, were cat-sized. But many were massive. Jefferson's sloth, megalonyx, weighed about a ton, and that was small compared to megatherium, which could reach six metric tons, as much as an elephant.


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[Assistant] They ambled through the forests and savannas, using their strong arms and sharp claws to uproot plants and climb trees, grazing on grasses, leaves, and prehistoric avocados.


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[Assistant] In fact, we might not have avocados today if not for the giant sloths.


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[Assistant] Smaller animals couldn't swallow the avocado's huge seed, but the sloths could, and they spread avocado trees far and wide.


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[Assistant] Ground sloths flourished for millions of years, but around 10,000 years ago, they started disappearing, along with the Western Hemisphere's other giant mammals.


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[Assistant] Researchers think that ground sloths could have been pushed out by an oncoming ice age or competition with other species, maybe humans, who arrived in the region around the time most of the sloths went extinct.


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[Assistant] Today, there are six species left living in the rainforest canopies of Central and South America.


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[Assistant] First, they extract as much energy from their food as possible.


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[Assistant] Sloths have a multi-chambered stomach that takes up a third of their body, and depending on the species, they can spend five to seven days, or even weeks, processing a meal.


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[Assistant] One way slots do this is, of course, by not moving very much. They spend most of their time eating, resting, or sleeping. They descend from the canopy just once a week for a bathroom break.


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[Assistant] When sloths do move, it's not very fast. It would take a sloth about five minutes to cross an average neighborhood street.


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[Assistant] This unhurried approach to life means that slots don't need very much muscle.


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[Assistant] Sloths also use less energy to keep themselves warm because their body temperature can fluctuate by about 5 degrees Celsius. Less than a cold-blooded reptile, but more than most mammals.


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[Assistant] These physical and behavioral adaptations minimize the sloth's energy expenditure, or metabolic rate.


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[Assistant] Moving slowly has allowed sloths to thrive in their treetop habitat.


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[Assistant] I literally started paying for a subscription so I could watch 90 Day Fiancé. The spinoffs, the main show, I'm addicted.


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[Assistant] Journey to the west, chapter 43, a visit from Lausa.


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[Assistant] Goldenhorn will soon be turned into liquid! He closed the gourd and ran into the cave. Several demons were inside.


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[Assistant] After a quick search of the cave, Wukong found his companions.


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[Assistant] Said the Tang monk. I was freed a couple of hours ago. Said Wukong. He untied the monk.


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[Assistant] They hadn't gone far when an old man approached them.


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[Assistant] Said the old man. Wukong stepped forward.


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[Assistant] I don't know what you're talking about. Said the monkey. There was a flash of light.


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[Assistant] Supposing one could count all the readers up.


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[Assistant] Who've ever read English literature? For as long as we've had English literature, 15 centuries, what has been the most read book? The most read work?


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[Assistant] Now, the answer to that trick question will be found in the drawer alongside every hotel and motel bed in the United States of America.


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[Assistant] The book I'm referring to, that most read book, is, of course, the authorized, or as we call it, the King James version of the Holy Bible.


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[Assistant] Now, we don't normally think of this book as literature. But of course, the Bible, in this most exalted of literary forms, is an example of the English language at the highest pitch of its eloquence, subtlety, and beauty.


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[Assistant] And it's produced at exactly the same period, one should note, as Shakespeare's great tragedies and Ben Johnson's comedies, the work we've been talking about.


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[Assistant] And another reason we tend not to think of the King James's Bible as a work of literature is because it was team written.


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[Assistant] We can't attach to it as we can with King Lear or the Alchemist, the name of William Shakespeare or Ben Johnson.


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[Assistant] It is not, like most of the literature of the period we revere, the early 17th century, the product of an only baguette.


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[Assistant] As Shakespeare called it, an originating genius, a single mind.


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[Assistant] Now, we don't think of great literature as something written by committees, by groups. Now, I want later to modify that conception.


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[Assistant] Because there was indeed, I will argue, a single-minded individual genius behind what we call the authorized version. There was, as it were, one creative talent which made the book.


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[Assistant] We now know as the authorised version. More of that later. King James, you remember, comes on the throne in 1603 after Elizabeth.


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[Assistant] And this project was motivated principally by politics.


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[Assistant] Now, there's no surprise there for anyone that knows this period. It was a period of seething upheaval. And politics were inevitably involved with religion. So in fact,


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[Assistant] To do this to the Bible, to make the King James' version was essentially a politically motivated act or project.


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[Assistant] And what was the, what was the political motivation? Well this new, this new Bible in English, remember the, the Bible previously in Latin?


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[Assistant] Would consolidate the reformation, that great movement which had been started by Henry VIII, or Elizabeth's father.


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[Assistant] It would supply a central text for Protestantism against Rome's Latin Bible and liturgy.


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[Assistant] It would open still wider the gulf between London and Rome. So wide in fact that it would never be bridged again. So,


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[Assistant] The authorized version is there as, as I say, a political wedge.


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[Assistant] The fact that we review it as literature is in fact a happy byproduct of that.


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[Assistant] Now, the authorized version is a translation. More correctly, it's a translation of a translation, possibly even many more translations beyond that.


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[Assistant] The New Testament was immediately translated from the Greek.


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[Assistant] The Old Testament was translated from the Masoretic Hebrew text. Now, Latin, Greek and Hebrew were tongues that only a handful of scholars had mastery of in the 16th century or even now.


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[Assistant] It, it made, made this work very, very remote, remote. It was the property of what are called Hierophants. People in fact who were almost like a secret society.


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[Assistant] And it was the rebel cleric, Martin Luther, who published the first vernacular Bible in his native German tongue in 1522.


