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[Assistant] Once considered to be a genuine planet, it was reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006.


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[Assistant] In 2015, it may become the newest member of our solar system found to have rings.


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[Assistant] A mission called New Horizons is already a third of the way to a rendezvous with Pluto.


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[Assistant] The images it transmits in 2015 should reveal if the distant dwarf has rings.


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[Assistant] Yet Ring Hunters recently expected to find a new ring system much closer. On Earth's nearest neighbor, Mars.


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[Assistant] Two small satellites, or moons, orbit Mars. Though each is less than 20 miles wide, astronomers believed enough dust came off these moons to form a faint ring.


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[Assistant] Giant chunks of red hot rock whizzed around the planet for at least a few years and then vanished. How could that have been?


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[Assistant] Four and a half billion years ago, when the Earth had just formed, a giant body the size of Mars smashed into our planet.


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[Assistant] As the molten rock cooled, some was thrown back to Earth, and some flew out into space.


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[Assistant] But earthlings don't need to feel left out. Our home planet has a new ring. And this one is just 50 years old.


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[Assistant] It's not made of dust or icy rock, but metals and silicon. It's a ring of satellites.


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[Assistant] Earth's ring is a critical component to human communications, but it's heading for disaster.


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[Assistant] In fact, in February of 2009, two satellites in a low Earth orbit did collide.


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[Assistant] If two collide, the flying debris could destroy the entire ring.


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[Assistant] Throwing communications on earth into chaos.


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[Assistant] Whether artificial or natural, Ring Hunters continue to pursue the prized bands because they're one of the most essential forms of the universe.


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[Assistant] Without them spinning into galaxies, solar systems, and planets, life as we know it would not exist. Rings, it turns out, are the beginning of what is possible.


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[Assistant] And today we're bringing you another great lesson about sports, part of our sports series.


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[Assistant] Right, one of the most popular sports in the world, soccer. Mhm. Or also known as football in other countries. Yes. Okay, so before we get started with this great lesson, let's take a look at some of the words we'll find in the dialogue in vocabulary preview.


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[Assistant] Now, wingman isn't really related to soccer in any way.


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[Assistant] But it's a way of referring to somebody as your right hand.


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[Assistant] They are tied. They are tied. Now this is an interesting word because tie can be a noun, verb, and an adjective, right?


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[Assistant] Is a game that has ended with no winner or loser. Both of them had the same score.


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[Assistant] Okay, and so when you do this, you have committed a foul. Exactly. Okay, so you use it in the same way, two foul or a foul.


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[Assistant] Okay, so Ecuador tied with Brazil in the 2022 World Cup.


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[Assistant] Well, I called it, so in 2022, if we do win the World Cup, you know who said it first.


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[Assistant] Alright, so apart from this, we saw some really great vocabulary in this lesson, so let's take a look at it now in Language Takeaway.


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[Assistant] Right, so it's the very beginning, the referee blows the whistle, and you kick the ball to another player, that's the kickoff. Okay, so our next phrase, out of bounds. Out of bounds. Out of bounds. Okay, out of bounds, this is a great word.


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[Assistant] And you can use it in all other sports. You can use it in basketball, you can use it in tennis.


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[Assistant] Right, so any part that is not we're playing. Out of bounds. What's our next word? Throw in.


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[Assistant] A throw in. A throw in. Okay, so a throw in. The ball goes out of bounds. Uh huh. How do you put it back into play? Obviously.


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[Assistant] Okay, so you throw in the ball. That's the only time where a soccer player will actually grab the ball with his hands.


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[Assistant] Okay, so this is a little bit difficult to explain, but just imagine you're on the soccer field.


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[Assistant] You pass the ball to somebody who is behind the defenders.


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[Assistant] Exactly. So, you must be at all times in the same position as the defenders or in front of them, but you can't be all the way in the back.


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[Assistant] So this is an adjective, he is offside. That's his condition.


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[Assistant] Okay, so let's take a look at this. The first one is goal kick. A goal kick. Okay, goal kick. So who does the goal kick? It's usually the goalie or the goalkeeper who takes the goal kick.


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[Assistant] Okay, so if the team is attacking and the ball goes out of bounds in the back area near the goal,


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[Assistant] Then they get a corner kick. They gotta kick the ball from the corner of the field.


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[Assistant] Penalty kick. So if a player gets fouled while he is in the area near the goal,


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[Assistant] I think it's 13 or 15 steps away from the goalie.


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[Assistant] And he gets the opportunity to score, or to kick the ball.


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[Assistant] Alright, so we heard these words that we were talking about in context, and now some really interesting phrases came up, and this would be a good time to take a look at them in Fluency Builder.


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[Assistant] We're on the brink of soccer history. Okay, so, on the brink of, what is it, what exactly does that mean?


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[Assistant] Alright, so great examples on the brink of at a critical point.


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[Assistant] And what about this next phrase that I saw and it was really interesting. No question about it. No question about it. No question about it. No question about it. Alright, so this is a statement that doesn't really make much sense. But what am I saying when I say, oh, no question about it?


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[Assistant] And now let's take a look at our last phrase for Fluency Builder, and it's a really good one to exaggerate a little bit.


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[Assistant] By a mile. By a mile. By a mile. So he was offside by a mile. Right, so the commentator is saying that he was very offside.


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[Assistant] Right. So you can use that also in different contexts, maybe not in sports.


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[Assistant] Right? Or if you tell somebody to guess your age and they say, oh, I think you are 42.


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[Assistant] Okay, well as you all may know, soccer is a very popular sport, especially in Latin America.


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[Assistant] Well, maybe not. Well, actually, Ecuador has improved with time, but usually it's the strong teams like Argentina and Brazil who dominate the region, right? Right. Uhm, but yeah, hopefully we'll make it next time.


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[Assistant] We have the next World Cup coming up so it's really exciting and I don't know who's gonna win.


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[Assistant] Right, they're really good soccer teams, although some countries aren't really known for their soccer, like Russia, you don't really hear too much soccer from Russia.


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[Assistant] So let us know, come to our website, EnglishPod.com, tell us how popular soccer is in your country or what team you are a fan of. I know many people like the European Cups and they are fans of Barcelona or the Italian teams.


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[Assistant] So this is a Saturn, and it's tilted 27 degrees, so it's facing me. I can see the rings from above. Saturn moves.


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[Assistant] So now he is here and I could see the rings in profile as a straight thin line. Then he moves on the other side and you can see the ring from down below.


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[Assistant] Yep, that's right. So in this lesson, uh, we're going to teach you some great words that you can use when you need to call your office to solve a problem.


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[Assistant] Alright, well today we're looking at three interesting words. The first one is ooflay.


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[Assistant] Okay, this is a really useful phrase and I think it would help us to hear some examples of what it sounds like so we can understand the meaning.


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[Assistant] To get better, to start feeling healthy again.


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[Assistant] Exactly, so this is a great verb to use when you want to say, I'm going to feel better.


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[Assistant] Which is the hardest word to translate in this sentence?


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[Assistant] No is easy to translate. Pep Rally doesn't have a direct analog in a lot of languages and cultures, but can be approximated. But the hardest word there is actually one of the smallest, you.


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[Assistant] As simple as it seems, it's often impossible to accurately translate you without knowing a lot more about the situation where it's being said.


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[Assistant] To start with, how familiar are you with the person you're talking to? Many cultures have different levels of formality. A close friend, someone much older or much younger, a stranger, a boss, these all may be slightly different yous.


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[Assistant] In many languages, the pronoun reflects these differences through what's known as the TV distinction.


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[Assistant] In French, for example, you would say te when talking to your friend at school, but vu when addressing your teacher.


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[Assistant] Even English once had something similar. Remember the old-timey thou? Ironically, it was actually the informal pronoun for people you're close with, while you was the formal and polite version.


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[Assistant] That distinction was lost when the English decided to just be polite all the time.


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[Assistant] But the difficulty in translating u doesn't end there. In languages like Hausa or Korana, the u form depends on the listener's gender.


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[Assistant] In many more, it depends on whether they are one or many, such as with German du or ihr.


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[Assistant] Even in English, some dialects use words like y'all or use the same way.


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[Assistant] Some plural forms, like the French vu and Russian vi, are also used for a single person to show that the adressi is that much more important, much like the royal we.


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[Assistant] And a few languages even have a specific form for addressing exactly two people, like Slovenian vidva. If that wasn't complicated enough, formality, number and gender can all come into play at the same time.


