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[Assistant] He had shown strong internal agitation when he was questioned, and that pondering or brooding look which made him old had been upon him like a heavy cloud ever since.


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[Assistant] As he passed out, the jury who had turned back and paused a moment spoke through their foreman. They were not agreed and wished to retire.


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[Assistant] My lord, perhaps with George Washington on his mind, showed some surprise that they were not agreed.


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[Assistant] But signified his pleasure that they should retire under watch and ward and retired himself.


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[Assistant] The trial had lasted all day, and the lamps in the court were now being lighted.


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[Assistant] It began to be rumored that the jury would be out a long while.


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[Assistant] The spectators dropped off to get refreshment and the prisoner withdrew to the back of the dock and sat down.


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[Assistant] Mr. Lorry, who had gone out when the young lady and her father went out, now reappeared and beckoned to Jerry.


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[Assistant] Jerry, if you wish to take something to eat, you can. But keep in the way. You will be sure to hear when the jury come in.


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[Assistant] Don't be a moment behind them, for I want you to take the verdict back to the bank.


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[Assistant] You are the quickest messenger I know and will get to Temple Bar long before I can.


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[Assistant] Jerry had just enough fodder to knuckle, and he knuckled it in acknowledgement of this communication and a shilling.


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[Assistant] Mr. Carton came up at that moment and touched Mr. Lorry on the arm. How is the young lady? She is greatly distressed, but her father is comforting her, and she feels the better for being out of court. I'll tell the prisoner so.


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[Assistant] It won't do for a respectable bank gentleman like you to be seen speaking to him publicly, you know.


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[Assistant] Mr. Lorry reddened, as if he were conscious of having debated the point in his mind, and Mr. Carton made his way to the outside of the bar.


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[Assistant] You will naturally be anxious to hear of the witness, Miss Manette. She will do very well. You have seen the worst of her agitation. I am deeply sorry to have been the cause of it. Could you tell her so for me, with my fervent acknowledgments? Yes, I could. I will if you ask it.


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[Assistant] Mr. Carton's manner was so careless as to be almost insolent.


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[Assistant] He stood half turned from the prisoner, lounging with his elbow against the bar. I do, ask it, accept my cordial thanks. What, said Carton, still only half turned towards him, do you expect, Mr. Darnay? The worst. It's the wisest thing to expect and the likeliest, but I think their withdrawing is in your favor.


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[Assistant] Loitering on the way out of court not being allowed, Jerry heard no more, but left them.


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[Assistant] So like each other in feature, so unlike each other in manner, standing side by side, both reflected in the glass above them.


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[Assistant] An hour and a half limped heavily away in the thief and rascal crowded passages below, even though assisted off with mutton pies and ale.


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[Assistant] The horse messenger, uncomfortably seated on a form after taking that refection, had dropped into a doze, when a loud murmur and a rapid tide of people setting up the stairs that led to the court, carried him along with them. Jerry, Jerry! Mr. Lorry was already calling at the door when he got there. Yes, sir. It's a fight to get back again. Here I am, sir. Mr. Lorry handed him a paper through the throng. Quick, have you got it? Yes, sir.


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[Assistant] Hastily written on the paper was the word, acquitted. If you had sent the message, recalled to life again, muttered Jerry as he turned, I should have known what you meant this time.


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[Assistant] He had no opportunity of saying or so much as thinking anything else until he was cleared of the Old Bailey.


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[Assistant] For the crowd came pouring out with a vehemence that nearly took him off his legs, and a loud buzz swept into the street, as if the baffled blueflies were dispersing in search of other carrions.


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[Assistant] The last sediment of the human stew that had been boiling there all day was straining off.


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[Assistant] When Dr. Manette, Lucy Manette, his daughter, Mr. Lorry, the solicitor for the defense, and its counsel, Mr. Stryver, stood gathered round Mr. Charles Darnay, just released, congratulating him on his escape from death.


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[Assistant] It would have been difficult by a far brighter light to recognize in Dr. Manette, intellectual of face and upright of bearing, the shoemaker of the garret in Paris.


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[Assistant] Yet no one could have looked at him twice without looking again, even though the opportunity of observation had not extended to the mournful cadence of his low, grave voice and to the abstraction that overclouded him fitfully without any apparent reason.


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[Assistant] While one external cause, and that a reference to his long lingering agony would always, as on the trial, evoke this condition from the depths of his soul


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[Assistant] It was also in its nature to arise of itself and to draw gloom over him, as incomprehensible to those unacquainted with his story, as if they had seen the shadow of the actual Bastille thrown upon him by a summer sun, when the substance was three hundred miles away.


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[Assistant] Only his daughter had the power of charming this black brooding from his mind.


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[Assistant] She was the golden thread that united him to a past beyond his misery, and to a present beyond his misery.


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[Assistant] And the sound of her voice, the light of her face, the touch of her hand, had a strong beneficial influence with him almost always.


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[Assistant] Not absolutely always, for she could recall some occasions on which her power had failed.


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[Assistant] But they were few and slight, and she believed them over.


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[Assistant] Mr. Darnay had kissed her hand fervently and gratefully.


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[Assistant] Mr. Stryver, a man of little more than thirty, but looking twenty years older than he was, stout, loud, red, bluff, and free from any drawback of delicacy, had a pushing way of shouldering himself, morally and physically, into companies and conversations that argued well for his shouldering his way up in life.