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[Assistant] It shouldn't be the property of a secret society, it should be the property of all men and women.


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[Assistant] Luther's was arguably the most revolutionary act in European history at this period.


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[Assistant] There followed English translations, the most significant of which was by William Tyndale. Mark that name. In 1525. Although not by nature obedient,


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[Assistant] In point of fact, few churchmen have been more rebellious.


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[Assistant] Tindal was a devout follower, a disciple, one might say, of Luther.


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[Assistant] And he would have described himself, if you'd asked him, as a Lutheran.


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[Assistant] And like his German master, Tyndale believed that there should be no barriers whatsoever between Christians and their holy writ.


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[Assistant] Now, this wasn't a lightly maintained belief, it wasn't a dinner party opinion.


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[Assistant] Tindall's life ended with him being strangled and having his body burned at the stake by the authorities, the English authorities, for just such beliefs.


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[Assistant] Now you interfered with the Bible, unless you were the king and could do it at the king's command like King James, at your peril.


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[Assistant] Now, Tyndall's body was consumed by the flames, but his great work, the English Bible, was not.


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[Assistant] Although, alas, and for reasons I've never been able to understand, Tyndall's name and the credit which is owing to that name have faded from viewers. There's very little name recognition for this man, even though, as I say, he is one of the great figures of our literature.


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[Assistant] Now, Henry VIII, remember we're back in the, in the middle of the 16th century, we've jumped back 50 years. Henry VIII, in his reforming break from Rome, endorsed the Tyndale Bible. It was a useful term, and so he said it's a good thing. It sort of actually offended the Pope.


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[Assistant] Now, the Tyndale Bible that Henry VIII endorsed was essentially the Gospels, that's to say the New Testament, and the Pentateuch, or the central five books.


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[Assistant] Between Tindal and the Authorised Version, they intervene the rule of the fanatically Catholic Bloody Mary.


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[Assistant] Elizabeth's half-sister. These five years of her reign, from 1553 to 1558, ushered in a period of unprecedented religious terror in England. That's why they call her Bloody Mary. See, she wanted to return England to Catholicism by terror.


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[Assistant] Elizabeth Raine saw a return to her father Henry's Protestantism. These half-sisters, in fact, had very different notions of what England should be. And England...


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[Assistant] And in Elizabeth's view, would have to revert to that vision which Henry VIII had, that to say an independent country, a country independent of Rome.


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[Assistant] Protestantism, that is, in its Anglican version, as the established church,


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[Assistant] Has the secular monarch, not the pontiff, at its head. Church and state are one. They're fused together.


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[Assistant] Now, Tyndale's version of the Holy Writings, as enlarged by refugees during Mary's reign, the so-called Geneva Bible, became current again in Elizabeth's reign. And John Bunyan, whom we'll be looking at later, used the English or the Geneva Bible as the basis of his pilgrim's progress.


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[Assistant] As indeed did, as indeed many other sort of people of his class, working class did. James!


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[Assistant] Who ruled Scotland as James the 6th before taking over the English throne as James the 1st had for some years wanted to authorize a new improved English Bible.


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[Assistant] More accurately, a Bible in English. Uhm, there was no disagreement as to content with Rome. It didn't want to change what was in the Bible, just the linguistic form in which it could be read or heard.


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[Assistant] And the growing lobbying power of the Puritans, who'll be more and more intrusive over the next hundred years of our literary history, added to the urgency of this task.


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[Assistant] They too wanted a Bible which they could, as it were, have access to through their own language, their own tongue.


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[Assistant] Now from James' point of view, and I return to this observation that it is principally political. From James' point of view, an English Bible would be a safety vow. It would make society more stable. The Puritans, in fact, would to some extent be defused by having their own Bible.


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[Assistant] The project for the new Bible was outlined at the Hampton Court Conference, as it's called, which James convened in January 1604. And the principal aim was scholarly accuracy.


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[Assistant] Now, that's to say, I didn't want to interfere with what was in the Bible, just the way in which it was, as it were, sort of articulated.


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[Assistant] And there'd been a laxity, it was felt, particularly in key terms of translation in the Tyndale derived versions. They were generally alright, but there were certain kind of, as it were, features which needed correction, needed refining.


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[Assistant] For instance, uh, Tyndale had a terrific aversion to the word priest, which he thought was Romish, and there were all sorts of lexical problems of that kind, terminology.


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[Assistant] Marginal notes were also an issue, you know, that's to say these things down the side which told you what various crucial moments in the, in the Bible meant. Interpretation, uh, one has to remember was a life and death matter on such issues as the trinity, the divinity of Christ. These, these again were things having the wrong doctrine, uh, could be very dangerous.


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[Assistant] And also, it was important from James' point of view to create, as it were, an orthodox, authorized version.


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[Assistant] Now this authorization was not by virtue of a sect, not by the church, not by the universities, but by the king.


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[Assistant] The monarch who then as now was head and patron of the established church. The appointer of the church's senior clerics from archbishops down. Everything it was said was in the king's gift. You couldn't be a humble parson without in fact that authorization coming from the king, from the throne.


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[Assistant] Church and state were, as I said earlier, fused, as they've never, for example, been in post-revolutionary America. In England, the Bible was to be a privilege, that is a state-owned text, and as much crown property as Buckingham Palace, or Regent's Park.


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[Assistant] To this day, unlike in the U.S., you may only print the authorized versions of the Bible in England under license from the Crown. And that license has traditionally been awarded to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, but in fact, the property belongs


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[Assistant] Today, to Queen Elizabeth II, the authorized version has never, ever been, uh, in, in, in the public domain, uh, in the, in the UK, as it has in America.


