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[Assistant] But it could have something to do with predators, maybe animals like crabs or possibly ratfish, which have dangerous tooth plates. Some species of alligator fish have even been found with damage marks on their armor.


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[Assistant] Which suggests they've been in a few scuffles. For now, though, the factors selecting for such extensive armor will likely remain a mystery until someone spends more time hanging out in the ocean. Next!


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[Assistant] Sometimes an organism needs armor for a specialized purpose, like the whale shark. Like other sharks, they have dermal denticles.


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[Assistant] A dermal denticle is triangular and made of dentin, a heart tissue derived from the same cells as teeth. The denticles overlap.


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[Assistant] With all the points facing towards a shark's tail. So stroke a shark from its head backward and it feels smooth. But expect a bad time in the other direction. These denticles are etched with parallel ridges that might help streamline swimming, helping water flow more smoothly along the shark's body.


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[Assistant] Still up for debate. But either way, what's odd about whale sharks is that they also have denticles on their eyes. A 2020 study found that each iris is ringed by several thousand denticles.


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[Assistant] Unlike other sharks, they don't have eyelids. And their eyes also protrude out.


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[Assistant] This would also explain something else the researchers noticed when you approach a whale shark.


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[Assistant] Check out Mantis Shrimp, famous for packing a punch. In a feeding style called smashing,


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[Assistant] They use club-like appendages to punch prey with extraordinary force, enough to crack the shells of mollusks and crabs. Male mantis shrimps also punch each other on the tail as they compete for territory. But this is where their sweet armor comes in. Species of mantis shrimp that punch have armored up their last body segment. It's called the telson.


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[Assistant] And it forms part of the tail. And the result here is a long piece of abdominal armor. And these mantis shrimps don't fight to the death. Instead, they do a ritualized fight.


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[Assistant] Punching each other's telsons. The ritualized fights probably exist for the mantis shrimps to learn about each other. Basically, to size each other up and see if it's worth fighting or standing down. So they're not trying to kill each other.


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[Assistant] They did something even weirder. They glued dead mantis shrimps to plexiglass and dropped steel balls on their telsons. They found that the telson is like a punching bag, absorbing and dissipating impacts. Specifically, the telson center.


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[Assistant] A bullseye to a mantis shrimp opponent is reinforced with minerals. And other research has shown that they are arranged in a layered, spiral-like structure that absorbs energy. Meanwhile, the area surrounding the telson cushions the blow like a boxer's punching bag. Curved ridges running lengthwise stiffen it along the central axis.


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[Assistant] Oh, and in case you're wondering, the shrimps do molt, losing their super hard shells as they grow out of them. And just like a softshell crab,


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[Assistant] So, if one of these guys encounters another male, they'll just flee, since both their clubs and their telson shields are useless. The animals we've talked about so far have basically had one kind of armor.


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[Assistant] One adaptation that helps them out in various situations. But that's not true for everyone. Some organisms have adaptable armor, like a genus called dacnea. Sometimes called water fleas.


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[Assistant] These are tiny crustaceans common in freshwater. And they're eaten by a ton of small organisms, including tadpoles, insects,


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[Assistant] And every predator is different. So Daphnia employs what is called induced body armor.


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[Assistant] Which appears as needed. Depending on which predators are around, juvenile Daphnia develop different features as they grow. For instance, Daphnia grow neck spines when they grow up in a habitat with larval midges. In contrast, Daphnia that grow up around tadpole shrimps get tail spines and more angular heads. And there are more options than that too, including hard helmets,


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[Assistant] Spiny head lobes and jagged crests. What's happening here is that chemicals emitted by the predators are actually cueing the water fleas' development. Like, when researchers exposed Daphnia to a chemical naturally emitted by those midges,


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[Assistant] That triggered their bodies to start developing those neck spines. Researchers think these customized responses interfere with how each predator captures and processes prey. And honestly, it's a really clever strategy for a group of creatures that live in so many different environments.


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[Assistant] Bacteriophages are called phages, for short. And after hijacking their host's machinery to copy their own DNA, they often free themselves by killing the bacteria, specifically by releasing enzymes that destroy the bacterial cell membranes, or wall.


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[Assistant] But some phages have formed a sort of truce with bacteria. They're called filamentous bacteriophages, and they're long, spaghetti-like viruses. These phages do a lot of their business as normal.


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[Assistant] But the bacterium survives. And somehow, that's not even the best part. The phage also secretes liquid crystalline droplets that form a coating around the bacterium. And this biofilm directly helps the bacteria by keeping it from drying out.


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[Assistant] Watch out, phages! So overall, the armor worn by knights was great in everything, but it didn't outshine the startling array of armor in nature. Natural armor evolves again and again to defend organisms against abrasion, competition, predation, and pathogens. And it does so in some pretty clever ways.


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[Assistant] If you liked this episode and are a fan of sharing cool things about the world,


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[Assistant] Well, you might be interested in SciShow Kids. It's our science channel for early elementary learners, and we're releasing new episodes over there every Monday. If you have a kid or teacher in your life, we think they'll really enjoy it.


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[Assistant] We've even got an episode on mantis shrimp! You can find it over at youtube.com slash SciShow Kids.


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[Assistant] So, who should I say is competing? Cloud Strife.


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[Assistant] Alright, Mr. Strife, do you have your own cards? Yep. Well, you're all set to join. Good luck, and have a great time today.


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[Assistant] Ah, romantic love. Beautiful and intoxicating.


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[Assistant] Why do we choose to put ourselves through its emotional wringer? Does love make our lives meaningful? Or is it an escape from our loneliness and suffering? Is love a disguise for our sexual desire or a trick of biology to make us procreate? Is it all we need? Do we need it at all?


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[Assistant] If romantic love has a purpose, neither science nor psychology has discovered it yet.


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[Assistant] But over the course of history, some of our most respected philosophers have put forward some intriguing theories.


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[Assistant] The ancient Greek philosopher Plato explored the idea that we love in order to become complete. In his symposium, he wrote about a dinner party at which Aristophanes, a comic playwright, regales the guests with the following story.


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[Assistant] Humans were once creatures with four arms, four legs, and two faces. One day they angered the gods, and Zeus sliced them all in two.


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[Assistant] Since then, every person has been missing half of him or herself.


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[Assistant] Love is the longing to find a soulmate who will make us feel whole again.


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[Assistant] Much, much later, German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer maintained that love, based in sexual desire, was a voluptuous illusion.


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[Assistant] He suggested that we love because our desires lead us to believe that another person will make us happy. But we are sorely mistaken.


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[Assistant] Humans are designed to procreate, but without the ecstasy of passionate love, sex is unsatisfying.


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[Assistant] Love's delight, intimacy, and warmth helps us overcome our fear of the world, escape our lonely shells, and engage more abundantly in life.


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[Assistant] Love enriches our whole being making it the best thing in life. Love is a misleading affliction.


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[Assistant] Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One, probably would have had some interesting arguments with Russell. Buddha proposed that we love because we are trying to satisfy our base desires.


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[Assistant] Yet, our passionate cravings are defects, and attachments, even romantic love, are a great source of suffering.


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[Assistant] Luckily, Buddha discovered the Eightfold Path, a sort of program for extinguishing the fires of desire so that we can reach nirvana, an enlightened state of peace, clarity, wisdom, and compassion.


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[Assistant] The novelist Chao Xueqin illustrated this Buddhist sentiment that romantic love is folly in one of China's greatest classical novels, Dream of the Red Chamber.


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[Assistant] His soul enters the mirror and he is dragged away in iron chains to die.


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[Assistant] Not all Buddhists think this way about romantic and erotic love, but the moral of this story is that such attachments spell tragedy and should, along with magic mirrors, be avoided.


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[Assistant] Let's end on a slightly more positive note. The French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir proposed that love is the desire to integrate with another and that it infuses our lives with meaning.


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[Assistant] However, she was less concerned with why we love and more interested in how we can love better.


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[Assistant] She saw that the problem with traditional romantic love is it can be so captivating that we are tempted to make it our only reason for being.


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[Assistant] Yet dependence on another to justify our existence easily leads to boredom and power games. To avoid this trap, Beauvoir advised loving authentically, which is more like a great friendship.


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[Assistant] Lovers support each other in discovering themselves, reaching beyond themselves, and enriching their lives and the world together.


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[Assistant] These fools called us down here because they thought we knew of a placement.


