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[Assistant] But if we're going to shift our culture, we have got to get that work started. And in the time since her passing, we have established a foundation in her name to do exactly that, but to work with young people and children to begin to build character and personal leadership to inspire purpose and integrity.


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[Assistant] Why does corruption happen in the first place? Do we call it for what it is? Theft. Or do we gloss over it with other words?


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[Assistant] When young children are able to model what it looks and feels like to deal with corruption,


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[Assistant] They are likely, when faced with a dilemma in their future, to model what they've been taught.


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[Assistant] Second, we need to teach character explicitly. Now this may seem obvious,


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[Assistant] But a child who exhibits a growth mindset and a sense of self-control is self-confident.


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[Assistant] And a self-confident child is likely to stand up for what they believe.


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[Assistant] We need to build personal leadership in our children early.


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[Assistant] To give them an opportunity to know what it looks like to call corruption out when they see it.


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[Assistant] And for me to make the more and most important connection between human suffering on one hand,


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[Assistant] And corruption, greed and selfishness on the other.


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[Assistant] We have got to believe in our capacity to bring about the future we want to see. Each of us in our small way.


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[Assistant] Corruption, climate change, ecosystem collapse, biodiversity loss, all these issues need leadership.


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[Assistant] I was an eight-year-old kid in the mid-1990s. I grew up in southern Philippines. At that age, you're young enough to be oblivious about what society expects from each of us, but old enough to be aware of what's going on around you.


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[Assistant] We lived in a one-bedroom house, all five of us. Our house was amongst clusters of houses, made mostly of wood and corrugated metal sheets. These houses were built very close to each other, along unpaid roads. There was little to no expectation of privacy. Whenever an argument broke out next door, you heard it all. Or if there was a little something-something going on,


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[Assistant] It was a man, a woman plus a child or children. But I also learned it wasn't always that way. There were other combinations that worked just as well.


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[Assistant] Lenny had long black hair, often in a ponytail, and manicured nails. She always went out with a little makeup on and her signature red lipstick.


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[Assistant] Lenny's other half, I don't remember much about him except that he had a thing for white sleeveless shirts and gold chains around his neck. Their daughter was a couple years younger than me. Now, everybody in the village knew Lenny.


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[Assistant] She owned and ran what was the most popular beauty salon in our side of town. Every time their family would walk down the roads, they would always be greeted with smiles and occasionally stop for a little chit chat.


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[Assistant] Now the interesting thing about Lenny is that she also happened to be a transgender woman. She exemplified.


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[Assistant] One of the Philippines' longstanding stories about gender diversity, when it was proof that


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[Assistant] Oftentimes, we think of something as strange only because we're not familiar with it or we haven't taken enough time to try and understand. In most cultures around the world,


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[Assistant] Gender is this man-woman dichotomy. It's this ...


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[Assistant] Immovable, non-negotiable, distinct classes of individuals.


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[Assistant] We assign characteristics and expectations the moment a person's biological sex is determined. But not all cultures are like that. Not all cultures are as rigid.


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[Assistant] Many cultures don't look at genitalia primarily as basis for gender construction.


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[Assistant] And some communities in North America


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[Assistant] Africa, the Indian subcontinent and the Pacific Islands, including the Philippines, have a long history of cultural permissiveness and accommodation of gender variances.


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[Assistant] As you may know, the people of the Philippines were under Spanish rule for over 300 years. That's from 1565 to 1898.


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[Assistant] This explains why everyday Filipino conversations are peppered with Spanish words and why so many of our last names, including mine, sound very Spanish.


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[Assistant] This also explains the firmly entrenched influence of Catholicism. But pre-colonial Philippine societies, they were mostly animists.


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[Assistant] The Spanish colonial archives also tell us that these early societies were largely egalitarian. Men did not necessarily have an advantage over women.


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[Assistant] Wives were treated as companions, not slaves, and family contracts were not done without their presence and approval. In some ways, women had the upper hand.


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[Assistant] A woman could divorce her husband and own property under her own name, which she kept even after marriage. She had the prerogative to have a baby or not, and then decide the baby's name.


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[Assistant] But the real key to the power of the pre-colonial Filipino woman was in her role as babaylan.


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[Assistant] A collective term for shamans of various ethnic groups. They were the community healers, specialists in herbal and divine lore.


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[Assistant] They delivered babies and communicated with the spirit world. They performed exorcisms, and occasionally, in the defense of their community, they kicked some ass.


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[Assistant] There were also, in fact, male practitioners in the spiritual realm.


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[Assistant] Reports from early Spanish chroniclers contained several references to male shamans who did not conform to normative Western masculine standards. They cross-dressed and appeared effeminate or sexually ambiguous.


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[Assistant] A Jesuit missionary named Francisco Alsina said that one man he believed to be a shaman was so effeminate.


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[Assistant] That in every way, he was more a woman than a man. All the things that women did,


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[Assistant] Any other juicy details in the colonial archives? Thought you'd never ask.


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[Assistant] All the free-loving, gender-variant-permitting, gender equality wokeness.


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[Assistant] Clash viciously with the European sensibilities at a time.


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[Assistant] So much so that the Spanish missionaries spent the next 300 years trying to enforce their two-sex, two-gender model.


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[Assistant] Many Spanish friars also thought that the cross-dressing babaylan were either celibates, like themselves, or had deficient or malformed genitals. But this was pure speculation.


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[Assistant] Provide clues on the nature of the male Babylonian sexuality. It says, ordinarily, they dress as women, act like prudes, and are so effeminate, the one who does not know them would believe they are women.


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[Assistant] Almost all are impotent for the reproductive act, and thus they marry other males and sleep with them as men and wife and have carnal knowledge. Carnal knowledge, of course, meaning sex.


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[Assistant] Now, there's an ongoing debate in contemporary society about what constitutes gender and how it should be defined. My country is no exception.


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[Assistant] Some countries like Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Nepal and Canada have begun introducing non-binary options in their legal documents such as their passports and their permanent resident cards. In all these discussions about gender,


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[Assistant] I think it's important to keep in mind that the prevailing notions of men and women as static tenders anchored strictly on biological sex are social constructs.


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[Assistant] In my people's case, this social construct is an imposition. It was hammered into their heads over hundreds of years.


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[Assistant] Until they were convinced their way of thinking was erroneous. But the good thing about social constructs is they can be reconstructed to fit a time and age.


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[Assistant] They can be reconstructed to respond to communities that are becoming more diverse. And they can be reconstructed for a world that's starting to realize we have so much to gain from learning and working through our differences. When I think about this subject,


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[Assistant] I think about the Filipino people, and almost forgotten, but ...


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[Assistant] Important legacy of gender equality and inclusivity. I think about lovers who were some of the gentlest souls I'd known, but could not be fully open.


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[Assistant] I think about people who've made an impact in my life, who showed me that


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[Assistant] Integrity, kindness and strength of character are far better measures of judgment.


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[Assistant] Far better than things that are beyond a person's control, such as their skin color, their age or their gender.


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[Assistant] As I stand here today, on the shoulders of people like Lenny, I feel incredibly grateful for all who have come before me. The ones courageous enough to put themselves out there, who lived a life that was theirs,


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[Assistant] And then the process made it a little easier for us to live our lives now. Because being yourself is revolutionary.


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[Assistant] And to anyone reeling from forces trying to knock you down and cram you into these neat little boxes people have decided for you, don't break. I see you. My ancestors see you. Their blood runs through me as they run through so many of us. You are valid and you deserve rights and recognition


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[Assistant] Varejant and Cosette are living in the rue Plumay in Paris, in a house with a big garden.


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[Assistant] It is a quiet street and nobody comes there.


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[Assistant] This pleases Valjean, because he is still afraid of Inspector Javert.


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[Assistant] She is tall with golden brown hair. She is beautiful.


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[Assistant] The wonderful thing about Cosette's face is her smile.


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[Assistant] A slow, warm, gentle smile. Like sunlight after rain.


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[Assistant] And now we must meet Marius and his young friend Gavros.


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[Assistant] Marius is a student. A young man with many ideas, but no money.


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[Assistant] Paris is full of young men like this. Marius has a grandfather. His father is dead. But he does not talk to him.


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[Assistant] Their political ideas are very different.


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[Assistant] At 17, he leaves home with 30 francs, his watch and a small bag of clothes.


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[Assistant] Now, five years older, he lives with other students and they talk all night about books and ideas, politics and government, life and death. All students are like this.


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[Assistant] They live for ideas and do a little work here and there when they need to.