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[Assistant] After all that, it may come as a relief that some languages often leave out the second-person pronoun. In languages like Romanian and Portuguese, the pronoun can be dropped from sentences because it's clearly implied by the way the verbs are conjugated.


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[Assistant] And in languages like Korean, Thai, and Chinese, pronouns can be dropped without any grammatical hints. Speakers often would rather have the listener guess the pronoun from context than use the wrong one and risk being seen as rude.


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[Assistant] So if you're ever working as a translator and come across this sentence without any context, you and you, no, not you, you, your job is to translate you for yourselves. Well, good luck.


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[Assistant] And to the volunteer community who will be translating this video into multiple languages, uh, sorry about that.


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[Assistant] A second crucial task where Marketing Analytics supports marketing is in the planning and forecasting phase.


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[Assistant] James has a budget that he can use to market SnackWall.


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[Assistant] He has identified a target audience, but now he needs to come up with a marketing plan. And he needs to make sure that he makes the best possible use of his budget.


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[Assistant] On top of that, his management would like to get a sense of the expected sales. There are a few things James needs to consider in his plan.


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[Assistant] First, he needs to select the platforms he will use to advertise.


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[Assistant] James believes that social media would be great, but he needs to decide which platforms to include.


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[Assistant] Elia, who runs marketing analytics for DCB Cleaning and the SnackWall product, has access to Comscore data.


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[Assistant] A database with information about different online media people use, people's browsing behaviour and demographics.


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[Assistant] Aliyah shows James how the age group of the focused tech segment he is targeting uses Facebook and LinkedIn a lot, more so than Instagram for instance. James agrees that these would be good platforms for his ads.


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[Assistant] Now he needs to decide how much of his money should be spent in each platform. Should it be 50-50?


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[Assistant] Leah advises against that. She shows James how, based on the company's advertising experience, they found that Facebook tends to be cheaper if you target your ads well. Or, in other words, if you put the right message in front of the right people.


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[Assistant] She's also found that LinkedIn helps to generate awareness among professionals. Even if they see less sales coming from the ads directly, they tend to create good leads.


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[Assistant] Based on this historical information, Aliyah has created a formula that she can use to help James divide up his budget.


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[Assistant] He needs to present his plan to his management, and his boss expects to see a forecast of the sales.


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[Assistant] Leah suggests that James rely on the historical data they have about the results of the campaigns the company ran for its cleaning services.


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[Assistant] They both know that this product is different, but since the product is new, this is the best data they have.


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[Assistant] Aliyah shows James how she can use the data to predict the number of people that will click on his ads in Facebook and how many of those people will then go on to subscribe to the service. She can do the same for LinkedIn.


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[Assistant] This sounds simple enough, but in fact, the model Aliyah uses to forecast is a bit more complex. It also involves factors like the types of ads James is planning to use, how many video ads, single image ads, etc. The time of year when the campaign will run, the people James will target, and so on.


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[Assistant] All of this information helps Aliyah build a better model to help James forecast the sales for SnackWall.


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[Assistant] As you can see from this example, data and analytics play an important role in the planning and forecasting phase. Of course, James could decide how to spend his budget without using analytics, but the more data and information James uses to plan the better his strategy will be.


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[Assistant] Aliyah used what the company learned from the past and that helps James to build his marketing approach and forecast sales.


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[Assistant] And if you don't have data from the past that can help guide you, marketing analytics will often use data they can purchase, like the comm score data about browsing behavior we refer to.


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[Assistant] In any case, using marketing analytics will make your strategy and forecasts better.


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[Assistant] Forward rates are interest rates that can be taken in advance using the term structure.


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[Assistant] I was writing an article about the term structure of interest rates and I was wondering who invented the concept of forward rate.


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[Assistant] And I couldn't figure it out. It's hard to, hard to find the first, especially back when I was writing when we didn't have the internet. I asked a graduate student, can you find out who invented the concept of forward writing? I think it's Sir John Hicks.


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[Assistant] So my graduate student went to the library and the way we used to do these things and tried to find out. Uh, then he came back to me and he said, you know,


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[Assistant] Sir John Hicks is still alive. You could ask him. Uh, so I thought, I never thought of that. Is he still alive? And so, uh, this was back, I don't know, like 1980 or something. So I thought, alright, I'll find his address and I'll mail him a letter. So I, I,


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[Assistant] I typed a letter to him saying, did you invent the concept of forward rates? And I waited about six months, and then I get a letter back.


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[Assistant] Handwritten with shaky handwriting, and Sir John Hicks said,


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[Assistant] He had shaky hands, he said, I apologize, my health is not good anymore, but I thought I would answer your question. So he went back and he said, well, I thought it was in a, I did a translation, my wife and I did a translation around 1920 of a book by a Swedish economist, and I thought it was there, but I went, and it's not there.


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[Assistant] And then he says, he reminisced about conversations he had at coffee hour at the London School of Economics in the 1920s. And he said, well, maybe we, somebody brought this up.


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[Assistant] So that was, so I put my example here at the coffee hour at the London School of Economics. The year is 1925. This assumes that he got it from some verbal conversation. But nobody knows, he's long gone now, we can't ask him again.


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[Assistant] Uhm, you know, I'm wondering what interest rates I could invest money at in 1926. That's next year. Remember, you gotta put yourself back in a time machine here. So the year is 1925.


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[Assistant] And he's saying, I just wonder what interest rate I can get in 1926. That's a year in the future. Then apparently somebody, maybe it was Sir John Hicks at the coffee hour said, that's a dumb question. Maybe he wasn't so rude. He said, I can get it today. I can lock it in today. And, uh,


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[Assistant] Uh, this is 1925, but there's already an interest rate between 1926 and 1927. Uh, so we'll call that the forward rate.


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[Assistant] But that term hadn't been invented. It's amazing how simple concepts don't seem to be known until somebody points them out aggressively. So this is the coffee hour conversation as I'm reconstructing it.


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[Assistant] This is how you do it. How do I lock in an interest rate as an investor from 1926 to 1927? I buy in 1925


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[Assistant] So, uh, if I'm buying this number of them, the cost to me is one pound over one plus R1.


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[Assistant] And then I have to short in 1925.


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[Assistant] Uh, which is equal to one plus this two period yield to maturity squared, all over one plus the one period yield to maturity. And I've locked it in.


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[Assistant] So this was, this was kind of a showstopper at the coffee hour at the LSE in 1925. This guy thought he was answering an unanswerable question, and here it is.


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[Assistant] Uh, it's in, so that you can pick up today's copy of the London Times and these prices of discount bonds will be listed.


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[Assistant] I can tell you exactly what the market today is quoting for the 1926 to 1927 investment. So is that uh, is that clear? It's a little tricky. I guess nobody thought to talk in those terms until, until then.


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[Assistant] Soon you're powered up by the energy surge that comes from your meal. But how did that energy get into your bowl?


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[Assistant] Energy exists in the form of sugars made by the plant your cereal came from, like wheat or corn. As you can see, carbon is the chemical backbone, and plants get their fix of it in the form of carbon dioxide, CO2, from the air that we all breathe.


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[Assistant] But how does a plant's energy factory, housed in the stroma of the chloroplast, turn a one-carbon gas like CO2 into a six-carbon solid like glucose?


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[Assistant] If you're thinking photosynthesis, you're right. But photosynthesis is divided into two steps. The first, which stores energy from the sun in the form of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.


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[Assistant] And the second, the Calvin cycle that captures carbon and turns it into sugar.


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[Assistant] This second phase represents one of nature's most sustainable production lines.


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[Assistant] And so with that, welcome to the world's most miniscule factory.


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[Assistant] The starting materials? A mix of CO2 molecules from the air and pre-assembled molecules called ribulose bisphosphate, or RuBP, each containing five carbons.


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[Assistant] An industrious enzyme named rubisco that welds one carbon atom from a CO2 molecule with the RuBP chain to build an initial six-carbon sequence.


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[Assistant] That rapidly splits into two shorter chains containing three carbons each and called phosphoglycerates, or PGAs for short. Enter ATP and another chemical called nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, or just NADPH.


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[Assistant] ATP, working like a lubricant, delivers energy, while NADPH affixes one hydrogen to each of the PGA chains, changing them into molecules called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphates, or G3Ps.


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[Assistant] Glucose needs six carbons to form, made from two molecules of G3P, which incidentally have six carbons between them. So sugar has just been manufactured, right? Not quite.