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[Assistant] He still had his wig and gown on, and he said, squaring himself at his late client to that degree that he squeezed the innocent Mr. Lorry clean out of the group,


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[Assistant] I am glad to have brought you off with this honor, Mr. Darnay. It was an infamous prosecution, grossly infamous, but not the less likely to succeed on that account. You have laid me under an obligation to you for life.


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[Assistant] In two senses, said his late client, taking his hand.


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[Assistant] I have done my best for you, Mr. Darnay. And my best is as good as another man's, I believe.


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[Assistant] It clearly being incumbent on someone to say much better, Mr. Lorry said it.


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[Assistant] You have been present all day and you ought to know. You are a man of business too. And as such...


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[Assistant] Quoth Mr. Lorry, whom the council learned in the law had now shouldered back into the group, just as he had previously shouldered him out of it,


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[Assistant] As such, I will appeal to Dr. Manette to break up this conference and order us all to our homes.


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[Assistant] Miss Lucy looks ill. Mr. Darnay has had a terrible day. We are worn out.


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[Assistant] Speak for yourself, Mr. Lolly, said Stryver. I have a night's work to do yet. Speak for yourself. I speak for myself.


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[Assistant] Answered Mr. Lottie. And for Mr. Darnay, and for Miss Lucy, and...


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[Assistant] Miss Lucy, do you not think I may speak for us all? He asked her the question pointedly and with a glance at her father. His face had become frozen, as it were, in a very curious look at Darnay.


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[Assistant] An intent look, deepening into a frown of dislike and distrust, not even unmixed with fear. With this strange expression on him, his thoughts had wandered away. My father, said Lucy, softly laying her hand on his. He slowly shook the shadow off and turned to her. Shall we go home, my father? With a long breath he answered, yes.


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[Assistant] The friends of the acquitted prisoner had dispersed under the impression, which he himself had originated, that he would not be released that night.


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[Assistant] Walking between her father and Mr. Darnay, Lucy Manette passed into the open air. A hackney coach was called, and the father and daughter departed in it.


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[Assistant] Mr. Stryver had left them in the passages to shoulder his way back into the roving room.


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[Assistant] Another person who had not joined the group or interchanged a word with any of them, but who had been leaning against the wall where its shadow was darkest, had silently strolled out after the rest and had looked on until the coach drove away.


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[Assistant] He now stepped up to where Mr. Lorry and Mr. Darnay stood upon the pavement. So, Mr. Lorry, men of business may speak to Mr. Darnay now.


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[Assistant] Nobody had made any acknowledgement of Mr. Carton's part in the day's proceedings. Nobody had known of it.


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[Assistant] He was unrobed and was none the better for it in appearance.


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[Assistant] If you knew what a conflict goes on in the business mind, when the business mind is divided between good-natured impulse and business appearances, you would be amused, Mr. Darnay. Mr. Lorry readened and said warmly,


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[Assistant] You have mentioned that before, sir. We men of business who serve a house are not our own masters. We have to think of the house more than ourselves. I know, I know, rejoined Mr. Carton carelessly.


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[Assistant] And indeed, sir. Pursued Mr. Lorry, not minding him. I really don't know what you have to do with the matter.


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[Assistant] If you'll excuse me as very much your elder for saying so, I really don't know that it is your business. Business? Bless you, I have no business, said Mr. Carton. It is a pity you have not, sir. I think so, too. If you had, pursued Mr. Lorry, perhaps you would attend to it. Lord love you, no, I shouldn't, said Mr. Carton.


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[Assistant] Well, sir, cried Mr. Lorry, thoroughly heated by his indifference.


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[Assistant] Business is a very good thing and a very respectable thing. And sir, if business imposes its restraints and its silences and impediments, Mr. Darnay, as a young gentleman of generosity, knows how to make allowances for that circumstance. Mr. Darnay, good night. God bless you, sir. I hope you have been this day preserved for a prosperous and happy life.


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[Assistant] Perhaps a little angry with himself, as well as with the barrister, Mr. Lorry bustled into the chair and was carried off to Tellson's.


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[Assistant] Carton, who smelt of port wine and did not appear to be quite sober, laughed then, and turned to Darnay.


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[Assistant] This is a strange chance that throws you and me together. This must be a strange night to you, standing alone here with your counterpart on these street stones. I hardly seem yet.


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[Assistant] Returned Charles Darnay to belong to this world again. I don't wonder at it.


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[Assistant] It's not so long since you were pretty far advanced on your way to another. You speak faintly. I begin to think I am faint. Then why the devil don't you dine?


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[Assistant] I dined myself while those numbskulls were deliberating which world you should belong to, this or some other. Let me show you the nearest tavern to dine well in.


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[Assistant] Drawing his arm through his own, he took him down Ludgate Hill to Fleet Street and so up a covered way into a tavern. Here they were shown into a little room.


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[Assistant] Where Charles Danet was soon recruiting his strength with a good plain dinner and good wine.


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[Assistant] While Carton sat opposite to him at the same table, with his separate bottle of port before him and his fully half-insolent manner upon him.


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[Assistant] Do you feel yet that you belong to this terrestrial scheme again, Mr. Darnay?