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[Assistant] Gavroche is a child of the Paris streets.


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[Assistant] He is 11 or 12 years old and wears a man's trousers and a woman's shirt. A kind woman gave these clothes to him.


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[Assistant] He lives on the streets, knows everybody, goes everywhere and enjoys life. Well, why not?


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[Assistant] He knows no other life. Only this one.


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[Assistant] Marius loved walking through the streets and gardens of Paris and he often walked in the Luxembourg garden.


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[Assistant] One day in the garden, he saw a man with a young girl. The man was about 60.


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[Assistant] And the girl, Marius thought, was about seventeen. He did not see her eyes.


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[Assistant] But he saw her golden brown hair and her slow gentle smile.


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[Assistant] He walked past them once and did not look back.


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[Assistant] But he came to the Luxembourg the next day, and the day after that, and for the next five days.


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[Assistant] The man and the girl were always there.


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[Assistant] He could not stop looking at the girl.


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[Assistant] He wanted very much to see that smile again.


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[Assistant] On the seventh day, the girl turned her head and looked at Marius.


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[Assistant] She looked into his eyes across the garden and that look went like a bullet from a gun into Marius' heart.


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[Assistant] But at once Marius knew and the girl knew. This was love.


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[Assistant] Life stopped for Marius then. He spent hours in the Luxembourg.


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[Assistant] And every time he saw her, the sun came out and all the birds in the garden began singing.


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[Assistant] But the man began to look at Marius too, and his face was not friendly. Marius was afraid, and he went to Gavros. Gavros, please, you must help me. Why? What's the matter, Monsieur Marius? There's a girl, Gavros.


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[Assistant] I want you to follow her home and tell me the address. Why don't you follow her? I'm busy, said Gavros.


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[Assistant] I'm afraid to, said Marius. Her father, grandfather, I don't know, is watching me. He doesn't like me.


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[Assistant] Why is this important, Monsieur Marius? Gavros said. He had a big smile on his face.


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[Assistant] Two days later, he came to Marius' rooms. Rue plume, he said. House at the end of the street. Hard to find. You need to look for it.


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[Assistant] And Cosette began to go out into the garden at Rue Plume. She was usually alone.


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[Assistant] Her old servant, Toussaint, was always in the kitchen.


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[Assistant] And father, Jean Valjean, was in his room, reading.


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[Assistant] She remembered the young man in the Luxembourg garden.


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[Assistant] But father no longer wanted to go there.


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[Assistant] But that evening in the Rue Plume garden, something very wonderful happened. She heard a voice, a man's voice. She looked round and it was him. I'm so sorry, he said. Please don't be afraid. I just wanted to... You remember the Luxembourg garden?


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[Assistant] I saw you there for the first time. I can't forget you. Day and night I think about you. Please, don't be afraid. You see, I love you. It just happened to me. I can't stop it. Don't be afraid. Please.


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[Assistant] Cosette listened to this wonderful river of words and then held out her hand to him.


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[Assistant] He took her hand and she pulled it to her and put it against her heart.


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[Assistant] A kiss. No words. They did not need words. Later, words came.


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[Assistant] The story of his life, the story of her life, everything. Between lovers, everything is interesting.


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[Assistant] Cosette put her head on Marius' shoulder and asked, What is your name?


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[Assistant] My name is Marius. And yours? Cosette.


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[Assistant] Every evening they met secretly in the garden at Rue Plume.


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[Assistant] A kiss, a gentle laugh, whispered words of love.


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[Assistant] It was the spring and summer of their young lives.


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[Assistant] But around them, outside their garden, there was change. There were angry people.


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[Assistant] There were police and soldiers on the streets of Paris.


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[Assistant] And one day, Jean Valjean said to Cosette, My dearest child, We live in dangerous times. We must leave France and go to England.


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[Assistant] Cosette looked at him with frightened eyes. Must we go, father? she said. Varejant watched her face. We must, he said. Get ready to leave very soon.


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[Assistant] Vagent remembered the young man in the Luxembourg garden.


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[Assistant] And he looked at Cosette's beautiful young face. He was afraid.


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[Assistant] Afraid of losing his dear daughter.


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[Assistant] That evening in the Rue Plume Garden, there were many unhappy tears.


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[Assistant] How can I do that? cried Marius. I have no money. No passport even. England to me is like the moon. They held hands in the moonlight.


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[Assistant] Between bone broth and bone marrow, they're all the rage among fans of superfoods, although their health benefits are dubious at best. But osteophagia, aka eating bones, is nothing new.


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[Assistant] Bones are difficult to digest and downright dangerous to eat. They're a choking hazard, and they can tear the esophagus and poke through intestines. But some animals have evolved pretty bizarre adaptations to accommodate their crunchy, splintery diets.


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[Assistant] An extra stomach or skin that oozes acid. If you've ever been on a safari, you may have witnessed a strange sight. A giraffe with a leg bone or a rib cage sticking out of its mouth. But giraffes are famous for being herbivores. I mean, that ridiculously long neck is to help them eat leaves off trees. And yet…


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[Assistant] There they are, just casually noshing on some buffalo bones. Turns out a lot of vegetarian animals cheat on their plant-based diets. Osteophagia has been observed in wildebeest, deer, camels, caribou, porcupines, sheep, and giraffes.


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[Assistant] Which also gnaw on elephant tusks, of all things. These animals mainly gnaw on bones, breaking off tiny pieces. And although we need more research, scientists think they're doing it because bones are rich in calcium and phosphorus, nutrients that are critical in the formation of, well,


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[Assistant] So some herbivores might not be getting as much as they need. Plus, sometimes animals need extra nutrients, like when they're growing antlers or are pregnant. So even though they're mostly vegetarian, giraffes and other herbivores might chew on bones to get the minerals they require.


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[Assistant] No judgment here. Next, some birds swallow their prey whole, but that doesn't always mean they can digest the whole animal. For example, owls, hawks, and herons can't digest bones, teeth, feathers, or fur.


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[Assistant] So they regurgitate all of that up in bony, fuzzy blobs. Other feathered friends have a less nauseating solution. And for pelicans, which swallow entire fish,


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[Assistant] That strategy is a third stomach. Like most birds, pelicans have a stomach that secretes gastric juices


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[Assistant] And fires up the digestion process. Also like most birds, pelicans have a second stomach called a gizzard. It's muscular and contains rocks that the bird has purposely swallowed to help grind up its food. Usually, the gizzard feeds into the intestines through a sphincter called the pylorus. But in pelicans, the pylorus is a super-muscular chamber called a pyloric stomach. And scientists believe this third stomach filters the bones and prevents them from making it into the intestines,


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[Assistant] They're also known as lamergeiers, which means lamb vultures in German. Because legend has it, they pick up sheep and fly off with them. Although…


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[Assistant] Probably not true. But we do know that these vultures have an interesting way of eating bones. When they come across an animal carcass, they can swallow the small bones whole. The larger bones pose more of a challenge, though, so they grab them.


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[Assistant] They simply dissolve the bones in their bodies. Hyenas also eat a lot of bones and marrow, but as you may have noticed they can't fly, which means no using gravity to break bones apart. Instead, they use another strategy for smashing skeletons that evolved


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[Assistant] Bone-crushing jaws. The ability to crack open large bones with your mouth is extremely rare.


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[Assistant] Hyenas are the only animals alive today that can do it. Part of their secret is their unusually shaped faces. Hyenas have huge jaw muscles that attach to extra-large cheekbones and a structure on top of their skull called a sagittal crest.


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[Assistant] It basically looks like a mohawk made of skull. This bone mohawk allows them to attach more muscles to their head, plus give those muscles more leverage. They also have robust teeth with super strong enamel.


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[Assistant] All the better to bite into your skeleton with, my dear. All three species of hyenas can crack open bones with their mouths, but the spotted hyena is particularly brawny. It can crush the leg bones of a giraffe. In fact, hyenas eat so much bone and digest it so thoroughly that their dried poop is usually bright white. Speaking of hyena poop,


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[Assistant] It's what's for dinner. If you're a leopard tortoise. Remember we said bones are high in calcium?


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[Assistant] Leopard tortoises need lots of calcium to build their shells, so they chew on bones, like some other herbivores. But that doesn't always fulfill their needs.


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[Assistant] So they also eat hyena feces because it's so full of digested bones. Leopard tortoises aren't the only species that does this. Desert tortoises eat bony vulture poop.