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[Assistant] The Calvin cycle works like a sustainable production line, meaning that those original RUBPs that kicked things off at the start need to be recreated by reusing materials within the cycle now. But each RUBP needs five carbons, and manufacturing glucose takes a whole six. Something doesn't add up.


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[Assistant] The answer lies in one phenomenal fact. While we've been focusing on this single production line, five others have been happening at the same time.


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[Assistant] With six conveyor belts moving in unison, there isn't just one carbon that gets soldered to one RuBB chain.


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[Assistant] But six carbons soldered to six RuBPs. That creates 12 G3P chains instead of just two, meaning that altogether, 36 carbons exist, the precise number needed to manufacture sugar and rebuild those RuBPs.


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[Assistant] Of the 12 G3Ps pooled together, two are siphoned off to form that energy-rich six-carbon glucose chain, the one fueling you via your breakfast. Success! But back on the manufacturing line, the byproducts of this sugar production are swiftly assembled to recreate those six RuBPs.


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[Assistant] That requires 30 carbons, the exact number contained by the remaining 10 G3Ps.


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[Assistant] Now, a molecular mix and match occurs. Two of the G3Ps are welded together, forming a six-carbon sequence. By adding a third G3P, a nine-carbon chain is built.


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[Assistant] The first RuBP, made up of five carbons, is cast from this, leaving four carbons behind. But there's no wastage here. Those are soldered to a fourth G3P molecule, making a seven-carbon chain.


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[Assistant] Added to a fifth G3P molecule, a ten-carbon chain is created. Enough now to craft two more RUBPs. With three full RUBPs recreated from five of the ten G3Ps, simply duplicating this process will renew the six RUBP chains needed to restart the cycle again.


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[Assistant] So the Calvin cycle generates the precise number of elements and processes required to keep this biochemical production line turning endlessly. And it's just one of the hundreds of cycles present in nature. Why so many?


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[Assistant] Because if biological production processes were linear, they wouldn't be nearly as efficient or successful at using energy to manufacture the materials that nature relies upon, like sugar.


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[Assistant] Cycles create vital feedback loops that repeatedly reuse and rebuild ingredients, crafting as much as possible out of the planet's available resources.


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[Assistant] Such as that sugar, built using raw sunlight and carbon, converted in plant factories to become the energy that powers you and keeps the cycles revolving in your own life.


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[Assistant] Hi, I'm John Green, this is Crash Course Literature, and today we're on a raft floating down the Great American River. Reading.


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[Assistant] Passion and precision in the adventures of Huckleberry Finn.


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[Assistant] Twain had his first great literary success in 1865 when he was 30 years old with the celebrated jumping frog of Calaveras County and his writing career just hopped on steadily after that.


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[Assistant] Huckleberry Finn, the son of the town drunk, is the sidekick character in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. He lives rough and never has to go to school and


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[Assistant] After an evening in which his drunken father nearly kills him, Huck fakes his own death, escapes in a found canoe, and paddles to a nearby island.


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[Assistant] Now it's critical to the novel to understand that Huck believes that the right thing to do in this situation is not to assist an escaped slave. He believes that the ethically correct thing to do, the civilized thing to do, and also, by the way, the legal thing to do is to turn that escaped slave in. But in Jim, Huck finds a companion and in a lot of ways a surrogate father. And so there's an immediate tension between what Huck calls his conscience, which is the social order telling him that he ought to turn this escaped slave in, and his actual conscience, which is saying


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[Assistant] From that moment they set out on a raft and their adventures really begin. They face all kinds of dangers and meet all kinds of people, some nice, some sinister, and get into all sorts of trouble before they team up with Tom Sawyer again and Tom devises an elaborate and


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[Assistant] The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was not immediately recognized as a great novel. A lot of the earlier reviews weren't terrific, and there were several attempts to ban it on the grounds that it would corrupt any young person who read it. The Concord Public Library, for instance, called it


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[Assistant] Cooper's art has some defects. In one place in Deerslayer, and in the restricted space of two-thirds of a page, Cooper has scored 114 offenses against literary art out of a possible 115. It breaks the record. But unlike the Deerslayer, the language of Huckleberry Finn is deliberately down to earth. It's casual, it's ungrammatical, it's frequently and deliberately misspelled. The genius of the book, Trilling wrote, has something to do with the ease and freedom of the language. Most of all, it has to do with the structure of the sentence, which is simple, direct, and fluent.


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[Assistant] Twain may have written this book after the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, but America was, and of course is, a nation deeply shaped by racism. So the friendship between the two characters and the emergent moral intelligence that it foists upon Huck are what really make the book unusual. As we saw, Huck first throws in his lot with Jim when they're still on the island. But throughout their journey, Huck struggles with the idea of what it means to help a runaway slave and what it means to treat Jim as a comrade and a friend.


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[Assistant] But in the beginning of the book, Huck can be quite cruel to Jim, like early on, he and Tom Sawyer play a trick on Jim, hanging his hat in a tree so that Jim, who's very superstitious, thinks that witches have taken it, which Jim is very proud of. But later in the book, Huck tries to pull another prank, making Jim think that his fear Huck was lost in the fog was only a dream. But Jim knows it's a trick, and he tells Huck that people who try to make others feel ashamed are trash.


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[Assistant] It's Mark Twain! I like your suit, buddy. Hi, Mark Twain, it's me, John Green. First off, big fan. Secondly, in your novel, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck and other characters use the N-word to describe Jim many, many times.


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[Assistant] This is the reason most often cited for the banning of your book here in the 21st century, so it's important to talk about. And it's important to understand that when you were writing the book, it was already an offensive term. Like, abolitionists had been arguing that we should use the term person of color as early as 1825. And since your work is no longer protected by copyright, editions have been published of Huckleberry Finn, in which that word has changed. To whether or not you personally were racist, Mark Twain, your book, I would argue, isn't.


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[Assistant] That forces Huck to contend with him as a person. And that's what makes your book so, so good.


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[Assistant] Best wishes, John Green. It's this recognition of Jim's humanity that leads Huck in the climactic scene in Chapter 16 to break with all the morality and religion he knows. When he learns that Jim's plan is to gain his freedom and gain the freedom of his wife and children, Huck writes a letter informing his mistress,


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[Assistant] But then he tears it up. Huck has been taught to confuse social law with divine law, and he sincerely believes that helping a slave is a terrible sin that will lead to damnation. And he has been with the widow long enough that hell is a real place for him. But he ultimately decides that it doesn't matter.


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[Assistant] It was awful thoughts and awful words, but they was said and I let them stay said.


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[Assistant] And that's where we'll leave Huck and his sound heart for today. Unreformed, unrepentant, realizing that he has to follow his own moral path, whatever the risks.


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[Assistant] Patreon. Patreon's a voluntary subscription service that allows you to support Crash Course directly so we can keep it free for everyone.


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[Assistant] Forever. So if you enjoy Crash Course and you value it, please head over to Patreon.com slash Crash Course to check out our Patreon campaign. You can get lots of great perks!


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[Assistant] Now we did not invent stocks in the United States of America, but I just started off, I wanted to show market capitalization. Remember, we defined that market capitalization is the price per share multiplied by the number of shares. And this is common stock. I'll define that in a minute.


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[Assistant] I just took some kind of the latest year I could get data, uh, shows the market cap in trillions of US dollars by country.


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[Assistant] Uhm, just for a random selection of countries that I picked. And here, here is the market cap as a percent of annual GDP. Uh, so, the United States leads the pack. For now, uh,


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[Assistant] I say, the United States did not invent


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[Assistant] Corporate stock, although it was here in the United States that a general limited liability law was invented.


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[Assistant] Uh, and that may be a head start that this country got to impetus toward a huge stock market valuation.


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[Assistant] But as of 2014, the market capitalization of the US stock market


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[Assistant] Actually it hasn't changed a whole lot since then because 2014 was a peak. 2015 was flat. 2016 is down so far. So it's something like that now.


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[Assistant] No other country comes close, but I think if you put the EU together, I didn't do that, the European Union, it comes somewhat close, but I think, here's one EU country, the stock market as a percent of GDP is lower than the US, but they have a very large GDP. Canada,


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[Assistant] Uh, is a little bit less capitalist. See, we're really capitalist in this country. We have a big stock market. It's all traded. A lot of this isn't owned by Americans, by the way. The Chinese love the U.S. stock market and they would invest in it more if there weren't regulations in China making that difficult.


