[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The money in this bank of course. I'm sorry, this is not a bank. This is a library. What did you say?


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[Assistant] Have you got a library card? A card? No, I haven't.


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[Assistant] What are your names? Oh, alright. I'm Ronald Savage and he's Sydney Dupree. Ronald Savage. Sydney Dupree. And what's your address?


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[Assistant] 27 Dunfor Road, Hamley.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Twenty-seven, Dunfor Road, Hamley. Good.


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[Assistant] Here you are. Now you can borrow some books. But I don't know anything about reading. You must help me. Which books are best?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Goodbye, and happy reading. Oh yes, thank you. Alright Sid, I'm coming.


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[Assistant] Well, it's important for everybody to read books. Not just you and me.


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[Assistant] Slowly, old Mrs. White went back into the house.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Her husband looked up and saw something strange in her face. What's the matter? He asked. Nothing, his wife answered, and she sat down to finish her breakfast. She began to think about Tom Morris again, and suddenly she said to her husband. Your friend drank a lot of whiskey last night. A monkey's paw. What a story.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Mr. White did not answer her, because just then the postman arrived. He brought two letters for them, but there was no money in them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] After breakfast, the two old people forgot about the money and the monkey's paw. Later in the day, at about one o'clock, Mr. and Mrs. White sat down to eat, and then they began to talk about money again. They did not have very much money, so they often needed to talk about it. That's thirty thousand pounds, Mrs. White said. We need it. But it didn't come this morning.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's forget it." Then he said, but that thing moved. The monkey's paw moved in my hand. Tom's story was true. You drank a lot of whiskey last night. Perhaps the paw didn't move. Mrs. White answered, it moved. Mr. White cried angrily. At first his wife did not answer, but then she said,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, Herbert laughed about it. Suddenly she stopped talking. She stood up and went over to the window. What's the matter? Her husband asked. There's a man in front of our house. Mrs. White answered. He's a stranger, very tall and well dressed. He's looking at our house. Oh no, it's okay. He's going away.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Come and sit down. Finish eating, Mr. White said. The old woman did not listen to her husband. He isn't going away, she went on. He's coming back. I don't know him. He's a stranger. Yes, he's very well dressed. Suddenly Mrs. White stopped. She was very excited. He's coming to the door.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Perhaps he's bringing the money! And she ran out of the room to open the front door. The tall well-dressed stranger stood there. For a minute he said nothing, but then he began, Good afternoon. I'm looking for Mr. and Mrs. White.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, I'm Mrs. White, the old woman answered. What can I do for you? At first the stranger did not answer. But then he said, Mrs. White, I'm from Moore and Megan's. Can I come in and talk to you? Moore and Megan's had a big factory, and Herbert White worked there on the machinery. Yes, of course, Mrs. White answered.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The well-dressed stranger came into the little living room and Mr. White stood up. Are you Mr. White? The stranger began. Then he went on. I'm from Moore and Meggins. Mrs. White looked at the stranger and she thought. Perhaps he has the money. But why Moore and Meggins? And his face is very unhappy. Why?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Suddenly the old woman was afraid. Please sit down. Mr. White began, but now his wife could not wait. What's the matter? She cried. Is Herbert? She could not finish the question. The stranger did not look at their faces and Mr. White began to be afraid too. Please tell us, he said. I'm very sorry.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The man from Moore and Megan's began. He stopped for a minute, and then he began again. I'm very sorry.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But this morning there was an accident at the factory. What's the matter? Is Herbert okay? Mrs. White cried again. Well, the man began slowly. Is he in hospital? The old woman asked, very afraid now. Yes, but


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The stranger looked at Mrs. White's face and stopped.


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[Assistant] Not dead? Mrs. White cried. Oh no! Please! Not dead! Not Herbert! Not our son!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Suddenly the old woman stopped because she saw the stranger's face. Then the two old people knew. Their son was dead.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Old Mrs. White began to cry quietly, and Mr. White put his arm round her.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sometime later the man from Moor and Megan said, It was the machinery, an accident. Herbert called help. The men heard him and ran to him quickly, but they could do nothing. The next minute he was in the machinery. I'm very, very sorry. He finished.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For a minute or two, the room was quiet. At last Mrs. White said, Our son. Dead. We're never going to see him again. What are we going to do without him? Her husband said, He was our son. We loved him. Then Mrs. White asked the stranger, Can we see him? Can we see our son?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Please take me to him. I want to see my son. But the stranger answered quickly. No, he said. It's better not to see him. They couldn't stop the machinery quickly. He was in there for a long time. And at first they couldn't get him out. He was, the man stopped. Then he said, don't go to see him.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The stranger went over to the window because he did not want to see the faces of the two old people. He said nothing. But he stood there for some time and he waited.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then he went back to the old people and began to talk again.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Your son worked for Moore and Meggins for six years, and he was a good worker.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Moore and Meggins want to give you some money. Then he put something into Mr. White's hand. Old Mr. White did not look at the money in his hand.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Slowly he stood up and looked at the stranger, afraid. How much? Mr. White asked very quietly. He did not want to hear the answer. 30,000 pounds, the stranger said.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, he's on the monitor. His BP's falling. He's flatlining.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We've managed to stabilize Frankie, but he's not out of the woods yet. He's still in critical condition. We're moving him to intensive care but


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ellen, uh, get him hooked up to a monitor. Somebody page Dr. Hauser. Get the patient to hold still. I can't get a pulse.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, he's on the monitor. His BP's falling. He's flatlining.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Someone get her out of here! Get me the defibrillator! Okay, clear? Again, clear? Come on dammit, I'm not letting go of you. Clear! I got a pulse? Okay, what's happening?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The patient is in acute respiratory failure. I think we're going to have to innovate. Alright, tubes in.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We've managed to stabilize Frankie, but he's not out of the woods yet. He's still in critical condition. We're moving him to intensive care, but


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, he's on the monitor. His BP's falling. He's flatlining.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We've managed to stabilize Frankie, but he's not out of the woods yet. He's still in critical condition. We're moving him to intensive care but


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I don't care where they are. I don't care what it takes. You find them and bring them to me!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The cod population off Canada's east coast collapsed in the 1990s.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Intense recreational and commercial fishing has decimated Goliath grouper populations in South Florida.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And most populations of tuna have plummeted by over 50%, with the southern Atlantic bluefin on the verge of extinction. Those are just a couple of many examples. Overfishing is happening all over the world. How did this happen?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When some people think of fishing, they imagine relaxing in a boat and patiently reeling in the day's catch.


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[Assistant] But modern industrial fishing, the kind that stocks our grocery shelves, looks more like warfare.


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[Assistant] In fact, the technologies they employ were developed for war.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Radar, sonar, helicopters, and spotter planes are all used to guide factory ships towards dwindling schools of fish. Long lines with hundreds of hooks or huge nets round up massive amounts of fish, along with other species like seabirds, turtles, and dolphins.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And Fisher hauled up onto giant boats, complete with onboard flash freezing and processing facilities.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] All of these technologies have enabled us to catch fish at greater depths and farther out at sea than ever before.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And as the distance and depth of fishing have expanded, so has the variety of species we target.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For example, the Patagonian toothfish neither sounds nor looks very appetizing. And fishermen ignored it until the late 1970s.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then it was rebranded and marketed to chefs in the US as Chilean sea bass, despite the animal actually being a type of cod.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Soon it was popping up in markets all over the world and is now a delicacy.


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[Assistant] Unfortunately, these deep water fish don't reproduce until they're at least 10 years old.