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[Assistant] That in fact is a big cultural difference between the two countries. And if in fact the authorities have their way, it never will be in the public domain in the UK, in England. And this creates a huge axis of institutional power.


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[Assistant] Consolidated power between the throne, the established church, parliament and the academy.


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[Assistant] These, these in fact create what in Britain is called the establishment. There's no, no parallel, uh, structure in, in, in America.


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[Assistant] Now as I said earlier, the authorised version was a team effort, and a very sizeable team.


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[Assistant] It comprised six committees, utilizing the expertise of fifty scholars. Most of them are Oxbridge based. Most of them men of huge learning.


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[Assistant] Nonetheless, 80% of the King James' New Testament is verbally unaltered from Tyndale's translation.


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[Assistant] Probably seems like a, a, a fairly kind of, as it were, sort of ragged sort of totality, but it, but it isn't. Shakespearean scholars who have to rely on printed copies


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[Assistant] Produced from dubious sources well after the playwright's death would say that probably 80% of what we have of Shakespeare is authentic and 20% is inauthentic. We have to reconstruct it. That's the same with Tyndall and the authorised version.


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[Assistant] When I said earlier that there was, despite all the committee apparatus, a single originating mind, it's probably unnecessary now to repeat the point, that mind was William Tyndale's. And Tyndale is a creative writer of equal stature, I would suggest, perhaps even to Shakespeare.


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[Assistant] Let me give an example of Tindale's creativity. His literature, if you like.


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[Assistant] I'll read out two versions of the opening lines of Genesis. They're among the most famous lines in our culture. The moment of creation. This, in fact, is where, in fact, the world becomes the world. Now, without, as it were, sort of giving you any clues, try and guess which is Tyndals and which is the authorized version.


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[Assistant] The earth was void and empty, and darkness was upon the deep, and the Spirit of God moved upon the water.


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[Assistant] Then God said, let there be light, and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good, and divided the light from the darkness, and called the light day and the darkness night. And so of the evening and morning was made the first day.


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[Assistant] And God said, let there be a firmament between the waters and let it divide the waters asunder.


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[Assistant] Then God made the firmament and parted the waters which were under the firmament from the waters that were above the firmament. And it was so. That's one version. And here's the other version. In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth.


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[Assistant] And the earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.


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[Assistant] And God said, let there be light, and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good, and God divided the light from the darkness. And God called the light day, and the darkness He called night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.


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[Assistant] And God said, let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters and let it divide the waters from the waters. And God made the firmament and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament. And it was so.


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[Assistant] As I say, one of those is Tyndall. It was the first one, the first passage I read up was Tyndall.


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[Assistant] And this, remember, was almost a century before the authorised version. And the echoes are so obvious. I mean, it's not quite a trans-insuration, but so close that any kind of lawyer could actually bring a plagiarism suit against the committee who came out with the authorised version in 1610.


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[Assistant] Well, who then was this man, William Tyndale? His dates, as best we can put them together, are, he was born in 1494 and he died in 1536. Now,


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[Assistant] His death, uh, which were very painful and very public, we know a lot about.


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[Assistant] But little is known of his early life. Even his surname isn't certain. He sometimes appears in documents as Hitchens.


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[Assistant] But it's known that Tindale or Hitchens was a student at Oxford and on graduation in 1512 he enrolled to do what we would call research or advanced study into theology and he was evidently a brilliant linguist.


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[Assistant] He went on to become a tutor in a noble household, which was a popular occupation for clever scholars who wished to continue their scholarship.


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[Assistant] But young Tinder was soon in trouble for heresy. He was the most pugnacious of clerics. He loved to fight.


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[Assistant] Good thing he did, otherwise we wouldn't have the Bible that we have. Early on he developed two very dangerous aspirations.


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[Assistant] One was to defy Rome, and the second was to translate the scriptures into English. His aim, as he put it, was that even the ploughmen of England should know the scriptures, and know them as well as they knew their plough handles.


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[Assistant] Now, it was a very dangerous doctrine, and he went abroad to Germany, and he may even have met Luther in the 1520s. And this was a period when the whole continent was in an affirmant about religion.


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[Assistant] Now, Tyndall was on the continent in Europe when Luther's vernacular Bible in German was published. It was a text which was promptly prohibited in England, although few Plowmen could have read German, of course.


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[Assistant] Over the years, Tyndale worked on his own great translation abroad. And he fell out with the king on the issue of Henry VIII's flagrantly multiple divorces, which was the reason, of course, that Henry VIII brought about the Reformation. He had personal, not, it was, not, not in fact sort of theological differences with Rome.


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[Assistant] Tindal was captured, brought back to England, where he was tried for heresy, and as I say, strangled and burned.


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[Assistant] And his final words reportedly were, Oh Lord, open the King of England's eyes. Henry VIII's eyes.


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[Assistant] One could sample the authorized version anywhere for its literary quality, but I'm gonna take the easiest of samples from my point of view. The best story, if one's thinking of stories, in that wonderful compilation, The Book of Job.


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[Assistant] I've chosen it because it's a complete narrative and a fascinating one, I think. Let me read out the...


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[Assistant] The opening of, uh, of the book of Job, the story of Job.


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[Assistant] There was a man in the land of Uz whose name was Job, and that man was perfect and upright, and one that feared God and eschewed evil.


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[Assistant] And there were born unto him seven sons and three daughters. His subsistence also was seven thousand sheep and three thousand camels and five hundred yoke of oxen and five hundred she-asses and a very great household.


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[Assistant] So that this man was the greatest of all the men of the East.


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[Assistant] And his sons went and feasted in their houses, every one his day, and sent and called for their three sisters to eat and to drink with them.