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[Assistant] But uhm, America is for sale. But I should add, the US stock market is not America. It's a, it's a particular thing, it's a particular contract, it's a claim on earnings of the corporate sector. And there's much more to this country, and to any country, than the stock market. So I don't want to overplay it.


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[Assistant] Okay, just to give another perspective, this is now about the United States.


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[Assistant] Uh, the, uh, Federal Reserve Board of Governors has a balance sheet for households and nonprofits.


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[Assistant] Uh, they lump in non-profits with households, which I think is unfortunate. Uh, but they're small. It's basically households. So, uh, what, uh, what do, what's the total wealth?


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[Assistant] Uh, tangible, we're eliminating, we're not including human capital.


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[Assistant] Uh, you could, you could compute a present value of your lifetime income. Uh, for each of you that would be in the many millions, uh, I'm hoping. Not for each of you. Some of you won't do that, but most of you, uh, because you live a long time and earn money for a long time.


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[Assistant] But what is the, uh, tangible assets that we can quantify and value through markets? Uh, according to, uh, the Federal Reserve, uh, as of 2014, these assets were worth 98 trillion US dollars.


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[Assistant] That's the, ask people to add up everything they own, their house, their stocks, their bonds, everything. Add every, add that number for every household and you get almost a hundred trillion dollars.


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[Assistant] Uh, but people don't own it free and clear. They have liabilities. For example, typically they borrowed money to buy the house, so they have debt.


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[Assistant] So we want to subtract off those liabilities. The total value of those liabilities in 2014 was 14 trillion. So that leaves the total net worth of households in the United States at 84 trillion. That's quite a bit more than the stock market.


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[Assistant] Now corporate equities own directly, now equities that's the same as stock, uh, common stock.


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[Assistant] Households own directly 13.9 trillion. That's less than half of the stock market.


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[Assistant] They tended to own it in other forms, like mutual funds, which are, uh, as of 2014 were almost 8 trillion.


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[Assistant] What are mutual funds? They are collections of investments made by a investment company, who then sell shares to the public. Now this includes, I believe, other, not just corporate stocks, but also, it definitely includes


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[Assistant] Bonds and other investments that mutual funds might make, but it's mostly stocks.


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[Assistant] Uh, and pension funds, 20.6 trillion. Those are, uh, investment companies that save for your retirement. Your employer typically gives you one.


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[Assistant] This is not Social Security. Social Security is a government pension fund.


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[Assistant] Companies also, as a compensation to their employees, give them pension funds and the pension funds invest.


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[Assistant] And typically by stocks. Now you'll note that these numbers add up to more than 26 trillion, which is my market cap for the stock market. But that's because pension funds also invest in bonds and other things.


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[Assistant] Then the balance sheet for the table B-101 also includes the value of real estate owned directly by households. That's mostly single-family homes. It also includes vacation homes. Some households have investment properties.


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[Assistant] Uh, so the total value of real estate owned by households, and I have to say in parentheses, and non-profits, uh, is 23.7 trillion. Bigger than the stock market. Uh, no, not quite.


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[Assistant] So uhm, even in America, most people are not that into stock market investing. I think it might be very smart policy not to buy a home, to, to rent a home, and invest in a broadly diversified portfolio, which would be less risky. But most people don't do that. Uh, and they're, maybe they have good reasons.


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[Assistant] Cooking a dish I've called Father and Son. Based on childhood memories of fishing with Dad. What's your name? Sam.


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[Assistant] Right guys, this is all about attention to detail. At the end of the day, we weren't going to make it easy to get that last apron. If you do it, it's going to taste wonderful when you get that apron there.


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[Assistant] You're just about to get the biggest surprise of them all.


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[Assistant] In just a short while, one of you is going to be Australia's Master Chef for 2018.


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[Assistant] Not only will you get the title of this year's MasterChef, but you'll also walk out of here


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[Assistant] A quarter of a million dollars richer.


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[Assistant] We told you three months ago that this was going to be the season full of surprises. Nigella Lawson. Gordon Ramsay. Prince Charles.


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[Assistant] I think we delivered on the promise. It's been an epic adventure for the two of you. But...


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[Assistant] There's still some surprises to come.


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[Assistant] Starting now. Take a look behind you.


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[Assistant] These ingredients have featured in the best dishes that you've put up in this competition.


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[Assistant] So here's some rules. You have 90 minutes to bring us a starter and a main. Each hero's one of these ingredients. We want three plates of each dish, one for each of us.


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[Assistant] Soon as that starter's ready, you serve it to us.


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[Assistant] Head back to the bench and serve your main course on the 90 minute mark.


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[Assistant] We're each going to score your starter and your main out of ten.


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[Assistant] That means in this round, there's 60 points up for grabs.


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[Assistant] Yes. We're looking forward to some gorgeous food. Your time starts now.


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[Assistant] Ben, Sashi, listen up. If you don't get your starters up here within the next 15 minutes, you're gonna blow this first round. So come on, let's move it.


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[Assistant] I'm a bit confused about the main course. Crispy fish, mushy peas.


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[Assistant] And really, when you look at who you gotta be on the other side there, Sashi, you know, you know he's gonna give us a flavor plus.


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[Assistant] Well he's taken it to a different level, you start adding other little bits of complexity, the herbs, the peanuts, I love the sound of it. Main course? All about that snapper and this pickled cucumber, this pineapple. And a rice on the side, it sounds very


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[Assistant] Well, not what I was expecting to be honest. A lot of creaminess, and not a lot of crunchiness. I know, but I think it's gonna taste great. Okay.


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[Assistant] Yeah, and I think because he chose to hero the crab meat.


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[Assistant] Ooh, yeaah. So Sashi, don't want to hold you up.


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[Assistant] Sashi, Ben, listen up. Finish what you're doing and do it quickly, because you've only got ten minutes to go.


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[Assistant] Ooh. Oh wow. I like the consistency on the sauce.


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[Assistant] It certainly builds. So you know, you're picking up cumin and coriander and then you, the chilli's just starting to heat up. Now, finished it.


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[Assistant] It's a difficult one for me because I'm trying to pick out the positives, you know, I'm looking for that perfectly crisp batter. Beautifully cooked fish.


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[Assistant] Uh, the puree is beautifully smooth. I love the green, I love the herb. We need to let down the fish.


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[Assistant] What a way to kick off the finale and fabulous to have not only your families but all that support up on the balcony.


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[Assistant] You had to go to the starter and a main, heroing some of your favourite ingredients. 60 points up for grabs, 20 points from each of us, 10 for your starter, 10 for your main.


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[Assistant] Ben will score your starter first.


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[Assistant] I scored you 6 out of 10.


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[Assistant] Right, let's see how you went with your mains.


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[Assistant] Your parsley and garlic puree was silky smooth and I scored your dish 7 out of 10.


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[Assistant] Sashi? I thought that curry sauce was.


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[Assistant] Wow, Sashi, two beautiful dishes, and after round one, you've got a total of 57 out of 60. Well done.


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[Assistant] You will have five and a half hours to recreate Heston's dish. There are 40 points up for grabs in this round, 10 points from each of us. You are competing for that trophy and the title of Australia's MasterChef for 2018.


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[Assistant] Listen up you two, we're just giving you a little razzle on, because you're gonna start thinking about these frozen inserts. So, lychee gel, a little caramel, yogurt, if they're not frozen, you're gonna start falling behind from here. So, come on! Two hours to go!


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[Assistant] Lovely to see you smiling and let's not underestimate what an absolute marathon that recipe was. But you've done it. You deserve the smiles. It's amazing how much effort you put in and you never gave up. And I think they've managed to do every single element. So congratulations. Brilliant stuff.


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[Assistant] It's very fresh. There's lots of texture to work through. That coconut ice cream is just the texture of it, the consistency of it.


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[Assistant] Wow. What a way to end our 10th year. And what a year it was. First of all, a big welcome to our past winners. And of course the chefs that have joined us this year.


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[Assistant] And a special thanks to Heston for bringing such a magical dish for the finale pressure test.


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[Assistant] Ben, Sashi, we have to say this, we are beyond impressed.


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[Assistant] And right now, one of you is about to become Australia's Master Chef for 2018.


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[Assistant] Ben, how are you feeling? Are you ready for this?


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[Assistant] Well, after round one, Ben, you're on 41 points.


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[Assistant] And Sashi, you're on 57.