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[Assistant] Which contains plenty of leftover calcium and phosphorus. But they don't stop there. Desert tortoises also eat the bones and shells of other desert tortoises. They've even been observed climbing on top of dead tortoises' shells, raising themselves high on their legs, and then pulling their legs inside their shells so they drop onto the dead tortoise shell


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[Assistant] And break it. Then, they eat some of the broken shell pieces. Will animals stop at nothing to get their bony treats? Well…


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[Assistant] That's when Ocidax worms come onto the scene. They drill a root system into the animal's bones and then excrete acid from their skin that dissolves the bones. Next, bacteria living inside the worms digest the proteins and fats in the bones. Then, somehow, the bacteria transfer the nutrients to the worms. Scientists aren't exactly sure how. Interestingly, in most Ocidax species,


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[Assistant] Only female worms eat bones, and the reason has to do with their outrageous reproductive methods. Apparently, dating on the bottom of the ocean is even harder than it is online, so eligible Ocidax ladies have an unusual strategy. The females are anywhere from fifteen hundred to a hundred thousand times bigger than the males. So the females just…


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[Assistant] No wonder they're on the hunt for nutrients. If you think Ocidax worms might be the most extreme example of a small critter eating larger animals' bones,


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[Assistant] May I present another contender? Over the past couple decades, more and more scientists have been reporting on an annoying phenomenon in their dinosaur bone fossils. They have bites taken out of them.


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[Assistant] In 2008, researchers from Brigham Young University in Utah examined more than 5,000 dinosaur bones and discovered that approximately one-eighth of them


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[Assistant] had been partially eaten by insects. The bones had telltale boring marks, pits, and channels in them. The main culprit in this batch of dino bones was a family of beetles called dermestids. Paleontologists think these beetles started infesting the bones only a few days or weeks after the dinosaurs died. Once the dino carcass had been devoured by scavengers, the beetles may have laid their eggs on the skeletal remains, then their larvae hatched and munched on the remaining flesh and some of the bones.


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[Assistant] In other cases, scientists think insects ate the dinosaur bones long after they were buried under sediment. Paleontologists have found evidence that the insects bored into the dinosaur bones around 190 million years ago. But they generally don't know what kind of insects were involved back then.


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[Assistant] Nitrogen is scarce in a lot of places, but there's not much evidence for that yet, so we'll need more research to know for sure. Thankfully, scientists are dedicated to their research, as you'll see in what may become the quirkiest item on this list. Right about now, you might be asking the question,


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[Assistant] Can humans digest whole bones? Well, in 1991, two anthropologists set out to answer that question in a study that gives new meaning to the phrase, the taming of the shrew. First, they captured a shrew, a mammal that looks like a long-nosed mouse.


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[Assistant] They skinned it, disemboweled it, and cut it into large segments. Then they lightly boiled it for two minutes. Next, one of the scientists ate it without chewing. Over the next three days, he collected all of his poop.


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[Assistant] In an electron microscope. While some of the bones did come out the other end, many were apparently totally digested, including a major jaw bone, many leg bones, almost all of the toe bones, and most of the vertebrae. So there you have it. Humans can digest small bones, sort of. To be clear, though, there's still a choking hazard, and they can puncture your digestive system, so


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[Assistant] It's best to leave osteophagia to the experts in the animal kingdom. Thanks for watching this episode of SciShow! If you're in the mood for more bone-related content, you can also check out our episode about why otters have bones in their hearts.


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[Assistant] Journey to the West, Chapter 95, The Raptor Demon.


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[Assistant] The Tang Monk and Wu Xing were tied up inside the Demon's Cave.


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[Assistant] Bajie was also tied up, floating in the tub of salt water again. The three demons talked in another room.


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[Assistant] Said the lion. He felt his broken tooth.


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[Assistant] The elephant looked at his bruised trunk. Me neither.


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[Assistant] The elephant smiled. It's the perfect plan!


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[Assistant] He hid behind a rock and waited for the fiends to pass by.


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[Assistant] They ate the Tang Monk, and now they'll live forever, said the first fiend. He sighed. It would be nice to live forever.


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[Assistant] Said the other fiend. The two fiends continued along the road.


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[Assistant] Wukong was heartbroken. Tears poured from his eyes.


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[Assistant] Finally, he stood up and wiped away the tears.


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[Assistant] Wukong looked up. Are you sure? He asked hopefully.


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[Assistant] Wukong swung his iron bar at the cave entrance.


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[Assistant] Suddenly he looked up and saw an enormous figure.


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[Assistant] Light flashed as Buddha turned the two demons into ordinary animals. Only the raptor demon wasn't scared.


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[Assistant] His eyes burning with fury. The bird shot toward Voodoo.


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[Assistant] But Buddha raised a finger, and the bird was paralyzed in mid-air.


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[Assistant] Yeah. Yeah, you're right. Can't give up now.


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[Assistant] Oh warrior, weary though thou art, inward must thou now turn, reflect on thy long and bloody path, and kindle life's fire anew. Forget not thine ire, for it shall remake thee.


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[Assistant] Why does sunlight make you sneeze? Cuz sun teases our nose.


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[Assistant] No. Wait, I'll explain. Sneezing caused by sunlight or bright light is called photic sneezing. According to a prevailing theory, it happens because of a thick nerve bundle called the trigeminal nerve.


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[Assistant] Just like me, right? Oh, just listen.


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[Assistant] Hence, the trigeminal nerve misinterprets this signal as an irritant in the nose and thus, triggers sneezing.


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[Assistant] Our core body temperature is about 37 degrees Celsius. Or 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit.


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[Assistant] To maintain this temperature, our blood transports warmth to all our body.


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[Assistant] Now what to do? Now, our brain constricts the blood vessels of our limbs.


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[Assistant] Diverting blood to the vital organs to maintain their core temperature.


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[Assistant] As our limbs don't get sufficient warmth, they start to freeze, giving us frostbite. Frostbite progresses in three stages.


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[Assistant] During the third stage, that is, deep frostbite, the underlying tissues, blood vessels, bones, etc. Freeze and may get permanently damaged.


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[Assistant] In fracking, a vertical well is drilled into the layer of shale rocks. Then the drill is turned by 90 degrees and drilling continues horizontally. When the targeted distance is reached, the fracking well is in case.


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[Assistant] These fuels and the fracking fluid are then drawn to the surface.


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[Assistant] We shiver because our body tries to keep us warm.


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[Assistant] A part of our brain called hypothalamus controls and maintains the core body temperature.


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[Assistant] Will it also maintain my physique? Oh, please listen.


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[Assistant] Thus it sends signals to our muscles to contract and relax rapidly, making us shiver.


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[Assistant] This rapid contraction and relaxation of our muscles generates heat. This heat warms our body, thus helping us maintain our core body temperature.


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[Assistant] What causes brain freeze? An empty wallet.


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[Assistant] In the back of our throat, there are two main arteries. They are internal carotid artery and anterior cerebral artery. They supply blood to the entire brain.


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[Assistant] Now, when we have cold foods such as an ice cream or cold beverage rapidly. The temperature in our throat drops suddenly.


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[Assistant] Goosebumps served a purpose for our ancestors who had a lot of hair on their body. When our ancestors felt cold.


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[Assistant] Creating shallow depressions on the skin surface and making the hair stand straight up. Thus causing goosebumps.


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[Assistant] Now, as this characteristic of goosebumps is inherited by us, we also get them during strong emotions or when it is cold.


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[Assistant] You are right, but not completely. The main reason for oceans to be blue is the way water molecules absorb and scatter the colors of sunlight. Sunlight has 7 visible colors. They are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.


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[Assistant] Now, when sunlight falls on the ocean, it passes deep into the water.


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[Assistant] Vocal fry is a creaky or raspy voice seldom used in speech. I thought it is used by leech.


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[Assistant] However, longitudinally, they are not stretched tightly.


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[Assistant] And in Chinese? Oh, just listen.


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[Assistant] A wave is created when energy passes through water.


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[Assistant] While on the ocean floor, when a tectonic plate suddenly slides beneath the other, the resulting earthquake releases a tremendous amount of energy. This energy spreads outward from the point of earthquake, triggering waves that can form


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[Assistant] Leading to an increase in the height of waves, thus resulting in tsunami.


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[Assistant] At the back of our nose there is a tissue called olfactory epithelium. It is covered with mucus.


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[Assistant] This tissue has specialized neurons called olfactory receptor neurons.


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[Assistant] As a result, these activated neurons send signals through the olfactory tract to the brain, informing it about the smell.