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[Assistant] I am frightfully confused regarding time and place, but I am so far-mended as to feel that. It must be an immense satisfaction. He said it bitterly and filled up his glass again, which was a large one. As to me, the greatest desire I have is to forget that I belong to it.


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[Assistant] It has no good in it for me, except wine like this, nor I for it. So we are not much alike in that particular.


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[Assistant] Indeed, I begin to think we are not much alike in any particular you and I.


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[Assistant] Confused by the emotion of the day and feeling his being there with this double of course deportment to be like a dream, Charles Darnay was at a loss how to answer. Finally, answered not at all. Now your dinner is done, Carton presently said. Why don't you call health, Mr. Darnay? Why don't you give your toast? What health? What toast? Why, it's on the tip of your tongue.


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[Assistant] Looking his companion full in the face while he drank the toast.


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[Assistant] Cut and flung his glass over his shoulder against the wall, where it shivered to pieces, then rang the bell and ordered in another.


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[Assistant] That's a fair young lady to hand to a coach in the dark, Mr. Darnay, he said, filling his new goblet. A slight frown and a laconic, yes, were the answer.


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[Assistant] That's a fair young lady to be pitied by and wept for by.


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[Assistant] How does it feel? Is it worth being tried for one's life to be the object of such sympathy and compassion, Mr. Darnay? Again Darnay answered not a word.


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[Assistant] She was mightily pleased to have your message when I gave it her. Not that she showed she was pleased, but I suppose she was.


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[Assistant] The allusion served as a timely reminder to Darnay that this disagreeable companion had of his own free will assisted him in the straight of the day.


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[Assistant] He turned the dialogue to that point and thanked him for it. I neither want any thanks nor merit any, was the careless rejoinder.


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[Assistant] It was nothing to do in the first place, and I don't know why I did it in the second. Mr. Darnay, let me ask you a question. Willingly, and a small return for your good offices. Do you think I particularly like you? Really, Mr. Carton, returned the other oddly disconcerted, I have not asked myself the question. But ask yourself the question now. You have acted as if you do,


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[Assistant] I don't think I do, said Carton. I begin to have a very good opinion of your understanding. Nevertheless, pursued Darnay, rising to ring the bell.


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[Assistant] Then bring me another pint of this same wine, drawer, and come and wake me a tent.


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[Assistant] I am a disappointed drudge, sir. I care for no man on earth, and no man on earth cares for me. Much to be regretted. You might have used your talents better. Maybe so, Mr. Zane, maybe not.


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[Assistant] When he was left alone, this strange being took up a candle


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[Assistant] Why should you particularly like a man who resembles you?


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[Assistant] There is nothing in you to like, you know that.


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[Assistant] Ah, I confound you. What a change you have made in yourself.


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[Assistant] A good reason for taking to a man that he shows you what you have fallen away from and what you might have been. Change places with him.


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[Assistant] And would you have been looked at by those blue eyes as he was, and commiserated by that agitated face as he was?


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[Assistant] Come on and have it out in plain words. You hate the fellow.


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[Assistant] He resorted to his pint of wine for consolation, drank it all in a few minutes, and fell asleep on his arms with his hair straggling over the table and a long winding sheet in the candle dripping down upon him.


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[Assistant] The Sumerian nail writers whose clay tablets tell us the story of Assyria and Babylonia, the great Semitic melting pot.


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[Assistant] The 15th century was an age of great discoveries.


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[Assistant] Columbus tried to find a way to the island of Cathay and stumbled upon a new and unsuspected continent. An Austrian bishop equipped an expedition which was to travel eastward and find the home of the Grand Duke of Muscovy.


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[Assistant] But Europe was busy with many other things, and it was not until the end of the 18th century that the first cuneiform inscriptions, so called because the letters were wedge-shaped and wedge is called cuneus in Latin, were brought to Europe by a Danish surveyor named Niebuhr.


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[Assistant] Then it took 30 years before a patient German schoolmaster by the name of Grotfind had deciphered the first four letters, the D, the A, the R, and the SH, the name of the Persian King Darius.


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[Assistant] And another 20 years had to go by until a British officer, Henry Rawlinson, who found the famous inscription of Behestan, gave us a workable key to the nail writing of Western Asia.


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[Assistant] Compared to the problem of deciphering these nail writings, the job of champion had been an easy one. The Egyptians used pictures.


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[Assistant] But the Sumerians, the earliest inhabitants of Mesopotamia, who had hit upon the idea of scratching their words in tablets of clay, had discarded pictures entirely and had evolved a system of V-shaped figures which showed little connection with the pictures out of which they had been developed. A few examples will show you what I mean.


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[Assistant] In the beginning, a star when drawn with a nail into a brick looked as follows. Here is a picture of a star.


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[Assistant] This sign, however, was too cumbersome and after a short while, when the meaning of heaven was added to that of star, the picture was simplified in this way.


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[Assistant] Here is a more stylized picture of a star, which made it even more of a puzzle. In the same way, an ox changed from, here you see a small picture of an ox's head, into


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[Assistant] Here is another picture. It is several lines and triangles.