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[Assistant] In this round, there are 40 points up for grabs.


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[Assistant] Time to get down to business and reveal your scores. Ben, you're first.


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[Assistant] Those meringue pillows were as light as air, melt in your mouth, and magnificent. I scored you 9 out of 10.


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[Assistant] Throughout the competition you have consistently cooked spectacular dishes. And with a grand total of 93 points out of 100, that is the highest score ever.


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[Assistant] We're all watching on intently. Because if those profita rolls are a bit too blonde, they're not cooked enough, they're just gonna collapse.


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[Assistant] I get too tired. I'll just backstroke, it's easier.


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[Assistant] I get too tired. I'll just backstroke. It's easier.


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[Assistant] I get too tired. I'll just backstroke, it's easier.


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[Assistant] They're getting ingredients. Getting ingredients and we don't know what they're getting, do we?


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[Assistant] Hmm, tell me, Wiz, do you reckon that's enough? No, I'm concerned about texture.


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[Assistant] Thanks doc, I've got a really bad toothache, I can't eat anything, and look, my face is all swollen. I think it might be my wisdom teeth.


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[Assistant] It doesn't look good for Michael Jackson. He's in a lot of debt.


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[Assistant] Thanks doc, I've got a really bad toothache, I can't eat anything, and look, my face is all swollen. I think it might be my wisdom teeth.


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[Assistant] This episode is brought to you by the Music for Scientists album, now available on all streaming services.


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[Assistant] We humans like to think we're pretty good swimmers. But any prowess we have is learned. Most other mammals don't need lessons. For them, swimming is instinctual. And that includes the mammals you'd least expect to be at home in the water, like moose. Moose are massive deer.


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[Assistant] We're talking up to 600 kilos sitting atop four comically thin legs. So you might not think they'd be great swimmers. But in summer and fall, they're often found in water. And they're not just dipping their hooves. Moose will fully submerge themselves and paddle up to 20 kilometers. During this, their heads bob in and out of the water, which you might think would lead to some serious nasal burn. Luckily for them, their long, flappy snoots


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[Assistant] Now, at first, some biologists thought that these aquatic exploits were a way of cooling off. After all, that thick fur jacket they wear is better for keeping cozy in those minus 30 degree winters


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[Assistant] Then it is keeping cool in the summer. But then, they realized the animals had an even better reason to swim. Studies of their diets revealed that they picked plants based on how salty they are. And the plants that have the most salt, like pondweed and burreed, are often found in or underwater. One moose that researchers observed even had a nifty trick for feeding in the shallows.


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[Assistant] And without it, they can't grow those impressive antlers. There might also be other reasons they spend so much time in the water, like avoiding mosquitoes.


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[Assistant] Or escaping hungry wolves. But whatever the motivation for swimming,


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[Assistant] They sure seem to enjoy it. Moose aren't the only large animals who are good at paddling. Elephants can swim long distances with a kind of lunging style, sticking their trunks out above the water and using them like snorkels. Now, at first glance, you might think that elephants are too big to float.


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[Assistant] So did scientists. But it turns out their size actually helps them. See, objects float because the downward pressure from the weight of the object is less than the pressure of the water pushing upwards. That's buoyancy. And although elephants are heavy, they're also wide. So their bodies displace enough water to counteract their weight,


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[Assistant] And voila! They float. They also have sizable lungs, so swimming probably doesn't tire them out much. And all those plants they eat make gas in their stomachs, kind of inflating them like a big balloon. Oh.


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[Assistant] And their skull bones have a lot of holes in them, kind of like a sponge, which is probably to make them slightly less heavy.


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[Assistant] Although no one has tested this idea scientifically.


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[Assistant] Yet. Armandillos look more like living tanks than agile water babies. Still, they're innately better swimmers than we are. They'll doggie paddle their way through the water with their ears lying flat.


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[Assistant] And just run their way along the bottom if it's shallow enough. At least that's what one armadillo did when a researcher kept throwing it into the water. But for deeper crossings,


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[Assistant] Nine-banded armadillos have been seen gulping large amounts of air. And researchers think that's to inflate their stomach and small intestine to make them more buoyant. Some of the first observations of armadillo swimming date back to the 1930s, where biologists saw that they could swim about 50 meters after being tossed out from shore. And in 1994, Brazilian fishers found a female yellow armadillo swimming along about 50 meters off of the island


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[Assistant] Things like crabs, tubers, or even garbage from the local lodge. Or she may have been seeking refuge from the mainland predators that don't exist there. The same theory might explain how armadillos made it from Missouri to Illinois.


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[Assistant] Or whether it's a really common behavior. But they definitely seem to know how to if they need to. In northwestern parts of India, you can witness an unexpected sight. Herds of camels swimming. These are the Karai.


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[Assistant] The only camel breed that regularly swims, though others are perfectly capable. Like moose, they paddle more than 3 kilometers in search of their favorite fare. In fact, it's been reported that their name comes from the local word for salty or saline.


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[Assistant] Since they love eating salty plants like mangroves. Nowadays, these special camels persist because locals breed them as draft animals


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[Assistant] Camels were probably isolated to mangrove regions on the coast of Arabia.


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[Assistant] They may be the last truly swimming camels we ever see. A kangaroo's powerful legs are great for hopping around the outback. But they also seem to be quite useful underwater, in a totally different way. Even though they make the animals quite bottom-heavy,


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[Assistant] Which is notable mostly because, on land, they move their legs together. They seem to just naturally know to switch that up when they get in over their heads. We know all this because some researchers thought, I wonder what happens when I throw this in a pool.


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[Assistant] Which is super rude, if you ask me. But this experiment also showed they can get forward drive from a combination of their front limbs doing a kind of power stroke


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[Assistant] And their tails swishing from side to side like a fish. With all those parts working together in a coordinated way,


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[Assistant] They can apparently swim at a speed of about a meter a second.


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[Assistant] This animal? An unassuming three-toed sloth. Yes, despite their reputation for living the slow life in trees,


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[Assistant] Both two and three-toed sloths can swim, and they seem to be better at moving through water than across land. They can swim three times faster than they can walk. That's mostly thanks to their long arms. You see, once in the water, the animals spread their back legs out for balance and buoyancy


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[Assistant] Ultimately, this means that most of the time, they swim with their heads above water. Though, they're more than capable of holding their breath if needed. Experiments done in the lab found that sloths can go without oxygen for more than 20 minutes.


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[Assistant] But now, sloths likely use their swimming abilities to get around.


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[Assistant] If you've ever checked out primates at a zoo, you might have noticed their enclosures tend to have a common feature.


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[Assistant] Emote. That's because, whether we're talking lemurs or chimpanzees, primates generally aren't known for navigating deep water.


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[Assistant] At least not without training. All that time spent in trees probably meant that there was little reason for our evolutionary cousins to be naturally good swimmers. But there's at least one major exception to this.


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[Assistant] And they have a strategy for water-dwelling dangers like crocodiles, too. They basically do cannonballs into the water. Experts think that makes sure their splash is loud and big.


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[Assistant] Enough so that it temporarily scares off anyone lurking below while they swim to safety. They actually have several features that facilitate their aquatic exploits. For example, they have a bit of webbing at the base of some of their fingers and toes, which adds power to their strokes. Though this also likely helps them wade through muddy mangrove soil.


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[Assistant] Which may explain how it arose. Some primatologists think that proboscis monkeys ended up confined to habitats close to the water because inland plants don't always give them enough salt.


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[Assistant] Of course, they need their swimming prowesses, whether it's to escape predators


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[Assistant] Maybe channel your inner moose, camel, or even sloth. And I know the perfect music to blast while you paddle about pondering the elegance of swimming sloths.


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[Assistant] The Music for Scientists album, written and recorded by Patrick Olson. For instance, one song on the album is called The Idea, and it touches on how difficult it is to form correct ideas. Because for every right answer, there's an infinite number of wrong ones. And the music video for it is breathtaking.


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[Assistant] It was created by taking over 15,000 photos of three paintings, which were then brought to life using machine learning. If you think you'd enjoy this, you can click the link in the description to check it out.


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[Assistant] Thanks to Brilliant for supporting this episode of SciShow. Go to Brilliant.org slash SciShow to learn how to level up your STEM skills.


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[Assistant] When you hear the words direwolf, your mind might jump to Game of Thrones or Dungeons and Dragons. But direwolves are not just in the realm of fantasy and fiction, they were real animals that lived during the last ice age. Paleontologists have found thousands of direwolf fossils at over 100 fossil sites.