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[Assistant] Yes, I am, said Wukong. I beat up that lion's insides and broke one of his teeth.


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[Assistant] What's he doing here? We want the Tang Monk!


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[Assistant] I've been dealing with these demons all day. It's your turn to fight them.


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[Assistant] It's AumSum Time. Why doesn't it go dark when we blink? Cause we have transparent eyelids.


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[Assistant] Yeah, yeah. We see objects when light from those objects enters our eyes and hits the retina. Now, when we blink, our retina doesn't receive any light. Then, why doesn't it appear dark?


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[Assistant] Because our brain suppresses this information from retina, ignoring the darkness. Thus, we don't consciously realize that it has gone dark.


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[Assistant] Also, experts say a part of our brain called medial prefrontal cortex stores the last image we see before blinking and uses it to fill in the darkness. Thus, we feel that we are watching a continuous picture without interruption.


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[Assistant] Also, if we blink while watching a moving object, our brain gauges the difference in positions of the moving object, before and after the blink.


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[Assistant] You are unbelievable. When we eat food, our stomach secretes hydrochloric acid. This acid helps to digest food. However, sometimes when excess acid is produced, it rises from the stomach and reaches the esophagus or throat causing acidity or heartburn.


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[Assistant] Now, in order to neutralize the acid, we take an antacid. Antacids work on a simple chemistry principle. Acid plus alkali produces salt and water.


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[Assistant] Dude, I'm really weak in mathematics.


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[Assistant] Don't worry, I'll explain it to you. Antacids contain alkalis, like calcium carbonate or aluminum hydroxide.


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[Assistant] When we take an antacid, the alkali reacts with the hydrochloric acid present in our throat and stomach. Forming salt and water and thus neutralizing the acid. In this way, antacids give us relief from heartburn or acidity.


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[Assistant] Why do we get eyebags? It is a sign indicating that we need to take a long holiday.


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[Assistant] Our skin contains collagen and elastin. They keep our skin firm and elastic.


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[Assistant] In addition to this, we have fat tissue surrounding our eyes for cushioning.


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[Assistant] But as we age, our skin produces less collagen and elastin, causing our skin to become loose. Also, the muscles and ligaments that hold the fat tissue in place begin to get loose and the fat starts drooping down. This loose skin and fat make the area around our eyes appear swollen, giving us eye bags.


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[Assistant] Besides this, heredity, salt intake, smoking, etc., may also contribute to the formation of eyebags. Oh.


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[Assistant] These painkillers work by attaching themselves to cox 1 and cox 2. Thus blocking them and not allowing arachidonic acid to bind to them. As a result, prostaglandin is not produced and the sensitivity of nociceptors decreases. Hence, the pain begins to subside.


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[Assistant] Why does our tongue stick to a frozen pole? Maybe our tongue has a magnet in it. No. Our tongue is always covered with saliva which is about 99% water.


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[Assistant] It's so kind hearted. Just listen. During cold weather, the metal pole becomes frozen and does not have heat in it.


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[Assistant] Hence, when we keep our warm tongue on the frozen pole, it draws heat from our tongue faster than the blood can replenish it.


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[Assistant] That's right, we're gonna give you some real English to talk about travel.


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[Assistant] Okay, so today we are going to listen as a husband and wife get ready to go on a trip.


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[Assistant] Well, let's look at our two preview words. Vocabulary Preview


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[Assistant] Road trips are great. You get to get in a car with your family and drive on a vacation.


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[Assistant] Really popular. I've been on a million road trips.


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[Assistant] Okay, this dialogue will be at normal speed. It will be fast. But don't worry if you don't understand everything.


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[Assistant] Well she forgot to go to the bathroom.


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[Assistant] This happens to me on almost every road trip.


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[Assistant] And the first word is munchies.


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[Assistant] Alright, our last language takeaway today is...


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[Assistant] Yeah, let's listen to a couple of examples. Example one.


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[Assistant] You can use this in many situations. If I'm at work, I could say, alright, we've got a really good marketing plan. We've got all our bases covered.


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[Assistant] Uh-huh, let's listen to a couple of examples.


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[Assistant] It'll be a little bit slower and you'll understand much better.


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[Assistant] Influency Builder, we give you some great useful phrases to help you express your ideas clearly.


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[Assistant] Alright, so we all know how to ask the question, are we ready to go? That's right, you can say, can we go now?


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[Assistant] Wow, that sounds really good. It sounds a lot more fluent.


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[Assistant] But there's another way to say this that we heard in the dialogue and it sounds a lot more fluent.


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[Assistant] Yeah, and then we would go camping and we would sleep outside and we would have a campfire at night. It was great.


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[Assistant] Okay, well thanks for listening and until next time, goodbye!


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[Assistant] This is ridiculous, said the Tang Monk. Why are we under arrest?


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[Assistant] Soldiers were bringing the travelers back to the town.


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[Assistant] By now they had reached the town. A crowd of people had gathered to watch. The soldiers brought the travelers into the courthouse. The judge frowned at the monk and the others.


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[Assistant] We can't go to jail! We're making an important ju-


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[Assistant] That night, Wukong turned into a bee and flew out of the jail and to Squire Ku's house.


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[Assistant] Then he turned into an enormous spirit body and lowered one foot.


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[Assistant] When the judge saw the giant foot, he gasped. The paper fell from his hands. Wukong's voice boomed.


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[Assistant] Exactly, this is really important because we all get sick and sometimes you just can't go to work.


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[Assistant] So quite ill. Very sick. Quite is a synonym of very.


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[Assistant] Sick. So they both mean the same thing, no difference.


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[Assistant] Exactly. Alright, let's take a look at our second word, flu. The flu. The flu. The flu. So the flu is a virus.


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[Assistant] Influenza, exactly. So, the flu. Okay, so let's listen to our dialogue. What's gonna happen here today?


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[Assistant] Alright, so let's take a look at some of this vocabulary in Language Takeaway.


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[Assistant] Alright, let's take a look at our next word. Sore throat. Sore throat. Sore throat. Sore throat. So basically we have two words here. Let's look at the first one. Sore.


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[Assistant] Okay, now we can use the word sore with different body parts, right?


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[Assistant] Right. So the word sore. Let's take a look at our third word. Runny nose. Runny nose. Runny nose. This is a very strange word. I know. But it doesn't mean that your nose is running, right?


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[Assistant] Okay, so you have a high temperature.


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[Assistant] Okay, so slightly feverish. And our last word, to recover. Recover. Recover. Recover. So this means to get better, right? Exactly. Can you only use it when you're sick?


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[Assistant] Okay, so yea, if you feel tired or you feel sick, you can recover. Okay, let's listen to our dialogue again and we can listen to these words that we've just talked about.


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[Assistant] In this dialogue, we listen to some really interesting phrases of how you can tell your boss that you are feeling sick, right?


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[Assistant] Okay, let's take a look at our first phrase on Fluency Builder.


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[Assistant] I'm coming down with. I'm coming down with. Alright, so let's listen to some examples and then we'll come back and explain this interesting phrase.


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[Assistant] Okay, so you can use it with, I'm coming down with the flu.


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[Assistant] With something, you don't know what it is. Exactly. Okay, let's take a look at our second phrase. Calling in sick. Calling in sick. Okay, calling in sick.


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[Assistant] Okay, so literally it means that you call your office and you say you're not going to work.


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[Assistant] Right, because otherwise you would have to say, I'm calling because I don't feel well so I'm not gonna go to work. Yes. But if you say I'm calling in sick, everyone knows. Everyone understands. That you're not gonna go to work. Yep.


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[Assistant] Okay, now let's take a look at our last phrase. Take the day off. Take the day off. Take the day off. Take the day off. Now this is a great phrase. To take the day off is to...


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[Assistant] Not go to work. On that day. Yes. Now you can say take the week off.


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[Assistant] Alright, so take the day off means to not go to work on that day. Alright, let's listen to our dialogue again now and then we'll come back and talk a little bit more.


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[Assistant] Yeah, of course, I mean sometimes you just don't feel very well, but you're not really sick, you just don't feel like going to work.


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[Assistant] And, you know, sometimes you would have a soccer match between, I don't know, Brazil, and it would be maybe at 10am or 11am, so everyone would call in sick on that day.


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[Assistant] So you would just go, you say, well I'm not gonna make it in the morning, but I'll come in in the afternoon.


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[Assistant] Alright, so, well, if you have any questions or comments, please come to our website and if you have any calling in sick stories, please let us know.


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[Assistant] Oho, thanks Humphrey. That's comfy.