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[Assistant] And it was so, when the days of their feasting were gone about, that Job sent and sanctified them, and rose up early in the morning and offered burnt offerings according to the number of them all. For Job said, It may be that my sons have sinned and cursed God in their hearts. Thus did Job continually.


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[Assistant] Now there was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord, and Satan came also among them.


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[Assistant] And the Lord said unto Satan, Whence comest thou?


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[Assistant] Then Satan answered the Lord and said, From going to and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down in it.


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[Assistant] And the Lord said unto Satan, hast thou considered, my servant Job, that there is none like him in the earth, a perfect and an upright man, one that feareth God and estueth evil? Then Satan answered the Lord and said, Doth Job fear God for naught?


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[Assistant] Hast not thou made and hedge about him, and about his house, and about all that he hath on every side? Thou hast blessed the work of his hands, and his substance is increased in the land. But put forth thine hand now.


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[Assistant] And touch all that he hath, and he will curse thee to thy face.


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[Assistant] And the Lord said unto Satan, Behold, all that he hath is in thy power, only upon himself put not forth thine hand. So Satan went forth from the presence of the Lord.


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[Assistant] Now, first note the solidity of specification.


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[Assistant] The exposition, as we would call it if it were a novel, we know the hero's name, we know his place of residence, we have an exact inventory, a very pedantic inventory of his property, we know his character. It's excessively devout and sensible, rather dull even, and very cautious. Have his son sinned, he thinks. I must do something about that, I must pray to God.


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[Assistant] We may suspect a certain folkloric antiquity in the business of animal sacrifice, for example, in his religious practices, but the most extraordinary feature in this expedition is the conversation between God and Satan.


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[Assistant] Effectively, they have a wager, as if they were a couple of high rollers who met in a Las Vegas casino. Now, in the story as it develops, many tribulations fall on Job, not least his wife, whose advice in the extremity of his suffering is, despair and die.


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[Assistant] One doesn't, one doesn't like her for that. But Job holds fast. He survives and remains faithful amidst all the tortures that the evil one can inflict on him. He declines to turn his face to the wall. In short, Satan loses, as for example he does in Peter Blatty's novel The Exorcist. And this is the conclusion of the book of Job.


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[Assistant] So the Lord blessed the latter end of Job more than his beginning, for he had fourteen thousand sheep, and six thousand camels, and a thousand yoke of oxen, and a thousand she-asses. He had also seven sons and three daughters, and he called the name of the first Jemima.


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[Assistant] And the name of the second, Kazaya. And the name of the third, Keran Hapuch.


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[Assistant] And in all the land there were no women found so fair as the daughters of Job, and their father gave them inheritance among their brethren.


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[Assistant] After this lived Job and 140 years and saw his sons and his sons' sons, even four generations.


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[Assistant] Now allegorically, the meaning, so to call it, is simple.


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[Assistant] Even in the extremity of hardship, you must hold the faith. God will in the fullness of time reward you.


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[Assistant] But the back story here is fascinating, particularly the free hand given to Satan.


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[Assistant] Also, in some ways, God does not come out as a particularly noble protector of mankind. He's prepared to allow Job to lose all that he has. Not just his cattle, but his loved ones.


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[Assistant] He's happy to allow him, or at least it is part of his divine intention and plan to allow him to suffer the sharpest and cruelest of pain. Why? To win a bet with Satan.


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[Assistant] And are we to consider Satan in some sense an unequal player with God?


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[Assistant] Like other great stories, the more we read, the more curious and perplexed, but interestingly perplexed we become. Now, above all,


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[Assistant] It is the wonderfully terse, gritty style which carries us forward and carries us away. Now, to return to the Tyndale,


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[Assistant] Authorised version, literary expression. You'll note, stylistically, the stress on, on monosyllables. The last line,


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[Assistant] A single polysyllable there. No word which is anything more than, as it were, the simplest constituents of English language. And you'll note too, that it's an iambic pentameter.


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[Assistant] Remember Marlow, the mighty lion and blank verse?


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[Assistant] And Job died an old man and full of days. That in fact is poetry, even though in fact...


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[Assistant] It's there sort of set as prose in, in the book of Job.


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[Assistant] Now, in all the literature we're going to be looking at in the following lectures, the authorized version is there. It's not always visible and it's not always audible, but it's always there.


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[Assistant] Now what the authorized version did was, obviously it made the Bible accessible. It did all the things that, that James wanted it to do. It created, if you like, the, one of the kind of structures of the


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[Assistant] The first actually gave to, to succeeding generations. So, so.


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[Assistant] The Bible, the authorized version of the Bible, did everything politically, that its authors and...


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[Assistant] Obviously its authors were not just that committee and not even just William Tyndall but James I as well that its authors intended it to do. But it did something else as well. What the, what the authorised version did was to create


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[Assistant] A version of English which was heard by the whole English population every week.


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[Assistant] That's to say, during the 17th century, one has in fact to know this fact, I think, to understand, for example, why it is that Shakespeare's plays work so well on the stage. Every week,


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[Assistant] The whole population of England was obliged to go to church. They had to attend church and they had to listen to sermons. And so what happened was that their ears became terribly well educated. Now one of the problems, I don't know if it's the same with you, but one of the problems I have when I go to a


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[Assistant] A Shakespeare play. If I don't know that play, I have great difficulty in taking it in through the ear. Because in fact, our culture, as we now have it, is very much a culture of the eye. That's to say we read, we look at...


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[Assistant] As it were, a power of, of, of understanding things through the ear, uh, which in, in fact conditioned


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[Assistant] Why was that? Because every Sunday you had to go to church and you had to listen to a sermon, which would be in English, but from after 1610 you also had to listen to lessons. You had to listen to sort of the wonderful sonorous cadences of the authorized version as well.