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[Assistant] Making them extremely vulnerable to overfishing when the young are caught before they've had a chance to spawn.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Consumer chase and prices can also have harmful effects.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For example, shark fin soup is considered such a delicacy in China and Vietnam that the fin has become the most profitable part of the shark.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This leads many fishermen to fill their boats with fins, leaving millions of dead sharks behind.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The problems aren't unique to toothfish and sharks. Almost 31% of the world's fish populations are overfished, and another 58% are fished at the maximum sustainable level.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wild fish simply can't reproduce as fast as 7 billion people can eat them. Fishing also has impacts on broader ecosystems.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wild shrimp are typically caught by dragging nets the size of a football field along the ocean bottom, disrupting or destroying seafloor habitats. The catch is often as little as 5% shrimp.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The rest is bycatch, unwanted animals that are thrown back dead. And coastal shrimp farming isn't much better.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Mangroves are bulldozed to make room for shrimp farms, robbing coastal communities of storm protection and natural water filtration, and depriving fish of key nursery habitats.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what does it look like to give fish a break and let them recover? Protection can take many forms.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In national waters, governments can set limits about how, when, where, and how much fishing occurs with restrictions on certain boats and equipment.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Harmful practices such as bottom trolling can be banned altogether.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And we can establish marine reserves close to all fishing to help ecosystems restore themselves.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's also a role for consumer awareness and boycotts to reduce wasteful practices like shark finning and push fishing industries towards more sustainable practices.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Past interventions have successfully helped depleted fish populations recover. There are many solutions.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The best approach for each fishery must be considered based on science, respect for the local communities that rely on the ocean, and for fish as wild animals. And then the rules must be enforced.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] International collaboration is often needed too, because fish don't care about our borders. We need to end over fishing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ecosystems, food security, jobs, economies, and coastal cultures all depend on it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know what? I'd love to help you, but I'm about to meet an important client.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Do you want to try Sean instead? He sits right over there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Soon there isn't going to be enough salt in the world. I saw it on television. Not enough salt? Really? It's true. So I'm buying some now. Goodbye. Did you hear that?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, there isn't enough salt in the world. Not enough salt? That isn't true. But he saw it on television.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Soon there isn't gonna be any in the stores. Really? That's bad. I need salt. Me too. I can't live without it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Give me some sulk, please. Ten bags. No! Make that twenty bags. And me! I'd like thirty bags.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then it's true! He was right! There isn't-


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Excuse me, I want to buy some salt.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sorry? What did you say? I know about the problem. What problem? What are you talking about? Soon there isn't going to be enough salt. Oh, you heard about that. Yes, and I want some salt.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh dear. But you have some. You bought ten large bags. I saw you. I'm sorry, but I'm not selling my salt. But I'll give you ten dollars a bag.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] No, I want fifty dollars a bag. It's more expensive every day. Soon, there isn't going to be enough.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, alright. Fifty dollars a bag. Give me five bags. Here's the money. Good man. You're doing the right thing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, alright, but it's, uh, a hundred dollars a bag. Oh no! I told you, everybody wants salt.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You understand the world, my friend. I see it in your face. Here's the money. And here's your salt. Goodbye.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hey you, stop! Are you talking to me? Yes, you were in the grocery store.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Was I? Perhaps. I go into a lot of grocery stores. You bought all the salt in the store.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, there's a problem, you know. Yes, there is, and it's all because of you. That's not true. I met Spratley just now. He tried to sell me a bag of salt for five hundred dollars. That's too much. Of course it is. I know your plan.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, it's true. I buy and sell salt. That's not wrong. Then sell some to me. No, I don't want to. Listen, I'm going to buy and you're going to sell. Do you understand?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But I've only got one bag left. Give it to me then. It's two hundred dollars.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, okay, you can have it for a hundred and fifty, but let me go! Give it to me! No! Give me the money first! Now let me go!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But why did he run across the street without looking? I was angry with him, so he ran away. How do you feel?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh, my leg! My leg hurts! I think it's... He's okay, I think. Wait a minute. What's this in the street?


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[Assistant] It doesn't matter. I can't tell you now.


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[Assistant] Brendan, back in the competition. Yes. Happy to see you. Aren't we, everybody?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But there's another reason to be happy. In fact, a whole week's worth of reasons to be happy. Because this is Sweet Week.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's a few puzzled looks on your faces, so it's going to be an interesting mystery box. Some rules?


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[Assistant] Citric acid and bicarb. So, uh, lots of opportunity to make some really interesting stuff.


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[Assistant] We're going to be tasting the five most appealing dishes in the mystery box.


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[Assistant] Because today, we're not just looking for the dish of the day.


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[Assistant] We're looking for the two best dishes.


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[Assistant] Two people going through two immunities. So, there's a lot on the line. I mean, if this is your thing, you've got a chance to really shine this week.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sweet Week is a thrill, but winning, that's the sweetest thing ever. 30 minutes to go. Come on!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What a brilliant cook and a brilliant start to sweet week. You've obviously been inspired by having Adriano Zumbo in the house.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Remember, we're only tasting five dishes and the best two see their makers go straight through to the immunity challenge. Get this tasting underway. First up, Ben.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] How's it all gone? You look disappointed now you've put it up. What's happened? I'm not sure. Two frozen elements on there and a bit squishy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So congratulations to our two winners. You've got immunity to look forward to. I wonder what will happen and you're safe so you can now head up to the balcony. Good job. Well done you two.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So here are the rules, you've got two hours to create your own croquembouche.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You also have an open pantry and the gardens at play so you can be super creative. We're going to be tasting every croquembouche. The team with the best croquembouche.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So flavour, look, creativity. We'll join Ben and Reese in this week's immunity challenge. However,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The two pairs with the least impressive croquembouches will face tomorrow's pressure test. Nice and clear? Got the creative juices going? Can't wait. Your time starts now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wow, what a day. Adriano, thanks so much for being here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We're looking for the best team to join recent Ben in the immunity challenge. And then of course we're looking for the two least impressive teams and they'll find themselves in tomorrow's pressure test.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's interesting, isn't it, because I'm a big caramel fan and what you've got is caramel on caramel and it becomes very same-same as you start eating it. So I think that's the problem. You spend a long time making something that just gives you one flavour. Thank you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] One, the shoe bun is absolutely brilliant. It's thin, it's crisp, it's very, very delicate. And then you get that lovely croque on that crusty top that just is beautiful. And then beyond that, those custards, both of them that you've made, the texture is absolutely beautiful.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You two look nervous as hell now, you've heard some criticism.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, originally it was going to be cubic. You said you had this idea of two cubes. What happened to that one?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Into an adventurist. But nice to see you managed to kind of grab this at the end and pull it together. It doesn't look too bad, although it looks a little burny through there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The very heart of the dessert as a Krongenbush is the shoebunt. They're not puffy, they're heavy. And you tried your very best to fix it, but I think you're in real trouble. We'll just have to see how it comes out in the mix. So, cross your fingers, girls. Thank you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Calculate the efficient portfolio frontier, uh, which expresses the standard deviation of the portfolio in terms of r, the expected return on the portfolio, instead of x1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I calculated for two investments, U.S. stocks and U.S. bonds, using their historical expected returns, standard deviations, uh, uh, and covariances, variances and covariances.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what we have on this axis is the standard deviation of return and we have on this axis the expected annual return. So uhm,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And these are the possibilities that we calculate with the formula.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's consider a couple of special cases I have shown here. I could put all my assets into stocks.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, and now, uh, then I would get an expected return equal to the return on stocks. Or I could invest entirely in bonds, and I could, I would be at this point here on the diagram. Bonds, these are long-term bonds, they're risky because they're long-term.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Have historically had a lower standard deviation of annual return, but also a lower expected return.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I could, I could achieve that by putting all of my money in bonds and I can achieve this by putting all of my money in stocks.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, what if I put half my money in stocks and half in bonds? That puts me right here. So what we see is that there's, uh, an infinite number of possibilities. Oh, by the way, I could go more than 100% stocks if you like. I could go out here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that looks like it's something like 120% in stocks and minus 20% in bonds. So to do that, I'd have to short the bond market and buy the stock market. I could do that. I can do anything. It's just those two formulas I just showed you, the single formula for this curve. So what do you like? If you were investing your money, and I showed you this,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, what would you pick? Suppose you picked here, then another advisor would come up and say, you idiot, you could have picked up here. And then you would have gotten...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The whole curve here, below the minimum variance point, is dominated. It's called the dominated, you don't ever want to be there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, well what David Swenson says, you know who was there before he arrived? Yale University was there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They had some fuddy-duddy investment advisors who would say, you know, we've advised, uh, endowments of portfolios over the years. And we find that for an institution like Yale University, they would do well to put their money in sound, safe government bonds. And so, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Actually it wasn't David Swenson who first pointed out the foolishness of it. It was starting to come in with the whole capital asset pricing model. I think there was a Ford Foundation study of university endowments in the 60s that pointed out that universities are just stupidly putting their money in bonds.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It used to be considered just smart. You know, it was almost like religion. You had to do things the right way. In Europe, a lot of, uh, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's what they should have thought of this. It wasn't safe, uh, and they were undiversified, and they were doing the underperforming under-diversified asset. So, but it still takes a while, you know, you have a university, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, corporations or boards, uh, tend to be filled with very old-fashioned educators. They can't imagine putting money in the stock market. Uh, but David Swenson changed that. So you don't ever want to be down here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But you want to pick some point up here depending on your risk.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And it, it's a matter of taste where along this frontier you choose to go. Uh, so here now I have the same curve that I showed you before for stocks and bonds. And now let's add a third asset, uh, called oil. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I did this with actual variances and covariances, uh, when I did this diagram.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Forget this diagonal line for the moment. Now I have three assets, stock, bonds, and oil. Uh, and so what is the minimum variant, minimum standard deviation I can get for any given expected return? And you can see there, it gets more complicated now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The minimum variance portfolio, the minimum standard deviation portfolio would be 9% oil, 27% stocks, and 64% bonds.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, and here's, uh, 28% oil, 115% stocks, minus 44% bonds. All those things are possible. And so, uh, now you might say, I should take the minimum standard deviation, shouldn't I? Or is that right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, not generally, right, because you're sacrificing some return for that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You have to pick a point that reflects your taste. So now that we've added oil, you should not own a portfolio with just stocks and bonds in it. Uh, because the new portfolio frontier dominates