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[Assistant] Thanks to Brilliant for supporting this episode of SciShow. Go to Brilliant.org slash SciShow to see if you can solve today's daily challenges.


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[Assistant] That sort of sharp, sometimes eggy odor is just that distinctive. And it also plays a big role in ecology, and maybe even in the climate. Because sure, there's salt in that whiff of dead fish.


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[Assistant] Exploding plankton. Collectively, the tiny plant-like organisms floating in the sunlit layer of the ocean are called phytoplankton. And they, as well as certain bacteria, make a chemical compound called DMSP. Among other reasons, phytoplankton make DMSP to help protect themselves from too much UV radiation, balance the water content in their cells,


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[Assistant] They ultimately break it down into smaller molecules, such as dimethyl sulfide, or DMS. The sulfide part means it contains the element sulfur, and that's what gives the ocean its unmistakable odor. It's a bunch of microbes breaking down their food. Now, in some places, this sea smell can be really pungent, leaning towards the rotten eggs end of the spectrum.


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[Assistant] While in other locations, you might barely catch a whiff. The difference depends on how many phytoplankton live in the area. Specifically, it takes a group of actively growing phytoplankton, called a bloom, to ultimately make a strong odor. The larger the bloom, the more DMSP there is for microbes to break down.


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[Assistant] DMS is the largest source of biologically produced sulfur on our planet.


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[Assistant] And since it's a gas, it quickly makes its way into the atmosphere. On the way there, it goes through chemical reactions to become a variety of sulfur compounds. Then, these compounds act as condensation nuclei in the atmosphere.


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[Assistant] Which means there's something water vapor can collect on to form a cloud. And clouds can have a surprisingly large effect on the climate, like fluffy white clouds reflect sunlight back to space, which helps keep the planet cool. At the same time, through the process of photosynthesis,


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[Assistant] They're becoming increasingly acidic. And that's not good for phytoplankton growth.


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[Assistant] Or the production of DMS. So ultimately, scientists have a lot left to learn about the complex interplay between the ocean, life, and our atmosphere.


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[Assistant] And how it will change in the future. One thing is for certain though.


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[Assistant] The smell of the sea is unforgettable. If you like learning about things like this, you might also want to try today's daily challenges from Brilliant. They release multiple new ones every day to help you freshen up your math and science skills. But if it's been a while since your last STEM class, don't worry.


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[Assistant] They also give you all the context you need to solve the problem. And if you're super into it, each daily challenge also has a related Brilliant course that explains the same concept in more detail. If you want to try it out, you can head over to brilliant.org slash SciShow.


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[Assistant] And if you sign up there, you'll also get 20% off an annual premium subscription.


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[Assistant] You see, as a technology strategist, my job involves behavior change, understanding why and how people adopt new technologies.


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[Assistant] And that means I'm really frustrated that I know I won't live to see how this all ends up. And in fact, if the youngest person watching this is 14,


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[Assistant] And the oldest, a robust 99, then together, our collective consciousnesses span just 185 years.


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[Assistant] Turns out we're all in the cheap seats and none of us will live to see how it all pans out. So at my company, we wanted a way around this.


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[Assistant] We wanted to see if there was a way to cantilever out beyond our fixed temporal vantage point to get a sense of how it all shakes up.


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[Assistant] representative of the US census, in which we asked a battery of attitudinal questions around robotics and AI.


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[Assistant] We had a big study so that we could analyze differences in gender and generations between religious and political beliefs, even job function and personality trait.


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[Assistant] of our human frailty in this pre-dawn of the robotic era. And I have five minutes to tell you about it.


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[Assistant] The first thing you should know is that we brainstormed a list of scenarios of current and potential AI robotics.


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[Assistant] Through to the mischievous, the idea of a robot pet sitter or maybe a robot lawyer or maybe a sex partner. Through to the downright macabre, the idea of being a cyborg.


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[Assistant] After your death. And we plotted people's comfort levels with these various scenarios. There were actually 31 in the study, but for ease, I'm going to show you just a few of them here.


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[Assistant] The first thing you'll notice, of course, is the sea of red. America is very uncomfortable with this stuff. That's why we call it the discomfort index. Not the comfort index. There are only two things the majority of America


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[Assistant] And a robot AI package deliverer. So Dyson and Amazon, you guys should talk.


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[Assistant] There's an opportunity there. It seems we're ready to offload our chores to our robot friends. We're kind of definitely on the fence when it comes to services, so robot AI lawyer or financial advisor maybe.


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[Assistant] But we're firmly close to the idea of robot care, whether it be a nurse, a doctor, child care. So from this you'd go ...


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[Assistant] It's okay, Lucy. You know what? Go back to sleep. Stop worrying. Humans win in the end.


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[Assistant] AI has a branding problem. So of those folks who said that they would absolutely reject the idea of a personal assistant, 45 percent of them


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[Assistant] And as any decent political operative knows, flipping the ambivalent middle can change the game.


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[Assistant] Another reason I know we're vulnerable is men. I'm sorry, but men, you are twice as likely than women to believe that getting into an autonomous car is a good idea. That uploading your brain for posterity is fun.


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[Assistant] And this is where I want you to look around the theatre and know that one in four men are OK with the idea of sex with a robot. That goes up to 44 percent of millennial men.


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[Assistant] Even more astounding than that, though, to be honest, is this behavioral difference. So here we have people who have a device with a voice assistant in it, so a smart speaker, a home hub or a smartphone, versus those who don't.


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[Assistant] And you can see from this graph that the Trojan horse is already in our living room.


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[Assistant] The final finding I have time for is generational. So look at the difference just three generations make. This is the leap from silent to boomer to millennial.


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[Assistant] And what's more fascinating than this is if you extrapolate this out at the same rate of change, just the same pace, not the accelerated one, I actually believe will be the case, the same pace, then it is eight generations away when we hear every single American thinking the majority of these things here are normal. So the year 2022 is an astounding place where everything here is mainstream.


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[Assistant] So not surprisingly, the youngest of us are more excited.


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[Assistant] But in possibly the most paradoxical finding of my career.


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[Assistant] When I ask these people my 3 a.m. question, who wins in the end? Guess what?


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[Assistant] The more excited you are about AI and robotics, the more likely you are to say it's the robots.


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[Assistant] And I don't think we need a neural net running pattern recognition software to see where this is all headed. We are the proverbial frogs in boiling water.


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[Assistant] You have all traveled far and faced many challenges. You have done well.


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[Assistant] Take the true scriptures back to the Tang Empire.


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[Assistant] The scriptures will teach the people there to be good and to treat each other kindly.


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[Assistant] But take good care of the scriptures. They're extremely valuable.


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[Assistant] Once you have delivered them, you shall come back here to receive your rewards.


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[Assistant] Walking city streets with worn cobblestones.


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[Assistant] Listening to people rushing past to rid them all their own.


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[Assistant] That we meet again, where or when.


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[Assistant] Okay, don't say anymore, let's just listen to this dialogue, and we'll be back later to explain it.


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[Assistant] Uh, uh, what a waiter. What a waiter. He is really angry at this customer and I can't blame him. I would be angry too.


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[Assistant] I'm still working on it. I'm still working on it. Why don't we listen to some other examples on how you can use this word and then we'll come back and explain it.


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[Assistant] Well, he basically wasted the waiter's time. I mean, this guy comes into the restaurant, he is not very polite, and he's asking all these questions, and in the end he just gets up and says, ah, I'll just go grab a burger across the street.


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[Assistant] Exactly, and be sure to go to our website at EnglishPod.com where you can find many other resources and you can leave your questions and comments at our community forum.


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[Assistant] Yeaah. So, I think Marco, you have chosen some interesting expressions for us here. What is the first one?


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[Assistant] Well, uhm, I have another one for us here, another interesting phrase, I'll go with. I'll go with. I'll go with. I'll go with. So basically it's another way of saying, I'm choosing. Yeaah.


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[Assistant] Alright, well, I would understand that go grab means go get quickly.


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[Assistant] Yeah. So how many times, Marco, tell me, do you really have fast food a week?


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[Assistant] So in today's lesson, we've got a lot of really great language for you. We've got language to help you to gossip better.


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[Assistant] Okay, so if I gossip, I maybe share news or information about other people with my friends, like I might say something like, Marco, did you see what happened in Chinese pod today? You'll never


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[Assistant] So in our vocabulary preview, we'll look at a few important words that will help you to understand the dialogue a little bit better.


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[Assistant] Yeah, uh, this word just means strange. It's strange.