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[Assistant] This permeated, this actually soaked into the intellectual fabric of England.


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[Assistant] So that every writer for the next 200 years, if they knew one text, that text was the authorized version of the Bible. That in fact was, if you unpeeled the onion of their culture, that was at the very, very center.


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[Assistant] Now, all that of course is attributable to the very enlightened act of this monarch, James I. I said in the last lecture that he was also in fact a notable author in his own right, but his great work is understandably enough his authorised version.


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[Assistant] But also, there is the fact that William Tyndale, that, that, that writer,


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[Assistant] Regrettably, he's so neglected in our history books that his words, in fact, still roll through our literature. But for 200 years you could argue that he's up there with Shakespeare.


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[Assistant] One of the great formers, one of the people who's actually making, as it were, the


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[Assistant] The raw material with which the kinds of authors we'll be looking at in next lectures, William, sorry, the kind of authors we'll be looking at in the next lecture, John Dunn, John Milton. Milton in fact has a very, very tindalium.


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[Assistant] ...regard as a great tragedy, but it's one of the sadnesses of our literary history that he does not have the recognition which I think he duly deserves.


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[Assistant] It's AumSum Time. Why do we have split ends?


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[Assistant] However, you can have split ends anywhere along the entire shaft. Now, our hair consists of three concentric layers. The outermost tough layer is called cuticle. The middle layer is called cortex. And the innermost layer is called medulla.


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[Assistant] Split ends occur when the cuticle gets ripped off or damaged.


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[Assistant] Now, as there is no longer any tough structure to hold the hair together. Cracks begin to develop in the inner layers, thus giving rise to split ends. Now, there are many factors that can cause split ends. For example, excessive sun exposure.


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[Assistant] Improper brushing or detangling, excessive blow drying, coloring, etc. Topic Nerves.


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[Assistant] Well, duh. Because if it would, then we would have got angry on our hairdressers. Oh, you are just impossible. Wait, I will explain it to you. Inside our body, there is a network of nerves.


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[Assistant] These nerves help us to sense our surroundings and feel pain, touch, etc. By sending messages to the brain.


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[Assistant] What a classy name it has. Indeed. Malassezia globosa is naturally present on our scalp. It feeds on sebum and releases oleic acid.


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[Assistant] Now, some people are sensitive to this oleic acid. When it penetrates the upper layers of their skin, it causes inflammation.


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[Assistant] Why do we get white hair? Cause we cannot get blue hair. No.


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[Assistant] Our hair is basically made up of keratin, a colorless protein.


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[Assistant] How's that possible? I had black hair during childhood.


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[Assistant] Don't worry, I'll explain. Our hair grows from hair follicles. A hair follicle contains melanocytes, which produce melanin. Melanin is injected in the keratin cells during the growth of our hair. This melanin gives color to our hair.


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[Assistant] Now, the color of our hair is dependent on the type of melanin injected. Eumelanin makes our hair black or brown, while pheomelanin makes our hair red or blonde.


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[Assistant] Simon, Nicole, Tessa, Tim, welcome back to the MasterChef kitchen. Today, you're cooking for a place.


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[Assistant] In the semi-final of MasterChef 2019. The three of you.


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[Assistant] Unfortunately, one of you will be going home. How you guys feeling? Nervous.


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[Assistant] Nervous. Excited. Nerves are good. You gotta use that nervous energy to give yourself confidence. You are great cooks. You have now skills. You have ideas in spades. You got me?


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[Assistant] Using only the ingredients in your pantry.


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[Assistant] Remember, you're cooking for your place in the semi-final. You ready? Yep. The 60 minutes starts now.


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[Assistant] Don't take risk today, yeah? Just perfect something brilliantly in it. At the moment, that's not perfection.


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[Assistant] Just perfect something brilliantly and at the moment, that's not perfection.


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[Assistant] Head to head for a place in the semi-final. Let's start with the farmhouse pantry. Tim.


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[Assistant] You presented it beautifully. It's, it's farmhouse. I really thought you weren't going to be able to cook that ribeye in time. You've cooked it. And it's got a lovely flavour of the barbecue. Well done.


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[Assistant] You forget about meat totally and you enjoy the cabbage in all of its life.


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[Assistant] Just goes to show you how far you've come in the competition in the way you're thinking about what you want to deliver to your customer. Well done Tessa. Cool, thank you.


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[Assistant] Look how far you've come. You were pretty confident yesterday in the kitchen when I was watching you. And you produce, you know, 30 plates of food.


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[Assistant] I know it means the world. Alright, just get it together, go and take a deep breath over there, and yeah, prepare yourself. Whatever it is, it is, okay?


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[Assistant] It just reminded me how much I like them when they're cooked like this. You can eat it with a spoon and that's the way it should be eaten and I love the how, I love the how he's hollowed it out and filled it with a little surprise.


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[Assistant] Fruity passion fruit, uh, a moose that's light. Uhm, yep, it could have more. Uhm, but it's an incredible effort.


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[Assistant] Nicole, uhm, you know, at this point we'd like to reminisce on all the dishes that you've cooked.


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[Assistant] Beetroot medley. She's done a good job hasn't she? Barbecued, good sweetness in that beetroot.


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[Assistant] You've got a bright future because you're a very intelligent and beautiful human being. You're driven and you know what you want. Next step, simple. Get out there and you do it.


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[Assistant] There's no question as to who was the greatest author in English literature, William Shakespeare. And the next two lectures will


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[Assistant] Try and, uh, deal with his achievement. A hundred lectures wouldn't be enough, but so be it.


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[Assistant] Shakespeare was born in early 1564, the exact date we don't know, which is something that throws out anniversary celebrations a bit.