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[Assistant] I don't want to hear excuses. I want to hear you playing the goddamn piano. Now take all the out of rooms. Rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr


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[Assistant] Allow me to speak for the lady. First there's the on-call maid, then there's my finder's fee. And on top of that,


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[Assistant] I think I'd better go keep an eye on them. Barracks? Not himself right now, you know?


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[Assistant] But creatively speaking, it's been a struggle. We've been racking our brains forever. And the showcase is basically now!


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[Assistant] It looks like something that grows around a ocean. I have seen it around the beaches that I usually take my kids for a walk. I have no idea what it's called.


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[Assistant] I will never forget the pig face. It will haunt me for the rest of my life. Pig face.


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[Assistant] For Kanta to get his dumplings right, he needs to have a beautiful silky dough.


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[Assistant] Khan has got so many elements on the go, and all of them have to be perfect.


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[Assistant] And Jean is making vegemite and prawn risotto. It sounds like a simple dish, but it's so hard to get risotto right.


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[Assistant] But these magnificent animals are more than giant walking hard drives.


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[Assistant] The more we learn about elephants, the more it appears that their impressive memory is only one aspect of an incredible intelligence that makes them some of the most social, creative, and benevolent creatures on Earth.


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[Assistant] Unlike many proverbs, the one about elephant memory is scientifically accurate.


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[Assistant] Elephants know every member in their herd, able to recognize as many as 30 companions by sight or smell.


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[Assistant] This is a great help when migrating or encountering other potentially hostile elephants.


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[Assistant] They also remember and distinguish particular cues that signal danger.


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[Assistant] and can recall important locations long after their last visit


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[Assistant] But it's the memories unrelated to survival that are the most fascinating.


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[Assistant] Elephants remember not only their herd companions, but other creatures who have made a strong impression on them.


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[Assistant] In one case, two circus elephants that had briefly performed together rejoiced when crossing paths 23 years later.


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[Assistant] This recognition isn't limited to others of their species.


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[Assistant] Elephants have also recognized humans they've bonded with after decades apart.


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[Assistant] All of this shows that elephant memory goes beyond responses to stimuli. Looking inside their heads we can see why.


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[Assistant] The elephant boasts the largest brain of any land mammal, as well as an impressive encephalization quotient.


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[Assistant] This is the size of the brain relative to what we'd expect for an animal's body size, and the elephant's EQ is nearly as high as a chimpanzee's. And despite the distant relation, convergent evolution has made it remarkably similar to the human brain.


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[Assistant] With as many neurons and synapses, any highly developed hippocampus and cerebral cortex.


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[Assistant] It is the hippocampus strongly associated with emotion that aids recollection by encoding important experiences into long-term memories.


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[Assistant] The ability to distinguish this importance makes Elephant Memory a complex and adaptable faculty beyond rote memorization.


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[Assistant] It's what allows elephants who survived a drought in their youth to recognize its warning signs in adulthood, which is why clans with older matriarchs have higher survival rates.


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[Assistant] Unfortunately, it's also what makes elephants one of the few nonhuman animals to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder.


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[Assistant] The cerebral cortex on the other hand enables problem solving, which elephants display in many creative ways.


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[Assistant] They also tackle problems cooperatively, sometimes even outwitting the researchers and manipulating their partners.


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[Assistant] And they've grasped basic arithmetic, keeping track of the relative amounts of fruit in two baskets after multiple changes. The rare combination of memory and problem solving can explain some of elephants' most clever behaviors.


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[Assistant] But it doesn't explain some of the things we're just beginning to learn about their mental lives.


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[Assistant] Elephants communicate using everything from body signals and vocalizations


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[Assistant] And their understanding of syntax suggests that they have their own language and grammar.


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[Assistant] This sense of language may even go beyond simple communication.


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[Assistant] Elephants create art by carefully choosing and combining different colors and elements.


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[Assistant] They can also recognize 12 distinct tones of music and recreate melodies. And yes, there is an elephant band.


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[Assistant] But perhaps the most amazing thing about elephants is a capacity even more important than cleverness, their sense of empathy, altruism, and justice.


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[Assistant] Elephants are the only non-human animals to mourn their dead, performing burial rituals and returning to visit graves. They have shown concern for other species as well.


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[Assistant] One working elephant refused to set a log down into a hole where a dog was sleeping.


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[Assistant] While elephants encountering injured humans have sometimes stood guard and gently comforted them with their trunk.


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[Assistant] On the other hand, elephant attacks on human villages have usually occurred right after massive poachings or callings, suggesting deliberate revenge.


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[Assistant] When we consider all this evidence along with the fact that elephants are one of the few species who can recognize themselves in a mirror, it's hard to escape the conclusion that they are conscious, intelligent, and emotional beings.


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[Assistant] Unfortunately, humanity's treatment of elephants does not reflect this, as they continue to suffer from habitat destruction in Asia.


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[Assistant] Ivory poaching in Africa and mistreatment in captivity worldwide.


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[Assistant] Given what we now know about elephants and what they continue to teach us about animal intelligence,


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[Assistant] It is more important than ever to ensure that what the English poet John Donne described as nature's great masterpiece does not vanish from the world's canvas.


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[Assistant] We still have a long way to go, said Wukong.


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[Assistant] But don't worry, eventually we'll arrive in the Western Paradise and climb up the Spirit Mountain.


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[Assistant] Buddha's home, the thunderclap monastery, sits halfway up the mountain. The Tang monk took a bite of his peach.


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[Assistant] The monastery is spectacular, said the monkey. Golden light shines from it. Bajay moaned.


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[Assistant] It's not the thunderclap monastery. We're not even in the western paradise yet.


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[Assistant] We must be careful. I see dark clouds over the monastery.


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[Assistant] Wukong shook his head. It doesn't belong to Buddha. Let's keep walking.


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[Assistant] It's not, said Wukong. We should really


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[Assistant] I won't bow to you, shouted Wukong.


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[Assistant] Anna and Mr. Cheng talked to the police.


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[Assistant] But the police could tell them nothing more about the telephone call to the airport.


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[Assistant] Inspector Aziz telephoned two or three people. And then he talked to Anna again.


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[Assistant] When Anna left Inspector Aziz, she was much happier.


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[Assistant] Then she went to the prison to see Sarah.


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[Assistant] The man took her to Sarah's room. Anna and Sarah sat at the table, and the man stood and watched.


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[Assistant] It was a bad day, Mother. I'm sorry, Sarah said slowly. Her eyes were not red now, but she looked very tired.


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[Assistant] Her hands were near her mother's on the table.


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[Assistant] It wasn't a very good day, that's true, Anna said.


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[Assistant] But you have a very good lawyer you know. The jury likes him.


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[Assistant] But it doesn't help, Sarah said.


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[Assistant] There was heroin in the toothpaste tubes. And the tubes were in my bag. What can Mr Cheng do?


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[Assistant] The heroine was in my bag, Mother. The jury knows that.


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[Assistant] Perhaps Hassan put it there, Sarah, she said. You like him, I know. And he looks nice. But, mother, I love him. I said that in court. You heard me. And Hassan loves me too.


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[Assistant] The man ran from the room, and Anna put her arms round her daughter. She waited, and then Sarah sat up. It's all right, Mother, she said. Her face was very white, but she looked a little better. It happens sometimes. I often feel ill, and I don't like to eat much.


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[Assistant] Sarah's face looked different now. Half smiling, half afraid. Mother, don't be angry, please. I'm going to have a baby. It's Hassan's baby. I, we wanted to come to England and tell you about it there. But now we can't. I love him.


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[Assistant] And he wants to be my husband, Mother. Mother? Please don't be angry.


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[Assistant] Anna's face was white now. For nearly a minute, she could say nothing. She wanted to cry, but she didn't.


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[Assistant] At last she said, Oh Sarah, what's going to happen to this baby?


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[Assistant] Sarah looked at her hands. Nothing, Mother. I asked Mr Cheng about that. They can't kill me, you see, because I'm going to have a baby.


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[Assistant] They can't kill a mother and her baby. That's the law. But that doesn't help her son. Anna heard a noise and looked at the door. Listen, Sarah, she said quickly, before the doctor comes. I'm not angry.


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[Assistant] And I do love you, Sarah, of course. But listen.


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[Assistant] I talked to Inspector Aziz again today. I think he can help you, and Hassan too. So don't be afraid, please, and— The door opened, and the man came in with a woman doctor. Anna stood up. She took Sarah's hand.


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[Assistant] I'm going now, Sarah. But don't be afraid. You're going to be alright. I'm sure of it.


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[Assistant] When I got hurt back in Nibelheim they brought me to this clinic. The doctor here, Sharon, he's the one who saved my life.