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[Assistant] Yeah, if I move into a new house, maybe some of my friends or family will bring a gift over to make my house a little bit more beautiful.


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[Assistant] Or maybe a plant or sometimes even like maybe a basket of pastries or something. Okay. Yeah.


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[Assistant] So we've got two housewives who are gossiping about what's going on in the neighbourhood and let's listen to what happened.


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[Assistant] Okay, so the first word is a bad feeling. Bad feeling. A bad feeling. A bad feeling. So we've got a few examples that will help you to understand how this phrase works.


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[Assistant] Yeaah. Marco, have you ever kicked someone out of your class?


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[Assistant] So kicked out of class, kicked out of the house, kicked out of bed.


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[Assistant] I like this phrase a lot and we've got some examples for you to listen to to help you understand this word a little bit better.


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[Assistant] So, creeped me out basically means made me feel uncomfortable.


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[Assistant] Yeah, well speaking of being scared, we have our final word for language takeaway and it is scared the heck out of me. You scared the heck out of me. Scared the heck out of me.


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[Assistant] You know, one of the things I really like about this dialogue is there's a lot of great phrases that will help you to gossip.


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[Assistant] So when you gossip with somebody, you often tell them news or information that they don't know already. And you might start by saying, did you know that?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, both of those phrases are perfectly fine, but if you want to sound a little bit more native-like when you're gossiping, you might try out this phrase from the dialogue.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's right, so you might say, oh tell me about it.


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[Assistant] Yeah, and again, both of these examples are perfectly fine, but when you're gossiping, you might want to try something like this.


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[Assistant] Want to start up a conversation? You might use this phrase here.


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[Assistant] Okay Markle, I have a true story for you. Is it kind of like a creepy story?


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[Assistant] And you know, in the country, all of the neighbors know each other. It's a small community, so everyone knows what's happening all the time.


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[Assistant] And there was some gossip going on in our community about a guy who lived at the end of the road.


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[Assistant] And he was the owner of a car wrecking yard. So a place where you take old broken down cars and take the parts apart to sell.


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[Assistant] Okay, so, you know, he had a wife and a couple of kids, uhm, and suddenly his wife disappeared.


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[Assistant] And no one knew what happened or anything. And so several years passed and suddenly the police start coming in and start investigating this guy and start digging up all of the land around his property. And I guess, I don't know what they're doing, but I think they were looking for the wife's body.


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[Assistant] Nothing on earth or in heaven is perfect, said Wukong. So why should the true scriptures be any different?


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[Assistant] They'll teach the people of the East how to be good and avoid suffering.


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[Assistant] They will also teach the people that nothing needs to be perfect.


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[Assistant] This is the sound of orcas off the coast of Vancouver.


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[Assistant] They make these fantastic sounds not just to communicate, but also sometimes to echolocate, to find their way around and to find food.


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[Assistant] But that can be tricky sometimes, because, well, here's the sound of a ship passing by, recorded underwater.


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[Assistant] You know, when we think about marine pollution, I think we usually think about plastics, maybe toxic chemicals or even ocean acidification from climate change.


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[Assistant] Noise is another important kind of pollution, one that often gets ignored.


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[Assistant] You know, maybe you've heard of the dark skies movement, which aimed to raise awareness of the issue of light pollution and create pockets of unilluminated night so that people and animals could enjoy more natural cycles of light and dark, night and day.


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[Assistant] Well, in much the same way, there are people now raising awareness of the issue of noise pollution and trying to create pockets of quiet in the ocean so that marine life can enjoy a more natural soundscape.


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[Assistant] This is important. Noise isn't just an irritation. It can cause chronic stress or even physical injury. It can affect marine life's ability to find food and mates and to listen out for predators and more.


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[Assistant] Think of all the sounds we inject into the ocean. Perhaps one of the most dramatic is the seismic surveys used to look for oil and gas.


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[Assistant] Air guns produce loud blasts, sometimes every 10 to 15 seconds, for months on end. And they use the reflections of these sounds to map the ground beneath. It can sound like this.


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[Assistant] Then there's the sound of the actual drilling for oil and gas, the construction of things like offshore wind farms, sonar, and of course, the nearly constant drone from more than 50,000 ships in the global merchant fleet.


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[Assistant] Now the natural ocean itself isn't exactly quiet. If you put your head under the water, you can hear cracking ice, wind, rain, singing whales, grunting fish, even snapping shrimp.


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[Assistant] Altogether, that can create a soundscape of maybe 50 to 100 decibels, depending on where and when you are. But mankind's addition to that has been dramatic.


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[Assistant] And that might not sound like a lot, but decibels are on a logarithmic scale, like the Richter scale for earthquakes. So a small number can actually represent a large change. Three decibels means a doubling of noise intensity in the ocean. A doubling.


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[Assistant] There is a body called the International Quiet Ocean Experiment, and one of their missions is to try and plug the hole in that data.


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[Assistant] So for example, last year they managed to convince the Global Ocean Observation System to start including noise as one of their essential variables for monitoring alongside things like temperature and salinity.


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[Assistant] The noises we add to the ocean come in all different frequencies and can travel great distances. Seismic surveys off the East Coast of the United States can be heard in the middle of the Atlantic.


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[Assistant] In the 1960s, they did an experiment where they set off a loud noise off the coast of Perth, Australia, and they detected it as far away as Bermuda, 20,000 kilometers away.


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[Assistant] So what does all this sound like to marine life? What do they hear? It's kind of difficult to describe. Sound travels further, faster in water than it does in air, and it also packs a different punch. So sound of the same pressure will have a different intensity, whether you measure it in the air or underwater.


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[Assistant] Then there's the fact that whales don't have ears exactly like human ears. Creatures like zooplankton don't even have what you would consider to be ears.


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[Assistant] So what does this mean? What is the impact on all this marine life?


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[Assistant] Perhaps the easiest thing for scientists to assess is the effect of acute noise, really loud, sudden blasts that might cause physical injury or hearing loss. Beaked whales, for example, can go into panicked dives when exposed to loud noises, which may even give them a condition similar to the bends.


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[Assistant] In the 1960s, after the introduction of more powerful sonar technologies, the number of incidents of massed whale strandings of beaked whales went up dramatically.


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[Assistant] And it's not just marine mammals. Fish, if they stray too close to the source of a loud sound, their fish bladders may actually explode. The air gun blasts from seismic surveys can mow down a swath of zooplankton, the tiny creatures near the base of the food chain, or can deform scallop larvae while they're developing.


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[Assistant] Well, what about chronic noise, the more pervasive issue of raising background noise from things like shipping? That can mask or drown out the natural soundscape.


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[Assistant] You know, chronic noise can affect people, too, of course. Studies have shown that people living near busy airports or really busy highways may have elevated levels of cardiovascular disease. And students living under busy flight paths may do worse on some educational tests.


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[Assistant] This effect has been seen in whales, too. After the terrorist attacks of 9-11, international shipping largely ground to a halt for a little while in the waters off the east coast of the United States. And in that lull, researchers noticed that endangered right whales in that region had fewer chemical markers of stress in their feces samples.


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[Assistant] As one researcher I spoke to likes to say, we were stressed, but the whales weren't.


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[Assistant] You have to remember, we have evolved to be a visual species. We really rely on our eyes. But marine life relies on sound, the way that we rely on sight.


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[Assistant] And maybe sometimes that just means being a little more stressed. Maybe sometimes it means spending a little less time with the kids. Maybe some species can adapt.


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[Assistant] So take, for example, the southern resident killer whales that live in the waters off my hometown of Vancouver. There are only 75, maybe 76 animals left in this population, and they're facing a lot of challenges. There are chemical pollutants in these waters, and they are running low on the salmon that they really rely on for food. And then there's noise.


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[Assistant] When researchers studied these and similar killer whales, they found that they spend between 18 and 25 percent less time feeding in the presence of loud boat noise.


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[Assistant] And that's a lot for a species that's already struggling to find enough food to thrive.


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[Assistant] The good news, as I heard from all the researchers I spoke to, is that you can do something relatively easily about ocean noise. Unlike the wicked problems of climate change and ocean acidification, you can just dial down the knob on ocean noise and see almost immediate impacts.


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[Assistant] So, for example, in 2017, the fangover Fraser Port Authority started asking ships to simply slow down when going through the Harrow Strait, where the southern resident killer whales are feeding in late summer. Slower ships are quieter ships.


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[Assistant] This year, they decided to extend the length of time and the area over which they're asking ships to slow down. So hopefully that has a positive impact for these whales.