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In other words, you can get the same return with a lower standard deviation. So pudding, now oil is a risky asset as you know recently. I did this chart, uh,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Some years ago, so this is not updated. But what we're seeing lately confirms oil is risky. It, it, it has, it was up to $150 a barrel or over that in 2008 and now it's under $30 a barrel. It's jumping around wildly.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So you might say, I'm going to stay away from oil. But the answer is, no you shouldn't.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You should have, you want everything in your portfolio, but maybe you want something like, uh, like this point. So you're only 21% exposed to oil, 79% stock. That sounds like a reasonable point. Uh, there are various possibilities here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the point is, you don't want to, uh, you don't want to just invest in stocks and bonds. Once you add oil, there's more, uh, there's more opportunity to achieve expected return without risk.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, well it's going to be a mixed message.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] See, there is something inherently, uh, unsatisfying about investing in the stock market because you're putting yourself on the line


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, and you can't possibly assess them all. Uh, risks of financial crisis, risks of, I would say, psychologically induced panics.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so, many people around the world have concluded, I'm just going to stay out of stocks, for example, because, uh, it's just a quagmire.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I know that I can't figure out these investments and people are trying to sell me on these. I don't trust them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I think, you know, the free market system that we have just kind of looks bad to a lot of people. And you see people being taken advantage of sometimes. Uh, and you think there should be a purer system.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That led a lot of people to, towards various forms of socialism. But on the other hand,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It just seems like all the fun stuff is happening in capitalist countries. I don't know if you say capitalist, but countries that have markets and prices and let people do things for themselves on their own initiative and suffer the consequences. Uh, so the world has come in this direction.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You can't really escape the fundamental problem.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That business involves intuitive judgment, risk taking, uh, you'll never know all of the risks, you know, that you have to at some point just think, hey, I'm just going to try it. Uh, and you might get, uh, a bad outcome.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As funny as this system looks, it's a good system.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Gilbert, can I come with you to America? What? Oh, Gilbert, please listen to me. I said, can I come to America too?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes, Gilbert, I said, can I come with you?


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[Assistant] I remember my new friend. It was your best film. It was my best film too. They were happy days.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I had a good director. Gilbert Lawson.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Gilbert, can I be in this film too? I want to be an actress again.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Can we go to America together then? Not for a film. Just you and me. Perhaps next year?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You can't stand up and have a coke and a sandwich? Wait a minute. I know you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What's, what's that name on your bag? Henry Gilbert Lawson. I know you now. Gilbert!


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[Assistant] They all died. All the people on the plane. Oh, Jenny.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes you were. You were at the British Airways check-in desk. You said, be happy, then you left.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hello, Laura? Laura, this is Jenny Lawson. We were at school together. Laura, I saw you at the airport, remember? And... Oh. What is Laura saying? She said, I wasn't at the airport. Laura, one question. Do you write books now? Yes. Thank you. She writes books.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At the airport, father said be happy. And Henry Gilbert Lawson said be an actress again. I understand. I understand now too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My darling husband, I'm going to be an actress for you again. A good actress. Thank you. So sleep now, my darling.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So you've already written a line or two of JavaScript. But what exactly is JavaScript? And what can we do with it? Well, that's exactly what we're going to find out in this video. And so in this lecture, we will set the stage for the rest of the course. And so it's really important that you follow this one until the end.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, we can define JavaScript in many different ways. But my definition is that it's a high-level, object-oriented, multi-paradigm programming language. And with that being said, can we move on to the next lecture now?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, probably not. Because what does any of that actually mean? So let's deconstruct this just a little bit to at least make some sense out of this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And starting with programming language itself, a programming language is basically just a tool that allows us to write code that will instruct a computer to do something. And of course, that's our main goal of using JavaScript, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then I go on and say that JavaScript is a high-level language, which means that we don't have to think about a lot of complex stuff, such as managing the computer's memory while it runs our program.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in JavaScript, there are a lot of so-called abstractions over all these small details that we don't want to worry about. And this makes the language a lot easier to write and to learn.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Next, I say that JavaScript is object-oriented, and all that means is that the language is mostly based on the concept of objects for storing most kinds of data. And of course we will learn all about object-oriented programming throughout this course.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Finally, JavaScript is also a multi-paradigm language, meaning that it's so flexible and versatile that we can use all kinds of different programming styles, such as imperative and declarative programming. And these different styles are just different ways of structuring our code, basically.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Again, you will learn all about this throughout the course. This is just the first very high level overview, but I hope it's been making sense so far.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Anyway, now that we know what JavaScript actually is, at least kind of, what is the role that it plays in web development? Or in other words, what do we actually use it for?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And to answer that question, let's actually look at the three core technologies of the web. HTML, CSS, and of course, JavaScript.


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[Assistant] So these three technologies all work together to create beautiful, interactive, and dynamic websites or web applications.


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[Assistant] Now, the HTML is responsible for the content of the page. So the text, the images, the buttons, and all the content that you see on the webpage is always written in HTML.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then the CSS is responsible for the presentation of that content. So basically for styling and for laying out the elements on a webpage.