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[Assistant] So we're just getting ready for the pickling liquid and I'm cleaning up the squid, they're gonna be grilled later on.


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[Assistant] The entree is looking beautiful on the plate. I'm super happy. The grapes are gonna be just a hero of my dish. So, I think that I could never have done better than that today. How does it look guys? Looking good mate. Oh, it looks so good.


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[Assistant] About time. Let's get this show on the road. Come with me.


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[Assistant] One golden ticket. Your ticket to paradise.


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[Assistant] And everything that we know and are and are made of was created.


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[Assistant] Our brains underwent a major genetic mutation which resulted in the biological reorganization of the brain.


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[Assistant] Others call it the great leap forward, which I prefer. It's so much more poetic.


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[Assistant] This is when homo sapiens began to evolve into the modern species that we are today.


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[Assistant] The Great Leap Forward activated most of our modern abilities, abstract thought, planning,


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[Assistant] Cooking, competitive labor, language, art, music and self-decoration.


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[Assistant] Of stone toolmaking, more sophisticated weaponry, and ...


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[Assistant] 32,000 years ago, the creation of our first sophisticated mark-making on the cave walls of Leskow.


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[Assistant] It's not a coincidence that we've gone from documenting our reality on the cave walls of Lescau to the walls of Facebook.


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[Assistant] They started to self-decorate. But this wasn't for seductive purposes. This was for religious convictions. We wanted to be more beautiful, purer, cleaner in the eyes of something or someone that we believed had more power than we did. There is no culture in recorded human history


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[Assistant] That has not practiced some form of organized worship, which we now call religion.


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[Assistant] Six thousand years ago, in an effort to unite people, our ancestors began to design telegraphic symbols to represent beliefs and to identify affiliations.


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[Assistant] These symbols, connected, like-minded people, and they are all extraordinary.


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[Assistant] These affiliations allowed us to feel safer and more secure in groups, and this sharing created consensus around what the symbols represented. With these marks, you knew where you fit in,


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[Assistant] Both for the people that were in the in-crowd and those, as importantly, that were excluded. These symbols were created in what I consider to be a very bottom-up manner.


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[Assistant] They were made by people, for people, and then shared for free among people to honor the higher power that they ascribe to.


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[Assistant] Some of the symbols have eerie commonalities.


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[Assistant] And many of our first wars were religious. Our flags were used on the battlefield to signify which side of the battlefield we belonged to because that was the only way to be able to tell friend from foe. We all looked alike. And now ...


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[Assistant] Logos on products to identify a maker came next, and brands were given legal recognition on January 1st, 1876, with the advent of the Trademarks Registration Act. The first trademarked brand was Bass Ale.


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[Assistant] Carolyn Davidson, a graphic design student, originally created the logo for 35 dollars.


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[Assistant] But why is this woosh so popular? Why is this woosh so popular? Is it the mark? Or is it the marketing?


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[Assistant] Or the Capital One logo on its side.


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[Assistant] This next logo is a logo that has a shared identity with wholly different meanings.


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[Assistant] As a Jewish person, I believe that this logo, this swastika, is the most heinous logo of all time.


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[Assistant] But it actually has a rather surprising trajectory.


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[Assistant] The word swastika originally comes from the ancient Sanskrit word svastika, which actually means good fortune, luck and well-being.


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[Assistant] In the early 1900s, before it was appropriated by Hitler, it was used by Coca-Cola on a good luck bottle opener.


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[Assistant] The American Biscuit Company prominently registered the mark and put it on boxes of cookies.


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[Assistant] The US Playing Card Company registered the mark in 1921 for Fortune Playing Cards. The Boy Scouts used the mark on shoes in 1910. And the symbol was also featured on cigar labels, box tops, road signs and even poker chips.


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[Assistant] Even the jane made use of the logo along with a hand of God many millennia ago. These marks were identical.


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[Assistant] But with use as a Nazi symbol, the impact became very, very different. The hand of God, the Nike swoosh and the swastika.


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[Assistant] They all demonstrate how we've been manufacturing meaning with visual language over millennia. It's a behavior that's almost as old as we are. Today,


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[Assistant] Since their launch in 1912, you could choose from over 100 flavors and variants of Oreo cookies. Now, is this a good thing or is it a bad thing?


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[Assistant] Is a plethora of choice necessary in a free market?


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[Assistant] Everyone of our mass-marketed products are what I consider to be top-down brands. They're still created by people, but ...


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[Assistant] They are owned, operated, manufactured, advertised, designed, promoted and distributed by the corporation and pushed down and sold to the consumer for financial gain.


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[Assistant] These corporations have a responsibility to a P&L with an expectation of an ROI and have names like


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[Assistant] That's when we began to see evidence of real, significant, far-reaching change. The Arab Spring and Occupy Wall Street proved how the internet could amplify messages and connect like-minded people with powerful beliefs to inspire change.


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[Assistant] We witnessed a cultural shift via social media with hashtags like MeToo and Black Lives Matter.


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[Assistant] In its wake, the discipline of branding has transformed more in the last 10 years than it has in the last 10,000.


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[Assistant] And for the first time in modern history, the most popular influential brands are not brands being pushed down by the corporation. They are brands being pushed


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[Assistant] By the people, for the people, for the sole purpose of changing the world and making it a better place. Our greatest innovations aren't brands providing a different form or a different flavor of our favorite snack.


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[Assistant] In November of 2016, Krista Suh, Janis Wyman and Kat Coyle created a hat to be worn at the Women's March in Washington, D.C.


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[Assistant] Two months later, on January 21st, 2017, millions of people all over the world wore handmade pink pussy hats in support of the Women's March all over the world. The hat was not created for any financial benefit.


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[Assistant] Like our religious symbols created thousands of years ago, the hat was created by the people, for the people, to serve what I believe is the highest benefit of branding.


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[Assistant] To unite people in the communication of shared ideals. The pink pussy hat became a mark for a movement.


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[Assistant] In a very short time, two months, it became universally recognizable.


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[Assistant] It connected an audience in an unprecedented way. It is a brand, but it is more than that. Today, the pink pussy hat is proof positive.


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[Assistant] That branding is not just a tool of capitalism. Branding is the profound manifestation of the human spirit. The condition of branding has always, it's always reflected the condition of our culture.


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[Assistant] It is our responsibility to continue to leverage the democratic power branding provides, and it is our responsibility to design a culture that reflects and honors the kind of world we want to live in. Thank you.


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[Assistant] Sure they will. And I know just how to prove it to you. I'll go and get fixed. Right now.


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[Assistant] Need it? Always do. Honest and true. But, let me guess, you don't like dumb rhymes.


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[Assistant] You guys are so close to the top ten and one of these pins will definitely help you. It could save you.


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[Assistant] You want that pin. You need that pin. You need to get that pin. Five minutes to go. Come on.


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[Assistant] Sashi. Yes. Today you get to choose two ingredients to hero in your dish. Let's find out what you got to choose from.


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[Assistant] We've given you two pantries. You need to pick one ingredient from each pantry. On this side we've got strawberries, rum, mint, cauliflower, pork, lamb and tomato. And on this side, cream.


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[Assistant] Alright Sashi, step back in line and you're gonna have to make a decision.


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[Assistant] Hey! Fantastic. Shannon, good luck.


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[Assistant] Just as this bit in the center that's slightly jelly-like.


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[Assistant] I'm drawn to a few things that are making me salivate at the moment. You know, the, those little fried bits of, uh, looks like, um, Brussels sprouts, roasted, uh, broccoli. Smells good.


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[Assistant] That is cracking because looks very classic and very straightforward on the plate, but then when you eat it, it's a ride of flavours in your mouth.


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[Assistant] But for me, it's the, the technical stuff that I look at. The, the cooking of that lamb. Beautiful. The complexity and flavour and shine of that sauce. Beautiful. The creaminess of the cooling yoghurt. Could it be presented better? Yes.


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[Assistant] I love the way the pea puree in the yoghurt gave some cooling to a hot sauce. A delicious sauce. Nine out of ten.


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[Assistant] Wow. Sashy. Two pins. Never before in MasterChef has a contestant wore two pins on their chef shackert, let alone their civvies tomorrow. Shannon, Joel, make history bro. Nice. Well done. I've got no excuses now.


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[Assistant] Tool's going good, it's getting crispy. I would have ideally liked it to be a smidge thinner, but it's still got that good crunch, which is the main thing.


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[Assistant] I've done a bread twill and it's gonna have the crab sitting inside with a bit of a sauce and dressing and a bit of a salad. The idea is to break the twill and use it to eat the crab.