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[Assistant] He was born within a few months of Christopher Marlowe, the dramatist we were talking about in the last lecture.


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[Assistant] And about six years into the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the fairy queen. Uh, she was, of course, the virgin queen.


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[Assistant] And it's a good thing that he was born then, in many ways, but not least because the stability her reign brought to England.


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[Assistant] It was a good time to come into the world, but particularly good if you were going to build a career in literature.


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[Assistant] Nonetheless, even though it was a stable reign, the turmoil of the previous reign, that of Bloody Mary, was still roiling the country. It was still in a state of upheaval.


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[Assistant] Under Mary, it had been dangerous to be Protestant. Under Elizabeth, the reverse was the case. It was dangerous to be Catholic.


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[Assistant] Many English people prudently kept both irons in the fire. They'd been Catholic in their youth and had to be Protestant in their adulthood. And it seems quite certain that Shakespeare's family was among that number. Seesawing prudently in their religious affiliation. Being very careful.


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[Assistant] Now, was Shakespeare himself a Catholic or a Protestant? He was probably both and probably neither, although there's a huge amount of critical debate on the subject to this day. Now, the late Tudor period,


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[Assistant] Ushered in by Elizabeth was one of growth and, as I say, of relative stability. There were no great foreign wars or invasions. The one, as it were, unlucky invasion for the Spanish, the Armada was repelled in, in 1588.


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[Assistant] Uh, or as the medal struck on that occasion recorded, God blew, a gale that is, and the enemy was scattered and England was safe.


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[Assistant] There was no civil war to tear the country apart, although following the long conflict of the Wars of the Roses, such an event remained a traumatic and inexpungible fear. Civil strife was the worst thing that could happen to a country.


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[Assistant] People of Shakespeare's time felt. Mark Anthony's speech and Julius Caesar outlines the horrors of civil war.


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[Assistant] Blood and destruction shall be so in use and dreadful objects so familiar that mothers shall but smile when they behold their infants quartered with the hands of war. And it has that wonderful phrase, cry havoc and let slip the dogs of war.


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[Assistant] So civil war was absent, but it was always there as something which was, as it were, a potential threat.


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[Assistant] And in fact, historically, civil war would be avoided in England until the 1640s, after Shakespeare's death, well after.


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[Assistant] So over the years of Elizabeth's reign there emerged also a growing sense of national greatness.


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[Assistant] The only fly in the ointment over the decades of her reign, Elizabeth's reign, was the fact that she was famously a virgin queen and no parthenogenesis was possible. That says she couldn't have an heir, a direct heir from her own body.


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[Assistant] Now it might be very well for poets like Edmund Spenser concocting complimentary verse to celebrate the fact that she was a virgin.


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[Assistant] As a century advanced, the question of succession loomed ominously. Now you can't read a play like Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, or any of the history plays of Shakespeare without recognising that the big political question in his drama is, how do you replace one king with another king?


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[Assistant] Is regicide the answer? That in fact is explored in Macbeth. Is a strong man usurping the throne from a weak man, as in Richard II, where Bolingbroke makes himself Henry IV, is that the answer? Is inheritance the answer, as in Henry IV and Henry V? That's to say, the bloodline.


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[Assistant] Shakespeare nags at this question right the way through to his last written play, Henry VIII. And he never quite comes up with a definitive answer. And that anxiety was generated by the fact that there was no direct, obvious successor to Queen Elizabeth.


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[Assistant] Now, the return to Shakespeare's life as best we know it. William Shakespeare was born


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[Assistant] The son of a prosperous glove maker and an alderman in the town of Stratford-on-Avon, which is in England's West Country, a very beautiful town.


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[Assistant] And of course the beauty is infused into Shakespeare's own sense of natural landscape. It's about 150 miles from London on one of the country's great inland rivers and, as I say, some of the most beautiful countryside in England. Warwickshire.


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[Assistant] William's mother, Mary Arden, was rather higher born than her husband.


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[Assistant] And Shakespeare's aim in life, like his father, was to rise to the condition of the gentry. He wanted, in fact, to leave life at a higher social station than he had entered it.


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[Assistant] Uhm, he wanted to be, as it were, sort of upper middle class. Uh, and he was born in what you might call the kind of respectable lower middle class. Now, young William attended a grammar school, as they were called, where he received instruction from very good teachers. Uhm, he was very lucky in that respect.


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[Assistant] Although Ben Jonson, a university man and a fellow dramatist, would later observe that Shakespeare had little Latin and less Greek, it's clear that he could read the ancients.


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[Assistant] But his sources, Holland Shed's English histories, Plutarch's classical histories, Ovid, were mainly in translation. But we should remember that


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[Assistant] Even though he was a son of a, uh, a businessman.


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[Assistant] Shakespeare was by our standards extremely highly educated. Now, he seems on leaving school in his early teens to have worked for his father. There is in his plays a great deal of expertise about leather and the working of the material of leather and its tools. The mark of the glove maker's son would be with him for life. Now,


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[Assistant] He may also, this is in fact his legendary, he may have been arrested for poaching. But what we do know from church records is that at the relatively young age of 18, William Shakespeare married a local woman, Anne Hathaway.


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[Assistant] She was older than he and three months pregnant. Now, this wasn't unusual at the time. Very many pregnant women went respectively to the altar.


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[Assistant] And also the fact that she was slightly older, again, was not that unusual, though we know so little about her that a great deal has been read into that fact.


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[Assistant] Fact which we can read back into the plays, into the tragedy of Hamlet.


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[Assistant] Now, it's been speculated that the Shakespeare's marriage may not have been happy. They were separated for a long time. He was in London, she stayed in Stratford.