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[Assistant] And a fish changed from, here is a picture of a fish, into, and here is a picture with some more triangles and lines representing a fish. The sun was originally a plain circle, here is a picture of a plain circle, and became


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[Assistant] A picture with four triangles in the, in sort of a square. If we were using the Sumerian script today, we would make an here's a picture of a ship look like, and here's a picture of a very stylized ship.


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[Assistant] This system of writing down our ideas looks rather complicated, but for more than 30 centuries it was used by the Sumerians and the Babylonians and the Assyrians and the Persians and all the different races which forced their way into the Fertile Valley.


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[Assistant] The story of Mesopotamia is one of endless warfare and conquest. First, the Sumerians came from the north. They were a white people who had lived in the mountains. They had been accustomed to worship their gods on the tops of hills.


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[Assistant] After they had entered the plane, they constructed artificial little hills on top of which they built their altars.


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[Assistant] They did not know how to build stairs and they therefore surrounded their towers with sloping galleries. Our engineers have borrowed this idea, as you may see in our big railroad stations where ascending galleries lead from one floor to another.


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[Assistant] We may have borrowed other ideas from the Sumerians but we do not know it. The Sumerians were entirely absorbed by those races that entered the fertile valley at a later date. Their towers, however, still stand amidst the ruins of Mesopotamia.


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[Assistant] The Jews saw them when they went into exile in the land of Babylon, and they called them the Towers of Babali, or Towers of Babel. Here is a picture of a Tower of Babel.


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[Assistant] In the 40th century before our era, the Sumerians had entered Mesopotamia.


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[Assistant] They were soon afterwards overpowered by the Akkadians, one of the many tribes from the desert of Arabia who speak a common dialect and who are known as the Semites, because in the olden days people believed them to be direct descendants of Shem, one of the three sons of Noah.


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[Assistant] A thousand years later, the Akkadians were forced to submit to the rule of the Amorites. Another Semitic desert tribe whose great king Hammurabi built himself a magnificent palace in the holy city of Babylon and who, here is a picture of the holy city of Babylon,


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[Assistant] gave his people a set of laws which made the Babylonian state the best administered empire of the ancient world.


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[Assistant] Next, the Hittites, whom you will also meet in the Old Testament.


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[Assistant] The center of a vast and terrible empire which conquered all of Western Asia and Egypt and gathered taxes from countless subject races until the end of the seventh century before the birth of Christ, when the Chaldeans, also a Semitic tribe, reestablished Babylon and made that city the most important capital of that day.


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[Assistant] Nebuchadnezzar, the best known of their kings, encouraged the study of science, and our modern knowledge of astronomy and mathematics is all based upon certain first principles which were discovered by the Chaldeans.


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[Assistant] In the year 538 BC, a crude tribe of Persian shepherds invaded this old land and overthrew the empire of the Chaldeans. Two hundred years later, they in turn were overthrown by Alexander the Great, who turned the fertile valley, the old melting pot of so many Semitic races, into a Greek province.


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[Assistant] Next came the Romans, and after the Romans the Turks, and Mesopotamia, the second center of the world civilization, became a vast wilderness, where huge mounds of earth told a story of ancient glory. Here's a picture of the walled city of Nineveh.


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[Assistant] Unless they have been abroad or have visited some of the largest art galleries in this country.


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[Assistant] All they have seen are small pictures of such paintings.


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[Assistant] That is about the same as seeing a picture postcard of Niagara Falls, instead of seeing the falls themselves. We know what the falls look like, so we know what some of the great pictures look like, but that's not the same as seeing the real thing.


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[Assistant] So you have to use your imagination to understand what a great picture in color is like, when all you can see is a small black and white copy of it. The father of Greek painting, you may remember, was a man named Polygnotis. About 2,000 years later, there lived a man who was called the father of Italian painting. His name is Cimabue. Pronounced Cimabue.


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[Assistant] Cimabue lived in Florence, which means the city of flowers. It is in the central part of Italy. There are very few of his paintings in existence, and we are not sure that certain pictures are really his. And you may not see from the paintings we have why he was supposed to be such a great painter. If Cimabue were painting now, probably he would not be considered great. But in his time, he was thought very great.


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[Assistant] Because he was so much better than any other painter had been for a thousand years before him.


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[Assistant] When he had finished painting a large picture of the Virgin Mary,


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[Assistant] It is said the people of Florence thought it so beautiful they formed a procession and with trumpets sounding and banners flying.


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[Assistant] Monks were holy men who spent their whole time in trying to be good and in doing good.


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[Assistant] Saint Francis started a society of monks called after him. Franciscans.


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[Assistant] Those who joined the society promised to try to live as Christ had lived. They could own nothing. They could have no money. They could not marry. They spent all their time in doing good. They worked to earn their daily bread and lodging.


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[Assistant] They shaved the top of their heads, leaving a circular place bare like a bald spot.


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[Assistant] And kept it shaved so that everyone would know they were monks. This shaved circle was called a tonsure.


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[Assistant] They wore a rough brown robe with a hood. And they held the robe together with a coarse rope tied around the waist.


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[Assistant] Before you turn this page, I must warn you not to expect a pretty picture. It isn't that. Very likely you will exclaim, What an ugly old man!


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[Assistant] A halo was painted around the heads of saints to show that they were holy persons. The spots on this saint's hands are not an accident.