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[Assistant] I love spaghetti bolognese. It's one of my favourite dishes to make for my son. He loves it.


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[Assistant] In an invention test, I need to be inventive to be able to impress the judges. But I'm looking at the spag bowl on the left, and then on the right I see the ingredients to make spag bowl.


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[Assistant] But all I can think of is spag bol, spag bol, and I'm trying to look at ingredients and think of what I can recreate and make.


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[Assistant] I'm looking at all the ingredients and I'm thinking it makes good spaghetti bolognese but at the same time I'm trying to process what am I gonna make that's not spaghetti bolognese with these ingredients. I'm dreading this invention test right now. I have a mental block, I'm not too sure what I'm gonna do with it. Really can't think of any ideas at this point.


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[Assistant] I'm stressing out right now because time is ticking down and I think I have tunnel vision. I can't think past spaghetti bolognese.


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[Assistant] I'm really worried I'm gonna go into tomorrow's pressure test. The dish doesn't seem like a complete dish. I'm just throwing in ingredients into my carrot noodles.


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[Assistant] I'm not happy with the dish because I just had a moment of tunnel vision. I couldn't think past spaghetti bolognese and I wasn't inventive enough. I just went one way and I didn't rectify it.


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[Assistant] Uhm, I would have liked more carrot in the noodles for flavour, but I was worried about texture.


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[Assistant] It definitely sucks to go on a pressure test, but I just need to put my chin up, I just need to move forward, and I just need to fight tomorrow.


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[Assistant] Density is the measure of mass present per unit volume. Lesser the density, lighter will be the object. Now, density varies with temperature. Oh dude. It is so complicated. Alright. I'll explain.


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[Assistant] When a hot air balloon is on ground, the air inside and outside the balloon is of same temperature and density. However, when we turn on the burner of the balloon, the air inside the balloon starts getting hot.


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[Assistant] The Tang Monk is here to see you. He says his companions can defeat demons.


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[Assistant] No matter what they throw at us, I've just got to put my game face on and really slam this challenge.


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[Assistant] Cooking one chook over three rounds is gonna be really hard. Coming up with three dishes, uh, it's mind boggling.


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[Assistant] Putting it all on the line for the first round, I need this much chicken. So I'm making a chicken sausage with an onion puree and a chicken jus. I'm gonna turn the breast meat into a mousse with herbs and wrap it in chicken skin.


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[Assistant] I'm definitely taking a big chance of using so much of the chicken, but I think it's worth the risk.


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[Assistant] Chicken sausage with an onion potato puree and a chicken jus.


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[Assistant] Only the best two cooks out of the first round will be safe. Hopefully I've done enough not to go into round two.


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[Assistant] When my parents had the restaurant, my dad cooked this really beautiful dish. So I want to replicate that today.


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[Assistant] It is a bit of a risk because the chicken thigh is one of the most flavorsome and if I can't bring that into round two, I could be in trouble.


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[Assistant] I normally use the chicken thigh for the crispy chicken because it gives that extra moistness.


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[Assistant] I can't use them today because I've already used both of them for my first round.


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[Assistant] All I can think about is my dad's amazing lemon chicken.


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[Assistant] Uhm, I made lemon chicken. It's basically a crispy bun on the outside with a lemon sauce.


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[Assistant] Little by little, I'm trying to hold back the emotion and let my mind think a little bit more clearer.


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[Assistant] Like the rhubarb got that nice kinda sourness to it and then the custard's just beautifully silky and the pastry's just amazing.


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[Assistant] You'll be cooking my Autumn Harvest. I'm extremely scared.


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[Assistant] Look, there's going to be quite a few steps. I mean, very few of my dishes are sort of one or two steps. But it's doable if you take time to really understand the dish and its deliciousness comes from its seasonal appropriateness and understanding balance, balance of texture, balance of flavour, and understanding the techniques that are involved.


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[Assistant] Today, you'll be cooking my...


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[Assistant] You're going to need to understand how to enhance the flavour of a very humble carrot. And to finish off, crispy duck skin, chestnut and mushroom volute.


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[Assistant] Like a lot of orchestras, you can create a beautifully blended symphony or you can have a really discordant note in the whole dish. So it's all about balance. Balance of texture, balance of flavour.


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[Assistant] Have you, have you read the recipe right to the end? Uhm, no, I've been just trying to do one step at a time. Do you understand what part of the dish the duck skin plays? Uhm, the skin. I'm just trying to see where it is to make sure.


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[Assistant] Ella, what do you think? Well, the first thing that hit me was the aroma.


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[Assistant] So the scent is terrific and I think even looking


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[Assistant] There's a definite autumnal umami richness to the whole dish. You're just getting a little bit of that caramel with the duck, so it's sort of sweet-sour, and there's pleasant crispness. The velouté's not bad, uhm, you know, as a whole the dish comes together well.


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[Assistant] I agree. It's unbalanced. Unbalanced. And you spoke about that a lot. You've got to be able to show restraint. You should be able to look at the dish and say, no, that's actually enough of that on there. Yeah, yeah, it's unbalanced.


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[Assistant] The thing is that as a professional cook, this sort of thing happens frequently. You get to a point where you're either going to continue to bury yourself.


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[Assistant] Uhm, lovely crispness, duck's good, pasta's very good. And presentation-wise good.


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[Assistant] I saw lots of very good things today. Not all of them were my dish. But they were close. They came close.


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[Assistant] So I saw a lot of strength, understanding, resilience, and I think that you've all got extremely bright futures.


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[Assistant] The present-day discipline of chemistry dates back to the 17th or 18th century, but the methods chemists use


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[Assistant] We're actually a lot older than that. And one of the earliest mentions of chemical techniques comes from ancient Babylon in a tablet written about a woman named Taputi Bellaticalum, making her possibly history's first recorded


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[Assistant] Now, because she lived so long ago, records of her life are little and sparse. But we do know a few things. We know that she was a Babylonian noblewoman who lived sometime around 1200 BCE. She worked as a perfumer, and was known for making perfumes of exceptional quality. Perfume may not seem super scientific at first glance.


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[Assistant] They were used for cosmetics, just as they are today, but they were also used for ritual and magical purposes. And they were also used as medicine. The Babylonians used essential oils and salves to treat infections, so an early perfumer would have also been kind of like a pharmacist. This means that a good perfumer


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] means overseer or head of household, and historians say that this name means Tiputi was likely in charge of perfumery in the royal court. And her importance likely derived from the quality of her perfumes. At the time, ancient perfume makers usually made their perfumes by adding fragrances to oils and fats.


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[Assistant] These were heavy salves that often didn't hold their scent for very long.


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[Assistant] The perfumers of ancient Babylon, however, combined multiple scents into one perfume and used solvents to create the final product. This meant that her perfumes were probably alcohol-based, and once applied, the solvent would evaporate, leaving only the scent behind.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which are mostly ethyl alcohol, with essential oils as fragrances. In fact, Taputi may have had to distill her own alcohol to make her perfumes. Records of her life are also the first historical references to the process of distillation. Distillation, a chemical procedure used to separate liquids that have two different boiling points, uses a device called a still.


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[Assistant] This can be used to purify alcohol, which is why distilled spirits are stronger than wine or beer. But it can also be used to separate other solutions. During distillation, a solution of multiple liquids is heated until it starts to boil.


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[Assistant] Because the liquids have different boiling points, the vapors are mostly made up of the compound with the lowest boiling point. These vapors travel through a condenser, which is cooled with water, and the vapors condense back into liquid.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The liquid is collected, and the distillation step can be repeated as necessary to purify whatever it is you're trying to purify.


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[Assistant] Distillation is one of the most basic chemistry techniques, and it is still used a lot. The fact that we know Tiputi developed her own chemical methods and used equipment like a still in 1200 BCE makes her the first recorded chemical engineer. But distillation isn't all it takes to make perfume.


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[Assistant] That gives you alcohol for the solvent, but you still need the smelly parts. Taputi used a technique called cold enflourage to extract scents, which is where a fat like lard or tallow is infused with a scent from fragrant


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[Assistant] That's a chemical process where fragrant compounds were extracted from their source


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[Assistant] Though that was only part of her name, unfortunately because the record is fragmentary, her full name is lost to history. We can't really know what life was like for someone who lived so long ago, and calling Taputi the first chemical engineer is ultimately


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[Assistant] But we know that Taputi and Ninu were two women working in a highly technical field, using methods and equipment still relevant today, and that Taputi herself


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[Assistant] was considered a leading figure in her profession. And the fact that their work is remembered nearly three and a half millennia later


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[Assistant] You know, there are places better suited to these kinds of conversations.