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[Assistant] And then, finally, JavaScript is the real programming language of the Internet. And it allows developers to add dynamic and interactive effects to any web page.


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[Assistant] We also use it to manipulate the content or the CSS, load data from remote servers, and really build entire applications in the browser, which we then call web applications.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now we can also use the analogy of nouns, adjectives and verbs to make the separation of roles a bit easier to understand.


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[Assistant] So in this analogy, HTML represents the nouns, for example, saying that the p element is a paragraph. And so paragraph is the noun here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The CSS then is the adjective, because it describes the noun. Like this piece of CSS saying, the paragraph text is red. And so here, red is the adjective describing the noun.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And finally, JavaScript is of course the verb. Like saying, hide the paragraph.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so here we are doing something, and so we have a verb.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, does that make sense? Now, since we've been talking a lot about dynamic effects and web applications here, let's now actually take a look at a real example to make it even more clear what JavaScript is capable of.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so this is the Twitter web application on twitter.com. And there is a lot happening as we open a profile page like this one. And so I thought that this was a very cool example.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So right off the bat, you see that there are these two rotating spinners on the page, meaning that JavaScript is probably loading some data from the Twitter service in the background.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then, as the data arrives, JavaScript hides these spinners and instead shows the loaded content.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this is a very cool example of manipulating styles and content, right? But there's also some simpler dynamic effects on this page. Like JavaScript showing the tweet box whenever we hit the tweet button and then hides it as we click outside of that box.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And finally, JavaScript also displays this really nice user information as we hover our mouse over any user on Twitter. And it probably also loads this data on the fly.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, a lot of cool stuff going on here, and it's all powered by JavaScript. How cool is that? And in fact, by the end of the course, you will actually know how to use all of these techniques that we just saw here. And so I hope that this makes you even more excited about all the content ahead.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, now that we saw what JavaScript is really capable of, let's quickly recap and also look at other cool stuff that we can build with the power of JavaScript.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So as you already know, JavaScript allows us to add dynamic effects to pages. And, in fact, to build entire web applications in the browser.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And these applications feel almost like the apps that we use on our computers and phones every single day. So we can say that JavaScript is what made modern web development and really the whole modern web itself possible in the first place.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, if you're already somewhat familiar with the web development industry, you probably heard of modern JavaScript libraries and frameworks such as React, Angular, or Vue, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And if you didn't, that's absolutely no problem. All you need to know is that these are basically tools that make writing modern large-scale web applications a lot easier and faster.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, what matters here is that all these frameworks and libraries are still 100% based on JavaScript.


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[Assistant] And what this means is that you should become really, really good at JavaScript before learning and using any of these frameworks. And not just jump into your first framework after you know how to write like 10 lines of JavaScript. Okay?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Also, your library of choice might not always be as popular as it is today. And the best way to be prepared is, you guessed it, becoming really good at JavaScript. Because then you can easily learn whatever is popular next.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So no matter what anyone tells you, learning JavaScript properly is the single best investment that you can make in your web development career right now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now the JavaScript language and the web browser are actually two separate things. And what that means is that JavaScript can also run outside of web browsers.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For example, it's possible to use JavaScript on a web server using a very popular technology called Node.js, which doesn't need any browser at all.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And this allows us to create so called back-end applications, which are simply applications that run on a web server and interact with databases and stuff like that. On the other hand, when we use JavaScript in the browser, we create so called front-end applications.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in this course, we will learn the ins and outs of the JavaScript language itself and of course also how to use it in the browser in order to create all these amazing effects that we've been talking about. So basically we're going to be building front-end web applications.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And in the future, I might also add a section about Node.js at the end of this course so that you can get a sense of how we can use JavaScript outside of the browser environment as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, and now just to finish, I want to mention that we can actually also use JavaScript to build kind of native mobile applications, as well as native desktop applications for any phone and computer operating system out there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's because of modern tools like React Native, the Ionic framework, and tools like Electron. These have completely changed the whole development industry over the last couple of years, making things possible that were never possible before.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So as you can see, there's almost nothing that you can't build after becoming really good at JavaScript. Which, if you think about it, is really kind of mind-blowing. It's just amazing, because the possibilities are so endless.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, and now to finish this lecture, I want to briefly talk about JavaScript releases or versions, as you might call them. We will come back to this topic by the end of the section because it's super important, but it's also a good idea to get a first overview of JavaScript releases at this point.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Anyway, to make a long story short, there has been a huge update to the language in 2015, which is officially called ES2015. But most people just call it ES6, simply because it was the release after ES5. And by the way, ES stands for ECMAScript.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, after ES2015, there is now a yearly new release with a couple new JavaScript features. In all of these new releases, or versions, starting from ES2015 is what we call modern JavaScript. But why am I telling you all this?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, it's simply because in this course I'm going to teach you modern JavaScript right from the beginning. And I wanted to make that very clear right from the start. However, I'm also convinced that you need to understand what came before ES2015.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The reason for that is in a complete video about JavaScript releases at the end of this section. Because now, I no longer want to bore you with theory. So instead, let's now finally get started.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My first budget test, I'm not sure whether to play the pin and be safe for one more week or to take the risk and go for the challenge.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm feeling alright. Um, I'm still thinking about it. Um, there's a lot of thick-text steak.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Definitely it would be an advantage to go with 2 pins into top 10 because that gives you a guaranteed spot being in top 8 or even further in the competition. So, there's a lot of things going through my mind now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I have finally made up my mind. I know what I'm gonna do with my MUDP in today. I just hope that I've made the right choice.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Using a pin is always a bit hard for me because I like keeping them.


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[Assistant] It makes me feel that I've done justice to what I've cooked so far. It took me the whole night to really think about it and uh, yeaah. It's very hard to make a decision on that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've come this far in the competition and I'm not taking a big risk at this stage, so I'm using the pin. Sensible thing to do, my friend.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now that I'm looking at a birthday cake, I'm so relieved that I used my pin.


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[Assistant] Persevere and don't forget what makes you unique. You will find your niche market, you will find your community and your people.


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[Assistant] So you will be making something quite joyous.


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[Assistant] I'm sure you'll be fine. Colourful, very fun, smooth, sharp edges and creative flair.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The Swiss meringue buttercream stripes on the outside and tempering the white chocolate shards.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes, so they have to render the cake in this with some meringue buttercream and if you're not used to doing it, it can take some time, it can be frustrating.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I also think with cake decorating, you can just continue decorating and decorating and fussing about small parts of the cake without knowing when to walk away. So we'll just see how they go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes and you just, you forget to do crucial things in the baking process.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Just don't put your neck out, okay Jess? Watch the-


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[Assistant] I give them full credit for their tenacity, how resourceful they were and they each managed to finish all the components in the time given.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] She's layered it beautifully. Uhm, the amount of buttercream to cake is perfect. The cake is spongy, it's nice and bouncy, it's moist.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the Swiss meringue does have that eggy kind of flavour to it and I think that may have been because the egg whites were cooked.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The chocolate shards don't think the chocolate was properly tempered.


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[Assistant] Of course, there's always room to improve, but I find that in my own cooking as well, and I love improving.


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[Assistant] I do like that she's taken some creative license and she's put the raspberry pieces on the outside. It looks delicious. I would love to eat this cake. It looks like it's full of crunchy texture.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It is beautiful, and I do think it comes down to taste. Flavour reigns supreme. It has to taste good.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I love the flavour of the raspberry and the texture in there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It is a very striking cake. She's finished it beautifully. I love the shape. She is right in saying that if you do fuss with something for too long, you can start to disturb what is already perfect. It was beautiful.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But then she just kept fussing and then you have the air pockets in the first layer that has set come out. So then there is a point where you definitely have to walk away.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Swiss meringue buttercream with the raspberry. Delicious. I'm salivating as I say this.