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[Assistant] You know, weirdly, a lot of the noise from a ship like this comes from the popping of tiny bubbles off the back of its propeller. And you can simply design a ship to do less of that and to be quieter.


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[Assistant] And they also have a target of reducing carbon dioxide emissions from global shipping by 50 percent by 2050. And the great news is that these two things go hand in hand. On the whole, a more efficient ship is a quieter ship.


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[Assistant] People have also invented quieter ways of hammering in the giant posts needed for giant wind turbines, like this one, and gentler ways of doing seismic surveys. And there are some incentives for using quieter technologies.


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[Assistant] We already know enough to say that quieter seas are healthier seas, but now scientists are really scrambling to come up with the details. Just how quiet do we need to be? And where are the best places to make quiet or preserve quiet? And how best can we hush our noise?


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[Assistant] And these impacts don't act in isolation. They act together and they multiply. So even for the ones that are not so obvious, we really need to pay attention to them.


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[Assistant] I'll tell you about one last experiment, just because it's so beautiful. So Rob Williams, one of the researchers who works on southern resident killer whales, also does some work in Bali.


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[Assistant] And there they celebrate a Hindu tradition called Niyapi, or a day of silence. And this day apparently is very strictly observed. No planes take off from the airport, no boats go out fishing, the tourists are gently led off the beach back into their hotel rooms.


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[Assistant] And Rob Williams put some hydrophones in the water there to see what the impact was, and it was dramatic. Sound levels dropped by six to nine decibels, about the same as in the waters after 9-11.


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[Assistant] I like to think of them having their own holiday, feasting and finding mates, celebrating their own spot of calm in an otherwise noisy world. Thank you.


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[Assistant] Dave and Ava. Once I caught a fish alive.


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[Assistant] And I have a bachelor's degree from UCLA where I was sick-up sweetheart, president of Delta Nu Sorority, and founded the charity, SHOP FOR A CAUSE.


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[Assistant] Oh, and just last week at Fred Siegel, I talked Beyonce out of buying a-


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[Assistant] I didn't make you look bad. You just weren't prepared.


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[Assistant] Try opening a law book sometime, but I should warn you, they don't come with pictures.


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[Assistant] I love costume parties. Of course you do. Okay, next Friday at 8, 243 Mass Ave. See you there.


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[Assistant] And by Mr. Huntington's standard, all masturbatory emissions where the sperm was clearly not seeking an egg could be called reckless abandonment.


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[Assistant] I'm one step ahead of you. Here you go. And thanks in advance for your consideration.


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[Assistant] And I have turned my whole world upside down Trying not to let you go Watching you walk away


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[Assistant] And admit to something that I didn't do? But with a plea bargain, you'd get out in a couple of years. That sounds reasonable, right?


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[Assistant] Which is why you should clarify for the court exactly what your duties were as the pool boy.


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[Assistant] Back to the sun. Back to the shore. Back to what I was before. Back where I'm known.


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[Assistant] No, I've permed my hair since junior high, about three a year. Interesting.


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[Assistant] And you know in a way I owe it all to you. I thought losing your love was a blow I could never withstand.


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[Assistant] To Emmet. And I can't believe I'm saying this. To Elle. To Elle.


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[Assistant] Excuse me, do you mind keeping it down? It's after midnight. Okay, sorry.


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[Assistant] Honey, I think it's your phone. Did you forget to switch it off?


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[Assistant] Honey, I think it's YOUR phone. Did you forget to switch it off?


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[Assistant] Ah, you're probably right. Rich kids do like things just so.


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[Assistant] Still got results though, even without him. Resistance elements are more fired up than ever.


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[Assistant] Hey honey, I'm back! Wow, the house looks really good!


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[Assistant] Just a sec, I'm just gonna vacuum this rug real fast.


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[Assistant] Here's the grocery list. I need all of these things so that I can cook dinner tonight. Don't forget anything.


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[Assistant] I'm in the middle of something right now. I'll be there in a second.


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[Assistant] You know what? I have to pick something up at the mall. So why don't you clean the floors and I'll go to the supermarket and get all the groceries.


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[Assistant] Hey, honey, I'm back. Wow, the house looks really good.


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[Assistant] Just a sec. I'm just gonna vacuum this rug real fast.


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[Assistant] I'll be there in a second I'll be there in a second


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[Assistant] Why don't you clean the floors and I'll go to the supermarket.


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[Assistant] Why don't you clean the floors and I'll go to the supermarket.


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[Assistant] You know what? I have to pick something up in the mall, so why don't you clean the floors and I'll go to the supermarket and get all the groceries.


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[Assistant] Hey honey, I'm back! Wow, the house looks really good!


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[Assistant] Today's the day when you get to turn the tables onto us.


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[Assistant] Jess. Well done, Jess. So boys, you'll be cooking savoury, is that right? Yes. Okay. So out of you two, who wants to go first? Yeah, I will. Done.


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[Assistant] So Ben, you'll, you'll start first. After 30 minutes, Sascha will be you. Another 30 minutes, it'll be you, Jess.


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[Assistant] You got 15 minutes for seven plates of food, yes? Yes, George. Come on, let's go. Yes, George. Come on, Ben.


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[Assistant] There's some things to applaud, there's definitely some things to take into consideration. After two dishes, it's very interesting, that's for sure. That's for sure. Dessert, that's what's left.


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[Assistant] Thanks Joseph. She's had a tough time. I think everyone's had a tough time today in the kitchen.


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[Assistant] He came forth. He's got three restaurants now and he's doing amazing stuff. So, the world's your oyster, you're only 19, but take your time. You don't want to rush to get to the top of the mountain too quickly. What have you enjoyed most?


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[Assistant] Every day you'd walk in here and wonder, geez, what's gonna happen? Well today's the day you've been waiting for. Today's the day when you get to turn the tables onto us.


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[Assistant] Does that make any sense? It sort of does. Do you think you're doing enough, George? No. No, not at all. I'm actually quite nervous. You could be in trouble. Um, I could be in trouble. You know what? I lose every year. So look, I'm in the off season. I've been training really hard. Hopefully I can take it out this year.


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[Assistant] So what are you doing here, George? What I'm gonna try and attempt to do is recreate a beetroot stuffed with horseradish.


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[Assistant] I've featured fennel in there, um, in a couple of different variations. I'm sure they're gonna love the flavour of this.


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[Assistant] A lot of work, I tell you what. You reckon it's fair? No, absolutely not. But we'll get there.


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[Assistant] Gary, I'm gonna do these little kohlrabi noodles. You're gonna do what? Kohlrabi noodles to go with the duck.


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[Assistant] Look, it was a challenge, but uh, you know, it's good fun. It's such a pleasure, I mean, you know, for us to be behind the stove. It's a beautiful thing.


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[Assistant] Roasted veg. Kohlrabi. Fettuccine. Oh, and a softballed egg.


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[Assistant] For this crucial challenge, which will decide which two of you go through to the semi-final to join Khan, we're going to allow you to cook whatever you want.


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[Assistant] But today we're going to apply pressure in a slightly different form.


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[Assistant] You probably don't know this, but Ross spends a lot of time in Singapore, and he's one of the great Australian experts in, guess what? Chicken rice. What's gonna make your chicken rice stand out?


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[Assistant] Reinventing a national dish, unbelievable. Aaron Ten.


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[Assistant] One minute to go, what else you got to eat? I'll fit to the sauce, will be the crispy skin and the garnish. Faster, faster, faster! Two hands, you've got two hands! You're almost there, come on, you're doing really well! Everyone, perfect!


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[Assistant] Thank you. So Jess, what is your dish?


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[Assistant] Ben, Sashi, Jess, two of you are about to join Khan in the semi-final. But for one of you, this wonderful adventure is coming to an end.


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[Assistant] Before we reveal our decision, I'm sure that you would love to join us in thanking Lennox, Danielle, Ross and Jock for sharing their wisdom. It's been invaluable. Thank you so much, guys. Thank you.


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[Assistant] It's just so surprising to be here and I'm sure that, you know, that they just don't believe it either. We were told we were going to be doing a service challenge.


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[Assistant] I'm gonna give it everything I've got and really try and be a part of the finale. It's so close so I can taste it.


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[Assistant] Visualizing the dish, uhm, I'm really sort of showcasing the fish, and the jus will, uhm,


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[Assistant] I've got so many things on the go at the moment. Uhm, I've got my ice cream on glaze. I've got my champagne foam started. I've got my Madeira jus just working out. And uhm, yeaah, I'm really trying to, really trying to push hard now. This jus is really the main element on my dish. It's crucial.