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[Assistant] A free-flyer pilot works out of an old airstrip nearby. He can take you part of the way. Use the south gate and follow the trail. You can't miss it. And I should-


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[Assistant] If you're looking for someone to train you, then look no further.


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[Assistant] Wait, don't leave. Treat you guys to a bowl if you help with the ingredients.


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[Assistant] Maybe some more gungaga mushrooms would do the trick. Or a hunk of cactuar meat.


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[Assistant] And what's not? I could stick my bum in there and it wouldn't cook. Which team will ignite the judges taste buds? There's lots to love about this plate of food. And which team's hoax will go up in flames?


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[Assistant] World class cuisine. Mexican. Thai. Vietnamese. Greek.


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[Assistant] This is my worst nightmare. And that's just the beginning.


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[Assistant] But hey, these just still seem to have your health. Yeaah, and you too.


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[Assistant] Oh, I'm feeling the miles. But the work keeps me truckin'. I tell you what though.


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[Assistant] I know you might find it hard to believe, but not all the apples in that bunch are rotten. But seriously, you're living proof of the good in people. Don't ever forget that. It'd be a pity to let their kindness go to waste.


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[Assistant] Besides, you need to set a good example for your friends here.


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[Assistant] Right. Well, I gotcha. Mind helping me out? Need to draw that gentleman's blood. You think you can hold him still for me?


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[Assistant] Spirit drop? No. Yeah.


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[Assistant] I ask because I suspect they're soldiers suffering from cellular degradation. Just a theory for now.


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[Assistant] And one I can't prove, not without a lot more testing.


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[Assistant] Yeah, and then some. I'd do what I can for the injured ones, but leave the rest to stumble onto the saucer. Why would they go there? Shit, don't ask me. I think it's odd too.


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[Assistant] Beats the hell out of me. Guess some fool got it in their head I was making money off my research.


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[Assistant] Look at this place. Can barely afford bandages, nevermind, or ransom.


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[Assistant] Only option is to save the man myself. Or hire the right merc to save him for me. Or the right merc's friend, to be more precise.


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[Assistant] What you see is what you get. No hidden codes, ciphers. Nothing. But hey, you're the detective.


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[Assistant] There's a compound in our road friend's sweat that blows when exposed to this light. Just hope it helps him.


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[Assistant] Believe me, if I knew, I'd tell you.


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[Assistant] Only doctors with access to those secrets of the company's own. I certainly don't qualify. If anyone here was gonna have answers, it'd be you, son. Been feeling under the weather?


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[Assistant] So much so, I doubt anyone in the company knew what the long-term effects might be. The more information we have, the better.


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[Assistant] Got a really simple marinade for the squid today. It's just garlic, coriander, chilli, lemon juice, a little bit of oil. I put that all through the squid to marinate for about 30 minutes.


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[Assistant] In my sauce today we've got some red capsicums, some garlic, some shallots, some red onion, coriander, red wine vinegar, and a little bit of tomato paste just to finish it off. So we need to pound everything together now.


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[Assistant] I finished my sauce now for entree, but it's taking a lot longer than we first anticipated.


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[Assistant] Huda is asking for a tester, which I think is brilliant. She's doing such a great job as a captain, so I go over and cook my squid.


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[Assistant] I want the tentacles to be quite charred because I love that smoky flavour in it and then the tubes itself to just be just cooked. I don't want it to overdo it because if I do then it'll be quite chewy.


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[Assistant] You can actually smell them? My olfactory sense is 7000 times more sensitive than yours.


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[Assistant] They gotta be close. Time to put the doctor's light to use.


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[Assistant] Once we've found our man, what should we do with this captor?


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[Assistant] This is the kidnapper's camp. No sign of them. So, do we wait?


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[Assistant] I don't really know what intrinsically means definition-wise, but it's pretty obvious that that's gonna be your savory dish has to be kinda sweet and your sweet dish has to be kinda savory.


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[Assistant] How far are you from getting it in? Uhm, I'm getting it in now. Now? Okay. The plan is cook my cauliflower in the tandoor.


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[Assistant] So I stab a cauliflower with the skewer, and it totally just breaks apart.


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[Assistant] I'm feeling so much pressure right now. This is my dish. I've got Gary breathing down my neck and it's just not working right now.


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[Assistant] Gary's telling me I need to change my cauliflower. It's not working. Come on, smooth it. We need to pick it up, get back on track.


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[Assistant] I actually think that we've got enough flavour into this cauliflower. There's crunchy bits on the outside.


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[Assistant] Today I'm making a ginger and lime mousse with a cucumber and Thai basil granita, some pickled cucumber and a coconut snow.


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[Assistant] The idea of this dish is that it's inspired by the flavors of a Vietnamese salad.


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[Assistant] The cucumber granita is in the freezer, the coconut snow is in the freezer, so now I'm working on the...


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[Assistant] I'm not really familiar with this equipment, so I just hope by the end of today's cook it's all for Edmund.


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[Assistant] There's five minutes until service and my dessert's mostly made up of frozen elements. So I'm gonna leave them till the very last minute before I take them out of the freezer.


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[Assistant] There, I'm doing the moment of truth and I'm opening the door.


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[Assistant] My grenade is still liquid. I think we might be in trouble.


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[Assistant] My elements haven't frozen. My grenade is still liquid. I think we might be in big trouble. I'm devastated that these haven't frozen, but I just need to get something else on the plate.


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[Assistant] It's not how I wanted it, but visually I'm happy with what we've played it up today. I just hope the judges enjoy it.


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[Assistant] The idea for dessert today is a baked ganache with a beautiful puree on the bottom using blackberries and fennel. The blackberry puree is turning out beautiful. Now we just need to focus on the ganache.


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[Assistant] We've got our chocolate ganache mixture done. Now we just gotta bake them. The perfect baked chocolate ganache should be kinda like eating raw fudge and it's just absolutely amazing. So these have to go in the oven. Okay.


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[Assistant] Get the blackberry puree out of the oven. It's nice and caramelized. It's turned out...


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[Assistant] Just the way it should be, and we're really happy with that.


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[Assistant] Next, I get the ganache out of the oven and I've got a foil on top of it but as I open it,


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[Assistant] Chloe, uhm. Yeaah. She's starting to burn on that sign.


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[Assistant] Decorated with some fresh fennel fronds and some blackberries.


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[Assistant] My dad says we're supposed to stay away from you. Sorry.


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[Assistant] Uh, nothing. For a second I thought you were someone else.


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[Assistant] Welcome to Gunghaga. I'm Sisnei, Coalition Captain.


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[Assistant] It needed maintenance, which Shinra never provided. And then one day... So, they're cheap as well. This was the company's way of trying to... make amends.


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[Assistant] I know you've got things to do, but if you wanted to rest up...


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[Assistant] My house is just down there. Got an open door policy, so feel free.


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[Assistant] For a few days now, yea. The coalition tried to investigate, but some creatures kept us from getting into the reactor. Though all they did was fly around. Just the sight of those weird black wisps was enough. More than enough.


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[Assistant] Say, if you do happen to see Zack, would you tell him that we miss him and to please get in touch?


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[Assistant] You will be in for one of the biggest surprises in MasterChef history ever.


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[Assistant] Look very closely, it has ingredients. Banana, coconut, peppermint, lemon, almond, and cinnamon. All cracking dessert flavours.


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[Assistant] Each of you will have a turn to spin that wheel. Whichever ingredient you land on, you must hero in a sweet dish.


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[Assistant] Right guys, let's get spinning. Ben?


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[Assistant] What a great way to end sweet week, uh, Kirsten Tibbles in the house. Uh, it's so nice to have you here, Kirsten.


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[Assistant] But, there's some serious consequences today. Five of you.


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[Assistant] But uh, we love so much that you love to make things from scratch. I mean, you walked through these kitchen doors and you were the first one ever.


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[Assistant] Stuff we've never seen before on MasterChef and that is the true essence of what this competition is all about.


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[Assistant] You are an absolute gem in the kitchen. We love your steel.


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[Assistant] If you make it into the top 10, you will be in for one of the biggest surprises in MasterChef history ever.


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[Assistant] My mind's tossing between tabbouleh salad and seafood.


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[Assistant] Why not? I can try it in 10 minutes. Uh, right guys, you ready?


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[Assistant] The five ingredients that I pick are prawns, butter, garlic, parsley, and lime.