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[Assistant] I have so much respect for what you've all been able to achieve today.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It wasn't an easy challenge, but I just loved watching you bake and decorate a cake right in front of me. And you persevered and you all presented something so striking.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the cakes were delicious. And I thank you for allowing me to learn a lot from you as well. And I hope that you've learnt some tips to make your skills in the kitchen stronger, which you can bring to MasterChef and beyond. So thank you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, we're gonna learn some phrases we can use to describe a mistake.


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[Assistant] And we're also going to learn how we can comfort someone. We can make them feel better.


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[Assistant] Well, it means you stop having a romantic relationship for a short time.


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[Assistant] But Marco and I will come back in a minute and we'll talk about some of the difficult language here.


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[Assistant] So, so if you are seeing someone, then you can also see another person.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, I think sometimes seeing someone can mean actually they're your boyfriend or girlfriend. Like, I'm seeing John, he's my boyfriend.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's different. Maybe she sold you something for a really high price.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Or yeaah, or broken or something. So, cheated on is really different from cheated.


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[Assistant] Messed this up. So Marco, this is a phrasal verb. Uhm, and that means we can sort of switch it around a little bit, right?


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[Assistant] So we've got some examples that will help you to understand this word a little bit better. Example one.


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[Assistant] Is a person who only thinks about themselves.


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[Assistant] And this will help you to understand these phrases a little bit more clearly.


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[Assistant] I know, I guess it just means stop crying, relax, and you know, take a deep breath.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] These are three really helpful phrases that you can use when you want to say something nice to a friend or a colleague who has a problem.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhmm, come to our website at EnglishPod.com and leave your comments on the lesson page.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And today we're gonna be talking about a really common situation with parents.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Exactly, and that's what we're going to be looking at is how you can ask for permission for the car, for money.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] No, you could use them in your office with your boss or for any situation where you need to ask politely.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so let's take a look at vocabulary preview.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Right. So you have different types of concerts, like a rock concert.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Exactly, where you have people playing violins and pianos. Okay, concert.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well basically we have a teenage girl who needs to go to a concert and is asking her dad for something.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, this brings back memories, but I'll tell you about that later. Uh, why don't we take a look at the vocabulary and language takeaway.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know, recently with Paris Hilton, it's more popular with things like, wow I got a new car, wow that's hot. Right.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Exactly. If I'm talking with my friends and I see a girl like, wow, she's hot. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Most popular Most popular Most popular


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[Assistant] So in every school, there's always like the most popular guy in school, the most popular girl.


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[Assistant] So even though we have the word fine in there, it's not really a nice thing to say to someone.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Exactly, okay. Okay, let's listen to our dialogue again, and then we'll talk about some more phrases.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I could say, I was wondering, can I borrow your car?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Do you think I could? Do you think I could? Do you think I could?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I can say, I was wondering, can I use your computer? Do you think I could use your computer?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I could say, would you mind holding this for me?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now there's an interesting thing here, that you have the verb in a gerund form, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Exactly. Giving, holding, finishing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Be very, very careful. Be sure to not say, would you mind to give me?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Right? That's wrong. Wrong, wrong, wrong. Wrong, wrong, wrong. So you would say, would you mind giving me? Yep. Okay. Let's listen to some more examples of these three phrases.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, my dad was exactly the same way. I would just say, dad, and he would be like, no. So, uh, he would always cut me off before I ask anything.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, exactly. But it was difficult to get him to lend me the car, for example.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh yea, I mean, he wouldn't just lend me the car, and sometimes if he did lend me the car, then the next day, he would be like, hey, you need to wash the car, or something like that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We did used to live a little bit further away from downtown, but we had a good bus system.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So it'd just be like, take the bus, it's cheaper. Stuff like that. So, so I didn't really get the car that often until I bought my own or until I had a motorcycle of my own and then problem solved.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Exactly, did you ask for the car? Did you ask for money?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Did you ask for a pony? I had a friend who had a summer home.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Exactly. Leave your questions and comments. We want to hear from you. We want to know what you think. And Erica and I are definitely there to answer any doubts.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You look great today. I like your tie. By the way, I was wondering can I- No. I haven't even told you what it is yet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Do you think I could borrow the car? I'm going to a concert tonight.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hey daddy, you look great today. I like your tie.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Do you think I could borrow the car? I'm going to a concert tonight.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ugh, I told you about it last week.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Duh. He's like the hottest and most popular guy at school. Come on, Dad. Pleeease.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Fine then, would you mind giving me 100 bucks?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Would you mind cooking dinner tonight? I'll be home late.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Example 3. Do you think you can have those reports finished by today?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You look great today. I like your tie. By the way, I was wondering can I- No. I haven't even told you what it is yet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Do you think I could borrow the car? I'm going to a concert tonight.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Duh. He's like the hottest and most popular guy at school. Come on, Dad. Pleeease?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I don't think we've looked forward to it tasting this much for a long time. We know there's a lot on the line, but you know what we say, if you're gonna go, go with a bang, not a whimper. So I'll taste the first dish, Gina.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We ask you to be inspired by Spain. It's obvious where the inspiration has come from. Rye, fibrin, red capsicum are sweet, they're delicious. You've let the rice catch up with it on the pan, and it actually gives it some more flavours. I think for 45 minutes it's a really, really good job.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When you said prawn butter, I had an image of like fresh chervil. Lovely butter. I'm really missing it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'll open the other perspective, which is, you know, prawns, olive oil cooked. Yes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Does the yogurt sauce remind me of greasy? Flavors are there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Normally we'd be sending you home at this moment.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But this is a year of surprises.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Guess what? For you, it's not over yet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Are they gonna let me cook again right now? You're about to get one more chance to win your way back into the competition. But...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then no stranger to this competition, look behind you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I love the fish. Love the tomato flavouring broth. Love the fact that the saffron's all whispered on a roar. I know it's supposed to be sea water, but for me, it's just a little bit salty.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's beautiful, it's elegant, not too much smokiness in the eggplant, which is wonderful, beautiful pasta, and I don't think I'd ever thought I'd say this, but I reckon, I reckon the kale does really add something to the dish as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] After the chaos. The conception. I think the great joy about it, when it's great flavor, you've shown us how you can take inspiration. Yep.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's a really spectacular cooking. The bar has been set very high.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Three of you gave us great dishes, dishes that would be worthy of winning your way back into the competition. If I call your name, please step forward. Brendan.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Lisa, a good looking dish with a truly amazing broth. Thank you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Everything on that dish delivered in terms of flavor.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hi, welcome back. Again, my name is Paul Gruber and this is the Pronunciation Workshop's fourth training session. I hope things have been going well. Today we will cover F and V sounds as well as SH and voiced SH sounds.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Just a reminder, all of the material covered in these videos are also printed in your training manual for practicing later on. Let's get started.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In the last session we talked about air friction with TH sounds. That the sound is made with air friction.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well today we're going to talk about air friction again, but this time it is with F and V sounds.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The F and V are paired consonants, and they are both produced exactly the same way, except the F sound is unvoiced and the V sound is voiced. They are both produced by contacting your upper teeth to your lower lip. It sort of feels like you're biting down on your lower lip. Vuh-vuh-vuh-vuh, like that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now remember, all that voicing means is that your vocal cords here in your throat are vibrating and making a sound. So the F sound is unvoiced and sounds like this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Like the TH sounds from the last session, Fs and Vs are friction sounds and are not that loud. So we stretch these sounds out a little bit so they can be clearly heard. Let's start by looking at the F sound in the word foot.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, many foreign speakers may use the right positioning by biting down on their lower lip, but they still keep the F very short and they don't create air friction. Therefore, you do not hear the F clearly and it sounds like,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's no good. Let me show you what you need to do. First, think of the word as having two beats. One, two. Hold the F sound for the first full beat. Foot. Like that. Do it again.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hoot. Do you see how long I am holding that F? Now I know that's a little bit exaggerated, but you get the idea. You need to hear the air friction. When practicing, try to give the F one beat. Hoot. Let's work with words beginning with the letter F. Here we go. Fine. Finally. Family.