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[Assistant] It is said that Saint Francis wanted so to be like Christ that an angel came to him and made on his hands and feet nail holes like those that Christ had received on the cross. These nail marks are called stigmata.


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[Assistant] But it is not for what he did himself that Shimabue is famous.


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[Assistant] He is known chiefly as the teacher of someone who became a much greater artist.


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[Assistant] Chimabue was walking one day in the country, not far from Florence, when he came upon a shepherd boy tending his flocks.


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[Assistant] The boy, while watching his sheep, was drawing pictures of them on a piece of slate with a sharp stone.


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[Assistant] Looking over the boy's shoulder, was amazed at the picture he saw, and asked the boy's name. Joto, the boy replied.


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[Assistant] Which was the short pet name for Ambro Giotto. Giotto is pronounced Giotto.


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[Assistant] Getting permission from his father, he went to live and study with Chimabue. When Joto grew up, he painted many famous pictures of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and especially of Saint Francis, whom Chimabue had painted.


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[Assistant] St. Francis lived in a town near Florence called Assisi.


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[Assistant] In Assisi there is a church built in his honor. In fact, there are two churches, one on top of the other.


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[Assistant] In the upper church, Giotto painted along the walls a series of pictures that told stories from the life of Saint Francis.


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[Assistant] Among many wonderful things St. Francis used to do was to preach sermons to the birds that gathered round him to listen. The picture below shows him doing this.


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[Assistant] In those days, the paint used was not like that we have now.


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[Assistant] The paint we use is usually made by mixing colored powder with oil. We call it oil paint. And artists paint pictures on canvas.


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[Assistant] But in those days, oil was not used in making paint, and the painting was done. But in those days, oil was not used in making paint, and the painting was not done on canvas. Artists mixed their powdered colors with water, and painted on the fresh plastered walls. Or, they mixed their colors with something sticky, like egg or glue, and painted on dry plaster, wood, or copper.


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[Assistant] The first kind of painting on fresh plaster was called fresco, which means fresh.


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[Assistant] The second kind of painting was called tempera, which means mixed.


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[Assistant] The story is told that the Pope wished to have a picture painted and sent a messenger to Johto to ask for a sample of the artist's work.


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[Assistant] Johto dipped his brush in some paint and, with a single swinging stroke,


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[Assistant] Painted a perfect circle on a piece of wood and sent this to the Pope to show how skilled he was.


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[Assistant] Do you think you could draw a perfect circle without a compass with one stroke of a pencil? Try it. Then try doing it with a brush. But even if you can do this, it does not mean you are a great artist. It is easy to trace a drawing. It is not much harder to copy a drawing without tracing. Thousands of people can paint a basket of fruit, a vase of flowers, a view of the sea or the land. That is just a copy.


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[Assistant] Thousands can copy the painting of a great artist so well that you can hardly tell the copy from the original.


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[Assistant] But very few people are able to invent a picture out of their own heads and put the parts together to make a beautiful painting. That is what takes genius.


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[Assistant] A man named Benvenuto Cellini became known as the best goldsmith in Italy.


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[Assistant] His work in gold and silver and precious stones was so wonderful that the few examples we have now are all in museums and are considered priceless. Cellini was a goldsmith, but he believed he could do good sculpture too. And although he was very boastful about it,


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[Assistant] He made good every boast for his bronze statues turned out to be just as good as he said they would be. Cellini lived in Florence.


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[Assistant] And the Duke of Florence asked him to make a bronze statue of Perseus killing Medusa.


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[Assistant] Chilini worked hard and long on the clay model for the Perseus until he thought it was just right. Then came the work of casting the statue in bronze. Nowadays, when a sculptor wants to make a bronze statue,


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[Assistant] He makes a clay model first, and then sends it to the bronze foundry, which makes the statue in bronze.


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[Assistant] This is easier for the sculptor because he can put all his time on modeling statues and not have to do all the work of bronze casting.


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[Assistant] But during the Renaissance, a sculptor like Cellini generally had to make the bronze cast himself, as well as the clay model.


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[Assistant] Cellini's statue of Perseus and Medusa was to be larger than life size, and many people in Florence said it would be impossible for Cellini, a goldsmith, to make a good bronze casting of such a big statue. Even the Duke of Florence told Cellini he thought it would be unwise for a goldsmith, who is used to working with tiny jewels, to cast a large bronze statue.


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[Assistant] All this discussion, however, made Cellini the more anxious to do the bronze statue. He began by building a furnace to melt the bronze in.


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[Assistant] Then he dug a pit to put the mold in and connected it with tubes so the melted bronze could run down into the mold and harden. The mold was just the shape of the statue. To make it easier, Cellini cast the Medusa part of the statue first. The Medusa turned out very well indeed. Then Cellini began the casting of Perseus. This was much harder to do


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[Assistant] The fire in the furnace melting the bronze got so hot that the roof of Cellini's house caught fire.


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[Assistant] Shalini himself had to work like fury to keep the fire burning in the furnace.


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[Assistant] He got so exhausted that he suddenly became ill and had to go to bed telling his helpers just what to do. He felt so sick he thought he was going to die.


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[Assistant] Before long, one of the helpers came to Cellini's room and told him the statue was ruined, as the bronze was not melting right.