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[Assistant] Now, certainly the major part of their married lives, as I say, they were separate, but, but there'd been, as it were, this, this, again, one shouldn't read too much into this. So, in fact, we know so little that, and nature abhors a vacuum that people have speculated. And there's the famous business that, in his will, he left


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[Assistant] Anne Hathaway who survived him the second best bed. Now, there's a good reason for that because they slept in the second best bed and the best bed was kept for guests. Now you can, again you can actually pull this both ways. Either in fact it was a calculated post-mortem insult or in fact it was where they'd been closest and he wanted her to keep that and nobody else to sleep in it.


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[Assistant] There is a fact, and again much has been read into this, that difficult and cold wives and domineering wives, Lady Macbeth for instance, recur in the plays.


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[Assistant] And the plays are, as Keats memorably put it, the allegory of Shakespeare's life and the closest that now we shall ever get to him. So we read them and we do actually sort of try and get an impression of Shakespeare from them.


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[Assistant] To go back to the marriage, we can fill in the blanks of those married years as it pleases us. I think the marriage may in fact may have been quite happy, but I don't know, it's just my, my feeling.


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[Assistant] Now, between 1585, three years after his marriage, and 1592, when he begins to be mentioned in London's theatrical circles, we know absolutely nothing about Shakespeare's life. These are what is called the lost years. And they're, in anyone's life, these are very formative years. They're the years of young manhood.


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[Assistant] And, was he living in Stratford at the time? Probably not, because his father's affairs were not going at all well. He might have worked as a country school teacher, he was certainly clever enough to do that.


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[Assistant] Two more persuasive hypotheses have been offered for the lost years, these seven lost years. One hypothesis is that he was in the north of England with a Catholic family to whose children he acted as a private or domestic tutor.


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[Assistant] Now, again, people have looked into this and speculated that there was a good library in the house and Shakespeare educated himself as well as the children over these years. And this would explain the otherwise mysterious intellectual sophistication of his work, even his earliest work.


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[Assistant] Now the other hypothesis, which is very attractive, is that he joined a travelling group of players or touring actors. One of the reasons that the mystery plays died out was that touring from the metropolis, from London, uh, came more and more to, as it were, sort of take the place which it had previously had.


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[Assistant] Now, if that was the case, if Shakespeare in fact joined a, a troupe of actors, it would explain the mature stagecraft that his drama displays from its early manifestations. He seems to have known the machinery of the stage very well. But the simple fact is, we'll never know.


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[Assistant] What we do know is that in 1592, William Shakespeare had become a prominent figure in the London stage, writing plays and incurring resentment from rival playwrights, uh, whose work was already being eclipsed by his. He's called by one rival an upstart crow.


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[Assistant] This in fact is an indication of the fact that he was very successful. He was going up like a meteor almost from the moment he arrived in the early 90s. By night, by 1594,


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[Assistant] Shakespeare had risen to the top of the theatrical world. It's a very slippery pole, lots of competition, but he was there. He was a principal player, he seems to have acted quite a lot, and he was a shareholder in the Chamberlain's Men. This was named after the company patron, the Lord Chamberlain.


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[Assistant] And his name began to appear on playbills as a crowd drawing author. People wanted to see the latest Shakespeare.


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[Assistant] Now he would go on to live many years in London, dabbling at times in commerce on the side, adding substan- substantially to his net worth. He's a bit of a capitalist, Shakespeare. No fool. In his 20 year career in London, Shakespeare penned as far as we can establish some 38 or 39 plays.


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[Assistant] And when not so occupied, when, for instance, the plague closed the theatres, as it often did in summer, he turned out a quantity of wonderful poetry, notably the sonnets, which are the finest example of that genre, the 14-line poem that we have.


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[Assistant] These were written mainly in the 1590s and they offer us, I think, one of the closest insights that we have into Shakespeare's mind and most interestingly into his sexuality.


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[Assistant] Many of the sonnets are clearly addressed as love poems to a young man, the fair lord. Others to a possibly married woman, the dark lady. Homosexuality and adultery were things that he could to some extent sort of play games with in these poems. But the chances are,


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[Assistant] We'll never know, but the chances are that Shakespeare may have been bisexual. As he was both Catholic and Protestant.


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[Assistant] But sexual politics were very different in those days and there was less neurosis about it.


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[Assistant] Did Shakespeare, for example, have a soft spot for the boy actors in the company who played the women's parts? Women weren't allowed into the theatrical profession and the parts were played by boys whose voices hadn't broken. Did he have a soft spot for some of those boy actors? You know, some I thought that he might have done, but you know, these again are areas of high speculation.


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[Assistant] The sonnets we can more or less date, although they were not published until a decade later, with a title page reference to a Mr. WH, which has always mystified critics.


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[Assistant] Now, it's much less easy to establish the chronology of the composition and first performance of Shakespeare's plays, although his evolution...


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[Assistant] Clearly moves through several large, easily identified phases. Earliest in that evolutionary process is the first group or trilogy of Henry VI history plays, which are set during the Wars of the Roses, the civil wars that I was talking about earlier. These are high action works.


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[Assistant] Arguably, the first mature play, so to call it, is Richard III, to which we can provisionally assign the date 1593. Now Shakespeare, remember, is himself yet not yet 30.


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[Assistant] And the opening soliloquy is famous, deservedly so. Uhm, and the play is, you know, sort of a favourite star vehicle and many great actors over the centuries have played it from Richard Burbage to Laurence Olivier.


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[Assistant] Now, as Richard III comes on stage, you must remember coming right the way down the proscenium stage, right into the body of the audience. He's a physically malformed noble.