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[Assistant] But there's still a lot we don't know about them, and we're still finding new surprises. For instance, a study published in 2021 found that direwolves aren't


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[Assistant] Wolves! We know from the fossil record that dire wolves roamed North and South America between 250,000 and 13,000 years ago during the Late Pleistocene Epoch, or as we sometimes call it,


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[Assistant] The Ice Age. They were some of the most common predators of the Ice Age. More than 4,000 direwolf specimens are known from a single site, the La Brea Tar Pits in California. Overall, direwolves are very similar to greywolves.


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[Assistant] But with a few key differences, they're slightly larger at around 70 kilograms and they have bigger and stronger jaws and


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[Assistant] Close relatives. For a long time, dire wolves have been classified under the scientific name Canis dirus.


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[Assistant] Fossil bones and teeth are great for learning about ancient animals' lifestyles and relationships with other species, but they don't always tell the whole story. Ancient DNA can provide clues that are missing in an animal's anatomy, and it can be especially useful when trying to understand ancestry. Now, direwolf fossils are common, but ancient DNA is rare.


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[Assistant] So the researchers had to cast a wide net. They ended up finding well-preserved DNA in five direwolf fossils from all across the US.


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[Assistant] And they managed to sample both the nuclear genome and the mitochondrial genome. The mitochondrial genome complements the main genome housed in the cell's nucleus. Together, they can give us a fuller picture. When they compared this DNA to living canines, they were surprised to find that dire wolves and gray wolves


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[Assistant] Now, dire wolves are still, of course, canines. It's not like they're


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[Assistant] Bears or something. But based on genetic comparison, dire wolf and gray wolf ancestors diverged around 5.7 million years ago. That's earlier than many other canines, like coyotes,


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[Assistant] An earlier split means a less recent common ancestor. Which means that all those guys, coyotes and jackals and African wild dogs, are all more closely related to grey wolves than dire wolves are. And since none of those things are classified as wolves,


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[Assistant] That means dire wolves shouldn't be either, at least not taxonomically. So they probably don't belong in the genus Canis alongside grey wolves. Instead, we might be better off using another, older genus assigned to dire wolves in the past, Enocyon. Enocyon means


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[Assistant] The extinct thylacine of Australia looks remarkably like a canine.


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[Assistant] Even though it is a marsupial. We asked Dr. Angela Perry, lead author of the Dire Wolf study, why evolution seems to like wolves so much. She told us it's hard to say, but it might be that a wolf-like body is an ideal form for a predator. It's the right size and shape to take down large prey, while also being energy-efficient for hunting prey over long distances. But unraveling canine relationships


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[Assistant] Doesn't just give us insight into direwolf evolution.


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[Assistant] It can also help us understand their extinction. One pretty obvious difference between gray wolves and dire wolves is that gray wolves are still around. It could be that dire wolves, with their buff bods, were specialized hunters who couldn't survive once their large prey disappeared at the end of the ice age. But this study presents another option.


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[Assistant] Genetic isolation. Canines today, including wolves, coyotes, domestic dogs, and more,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] have a habit of interbreeding. This allows the species to exchange genes and effectively expand their gene pools, which can make them more adaptable in the face of change. For example, modern grey wolves are known to have picked up genes related to immune response from domestic dogs.


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[Assistant] So it's hard to know for sure, but if direwolves had been swapping genes with their fellow canines, they might have been more adaptable. And we might still have them today, which would be lovely.


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[Assistant] And terrifying. Given how similar gray wolves and dire wolves look, it's amazing how dramatically a little bit of DNA can change our understanding of them. Fortunately, even if the genus changes, the common name dire wolf is here to stay because, honestly,


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[Assistant] Is way too cool to get rid of. It only takes a little bit of new knowledge to transform how we see the world.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Around here, we're all about learning, but so are our friends at Brilliant. For example, if you're curious about how we understand all this stuff and how we incorporate new evidence,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Brilliant has a bunch of courses about logic and reasoning, starting with Logic 1. It'll teach you how to draw conclusions from limited evidence without going off the rails, and if you really enjoy it, there are further courses on logic and mathematical reasoning. If you're interested, you can learn more and score 20% off an annual premium subscription at brilliant.org slash SciShow.


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[Assistant] Being in the top 24, there are no words. I just feel so honoured that they've actually chosen me. They actually see something in me.


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[Assistant] I have to make sure that the flavours of the lemon Marshall doesn't overpower the whole dish. I taste it. Perfect. I place the filling in little balls, fold over the actual pasta and stamp around them to actually make my little baby ravioli. Beautiful. Yeah, beautiful. Really good.


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[Assistant] Generally don't cook grapes. When I see them, my mind goes straight to wine. I love my cheeses that go with my wine. So today I'm making a dish that I'm calling cheese, wine and chocolate. They're three of my favourite things to eat, so I want to put those elements into a dish.


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[Assistant] Cooking for the family just makes me happier than anything. To be able to take that into a career in food would be awesome.


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[Assistant] Got the first cook of the MasterChef competition out the way.


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[Assistant] I look around and there's some incredible dishes by the looks of it. Behind me, Nicole put up a beautiful crab dish and then I look over to Brian and his dessert is ten times what I've done. I'm just hoping that I've done enough.


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[Assistant] What did you cook for us? I've done cheese, wine and chocolate.


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[Assistant] So we've got a dark chocolate mousse, some fresh grapes, some sour grapes, a little bit of goat's cheese, and some roasted macadamia nuts.


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[Assistant] Delicious dishes were served, but Bonita, Benjamin, Lee, and Rashidun, one of you will be going home, found themselves in the bottom four.


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[Assistant] But hopefully the judges enjoy it. Alrighty. So, what have you cooked? I've done a caramelised kaiser flesh with a pickled grape sorbet. And there's a little bit of the goat cheese and lemon myrtle.


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[Assistant] You know, I think this might be the kick in the bum I need in this competition.


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[Assistant] I'm a bit of a laid back bloke, that's just the way I am. But uhm, today, I need to get in my head and tell myself to just push, push, push.


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[Assistant] Gary tells me that's not the way he chops it, so I decide I'll peel some more and do it properly this time.


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[Assistant] The zhougra is such an important part of a roast meal. It's so important that it's perfect.


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[Assistant] After yesterday's disaster, I was feeling like I didn't really belong. Uhm, feeling a bit blue about it. But today, I've got my confidence back. I'm hoping I've done enough to stay.


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[Assistant] But I've got no idea how well the other guys cooked, so I'm still bloody nervous.


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[Assistant] I'm extremely happy with, with that plate. I couldn't ask more from myself today.


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[Assistant] We see the judges there next to something under a big black sheet. I'm thinking something's up.


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[Assistant] I've seen a recipe of Heston's where he puts cubes of lime gel throughout his mash and I've tried it, it tastes great. Today I'm gonna put apricot gel through it instead. I think that's gonna go well with the lamb.


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[Assistant] It's an invention test today, so I really wanna push the boundaries and try to impress the judges. I'm gonna do a mash with apricot gel. It's similar to a dish of Heston's, but he uses lime. I've taken the gel out of the fridge. It's set perfectly how I want it. It looks good. I'm pretty happy with that. Hello?


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[Assistant] Alright, so I want to talk about real estate. So let me start with mortgage lending. Mort means death in Latin.


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[Assistant] Uh, and so, uh, they called it mortuis vadium, dead pledge in ancient times. It's an old idea. The idea of collateral is very old. That is, I'll lend you some money, but you have to sign a contract saying, I can get to sell your land or something if you don't pay me back, and take the money out of that. Otherwise, lending couldn't happen.


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[Assistant] We have it as a verb, to mortgage something, to mortgage your house, means to offer it as collateral for a loan.


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[Assistant] So when you get a mortgage on your house, the bank, typically it is to buy the house. The bank lends you the money to buy the house. And then, uh, but if you stop paying on the mortgage, they can reclaim the house.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Maybe not all of it, they'll sell it and they'll take what's owed to them out of it and plus maybe some charges and then you'll have the remainder.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's the idea. And mortgage lending is very important because they can lend to anybody as long as they can value the house. You know, they don't have to really be able to value your trustworthiness to pay the money back.


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[Assistant] Uh, little different back then in the Tang dynasty. They could impose fines on your relatives as well. We don't allow that now in modern times. It's only you and your spouse who would both sign. Or sometimes they'll ask your parents to co-sign. That makes it easier to get a mortgage. But they can't go to relatives who don't co-sign anymore.