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[Assistant] Cellini, in spite of his sickness, jumped out of bed and dashed to the furnace.


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[Assistant] He was a very hot tempered man and now he was in such a rage with his stupid helpers that he frightened them so they jumped every time he spoke. A storm had come up and it began to rain.


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[Assistant] Cellini sent two men out for more wood for the furnace fire, and then the fire got so hot the roof caught again.


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[Assistant] Cellini ordered some of the helpers to put up boards or carpets to help keep off the rain.


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[Assistant] Then they stirred the bronze with long iron rods until it began to be the right thickness again. Suddenly there was a great flash of light and the crash of an explosion. They were all too scared to move.


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[Assistant] Then Cellini saw that the cap of the furnace had blown off and the bronze was bubbling over the top.


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[Assistant] So we quickly opened the tubes that would let the metal flow into the mold below. Still, the bronze didn't flow freely.


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[Assistant] Shalini thought the great heat had eaten up the metal that was mixed with the copper to make it float. What was he to do? You'll never guess what he did.


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[Assistant] What he did was to get all the pewter platters, bowls, and dishes in the house and throw them into the melting bronze.


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[Assistant] Pewter is a soft metal that was often used for dishes.


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[Assistant] The pewter melted and mixed with the bronze. The bronze flowed, and soon the mold was filled. The scheme had worked.


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[Assistant] Chilini was so pleased, he forgot all about his sickness and felt as well as ever.


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[Assistant] The next morning, the servants had to go out and buy a lot of new dishes before they could serve breakfast.


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[Assistant] Here is the picture of the finished statue of Perseus killing Medusa.


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[Assistant] Cast in bronze with so much bragging and trouble and excitement by Cellini. Perseus holds up the head which he has just cut off. He is not looking at it because that would turn into stone. Notice the queer looking sword.


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[Assistant] Notice also that Cellini has made the blood flowing from Medusa in Bronze too.


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[Assistant] The statue was set up in Florence, and there it still stands. Admired all the more by those who know how hard Cellini worked to cast it.


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[Assistant] A flower pot and a brick are terracotta. That is, earth or clay baked till it is red. Yellowish red.


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[Assistant] You have probably made things out of mud. Oranges and apples, cups and saucers.


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[Assistant] And the old Greeks made figures of people in the same way and out of the same thing. Mud or clay.


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[Assistant] They made little statues of women, smaller than doll babies out of clay, and then baked them so that they would not crumble to pieces. That baking turned them into terracotta.


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[Assistant] It was the custom to place these little figures or little statues.


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[Assistant] Figurines and statuettes, they were called, in tombs and graves, and thousands of them have been dug up and are now in museums.


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[Assistant] As they were first dug up in a town in Greece named Tanagra, all such statuettes are called Tanagra figurines.


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[Assistant] They are usually figures of ladies carrying a fan or a parasol. Yes, the Greek ladies had fans and parasols, very like the ones ladies have nowadays.


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[Assistant] What is unusual in Greek sculpture is that the figures are fully clothed.


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[Assistant] Most of the statuettes are original, but some of them are copies of large statues.


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[Assistant] As many of the large statues have disappeared, these figurine copies show us what the originals looked like. But they show us more than that.


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[Assistant] If you want to find out what the Greeks really were like, go to a museum and look at these little figures. The big famous marble statues are of gods and goddesses, athletes and warriors. They were more nearly perfect than real people.


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[Assistant] But these terracotta statues are copied from everyday Greeks. They show us what the real Greeks were like. One shows a girl milking a cow.


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[Assistant] Another shows two girls playing a game, with one riding on the back of the other. Just everyday doings.


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[Assistant] Many of the figurines were painted in bright colors.


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[Assistant] Some had tiny necklaces of real gold or held bronze ornaments in their hands.


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[Assistant] But on many of them, the only color left is the yellowish red of the clay of which they are formed.


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[Assistant] The figurines are hollow, except for their heads, which are solid clay.


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[Assistant] I'm sure your head has more in it than solid clay. No matter how hollow the rest of you may feel just before dinnertime. Figurines were made for the dead. Lamps were made for the living.


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[Assistant] Lamps, which every house had to have, were decorated with figures in low relief.


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[Assistant] Lamps nowadays, of course, are usually electric, and quite different from those in ancient Greece and other countries. These old lamps were very small, seldom larger than your hand.


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[Assistant] And we're made either of terracotta or bronze.


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[Assistant] They had a hole in which a twisted piece of string-like cloth was stuffed for a wick.


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[Assistant] They held olive oil or grease, which soaked the wick and made it burn when lighted.


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[Assistant] These lamps gave no more light than a burning match. But that was all the light people had at night. Perhaps they went to bed earlier than we do.


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[Assistant] The lamps often had, on the top or sides, the usual fairy tale figures.


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[Assistant] Greek gods or goddesses or other characters in Greek mythology.


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[Assistant] Lamps were made in molds and hundreds or even thousands of lamps were made from one mold.


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[Assistant] Some of the old molds have been dug up out of the ground and are used to make modern reproductions


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[Assistant] Which are sold today as souvenirs to travelers, or even called antiques.


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[Assistant] If the lamps are of bronze, and are really old ones that have been dug up, they have a greenish coating called a patina. If they are not really old,


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[Assistant] They are sometimes dipped in acid to make them look so.