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[Assistant] He's, he's got a hunched shoulder, and, and he limps. Now he's performed heroically in the civil wars, which have brought the House of York to the throne. The House of Lancaster has been destroyed, and so in fact a Yorkist moniker, monarch is on the throne. Uh, but the king, Edward IV, is very weak.


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[Assistant] And Richard III resolved to play the Machiavelle. He himself would become king one day. It's a very Marlovian theme.


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[Assistant] Uhm, it's also a great Shakespearean theme. How do you replace one king with another? Let's actually sort of just hear a little bit of that speech. It's, it's very fine. In my lifetime, it's been immortalized by, by Laurence Olivier.


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[Assistant] Now is the winter of our discontent, made glorious summer by the son of York.


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[Assistant] And all the clouds that lowered upon our house in the deep bosom of the ocean buried.


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[Assistant] Now are our brows bound with victorious wreaths, our bruised arms hung up for monuments. He does this very contemptuously. He hates the piece.


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[Assistant] I, that am curtailed with a fair proportion, cheated of feature by dissembling nature, deformed, unfinished, sent before my time into this breathing world, scarce half made up.


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[Assistant] And that's so lamely and unfashionable that dogs bark at me as I halt by them. What will he do in the time of peace? Well, what he's gonna do in the time of peace, of course, is to kill the king and make himself king, which he does very successfully.


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[Assistant] It's a wonderful speech. It really is very high impact. I mean, if you see this done in the theatre, even today, it actually sort of grabs the audience by the throat.


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[Assistant] What is remarkable about that speech, and indeed the whole play, is the way in which it's shot through with humour. The dogs bark at him. That is what's called hyperbole, it's overstatement, but very funny.


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[Assistant] And we can't help liking this seductive villain, this monster. He's a lovable monster. Liking him more than the, the dullards, the placemen and the second rate villains whom he, whom he treads down and even some of the virtuous people in the play who are very dull.


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[Assistant] And when he finally dies on the field at Bosworth with his agonized, a horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse, we feel something like, if not sorrow, regret. That such an entertaining anti-hero should be no more.


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[Assistant] Now, the dramatic competence evident in this early play is breathtaking.


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[Assistant] Now, Shakespeare could not, of course, have written it had Marlin not bequeathed the Jew of Malta with its serial comic treatment of Machiavellian heroism, and Tamberlain the Great as well.


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[Assistant] But Richard III treats the head of Marlowe.


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[Assistant] In passing, of course, we should note that the historical writ of the third was nothing, absolutely nothing like Shakespeare's villain.


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[Assistant] Shakespeare's history, as historians will tell you, is pure travesty. It's Tudor propaganda.


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[Assistant] Is written partly to please Elizabeth and her court. Uh, her claim to the throne descended from, from the, the other party, from the Lancastrians. And, and she, she was quite pleased, and people around her were quite pleased when dirt was done on, on, on the Yorkists like Richard III.


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[Assistant] But, you know, great literature doesn't have to be historically true, and quite often truth comes a very kind of far off second.


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[Assistant] Now Shakespeare's plays, as I say, fall into a number of groups, which have been usefully labelled by critics. Now, whether Shakespeare himself would have agreed with the groupings is another question. But those groups are history plays, comedies, tragedies, Roman plays, problem plays, and romances.


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[Assistant] Now, the year after Richard III, 1593, he produced a comedy which would also become a great favourite on the stage over the succeeding centuries, The Taming of the Shrew.


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[Assistant] In, as English as plum pudding. But in the Taming of the Shrew, Petruccio, a well-born Italian gentleman, marries the daughter of a prosperous Paduan merchant, Catherine. And she's a shrew.


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[Assistant] That is to say, a woman who wants what the wife of Bath, whom we encountered in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, would have called maestry. That is to say mastery.


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[Assistant] In her marriage, she wants to wear the pants, she wants to call the shots, she wants to be in charge. Now, Petruchio, whose motive in marrying is purely mercenary, he wants her diary, he wants the money she brings with her, wages his male friends, he can tame this termagant, this shrew. He can show her who really wears the pants.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] After the marriage, Petruchio embarks on a systematic campaign of humiliation.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He, he sees Catherine as a falcon, which must be broken and then trained to its master's commands and wishes. Domestic tyranny is, is the way in which he, he carries this through. He criticizes her clothes and makes her change them. Then he does the same again after she's changed them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When the food is brought to the table, he sends it away, claiming, falsely, it's burned, it's unfit to eat. And not put too fine a point on it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He intends to starve her into submission, to, to beat her, you know, it's kind of what's called mental cruelty, uhm, in, in, in the divorce court today.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let, let, let, let this kind of husband speak for himself.


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[Assistant] Thus have I politically begun my reign. He thinks of himself as a king in a marriage. And it is my hope to end successfully.


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[Assistant] Until she's stoop, she must not be full gorged. He won't give her a good meal until she actually bows down before him.


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[Assistant] For then, she never looks upon her lure. Another way I have to man my haggard to make her come and know her keepers call, that is to watch her as we watch these kites that bait and beat and will not be obedient.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He's just talking about the ways in which he's going, as it were, to bring her to heel, I suppose, if she were a dog rather than a falcon.


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[Assistant] She ate no meat today, nor none shall eat. Last night she slept not, nor tonight she shall not.


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[Assistant] As with the meat, some undeserved fault I'll find about the making of the bed. And here I'll fling the pillow, there the bolster, this way the coverlet, another way the sheets. Aye, and amid this hurly I intend that all is done in reverent care of her.


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[Assistant] And in conclusion, she shall watch all night, and if she chants the nod, I'll rail and brawl, and with the clamour keep her still awake.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The fact that she's starved, the fact that she's, as it were, humiliated.