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[Assistant] And property law wasn't very well developed then. Because it wasn't even clear who owned property.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, because it wasn't, uh, there wasn't a system that was, uh, well established. Uh, so if you look in newspapers, uh, from the 18th century, you'll see a lot of ads placed, personal ads placed there, uh, claiming ownership of property.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So when you bought a house in 1750, you first would go through all the newspapers and see if there's any ad placed that says, I own that house, this guy is cheating me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then I have papers to prove it, which would be documents drawn up by a lawyer. Uh, so you stay away. It was a mess, though. They didn't have... Who owns this house? Uh, well, in Germany, in the late 19th century, they had the idea of having a centralized and authoritative book called the Grünbuch that, uhm, would list for the whole country


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[Assistant] The property now is clear. The title of the property is clear. Although it's still not completely clear. Even in modern countries. Uh, so, uh, because not everything, not all claims on the property get reported. But at least it's getting clearer.


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[Assistant] Uhm, so I've got a halloumi tasting board for you.


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[Assistant] And today we're going to be going to one of those places that is really common, right? That's right, we're going to the hair salon. The hair salon, or maybe also called a barber shop.


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[Assistant] Okay, so before we see what happens in this barbershop, let's take a look at some of the vocabulary we might encounter in vocabulary preview.


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[Assistant] Alright, so if I go to the hair salon to get a trim,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's right. Alright. And what about our next word?


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[Assistant] Fancy. Fancy. Fancy. So, fancy, now we know that this word maybe is related to something like luxury.


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[Assistant] Right, but in this case or in this context, we're gonna be using it a little bit different.


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[Assistant] Okay, so we don't want anything too fancy.


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[Assistant] Alright, so silky hair. Or silky skin. Alright, so silky. So he said he had silky and shiny hair. Shiny. Shiny. Shiny. Alright, so we know what shiny is. Do we? Yes, we do. Okay, what?


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[Assistant] So, something that is shiny is you can see yourself in it, like gold is shiny. Or silver is shiny. Alright, or if you look in the back of a CD, it's shiny.


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[Assistant] Alright, now getting into more hairstyle vocabulary, he wanted to make sure that his sideburns were even. Sideburns. Alright, so sideburns.


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[Assistant] Okay, those are your sideburns. Yes. And now also the hairstylist suggested that he should let his hair grow out. Grow out. Grow out. Let your hair grow out. Alright, so what does that mean exactly?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But I guess it's more common to hear, let your hair grow out.


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[Assistant] Alright, very good. So, let your hair grow out. And our last word on language takeaway today, afro. Afro. Afro.


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[Assistant] Alright, so I think now we are ready to listen to our dialogue for the second time and then we'll come back and look at some phrases.


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[Assistant] The hairstylist said, don't just stand there.


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[Assistant] Right, but actually those words make it an order that's a little bit different.


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[Assistant] Okay, so basically we can understand that if somebody tells you don't just stand there, they are expecting you to do something.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so why don't we move on to our next phrase now?


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[Assistant] Take a little off the top. Take a little off the top. So that basically means cut a little bit on top. Exactly. And now can I say take a little off the sides?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, so take a little off the top, take a little off the sides.


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[Assistant] Alright, so now talking about hairstyles and different types of hair, there are some interesting ones that maybe aren't so fashionable anymore, right?


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[Assistant] But you leave a little like stripe of long hair on top.


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[Assistant] I do not have a flat tub for all of you out there, uh, but I did used to have a crew cut.


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[Assistant] Dreadlocks. Dreadlocks. Alright, so dreadlocks are like knots of hair, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Right, those are dreadlocks. Very popular among, like, Rastafarians. Sure.


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[Assistant] Right, so tell us all about it, come to our website, post some pictures, and also if you have any questions or doubts, let us know.


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[Assistant] That, uh, instead of issuing new shares to raise money, the company can repurchase shares outstanding.


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[Assistant] Go out on the market like you and the company buys back its own shares.


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[Assistant] And, uh, it's an alternative way of paying a dividend. So let's think of it hypothetically. Imagine that the company is about to pay its dividend. It's been paying, you know, two dollars a quarter regularly per share. And, uh, they're about to pay it. Then someone says, why don't we send out a different letter this time? Instead of, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, instead of saying this is a dividend, let's send a letter that says this two dollars is repurchasing, uh, one percent of your shares. Uh, of course everyone gets the same letter.


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[Assistant] So if you get this in the mail, you'd say, what's this? I got my two dollar dividend check, and I also get a letter saying this is share repurchase. Now you might be confused, well what does this mean?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, well not taxed the same, but forget about taxes for the minute. What does it mean whether I get a letter saying this is a share repurchase or this is a dividend? It's two dollars.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the share repurchase, if it's everyone equal, doesn't affect the fraction of the company that I own. So the letter is nonsense. It's just the same thing as paying a dividend. Uhm, so, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They do a lot of share repurchases, especially recently. It's been a big thing in America.


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[Assistant] Now some people say that's because the stock market, it was during the financial crisis, the stock market was low and so companies were buying back their shares at a low price.


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[Assistant] That's what was said, but now prices are way back up again, and companies are still repurchasing their share. So uhm, what's going on here?


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[Assistant] There's a lot of share repurchases lately.


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[Assistant] Why do they do this? It's been 2% of shares per year, which is comparable to the dividend rate, the rate of dividends on the aggregate US stock market has been something like 2%.


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[Assistant] So how do they get that? Well the important thing is, it would seem the important thing, is there's a tax break. If they do share repurchase instead of, uh, dividends,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's the same thing, technically, but you see the tax, you can fool the IRS. Suppose the company pays out a $2 dividend.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then I would get $2 in dividends and I would have to pay income taxes on those. It used to be you had to pay them at your marginal tax rate. Now it's 15% on, uh, or capped at 15% of, of, uh, of the dividends paid.


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[Assistant] But if they do share repurchase, now if, if, uh, I would still have two dollars more, if I didn't buy, if I didn't participate in selling my shares to the company,


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[Assistant] Then my value of my shares goes up by something like $2.


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[Assistant] But I don't have to pay taxes on it because I don't have to pay taxes until I sell. So I can postpone them, maybe indefinite, maybe I'll never pay taxes on them. So I like that. I like share repurchases. Now, incidentally, right now in the United States, the capital gains tax


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[Assistant] The real thing though that's different is that capital gains taxes don't have to be, that's for long term capital gains, capital gains taxes do not have to be paid until you sell the shares. So it allows you to postpone


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[Assistant] Maybe for the rest of your life, you know, uh, the, uh,


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[Assistant] The tax on the amount paid out. So there's a tax incentive to...


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[Assistant] Those other issues though, these are behavioral finance.


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[Assistant] One thing is that people just don't get it. Most people...


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[Assistant] Most people have not taken financial markets and they don't understand what's going on.


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[Assistant] We're going to do share repurchase instead. First of all, you get the IRS, uh, if you do it every quarter, if you do share repurchase every quarter and you make this big announcement, the IRS will then say, maybe this is a dividend, even though you're calling it. You've got to be devious about it. You can't do it every quarter.


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[Assistant] But suppose you did that. The people would react immediately to the loss of dividend. I'm talking about grandma and grandpa who are retired and don't know anything about fina. They got a letter saying we're canceling your dividend.


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[Assistant] They would panic. They'd say, well, we have a rule that we only live off of interest and dividends. We can't, uh, they'd be upset.


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[Assistant] Uh, this is very effective for grandma and grandpa. They, they, who often have a rule that I never dip into the principle, I only live off income.


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[Assistant] And I'm, you know, I need that to buy food every quarter. So I need those dividends. I mean, you can tell them, no you don't. You can sell your shares. Anytime you need to sell some of your shares. And they're going up in value because of the repurchase. But they won't get it.


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[Assistant] There's also, uh, other thing about a price pop after repurchase that might encourage, uh, share repurchase.


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[Assistant] Getting to the pointy end of the cook now, so if it doesn't set properly, pressure test here we come.


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[Assistant] Strawberry sorbet, cucumber, and I've done a camomile soap sponge.


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[Assistant] Alright, here goes coding challenge number two, which is going to be all about a race.


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[Assistant] And in this one, we're going to go back to the tip calculator that we built in the previous section.