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[Assistant] Freedom with a strong R. Freedom.


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[Assistant] Laugh. Notice the GH combination in that word. Laugh.


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[Assistant] Telephone. Notice the P-H combination in that word is also pronounced as an F. Tele-phone.


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[Assistant] It's the same thing in this next word, symphony. This is a tricky one because you've got the M sound followed by an F sound. Symphony.


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[Assistant] And the last word, rough. Notice the gh combination in that word, rough. Let's work on this paragraph.


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[Assistant] Do you feel like a physical wreck?


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[Assistant] Are you fed up with your feeling of fatigue? Have you had enough of feeling rough?


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[Assistant] Why don't you fight fever with Pharaoh's friend? A medicine that is tough on flu. Very good. Okay, now let's talk about the V sound.


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[Assistant] First of all, like the F sound don't make the V sound too short. Let's look at the word


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[Assistant] Vote. Are you hearing that long V sound? That's what you should be doing.


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[Assistant] Now, depending on your native language, you may be replacing your V sounds for W sounds.


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[Assistant] Be careful not to do this. The word is not woat. It's vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's practice some words with the V sound. Here we go. Vine. Oven. Evaluate. Voice. Travel. River. Notice the strong R. River. Every. And now at the ends of words. Glove. Alive.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This last word, leave, is very different from the word leaf, like from a tree, which has an unvoiced F.


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[Assistant] The word is leave with a voiced V.


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[Assistant] If you stop the voicing at the end of the vowel E, then you would be saying,


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[Assistant] With an unvoiced F and the word we're trying to say is leave with that voiced V.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, now let's look at, look at paired words with F and V. You will see here that just by adding voicing, you can completely change the meaning of the word. Here we go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, now we're going to work on listening exercises and ear training.


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[Assistant] I am going to display some words with V sounds. However, some words I'll be saying correctly and then some others I'll purposely say incorrectly. I want you to listen carefully to my pronunciation and to the voicing of the V sounds and see whether or not you can tell if I am saying the word correctly or incorrectly. Here we go. Here's the first word. Stof.


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[Assistant] I cooked dinner on a hot stove. Was that correct?


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[Assistant] No, I should have said stove.


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[Assistant] Stove. I cooked dinner on a hot stove with a voiced V. Next word. Five.


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[Assistant] Three, four, five. Correct?


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[Assistant] Yes, I said five with a voiced V.


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[Assistant] Leaf. I'm in a hurry and I need to leaf. Is that correct? No.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's not leaf with an unvoiced F. I should have said leave with a voiced V sound.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes, the V is voiced. Living. That's correct. Okay, now repeat these phrases. A famous athlete. A food vendor.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The foreign service summer vacation vocabulary test over the rainbow. Our first victory.


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[Assistant] Harvard University. Husband and wife. Very well done. Good. Okay, now repeat these sentences with me. Her promotion


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[Assistant] In the firm was well deserved.


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[Assistant] There was only one survivor on the island.


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[Assistant] Steve noticed that the olive juice must have stained his sleeve.


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[Assistant] The street vendor was selling souvenirs to tourists.


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[Assistant] Dave gave me his car so that I could drive on New Year's Eve.


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[Assistant] There were several dents in the rear fender.


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[Assistant] Now, we are talking about English, so you know there is always an exception to everything.


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[Assistant] I would like to show you what I call the of exception.


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[Assistant] Many foreign speakers make this mistake. Even though the word of is spelled with an F, we pronounce the word of with a voiced V. I know this sounds crazy, but it's true. For example,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Statue of liberty. And notice how I connected the word of with the word liberty. Of liberty. You see of is voiced. Here's another example. It's made of glass or it's made of wood. It's not a


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wood with an unvoiced F. It's all voiced and it's all connected. It's made of wood. Like that. Very good. Okay, now let's go on to something new. Let's talk about SH sounds.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] First, to make the SH sound, you bring your lips forward, keep them open and leave your teeth slightly apart. Blow air through your teeth and produce the sound.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's an easy sound. What you may not know is that there are some words in English that are written with the letter S but are pronounced with the SH sound. Words like sugar and sure.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And to make things even more difficult, there are a couple of words that are spelled with CH and are also pronounced with a SH sound. Words like chef and the city of Chicago. Okay, having said that, let's go over these words.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sounds in the middle of words. You will notice that there are many different spellings for this sound, but the sound is always the same. Here we go. Nation, motion, mission, special, reputation, official, machine, fishing,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Very good. Okay, let's do some sentences now.


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[Assistant] The fishing trip was planned and we left to go to the ocean.


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[Assistant] Was the chef ashamed to use the precious sugar?


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[Assistant] Sharon gave a special performance.


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[Assistant] He will be stationed in Washington DC, the nation's capital.


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[Assistant] She went to a fashion show after taking a shower.


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[Assistant] She sells seashells by the seashore.


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[Assistant] The social club was praised for their cooperation. Now try this.


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[Assistant] Joe's weather machine shows a sharp drop in air pressure, especially offshore. Ships in motion


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[Assistant] Okay, now let's work on the voiced SH sound.


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[Assistant] Zzzz. To produce this sound, first make a shhh sound and then you add voicing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Like that. Now for some people, this may take a little bit of practice. You should feel the vibrations right here in your throat. Believe it or not, this is a very important sound in American English.


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[Assistant] Many non-native English speakers mispronounce words with this sound, especially the words


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[Assistant] Usual and unusual, which are very, very common. If you are someone that pronounces the word usual as you you all.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm telling you, you are not being understood. Let me show you how to pronounce the word usual correctly. Break it up into three syllables. You, you, all.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That second syllable, ju, the one with the underline, needs to be voiced. Put your hand on your throat and feel for the vibration in the second syllable.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Usual. Now put it together. Usual. Usual. Like that. Okay, now try unusual. Un-u-sual.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Un-u-u-u-ual. Like that. Very good. Now, let's practice some more words. It may help if you keep your hand right here on your throat to feel the vibrations. Here we go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Very good. Now, there are only a few words that have the voiced zh sound at the end. A few of these words are


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The color beige, the word massage, and the word prestige.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, now that you are great at this, let's go over some sentences.


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[Assistant] It's not unusual for people to study division in Asia.


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[Assistant] I usually use a measuring cup to measure erosion.


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[Assistant] The beige walls were the usual color in the treasury building.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Very good. You'll find in your manual that there is a worksheet where you could list things that you would consider usual and things that you would consider to be unusual. For practice, fill this in and then read your answers out loud in full sentences like this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's usually hot in the summer.


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[Assistant] And it's unusual for me to be late for an appointment. Great.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well now it's time to go and practice. You may want to wait a day or two and then watch this training session again. You'll find that seeing this video again will probably be very helpful.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, have fun practicing. I'm Paul Gruber for the Pronunciation Workshop and I'll see you at our next session.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I really want the pin. If I can get that pin today, uhm, it means the world to me. Samira?


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[Assistant] It's really important when I'm picking my five ingredients, I pick things that will cook quickly.


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[Assistant] Uhm, and prawns is a great option. They don't take that long to cook. And I'm actually really happy with my choice. I think I can do something in 10 minutes that will taste quite good.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This challenge is crazy. Although I don't have much time, I'm still gonna butterfly the prawns and take the poop shoot out.