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[Assistant] But they have sharper edges than the old, and the patina made by acid does not look the same as that eaten in by time.


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[Assistant] If they are of clay, the newly made lambs look cleaner cut and fresher than the old.


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[Assistant] So if you are thinking of buying an ancient lamp tomorrow, stranger things have happened. Be sure to notice the patina, or the freshness of the clay.


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[Assistant] Young girls used to wear golden garlands or wreaths around their hair, as girls nowadays wear bracelets around their wrists or rings on their fingers.


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[Assistant] One goldsmith was so famous for the garlands he made, that he was called, Yurlandio. Which means, a maker of garlands.


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[Assistant] Girlandio gave up making garlands and began to paint pictures instead. He made many very fine pictures, but the chief thing he made was an artist, Michelangelo. Michelangelo studied with Girlandio for three years, and the teacher paid the pupil instead of charging for his teaching.


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[Assistant] Ghirlandio was probably a good teacher of painting, but young Michelangelo liked making statues better than painting pictures.


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[Assistant] So he left Ghirlandio's workshop and began to study sculpture.


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[Assistant] Michelangelo was not a very easy person to get along with. He didn't mind saying what he thought, even if it hurt other people's feelings.


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[Assistant] But the other young sculptor got very angry and hit Michelangelo on the nose. He punched him so hard that the nose was broken.


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[Assistant] All the rest of his life, Michelangelo had an ugly, crooked nose. Michelangelo soon became famous as a sculptor. A man who makes statues or sculpture.


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[Assistant] He moved from the city of Florence to Rome, and there he worked for the Pope, who liked Michelangelo's work so much that he didn't want him to make statues for anyone else.


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[Assistant] This pope wanted to have pictures painted on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. The Sistine is a chapel in the Vatican, the palace of the popes. It has a very high curved ceiling.


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[Assistant] The Pope asked Michelangelo to paint the pictures on the ceiling, but the artist said that he was a sculptor and didn't at all want to paint.


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[Assistant] Then some enemies of his spread around the story that he didn't want to do it.


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[Assistant] He made up his mind he would show that he could do the work as well as any painter in the world. First of all, he had to have a scaffolding built in the chapel.


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[Assistant] The scaffolding was a wooden framework with boards across the top near the ceiling so that Michelangelo could climb up on the boards and paint. If you stop to think a moment,


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[Assistant] He had to be so close to the ceiling that he could see only the part right above him unless he climbed down the ladder and looked up. The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is very large.


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[Assistant] The pictures on it had to be large so people could see them plainly from the floor down below.


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[Assistant] How would you like to draw the head of a man when you could not see where his feet were to be? Even if you were a good painter, that would be hard to do. And if Michelangelo put too much paint on his brush, the paint would drip down all over him. No wonder he didn't want to do the job. But once he had started, nothing could stop him. At first he had some other artists to help him, but he found the helpers couldn't do the work just as he wanted it.


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[Assistant] So he sent them away and kept on all by himself. It took him four and a half years to finish the ceiling.


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[Assistant] And that was really a very short time when you think of the work that had to be done.


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[Assistant] The Pope kept telling him to hurry, and Michelangelo even moved his bed into the chapel, so he will be able to spend more time painting.


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[Assistant] The Pope also kept telling him how the pictures should be done.


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[Assistant] Michelangelo didn't like this because he felt he knew more about such things than the pope did.


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[Assistant] So, one day when the Pope was standing on the floor calling up advice to the painter, Michelangelo let a hammer drop from the scaffolding.


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[Assistant] He was careful to let it fall quite near the pulp, near enough to scare him.


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[Assistant] After that, the Pope stayed out of the chapel while Michelangelo was painting. Finally, the ceiling was almost finished.


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[Assistant] Michelangelo wanted to add some touches of gold paint, but the Pope was so anxious to have the chapel open that the artist had the scaffolding taken down before the gold was put on.


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[Assistant] Then people came from all over Rome to see what the famous sculptor had done as a painter. What they saw was a painting of Bible pictures.


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[Assistant] Around the edges of the ceiling were huge figures of prophets who had foretold the coming of Christ.


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[Assistant] Down the middle of the ceiling were shown pictures of the Old Testament stories, the Six Days of Creation, Noah's Ark and the Flood, and others.


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[Assistant] The pictures were drawn so well that people were astonished. The men and women painted on the ceiling look strong and solid. They look like statues, which of course are the shape of real people all around. And not just flat pictures.


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[Assistant] So we call Michelangelo's paintings sculpture-esque, or like sculpture. In this photograph, you see a small part of the ceiling. It shows the creation of man. Notice what great shoulders and muscles Adam has.


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[Assistant] Almost 30 years after the ceiling was painted, Michelangelo was asked to paint a picture on the wall over the altar at one end of the Sistine Chapel. The wall was already covered with a painting by Perugino, which had to be destroyed.


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[Assistant] Michelangelo's painting that took the place of Perugino's is called The Last Judgment. It is one of the most famous pictures ever painted, though it is not so great as the six ceiling pictures.


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[Assistant] It is crowded with the figures of men and women rising from the dead on judgment day. Michelangelo painted very few other pictures.


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[Assistant] The only small finished painting that we are sure was done by him is a Tando of the Holy Family.