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[Assistant] The sauce is the main, main element to the dish really. The most important thing to the sauce is the flavour.


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[Assistant] I just think I'm gonna see if I just can't get a little bit more colour going in that tomato paste. Really sort of heed Shannon's advice getting that coloured enough. I'm just concerned that I'm gonna fall behind. It's all becoming real how much I need to do.


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[Assistant] Gotta remain focused, remain calm, and don't slow down whatsoever.


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[Assistant] The jus been on for about an hour and a half now and I really feel that it's developing the way that I want it to. It's got a great colour to it. The flavours will develop with that colour. Well, it's starting to smell good. Alright, curd. Let's get on with it. Now I've got to get back to the rest of the elements for my pavlova.


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[Assistant] It's time to start my fish and I mean I am sweating bullets. Hasn't gone into it yet. I've got to fillet 23 portions of fish and make sure that they're all perfect.


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[Assistant] I've also gotta pre-cook the skin side before service to get it nice and crispy. Come on, Ben! Filleting the snapper. I know what I'm doing, but...


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[Assistant] I'm running out of time. And I still haven't started cooking my fish yet.


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[Assistant] I'm feeling really stressed at the moment and, uh, yeaah, under a lot of pressure. Ben? You gonna make it? I'm concerned about this fish.


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[Assistant] The pressure is massive, and I haven't even started cooking my fish yet.


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[Assistant] I'm worried. You've literally got 18 minutes.


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[Assistant] I'm feeling a little bit panicked. I don't want to hurry the process and ruin the fish by cooking the crispy skin in a hot pan for a shorter amount of time.


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[Assistant] I still know I can cook it perfectly in the oven and I'm not going to compromise on the flavour. I hope that they'll take about 12 minutes.


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[Assistant] I open up the oven and I test the fish with a toothpick.


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[Assistant] Come on man, come on! Ben, how are we? Hurray, uh, seasoned and, uh, smoked. You've smoked it? Yes. Excellent.


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[Assistant] The celeriac puree will really bring the entire dish together. A great flavor of smoke to complement the nicely baked fish and the beautiful rich and thick jus.


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[Assistant] I'm so stoked to be calling service and watching my plates go out for the first round. I'm still laden. Come on man, come on! Plating up, I want as best of a quenelle as I can do of the puree. One of each color of the carrots.


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[Assistant] And, uh, few slices of the radishes are just scattered over. I know that the flavours are there. Service please. And once that jus goes on top of the fish, it should just all work together and be perfect.


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[Assistant] Nervous, please. 24 plates out, I'm feeling pretty good.


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[Assistant] I piped the passion fruit curd on the bottom of the plate. That's a nice technique. That's a nice technique.


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[Assistant] And crumble on some freeze dried raspberries. It's come out exactly the way I wanted it to.


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[Assistant] I don't know what to say, I'm just, my heart is racing, I'm shaking.


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[Assistant] To be able to say, I don't want to allow for this particular column to ever be empty. I don't want there to ever be a flight that doesn't have an origin or doesn't have a destination or a duration.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I can add constraints to a particular column to say, you know what, for the origin destination duration columns, those should not be allowed to be null. I want to always have an origin and a destination and a duration.


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[Assistant] And then finally, this auto increment after the primary key is a queue into SQL to automatically update the ID every time I add a new row into the table. So if I add a new flight, I can give the flight an origin, destination, and duration, but I don't have to worry about giving it an ID.


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[Assistant] SQL is going to handle that for me automatically. Automatically giving that new table the next, or the new row in that table, the next available ID.


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[Assistant] So here then is the way we create a table by giving the name of the table, each of the columns, the types for each of those columns, and then any constraints that we would want to place on those columns. And it turns out,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There are a number of different types of constraints that I can add to a particular column. Not null is one we've seen before. You can add a default, which just adds a default value to a particular column. Primary key we've seen. Unique guarantees that every value is going to be unique. So if you don't want to allow for the same value to appear twice,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For a particular column, you can add a unique constraint to a particular column to enforce that as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so via constraints, you can begin to ensure that as you add data to the table, that data is going to be valid in some way, that it needs to obey certain constraints. Otherwise, if you try to add it to the table, it's not going to be accepted at all.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so that leads into the natural next question, which is I now have all of these various different tables that I can create using these create table commands. But how do I actually add data into those tables? And the way we're going to do that is via an insert command, where we're going to insert data into a SQL table.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so what might that command look like? The command is generally going to look like this, where we're going to say insert into to say I would like to add a new row to a table.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Following that, we provide the name of the table, something like flights to say I would like to add a new row to the flights table. And following the name of the table, we need to provide in parentheses a comma separated list of all of the column names for which we are going to provide.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So here I've said I want to provide values for the origin, destination, and duration of this flight. Note that I'm leaving out the ID column. I don't have to worry about adding a value for the ID because I said the ID should auto increment. So it's going to automatically give the next available ID.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And what values am I going to provide? Well, after the word values, I provide, again, in parentheses, a comma separated list of all of the values that are to be associated with those columns in the same order. So origin was the first one here. So origin will correspond to New York. Destination will correspond to London. Duration will correspond to 415.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this query then lets me take the flights table that I've already created and add some data into that table as well.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But of course, once we've added data to a table, we'd ideally like some way to get data out of that table as well. That once we've stored data inside of our database, we want to retrieve that data too. And to do that, we're going to use a particular type of query.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Called a select query. And what select is going to do is it's going to take a table that already exists and allow us to get data out of that table.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's not going to modify the data that's there, it's just going to retrieve data that might be inside a particular table.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what do those queries look like? Well, the simplest query might look a little something like this. Select star from flights.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And this star is a wild card that here just means that select all of the possible columns that you can.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so if this is my table, my table of flights where each flight has an ID, an origin, a destination, and a duration, then select star from flights will select all of that data. All of the rows and all of the columns are going to come back to me when I run a query like this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now it's possible that when I'm running these queries, when I'm accessing data, that I don't actually care about all of these columns, especially if I have a table with many more columns than just this. Maybe I only care about particular columns and it would be wasteful to query the database asking it to return to me a whole lot more data than I actually need. So instead I could run a query like this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Select instead of star, I'm saying select origin comma destination from flights. So I'm again selecting from the flights table, selecting all of the rows still.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the difference is that instead of select star, which means select all of the columns that are present in the table, select origin comma destination means I'm only going to select these two columns. The origin column and the destination column, so highlighted in blue here, is the data that would be returned if someone were to run this particular SQL query.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, especially as tables begin to get larger and begin to have more and more rows. Here I just have six rows, but you might imagine a table with thousands or even millions of rows within it. You probably don't want to be returning every single row every single time. So just as you can constrain which columns come back to you, likewise you too can constrain which rows come back to you when you perform a query.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I could say something like, select star from flights where id equals three. Again, this reads is very English-like. I'm saying select all of the columns from the flights table.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But not all of the rows, I only want to select the rows where, this is a SQL keyword,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Where id equals 3. id is the name of a column, 3 is the value, and it's going to look through this table, only find me the flights where the id is equal to 3, and I'll just get back that one row as a result. It finds the row with an id of 3, and it gives that back to me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If instead I said select star from flights where origin equals New York, I can see that I don't just need to filter on the primary key, the ID.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I can also filter on any other column. I can say, give me all the flights where New York is the origin. So all the flights leaving from New York. And you might imagine that in New York's airport, for example, they likely want some sort of query that's going to find all the flights leaving from New York such that they can display on a screen of some sort all of the departures from that particular airport.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So you could run a query like this and get back only the rows in this database inside of this table that happen to have an origin of New York, for example.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So let's go ahead and take a look at how we might actually run some of these queries inside of a SQL database.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in order to create a SQLite database, which is really just a file, I can start just by creating the file. And it turns out that in the terminal there's a command called touch that will create a brand new file for me. So I'm going to create a file called flights.sql. It's going to be a SQLite database file that by default has nothing in it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But then, assuming you have SQLite installed, I can run SQLite 3, followed by flights.sql,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And now I'm inside of the SQLite prompt. I can now begin to write commands that will be executed on the SQL database.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So one thing I might do is create a table called flights. This table I want to have an id column, which is an integer. It should be the primary key, the main way via which I identify a flight, and I would like to auto increment it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I would also like for the flights table to have an origin, which will be a text field that is not null. I'll add a destination field, also a text field that is not null.