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[Assistant] So I can get as much flavour as I can into the meat, but also get the shells nice and crispy and crunchy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I put them in shell side down and I start basting the meat with the garlic butter.


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[Assistant] And the shells are really crispy and crunchy. I'm just hoping the prawns are cooked perfectly.


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[Assistant] There's heaps of flavour left in that pan with the caramelised garlic, the chilli, fresh parsley, so I drizzle that over the prawns. I'd love to join the pink club with Sachin Reis. I think I've got a pretty good chance today.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ashley's really calm, like he's walking and like, like he doesn't look stressed at all. I think it's kind of stressing me out a bit, because I mean, I'm always running around in the kitchen. So we've got uhm, John Dory.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm very worried for Ashley. I mean, he's, he's so slow right now and there's about just under half an hour to go. They just start cooking the fish soon though.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] John Dory, autumn vegetable, abalone and fresh pistachio.


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[Assistant] It's very, has been very slow to develop over the centuries.


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[Assistant] And, uh, that encourages me to think that it has a lot more to develop yet. A lot more to develop yet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I think that there's an inherent conservatism and mistrust of new financial arrangements.


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[Assistant] And the sense that I'm not coming to this party unless the inn people are coming to it also. And so things are very slow to develop. I don't know if I'm answering your question. Uh, it is, uh, uh, but it is a belief of mine that financial innovation is a pillar of our civilization.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's a sequence of inventions that incentivize people, uh, provide capital for enterprises, create organizations that last through time,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, separate themselves from the objectives of the individuals who comprise the corporation, uh, and get people focused on some common good that will be produced.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well when we say risk management, it implies a focus on the, seems to imply a focus on the downside. Uh, but it's on the upside as well because


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] People accept the downside risk because there's something...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] On the plus side that is enticing and is exciting.


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[Assistant] Amount of money lost with high probability.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And a large money gained with low probability. Uh, so if that's what people like, we have to try to turn the natural risks, which might be balanced equally into, you know, loss and gain, uh, into something more appealing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that's one thing that limited liability did. People like lottery tickets. I paid two dollars today and I have the chance of winning ten million dollars.


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[Assistant] For some reason, the chance is miniscule. That's virtually zero. But somehow people like that.


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[Assistant] So that's a discovery about human nature. Why they like that is a puzzle, but we just know that people like that. It's because people savor the small probability. They think,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I have this lottery ticket I bought this morning. I could be worth 10 million dollars at the end of the day when they announce the number.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That just makes your day bright. Then, when you, when you don't win, you still feel, well, it was just two dollars, so, so what?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what limited liability does is it creates that for corporate investment. Same, same sense for investing in stock. You just put in, you know, you bought a hundred shares, uh, so maybe that's $3,000.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's a little bit more than a lottery ticket. But hey, I could be a multimillionaire if I bought the right company. It's like a lottery ticket. So people flock to these things. And they're actually, they're disappointed, almost always.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But they're not disappointed because we end up with a more, uh, vital business sector where things are created. So we have to try to reframe things. That's what part of financial innovation is. Reframe risks so that


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uh, they're appealing and, and we want also for good social purpose to be risks that need to be taken so that they benefit the economy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm waiting on this one. It's essential that we reduce these errors. We've got to force our suppliers to reduce their mistakes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm with you on this one. It's essential that we reduce these errors. We've got to force our suppliers to reduce that mistake.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's delicious! It's a bit bitter for my taste. Almost tastes like... like...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Your house is lovely, Armand. Very interesting decor. Very... gothic.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's a bit bitter for my taste. Almost tastes like... like... Ellen? Ellen?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's a bit bitter for my taste, almost tastes like


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I miss my husband and my kid every single day and I figure I've come so far, I've been away from them for so long that I really want to push and try and get to that top ten.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The duck just kind of melts in your mouth. So it needs to be really nice and tender.


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[Assistant] Once the duck is broken down and I have the Maryland's, I put it into the pressure cooker with some garlic, duck fat and thyme.


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[Assistant] But I don't need to take too much of my time because I'm just gonna chop it up into small pieces and sprinkle on top right at the end. About 30 minutes.


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[Assistant] I've got the duck in there, the skin in there, I'm onto the pasta.


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[Assistant] Clarity. It's all about clarity and focus. Yeah. Excellent. Good on you. Ella is so inspirational.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Her food is right up my alley. I love, you know, lots of kind of earthy flavours. I'm really, really passionate about using native ingredients. We have an abundance of amazing produce in Australia. I love going out and picking things that are interesting and the flavour is amazing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this is my type of food and I have no excuses for not putting up something amazing.


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[Assistant] I'm working on my chestnut pasta. It's really important to get it to a really nice, silky consistency.


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[Assistant] That looks great, Sarah. Look at that color. Yeaah.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As I'm bringing the dough together, it's starting to look really beautiful. And it's really important to get it to a really nice, silky consistency like Ella's pasta. So you've gotta work it for quite a while.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's it, Si. I'm really happy with how the pasta's come together. It looks nice and silky and smooth. I just need to cover it and put it into the fridge and move on to my duck yolk. Come on guys, let's go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm definitely going to re-rate the recipe now.


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[Assistant] For the confit duck yolk, place the whole duck egg into the 63 degree sous vide machine and cook for one hour.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ella's amazing, I have so much respect for her and I'm so embarrassed.


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[Assistant] It's nice and golden. It's gonna be very crunchy and add a little bit of texture to the dish.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've got my crispy elements ready to go. The next thing I need to move on to is rolling out this dough because it needs time to rest.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The pasta is just gonna sandwich the celeriac puree and the duck. We really wanna make sure that my pasta is just as thin as Ella's pasta.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The pasta's looking really good, I'm happy with the texture. So I cut out the discs.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I need to get onto my carrots right now. I don't have a lot of time. They need to be cooked. They were so beautiful on the dish. Sarah!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm a little obsessed with carrots. I find them such a versatile thing to work with. You know, they're delicious. When they're in season, they've just got so much flavour. So I want to make sure that my carrots are perfect.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My blue tan's coming along beautifully. So I move on to my chestnut puree.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've got everything for it. Stop telling me. Thanks. I've spent so much time making my chestnut puree. Now I'm really behind. Come on, Sarah.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Finally, my confit duck is done and my duck eggs are done, but I'm so flustered and I'm so behind on this dish. You can get it done, Sarah. You can do it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yep. Okay, Georgie's worried that I'm not gonna have enough time to cook down the celeriac for it to be a nice, silky puree. Get it on. Yep. So, I'm gonna cook it in the microwave.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The flavour of the dish was so intricate. And if I miss even one element on this dish, it could be enough to send me home.


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[Assistant] And I realised that I've forgotten my chestnut puree. I've left it off. I can't believe what I've just done. It's a pretty big mistake. And it could be enough to send me home.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And now I've left off my chestnut puree. And the flavour of the dish was so intricate, it could be enough to send me home.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There were so many elements on that dish and I just fell apart and I started running around and yeah, it got on top of me.