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[Assistant] If I start deveining prawns right now, uhm, I might not have enough time to cook them. I decide not to devein them.


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[Assistant] Yeah, I thought of it, but I just thought I didn't have enough time to do it.


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[Assistant] Paleontology, a science geared towards small children, focused on


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[Assistant] Skulls are popped out of the ground and put on display for public gawking.


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[Assistant] It's a very accurate meme. Okay, I didn't even make this one. This is just the truth.


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[Assistant] There is so much cooler stuff in the fossil record, and we know so much about it. Let's go on a brief dinosaur-free tour of the last four billion years.


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[Assistant] First up, genetic material, viruses basically, started producing proteins and wrecking their environment. The earth was infected with life.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Some bacteria consumed other bacteria, gaining their power to turn oxygen into energy, becoming the precursors of animals and plants.


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[Assistant] But as a result, there were climate shocks from hot to cold and back again, which ended up turning the earth into a snowball covered with glaciers.


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[Assistant] The technical term for this time period is snowball earth.


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[Assistant] Six hundred million years ago, geometric colonies appeared, sucking microbes from the water.


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[Assistant] These were soon replaced by the ancestors of modern animals. The Cambrian explosion. Lobster relatives ate other animals, capturing them using their grasping arms. Armored, wriggling clam worms crawled across the sea floor and into it, creating new ecosystems.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Our tadpole-like ancestors flitted along ancient coastlines while their eel-like relatives with gnashing throat teeth swam above the ice-cream cone corals of the first reefs, dodging school bus-sized crack-ins and hungry sea scorpions. Plant fungus came onto land.


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[Assistant] But then the glaciers returned, killing pretty much everything.


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[Assistant] But mass extinctions opened opportunities. Jawless fishes invaded the ocean, sporting points, prongs and finally fins. Spiders, scorpions, snails and worms came on to land.


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[Assistant] Somewhere around China, a fish developed jaws, and its descendants drove jawless fishes, sea scorpions and branching plankton to extinction. Some of these fishes, which had arm bones in their fins, sprouted fingers, seven or eight per flipper.


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[Assistant] On land, plants became trees, growing massive or spreading their spores only once before dying.


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[Assistant] But then the glaciers came back again, and it was mass extinction number two.


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[Assistant] It was the age of weird fishes and plated sea lilies. Sharks with wings, sharks with buzzsaw jaws, sharks with fins covered in tiny teeth, sharks with crushing tooth plates, bony fishes that looked like modern angelfish and eels for the first time.


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[Assistant] Wetlands developed, sporting 10-foot-long millipedes and giant dragonflies. These spread across the supercontinent of Pangea and died, creating coal, leading to a 100-million-year ice age.


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[Assistant] Finally, vertebrates made it on to land on a permanent basis, leading to alligator-like amphibians and saber-toothed protomammals.


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[Assistant] A single lonely tusked mammal survived and thrived.


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[Assistant] But it was soon replaced by galloping crocodiles. In the ocean, marine reptiles, giant rafts made of the living relatives of sea urchins, and armored squids, aminoids, of every kind and form.


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[Assistant] So, finally, there were whale-sized fishes and modern fishes mobbed corals, made gigantic by using their captured algae to eat sunshine.


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[Assistant] Crabs, stingrays and other fishes with crushing teeth appeared, smashing shells and leading to an arms race between predators and prey.


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[Assistant] There was an explosion of marine biodiversity.


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[Assistant] But, there's always a but, because we're still here.


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[Assistant] Mammals arose from the ashes, became small under extreme heat, and then ever larger. There were palm trees and snakes in the Arctic.


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[Assistant] Not hyenas and other sort of carnivores were chased off by giant long-necked rhinos. Everything at this point seems kind of familiar, but not really. In Antarctica, an ice age started.


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[Assistant] This dried out the rest of the world, but it allowed the rise of grasses, of rodents, of cats. Somewhere in Africa, an ape started walking across the new savanna.


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[Assistant] Oh, and there were giant saber tooth salmon. I just have to mention that.


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[Assistant] Paleontology is a thriving science at the intersection of multiple other fields and technologies. There is no bigger data than the fossil record, and we mine every bit of it. We use CAT scans. We use isotopes. We use genomes.


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[Assistant] We use robots, we use mathematical simulations and all kinds of analytics. We maximize all of it so that we can understand the past and how evolution works. It also lets us make predictions for the future.


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[Assistant] What will happen after the next mass extinction? What weird things will show up? Will mammals get smaller again? Will there even be mammals?


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[Assistant] We have learned a lot about dinosaurs. But there's so much left to learn from the other 99.9 percent of things that have ever lived. And that's paleontology. Thank you.


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[Assistant] We are now beyond the halfway point of the 25 questions.


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[Assistant] A four-digit integer contains one each of these digits. Three, four, five, six.


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[Assistant] What is the probability that the number is a multiple of 5? Number theory, probability,


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[Assistant] And counting. Whenever we talk about a number made with one each of digits, usually this talks about something called permutation.


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[Assistant] And maybe one of the first things you're thinking about already is in probability, I want to know how many possibilities there are to permute 3, 4, 5, and 6. And indeed, if I want to know the number of numbers


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[Assistant] Written this way, 4 factorial, which means 4 times 3 times 2 times 1. Why? As a very brief reminder, why that is, is because this is a number and the number has 4 digits. Let's think of the 4 digits like this.


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[Assistant] If you have four digits and you're trying to see what is going to go in the first place, I have four choices.


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[Assistant] Because in the first place it can be 3 or 4 or 5 or 6. But whatever I put there...


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[Assistant] The second place has only three choices left.


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[Assistant] Because it has to be not the x that I have put there. And then we just keep going.


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[Assistant] And the two choices left for here, and then one choice left for the last one.


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[Assistant] And since each of these is always, if I've done these first two, there are always two choices left and always one choice left, I can multiply these together and that tells me how many different ways I can make my number.


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[Assistant] Okay, and this is a probability question. It asks what probability, what is the fraction of them, which are divisible by 5?


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[Assistant] Divisible by five is very easy because I just have to end with a zero or a five and there's no zero.


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[Assistant] So in that case, divisible by 5, I don't have much choice.


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[Assistant] If I'm asking for how many ways can I make one of these numbers to be divisible by 5, the last one has to be 5.


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[Assistant] And so the other digits that I have to play with are 3, 4, and 6. Of the other ones, 3, 4, and 6, which are somewhere here,


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[Assistant] The number of ways I can put them there, for the same reason as before, is three factorial, which is three ways to decide what goes in the first one, two ways to decide what's in the second one, one way to decide what's in the third one, so this is six.


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[Assistant] The previous one, 4 factorial, was 24.


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[Assistant] And so the probability that it's divisible by 5 is just 6 divided by 24.


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[Assistant] Which is one fourth. And this would be one way to do the problem. But I want to share another way of doing the problem.


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[Assistant] The other way of doing the problem is to think backward.


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[Assistant] And actually to remember a little bit more deeply why I actually multiply when I do 4 times 3 times 2 times 1. It's nice to know the deep reason why you do something, not just the formula, because then you can use that power to do more.


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[Assistant] Here's an interesting way that I can think of how to make these 4 times 3 times 2 times 1 numbers. Let's think from the right hand side. What are these numbers like anyway?


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[Assistant] These are the possible last digits. I'm drawing a tree diagram. And I'm gonna do the 4 times 3 times 2 times 1 backwards.


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[Assistant] If I know these are my last digits of the number, well then what could the second last digit of the number be? If the last digit was 3,


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[Assistant] If the last digit was 5, the second last digit could be 3 or 4 or 6. If the last digit was 6,


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[Assistant] The second last digit could be 3 or 4 or 5.


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[Assistant] You see, there were four ways to do this split, and then there are always three ways to do that split.


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[Assistant] And then we have to keep going, because over here, if I have now a 4 as my second last digit and a 3 as my last digit, the two possibilities for the


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[Assistant] Here, I can have four or six. And here, I can have four or five. And you can see that all of these trees would expand. For example, this one here, this one would go to either


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[Assistant] Four or five. This one would either go to three or five. This would either go to three or four.


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[Assistant] But the important thing is all these trees expand in the same way, and in the very, very end, just to make one of them complete for the drawing.


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[Assistant] Here, three, four, five. This one there's only one choice to finish.


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[Assistant] Here, I already have a 3, 4, 6. And so this one, the only thing left is 5. Here is a 3, 5, 4, the only thing left is 6. This is a 3, 5, 6, the only thing left is 4. This is a 3, 6, 4, the only thing left is 5.