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[Assistant] And we're still using the same rules as before. So we tip 15% of the bill value if it's between 50 and 300. And if the value is different, so outside of this range, the tip is 20%. And so here are your tasks.


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[Assistant] First, write a function called callTip, which takes any bill value as an input and returns the corresponding tip. And so that's going to be based on the rules that I just mentioned.


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[Assistant] And to do this, you can actually check out the code from the first tip calculator challenge that we did in the last section. So you can copy the code there, or if you want, you can also code this from scratch just to remember how to do it.


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[Assistant] And now in number two, we're finally going to use arrays. So here we're going to create an array called builds, which will contain the test data that we have.


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[Assistant] So here we create an array called tips, which will contain the tip value for each of the three builds.


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[Assistant] And this is where we're going to use the cork tip function that we created before.


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[Assistant] So that's the basic challenge. And if you want to take it one step further, you can even take the bonus question, so number four here, in which I ask you to create an array called total, which will have the total values. So that's the bill plus the tip.


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[Assistant] So I hope this one isn't too hard. Basically, it's similar to one of the examples actually that we did in one of the lectures about the arrays. And once again, I also have a hint to help you solving this one. But if you want to try it on your own without the hint, then pause the video now and good luck. But if you want to hint, well, then here it goes.


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[Assistant] So remember that an array needs a value in each position. But that value can actually be the returned value of a function. So as an array value, you can basically just call a function. Alright? And again, that is similar to something that we did in one of the array lectures.


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[Assistant] So pause the video now, and I see you with my solution in a second.


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[Assistant] Okay. And I'm going to start by creating the cork tip function.


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[Assistant] And I'm gonna start doing it with a function expression. So this one will receive a bill as an input. I believe, I think...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So CogTip takes any bill as an input. So let's simply call it bill. And then what we want to return is the tip.


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[Assistant] And here I'm going to write the exact same code as we did in the other challenge. So there's no need to explain it all again. It would just be a waste of time. So if the bill value is between 50 and 300,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So less or equal than 300. And here we're using the ternary operator. Then return the bill value times 0.15. So that's 15%. And otherwise, uh, it should be 20%.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so the result of this ternary operator here will be one of these values. So either bill times .15 or times .2. And so that's going to be the result of this operator. And so that's what this function will return.


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[Assistant] If you prefer the arrow function, we can also do that. So const calc tip equal bill. And now we can omit the return keyword and do it all in one nice line.


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[Assistant] Now you just have to choose which one you like better. And I will just, for the sake of readability,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So builds 125, 555 and 44. So that was easy. And now we will create an array tips, which will contain the tip value for each bill.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, let's do that. And now this is similar to what we did previously with calculating the ages. So we are going to create an array, and then each position will be the function call to calcTip.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, we want to calc the tip with builds at position 0. Then, at position 1, we want to calculate builds, or we actually want to calculate tips based on builds on position 1, and then on position 2.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's it. So let's log both the bills and the tips to the console here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that gives us tips is not defined. So here it should be tips. So usually when I have an array, I like to give it a plural name, like here builds and here tips. So because it's multiple values. So now that should work.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And yeah, so these were the three tips that were calculated. And of course you could have created separate values or actually separate variables for each of these function calls, like tip1 equals calcTip with builds 0.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Something like this. And then tip 2 and tip 3. And then you could have, uh, created like an array with tip 1, tip 2 and tip 3.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so something like this. But my idea was to actually do it like this, because then we don't have to create all these extra variables. So that's a lot cleaner.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Later on in this section we will find an even better way of doing this, but with what we know at this point, this is the best that we can do.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So we take the first bell, calculate the tip based on that, and put it in, uh, position number zero.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we take builds at position number one, calculate the tip, and put it in position one of this new array. And then we take builds at position number two, calculate the tip, and put it at position two of the new array.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so then, yeaah, we end up with this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Lastly, let's also complete the bonus question number four here. And all we have to do here is to create an array, which will have the sum of the builds and the tips. So that's going to be totals.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And now you might have tried to do something like this. So like builds plus tips. But as I told you in the previous lecture, this is simply not going to work. So we cannot do any operations on arrays like this. It doesn't work like that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So let me show you the result that we would get from doing this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so basically, each of the arrays would be transformed to a string, and then the two strings would be concatenated.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that's completely useless. And so the only thing that we could do is to say that we want builds at position zero plus the tips at position zero.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, all the three values. So at position one as well, and then at position.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so this fixes this error because now in each position we do actually have a real value because this is an actual value and so with that we can then do calculations.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And yeaah. So with that, all of the four points are solved. And so here we conclude this part about arrays.


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[Assistant] As you begin working with data, you'll start to learn what types of data are going to be useful to your business, what your best methods are for tracking data,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] How to interpret data points to provide you with insights and how to interpret raw data.


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[Assistant] If you want to get insights about your customers, you'd ideally want to ask all of them.


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[Assistant] But often that's not possible. So you may take a sample of your customer base, knowing that their insights and feedback will represent the whole.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For example, a movie theater launches a new self-service kiosk for tickets, and a thousand people use it on the first day.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The manager wants to get a sense of how the experience went, but it's too big of a job to talk to all thousand people who use the kiosk.


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[Assistant] What the manager would do is talk to a few users or a sample to get their feedback.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The movie theater would get the data and insights they want from the sample without needing to ask every single person.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] From the sample, the movie theater is able to make inferences on how to leverage and promote the new self-service kiosk. Here's another example.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is a good example of a dataset that uses sampling.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] To monitor people's TV viewing habits, Nielsen recruits households whose TV viewing behaviour it will monitor.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] These people agree to be monitored and they also fill out a questionnaire that provides Nielsen with demographic and interest data.


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[Assistant] Nielsen then uses the information they gather from those households to build a data set that represents the total population.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You may also use sampling when your dataset is too large to handle, which would slow down generating any insights.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Using a sample of the data would give you a more manageable data set with faster analysis time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And since the sample represents the whole, it should give you the same insights.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For example, a marketer collects customer data, but finds that they have thousands and thousands of entries to analyze.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Working with that many pieces of data will take a lot of time and effort, yet pulling out a sample of that data, only a thousand entries or a few hundred for instance, would give the same insights, just at a smaller scale, and would be much easier to work with.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We discussed Google Analytics before. Marketers use this tool to monitor people's browsing behavior on their website or app.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you use Google Analytics on a very large website that is visited by many people, then Google Analytics will use sampling so it can give you access to your data and reports faster.


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[Assistant] What is unsampled data? Well, it's simply the whole population or data set in its raw state.


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[Assistant] And there are certainly times when you'd use the entire population for your analysis purposes. For instance, if you're looking for events that don't occur frequently,


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[Assistant] You probably noticed when I talk about sample data that I referred to the sample as a data selection that represents the total data set.


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[Assistant] It means that we assume that the characteristics of the sample are the same as the characteristics of my total data set.


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[Assistant] And thus, it's okay to look at the sample and draw conclusions about the total data set.


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[Assistant] There are a few different methods you can use to get a representative sample.


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[Assistant] We will take a closer look at them later in this program when we dive into statistics.


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[Assistant] For now, I will just mention the most common method, random sampling, which simply involves picking members or entries at random. This can be done using a random number generator and gives everyone a fair chance of being chosen.


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[Assistant] By doing that, I may for instance pick only families with kids who are catching the morning show of a Disney movie.


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[Assistant] The self-service experience may be different for them than for the crowd that shows up later at night to see a romantic comedy.


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[Assistant] By randomly selecting 20 people throughout the entire day, I have a better chance of selecting a group that represents the full spectrum of theatre visitors.


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[Assistant] Marketers use both sampled and non-sampled data, and now you know what people refer to when they make the distinction.


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[Assistant] In our next video, we'll look at differences in data collection and how they can be used to help your business.


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[Assistant] Next dish we'd like to taste belongs to Nicole.


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[Assistant] Unfortunately, some of you stumbled. If I call your name, you're in the bottom three and in tomorrow's pressure test.


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[Assistant] In this video, I'd like to tell you a bit about the math behind large margin classification. This video is optional, so please feel free to skip it, uh, but it may also give you better intuition about how the optimization problem of the support vector machine, how that leads to large margin classifiers.


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[Assistant] Looks like. And u transpose v is also called the inner product between the vectors u and v.


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[Assistant] Use a two-dimensional vector so I can plot it on this figure. So let's say that's the vector u. And what I mean by that is if on the horizontal axis that value takes whatever value u1 is.