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[Assistant] A lot of people worry that their cell phone will give them cancer, which isn't all that surprising. I mean, you're holding a device that emits radiation right next to your brain. Terrible idea, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] No. Some kinds of radiation can damage DNA, which can then lead to cancer, but your cell phone doesn't give off that kind of radiation. And even if there was a way that cell phone radiation could hurt you,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Studies have shown that it doesn't. Cell phones communicate with cell towers using a form of radiation known as radiofrequency, or RF radiation. The word radiation is just in there because it's a type of energy on the electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum goes from low energy at one end to high energy at the other. Radio and microwaves are near the low end.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Gamma rays and x-rays are near the high end. It can help to think of electromagnetic radiation as a wave, with a certain frequency based on its energy. The higher the energy, the higher the frequency. When an electromagnetic wave hits an atom, it transfers some energy to that atom. When the wave has a high enough frequency, meaning it has a lot of energy,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It can transfer enough energy to the atom to knock out an electron. Electromagnetic energy that can knock out electrons is called ionizing radiation and it can break chemical bonds in your cells and damage your DNA.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's the cancer causing kind. When electromagnetic energy doesn't have a high enough frequency to break chemical bonds,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's called non ionizing radiation. If non ionizing radiation hits an atom.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It isn't going to be able to knock out an electron, so it can't damage cells, and it can't cause cancer. It doesn't matter how strong the beam of radiation is, its ability to knock out electrons only depends on its frequency, which isn't affected by the intensity of the radiation. It's like your microwave. No matter how powerful it is, it's never going to start emitting infrared radiation, which would be the next level up in frequency. The cutoff between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation is somewhere in the ultraviolet range.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's above visible light and frequency, and way above the radio waves that cell phones use. Which is why, based on what we know about physics and biology, there's nothing cell phones do that can give you cancer. However, doctors and scientists do take the potential health risks of mobile phones seriously, and a lot of studies have been done to see if there's a link between cell phones


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And cancer. Sometimes, these studies do find what sounds like a relationship between cell phones and cancer. At least,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For example, one study of a million women in the UK found what seemed to be a weak link to a tumor called an acoustic neuroma, a benign tumor in the nerve that leads from the ear.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the study followed the subjects for seven years. If there actually was a connection between this tumor and cell phone use, you'd expect more people to develop the tumor as they were exposed to more radiation over time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There were problems with that study. They collected the data by having people report their own cell phone use and people tend to remember incorrectly. Plus, people who use their cell phones infrequently had a lower risk of glioma than people who didn't use them at all. If cell phone radiation was causing the tumors,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That wouldn't make any sense. And the vast majority of other studies have found no evidence that cell phones can cause tumors.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We'd be seeing the rates of those cancers go up. I mean, something like 5 billion people use cell phones, and they've been commercially available since the mid-1980s. That's long enough for cancer to start showing up, even if it takes a few decades to develop. Which is exactly what happened after cigarettes started being mass-produced. Lung cancer used to be pretty rare, but when smoking cigarettes started to become more popular,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Lung cancer rates went way up. There just isn't any sign of this when it comes to cell phones. Both the number of people who get brain cancer and the number of people who die from it is holding steady, even a cell phone you skyrocket. So go ahead and make as many phone calls as you want.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Lisa has definitely caught up with the other two. Now, this can be anyone's race.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is an exclusive design by Damarco. It's a bargain at that price.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, I can give you a special discount just because you seem like a nice person. 190 for both.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, my final price, $100 for both. That's two for the price of one, and that's my last offer.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is an exclusive design by Damarco. It's a bargain at that price.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, I can give you a special discount just because you seem like a nice person. $190 for both.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, my final price. One hundred dollars for both. That's two for the price of one. That's my last offer.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is an exclusive design by Damarco. It's a bargain at that price.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, I can give you a special discount just because you seem like a nice person. 190 for both.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, my final price, $100 for both, that's two for the price of one, and that's my last offer.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This episode is brought to you by the Music for Scientists album, now available on all streaming services.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You think you know what a bird is. Beaks, feathers, wings, screams for peanuts way too early in the morning. But birds have been around for a good 150 million years, and in that time, they've come in all sorts of forms, not all of which are familiar to us today. Because when evolution gets the chance to riff on the basic bird plan,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It takes it. So here are some extinct examples whose strange features might make you rethink what you know about evolution, and maybe how you define birds altogether. Let's start at the beginning, with the most famous weird bird of all time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Archaeopteryx was discovered in the 1860s in 150 million-year-old rocks from the Late Jurassic Period. It's been nicknamed the first bird since it's among the earliest known fossil animals with obvious bird features. It's got wings, feathers, and an overall bird-shaped body,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But this wasn't a bird like we know them today. For one, it had a toothy snout instead of a beak. It also had a small breastbone that didn't support large flight muscles. And it had grasping hands in its wings and a long bony tail. Now, that's a weird bird. But it wasn't the only one.


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[Assistant] It shared these features with plenty of late Jurassic cousins, like Shoutingia and Ancheornis. These animals are so strange that there's debate among paleontologists over whether they're really birds at all. Here's the deal.


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[Assistant] All birds alive today evolved from ancestors that lived much later, during the Cretaceous period. This group is often called Neornithes, or crown group birds, because they make up the crown of birds' evolutionary tree. You can think of them as birds as we know them. But the earliest birds as we know them lived in a world that was already full of birds, including lots of offshoots from the trunk of that tree.


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[Assistant] than with non-bird dinosaurs. So, Archaeopteryx's toothy grin, long tail, and weak flight muscles


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[Assistant] Dinosaur-y that even if you saw them in person, they would have been hard to tell apart from their closest dinosaur cousins.


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[Assistant] Like the famous Velociraptor or the four-winged Microraptor.


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[Assistant] And that is just the beginning. Birds didn't just start weird in the days of Archaeopteryx and then quickly become familiar. They stayed weird for a while.


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[Assistant] The anatomy of their chest and shoulders is very similar to modern birds. But they also held on to lots of early features, including teeth in their jaws and a long bony tail. In fact, their tail was even longer than the tail of Archaeopteryx. Birds as we know them don't have bony tails. Instead, they have a small series of fused tailbones called a pygostyle.


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[Assistant] Which supports a fan of feathers that help in flight. You might think a long tail would get in the way while flying.


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[Assistant] But some paleontologists have suggested that the tail of Jayhalornis may have acted as a stabilizer in the air. Another strange feature of these birds was their growth rate. Modern birds grow super fast, but studies of Jayhalornis' bone tissue show much slower growth, more like reptiles. So while birds as we know them typically spend very little time as juveniles, Jayhalornis was younger for longer.


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[Assistant] Over millions of years. Around that same time, there was a much more familiar-looking bird named Protopteryx. It had long wings, grasping feet for perching on branches, and a complex breastbone to support flight muscles. And it was a trendsetter.


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[Assistant] Protopteryx is one of the earliest members of a group called enantiornithes. And these so-called opposite birds were the most diverse group of Cretaceous birds. From a distance, you'd have a hard time telling an opposite bird from a modern one.


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[Assistant] But a closer look would reveal the oddities. Like many early birds, most of these had clawed hands and toothy snouts.


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[Assistant] That actually seems to happen a lot. Also, their shoulder and wing bones were structured differently from modern birds.


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[Assistant] Which seems to be where the opposite bird's moniker comes from. Their wing anatomy is downright backwards. But despite their weird wings, studies have found that these birds were not only capable of flight, they exhibited a wide variety of flight styles.


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[Assistant] Just like birds today. Another strange feature of enantiornithes is their intrepid babies. Baby birds today tend to be helpless little things that can't do much on their own.


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[Assistant] Show advanced development in their skeletons, including their wings, which suggests they were built to face the world and even fly shortly after hatching. Now, that's not totally unheard of in birds today, but it might have been the norm for enantiornithes. Just another way that opposite birds were


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[Assistant] But as strange as they were, they were also pretty common birds in the Cretaceous. They may be opposite birds to us, but at the time, they were just birds. But ancient birds weren't just strange in the sky, they were also weird in the water.


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[Assistant] Like the late Cretaceous bird Hesperornis as recently as 70 million years ago. Hesperornis was a big deal when it was first discovered in the 1870s. It was one of the first birds known to have teeth, but that's far from its most unusual feature. Because Hesperornis is clearly built for the water.