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[Assistant] This is a 3, 6, 5, the only thing left is 4. And I'm showing that always these expand. And that's the real reason why you say there are four ways that this breaks, and each of these breaks in three ways, and then each of those breaks in two ways always, and the last one always has only one coming out. Ah! But I'm only looking at probability.


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[Assistant] If I care that the last digit is five, can you see why it's one quarter chance that the last digit is five?


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[Assistant] Yes, because if I'm doing this from the right hand side out, everything that comes out in this one, this tree, is one of the ones that I want to cut.


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[Assistant] And all of these four trees are the same size.


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[Assistant] And therefore, there's exactly a 1 out of 4 chance that my number is a multiple of 5.


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[Assistant] This is just showing two different ways. One way is to know formulas and to multiply. That works well. Another way is to think about this picture. This one might have looked like the slower way.


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[Assistant] But I'll actually share that if you know this way, if you know this way of thinking, it's actually the faster way. And you can look at the problem, and you can actually just say, oh, I would go from the right side, and I have a one in four chance of having a five. Done. One quarter.


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[Assistant] I saw some fantastic things, I think there's going to be some great dishes out of those flavours.


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[Assistant] I think it's a great thing that she's actually tempered the chocolate and she's placed it on the outside. But I think with the elements that she had, if she took that cake rather than blending it up and did something else with it, you've got meringue there, you've got chocolate, you know a little bit of texture, a little bit of orange, it could have been something


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[Assistant] That balances perfectly with the cinnamon. The texture of the sauce is fantastic. And just a really beautiful, simple dessert.


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[Assistant] I think if you eat everything together, there's a predominant flavour of banana. I think the textures go nicely together. Not the most innovative dish, but the flavour overall is quite nice.


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[Assistant] Unfortunately, I have to say his jam was too runny and to fix that, he's obviously added gelatin to it, which has made it way too firm. He's added too much gelatin. If you're creating a dish that people eat frequently and lambington is one of those, you need to absolutely smash it and make a beautiful one.


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[Assistant] And the first contestant ever to wear two immunity pins.


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[Assistant] Does having two pins make it an easier decision?


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[Assistant] Okay, Sashi, you are safe. Please head up to the gantry.


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[Assistant] You have two hours and fifteen minutes to recreate Katherine's birthday cake. Everything that you need. Ingredients, recipes are all at your ventures.


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[Assistant] You all know what's at stake. Make the least impressive version and you go home.


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[Assistant] So pay attention to the detail, remember the taste, the flavour, the texture, because your place in the competition relies on it. Catherine, would you like to kick them off?


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[Assistant] Okay, I mean, number one, I think it's beautifully constructed. I love the, uh, the balance between sponge and buttercream and also the distribution of fruit side.


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[Assistant] You don't get a super snap, which is a shame.


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[Assistant] Thank you for coming in and thank you for inspiring and putting our contestants, uh, to task.


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[Assistant] I'm pretty confident with the taste test today. We'd always go to the ice cream shop down the road from our house and I'd always taste a few more than what I was gonna get. I had a look at number 12 first, I think I'm gonna go with that.


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[Assistant] The last person left cooks off against a professional chef in round two.


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[Assistant] I'm really on the fence with lavender or grape. It's a weird flavour in my mouth and I'm not sure. Grape?


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[Assistant] Kristen's into round two and I'm so stoked for her. She deserves this shot and I hope she goes well. Well done.


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[Assistant] I'm having a heart attack. She's gotta get this chocolate disc on top of her mousse. Even if it shatters to pieces, something's gotta go on the plate.


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[Assistant] Well then, shall we proceed? Uh, but I thought this door was sealed so that none may


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[Assistant] Sure have. So, does this mean I passed the test?


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[Assistant] Oh come on, we both know you didn't need to worry about me. After all, I am the son of Seto the Watcher.


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[Assistant] Wait, is it just me or does that sound like a weapon?


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[Assistant] Hey, I was wondering, do you believe in fate? That something out there controls our future?


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[Assistant] You need to get that in the oven before Alice comes into this kitchen.


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[Assistant] Kristin had to choose between three flavours. Okay. Chocolate, vanilla and strawberry.


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[Assistant] Showing here on this Neapolitan ice cream. She chose chocolate. Okay. That's your hero ingredient. But you cannot use vanilla or strawberry. Okay. Whatever else is in the pantry is an open slapper.


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[Assistant] No, not at all, not at all. What are you thinking?


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[Assistant] Listen up Alice, Kristen. Time is ticking. 30 minutes to go. It is time to get your skates on.


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[Assistant] Kristen, Ellis, I'm concerned that both of you are running out of time. There is only 20 minutes to go. You need to motor on. Hurry!


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[Assistant] Home stretch. Ten minutes to go.


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[Assistant] A lot of ups and downs. Look, time is really tough when you're doing pastry, I think. It's extremely challenging.


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[Assistant] Regrettably, we have no intelligence to present at this time.


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[Assistant] X-Soldier. P-Zero class. A prototype.


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[Assistant] Fifteen years ago, he was sent to Redor on a geological survey, which ended in failure and led to his defection.


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[Assistant] Subsequently, Ladbrok took to the road, seeking to forge connections with others who shared his anti-Shinra sentiments.


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[Assistant] I'm afraid I do not, sir.


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[Assistant] The fall of the republic triggered a spate of uprisings in the surrounding regions.


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[Assistant] We suspect the SRC is largely comprised of forces who were defeated during the unrest.


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[Assistant] We've harnessed electricity, sequenced the human genome, and eradicated smallpox.


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[Assistant] But after billions of dollars in research, we haven't found a solution for a disease that affects more than 14 million people and their families at any given time.


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[Assistant] Cancer arises as normal cells accumulate mutations.


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[Assistant] However, some mutations allow cancerous cells to grow unchecked and invade nearby tissues or even metastasize to distant organs.


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[Assistant] It's not just one disease. There are more than 100 different types, and we don't have a magic bullet that can cure all of them.


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[Assistant] For most cancers, treatments usually include a combination of surgery to remove tumors and radiation and chemotherapy to kill any cancerous cells left behind.


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[Assistant] Hormone therapies, immunotherapy, and targeted treatments tailored for a specific type of cancer are sometimes used too.


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[Assistant] In many cases, these treatments are effective and the patient becomes cancer-free.


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[Assistant] But they're very far from 100% effective 100% of the time.


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[Assistant] So what would we have to do to find cures for all the different forms of cancer?


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[Assistant] We're beginning to understand a few of the problems scientists would have to solve. First of all, we need new, better ways of studying cancer.


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[Assistant] Most cancer treatments are developed using cell lines grown in labs from cultures of human tumors.


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[Assistant] These cultured cells have given us critical insights about cancer genetics and biology, but they lack much of the complexity of a tumor in an actual living organism.


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[Assistant] It's frequently the case that new drugs which work on these lab-grown cells will fail in clinical trials with real patients.


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[Assistant] One of the complexities of aggressive tumors is that they can have multiple populations of slightly different cancerous cells.


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[Assistant] Over time, distinct genetic mutations accumulate in cells in different parts of the tumor, giving rise to unique subclones.


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[Assistant] For example, aggressive brain tumors called glioblastomas can have as many as six different subclones in a single patient.


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[Assistant] This is called clonal heterogeneity, and it makes treatment difficult because a drug that works on one subclone may have no effect on another. Here's another challenge.


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[Assistant] A tumor is a dynamic, interconnected ecosystem where cancer cells constantly communicate with each other and with healthy cells nearby.


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[Assistant] They can induce normal cells to form blood vessels that feed the tumor and remove waste products.


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[Assistant] They can also interact with the immune system to actually suppress its function.


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[Assistant] Keeping it from recognizing or destroying the cancer.


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[Assistant] If we could learn how to shut down these lines of communication, we'd have a better shot at vanquishing a tumor permanently.


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[Assistant] Additionally, mounting evidence suggests we'll need to figure out how to eradicate cancer stem cells.


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[Assistant] These are rare, but seem to have special properties that make them resistant to chemotherapy and radiation.


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[Assistant] In theory, even if the rest of the tumor shrinks beyond detection during treatment, a single residual cancer stem cell could seed the growth of a new tumor.


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[Assistant] Figuring out how to target these stubborn cells might help prevent cancers from coming back.


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[Assistant] Even if we solved those problems, we might face new ones.


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[Assistant] Cancer cells are masters of adaptation, adjusting their molecular and cellular characteristics to survive under stress.


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[Assistant] When they're bombarded by radiation or chemotherapy, some cancer cells can effectively switch on protective shields against whatever is attacking them by changing their gene expression.


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[Assistant] Malignant cancers are complex systems that constantly evolve and adapt.


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[Assistant] To defeat them, we need to find experimental systems that match their complexity and monitoring and treatment options that can adjust as the cancer changes. But the good news is, we're making progress.


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[Assistant] Even with all we don't know, the average mortality rate for most kinds of cancer has dropped significantly since the 1970s and is still falling.


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[Assistant] We're learning more every day, and each new piece of information gives us one more tool to add to our arsenal.


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[Assistant] History repeats, but science reverberates. That's a quote from the Pulitzer Prize winning book, The Emperor of All Maladies, a biography of cancer. We highly recommend you read or listen to this extraordinary book.


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[Assistant] If you visit audible.com slash TedEd, you can download an audio version of this book for free. TedEd is a nonprofit and using either of these methods to select your next great book helps us continue to create free educational videos for everyone.


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[Assistant] Calm down, Toad, said Rat. Mole said, We'll look after everything.


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[Assistant] Your money won't be wasted, said Badger.


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[Assistant] Toad is still screaming said Mole. We must guard him every minute.


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[Assistant] Right, down to business. A service challenge. We want you to cook a main and a dessert.


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[Assistant] In a few moments, you're gonna head off to Coles to choose what type of seafood and what kind of meat you'd like to use for this all-important service challenge.


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[Assistant] While you're there, you should also choose a hero ingredient from the fresh food section for your desserts. You can go fruits, vegetables, herbs, whatever's there.


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[Assistant] Every spring, hundreds of adventure seekers dream of climbing Chomolungma, also known as Mount Everest. At base camp, they hunker down for months.


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[Assistant] Waiting for the chance to scale the mountain's lofty, lethal peak.


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[Assistant] But why do people risk life and limb to climb Everest? Is it the challenge? The view? The chance to touch the sky?


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[Assistant] For many, the draw is Everest's status as the highest mountain on Earth. There's an important distinction to make here.


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[Assistant] Mauna Kea is actually the tallest from base to summit.


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[Assistant] Pieces of crust constantly move over, under, and around each other.


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[Assistant] For such huge continental plates, the motion is relatively quick.


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[Assistant] They move 2 to 4 centimeters per year, about as fast as fingernails grow. When two plates collide, one pushes into or underneath the other, buckling at the margins and causing what's known as uplift to accommodate the extra crust.


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[Assistant] That's how Everest came about, 50 million years ago. The Earth's Indian Plate drifted north, bumped into the bigger Eurasian Plate, and the crust crumpled, creating huge uplift.


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[Assistant] Mount Everest lies at the heart of this action, on the edge of the Indian-Eurasian collision zone. But mountains are shaped by forces other than uplift.


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[Assistant] As the land is pushed up, air masses are forced to rise as well.


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[Assistant] Rising air cools, causing any water vapor within it to condense and form rain or snow.


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[Assistant] As that falls, it wears down the landscape, dissolving rocks or breaking them down in a process known as weathering.


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[Assistant] Water moving downhill carries the weathered material and erodes the landscape, carving out deep valleys and jagged peaks.


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[Assistant] This balance between uplift and erosion gives a mountain its shape.


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[Assistant] But compare the celestial peaks of the Himalayas to the comforting hills of Appalachia. Clearly, all mountains are not alike.


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[Assistant] That's because time comes into the equation, too. When continental plates first collide, uplift happens fast. The peaks grow tall with steep slopes. Over time, however, gravity and water wear them down. Eventually, erosion overtakes uplift, wearing down peaks faster than they're pushed up. A third factor shapes mountains, climate.


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[Assistant] In sub-zero temperatures, some snowfall doesn't completely melt away, instead slowly compacting until it becomes ice.


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[Assistant] That forms the snow line, which occurs at different heights around the planet depending on climate.


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[Assistant] At the freezing poles, the snow line is at sea level.


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[Assistant] Near the equator, you have to climb 5 kilometers before it gets cold enough for ice to form.


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[Assistant] Gathered ice starts flowing under its own immense weight.


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[Assistant] Forming a slow moving frozen river, known as a glacier, which grinds the rocks below.


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[Assistant] The steeper the mountains, the faster ice flows, and the quicker it carves the underlying rock.


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[Assistant] Glaciers can erode landscapes swifter than rain and rivers. Where glaciers cling to mountain peaks, they sand them down so fast they lop the tops off, like giant snowy buzzsaws.


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[Assistant] So then, how did the icy Mount Everest come to be so tall?


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[Assistant] The cataclysmic continental clash from which it arose made it huge to begin with.


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[Assistant] Secondly, the mountain lies near the tropics, so the snow line is high and the glacier's relatively small, barely big enough to whittle it down.


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[Assistant] The mountain exists in a perfect storm of conditions that maintain its impressive stature.


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[Assistant] But that won't always be the case. We live in a changing world where the continental plates, Earth's climate, and the planet's erosive power might one day conspire to cut Mount Everest down to size.


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[Assistant] For now at least, it remains legendary in the minds of hikers, adventurers, and dreamers alike.


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[Assistant] Our nose consists of a mucus membrane which secretes a slimy substance called mucus. However, sometimes, this membrane produces excess mucus which comes out of our nostrils. Thus causing a condition called rhinorrhea.


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[Assistant] Popularly known as runny nose. But why is our body producing mucus in the first place? For protection.


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[Assistant] Mucus contains mucins, which give mucus its gel-like properties, helping it trap germs, dust, etc., and thus preventing them from entering our body. Mucus also contains antibodies and immune cells, which kill germs and other foreign particles.


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[Assistant] Besides this, yukus even warms and moisturizes the inhaled air, thus preventing our breathing passage from getting damaged. Topic? Human nose. Why do we get nosebleeds? I don't know. Alright, I'll explain.


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[Assistant] Each of our nostrils has a mass of blood vessels called chisel box plexus. Which is very close to the skin surface. Now, usually the mucus moisturizes the skin in our nose, thus protecting the blood vessels in it. Wow.


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[Assistant] Mucus is so useful. Yes, it is. However, during winter the air is dry.


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[Assistant] Because it is not that strong to make me run. Heh. Nah.


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[Assistant] Now, spicy food items like chili, mustard, horseradish and wasabi contain chemicals called capsaicin and allyl isothiocyanate.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At least once think of a sensible answer. A sneeze is controlled by the trigeminal nerve present in our face. When irritants like dust and pollen enter our nose, the trigeminal nerve triggers sneezing to expel them out with huge force and pressure.


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[Assistant] Normally, sneeze should not be stopped, but in exceptional situations. A relatively safe way to stop a sneeze is to press our finger above our upper lip.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, come here to try and provide more for my family and this, this means so much, I'm sure to all of us.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This superpower means that I can choose not to be tasted in any cook. You know, it's just a safety blanket.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm going to make like a duck noodle soup, uhm, with like a lemongrass, chilli and coriander broth.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know, my father's saying we cook a million times, but this is definitely a different scenario, so I'm glad he's here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm going to make raviolo with a mushroom and chicken broc with a parmesan oil and some mushrooms on top.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm making a ricotta and mushroom raviolo with a chicken and mushroom broth. I want it to be a brilliant dish and, you know, really show how far I've come.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've played my superpower. I can't risk being in the bottom and going to a pressure test.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We've just had such an amazing experience, but I'm so happy to be back in the MasterChef kitchen.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm gonna do a smoked vanilla ice cream with grilled plums, a meringue, and some rosemary.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Got the meringue in the mixer. Now I need to cool and smoke my anglaise.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I think maybe about five minutes with a little gentle smoke on the Englaise will give it a nice flavour.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh wow, like an hour to split up three dishes, that's not a lot of time. And smoking the ice cream and having a really strong flavor like rosemary in my dish could overpower the flavor of vanilla. But I think I got through in the end.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I was lucky enough to have vanilla. Yep. Which I was really happy with. And what did you cook? So I did a smoked vanilla ice cream, some poached and charred plums, and then the rosemary and vanilla meringue. Beautiful.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I head out to the garden to grab some of the nasturtium leaves and flowers.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And whilst I'm out there, I find some of the little baby wild strawberries.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I got it some underripe ones as well because they're nice and acidic and I really like underripe strawberries so I'm gonna use them. And I got some nasturtium because it's quite peppery and uhm, I think that will be a good added element to the plate to really carry through the pepper.