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[Assistant] It shows the Madonna on her knees, holding over her shoulder her little son, so that Joseph can see him.


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[Assistant] The picture shows how this artist liked to paint people in strange positions.


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[Assistant] Michaelangelo lived to be a very old man. As he grew older, he seemed to grow crosser and harder to get along with than ever.


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[Assistant] But even though he was a cranky old fellow, everyone respected him and admired him as one of the greatest artists in the history of the world.


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[Assistant] In the sculpture part of this book, I'll tell you more about him.


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[Assistant] Now, I'm going to tell you about Saint Gaudens.


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[Assistant] Saint Gaudens wasn't a Christian martyr, like Saint George.


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[Assistant] Saint Gaudens didn't preach sermons to birds, as Saint Francis did.


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[Assistant] Saint Gaudens wasn't one of the apostles, like Saint John. In fact, Saint Gaudens wasn't a saint at all.


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[Assistant] His last name was Saint-Gaudens, just as it might have been Adams or von Hindenburg. His first name was Augustus. When I told you Saint-Gaudens wasn't a saint, I didn't mean you to think he was bad.


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[Assistant] Saint-Gaudens was a fine man. And a very fine sculptor. What a fine sculptor. There was one way we know he was a truly great sculptor. His work is liked by so many different kinds of people. Young people, like you. Grown-ups, like me.


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[Assistant] Rich people, and poor people, stupid people, not like you or me, and wise people, like you and me.


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[Assistant] All praise the statues that Augustus Saint-Gaudens made.


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[Assistant] Augustus Saint-Gaudens' first great statue was of Admiral Farragut.


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[Assistant] Admiral Farragut was an officer in the United States Navy during our Civil War.


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[Assistant] The statue which stands in Madison Square, in New York City, shows the Admiral as he must have looked standing on the deck of his ship.


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[Assistant] His feet are apart to brace him to the roll of the ship on the sea. His coat is blown back by the wind.


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[Assistant] His cap is pulled tight on his head on account of the stiff sea breeze. His face is strong and he looks determined.


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[Assistant] As if he had made up his mind to win no matter what happened.


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[Assistant] Now look at the base or pedestal on which the statue stands.


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[Assistant] Most pedestals are just big blocks of stone to hold the statue high.


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[Assistant] But Admiral Farragut's pedestal is really part of the statue. An architect, a man who designs buildings, helped Saint-Gaudens design the pedestal. Look at the streaks that make you think of seawater. Notice the dolphins at the ends.


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[Assistant] Notice the naval sword that carries your eye up again to the Admiral. Notice one other thing.


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[Assistant] Admiral Farragut is in his uniform, and the uniform has trousers.


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[Assistant] This is the first statue I've shown you that shows trousers.


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[Assistant] Sculptors made their bronze or marble men in knee breaches in George Washington's time.


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[Assistant] When men began to wear long trousers, the sculptors had a hard time.


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[Assistant] Trousers and statues are apt to look like stovepipes or logs instead of like cloth leg coverings.


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[Assistant] Sculptors still think men's clothes with trousers not very suitable for statues.


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[Assistant] But Saint Gaudens didn't let tree trunk trousers spoil his statues. His statues are good, even in trousers. And here's another statue in trousers to prove it.


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[Assistant] St. Gaudens Lincoln is one of the best-loved statues in America. It stands in Lincoln Park in the city of Chicago.


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[Assistant] A copy of it was given to Great Britain by the United States and was put up near Westminster Abbey in London. Lincoln stands before a chair of state or a president's chair.


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[Assistant] He looks as if he had just stood up to say something to the people before him. Lincoln's face seems very serious.


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[Assistant] It is a face that has in it both strength and gentleness, as though Lincoln knew that millions of anxious people were depending on him to lead them and comfort them.


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[Assistant] Do you know what dignity and simplicity mean? Saint Godin's Abraham Lincoln has dignity. It has simplicity.


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[Assistant] The Farragut and Lincoln statues are of leaders in the Civil War. So is the next statue in this book.


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[Assistant] Saint Gaudens was much too young at the time to be in the Civil War himself.


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[Assistant] But after the war, people wanted statues of the war heroes and Saint Gaudens was chosen to make some of them.


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[Assistant] Saint Gaudens made a statue in memory of Colonel Shaw.


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[Assistant] Who commanded the first Negro regiment from Massachusetts.


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[Assistant] The statue stands in Boston, on the spot from which Colonel Shaw and his soldiers started out for the war.


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[Assistant] It shows the young colonel mounted on a horse and riding beside the marching colored men of his regiment. Above in the sky flies the angel of death.


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[Assistant] Saint Gaudens put the angel of death there because Colonel Shaw was killed in battle with many of his soldiers a few months after marching out of Boston.


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[Assistant] The sculptor worked on this relief for 14 years.


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[Assistant] Again and again he made changes until he felt that every part of the statue was right.


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[Assistant] In fact, he was so careful to make it a good memorial that he spent more money on making it than he was paid for doing it.


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[Assistant] The marching soldiers, the slanting rifles, the spirited horse, the forward look of the rider, the drawn sword, give such swing and life to the whole statue that you can almost hear the tramp of the feet and the beat of the drums.


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[Assistant] Do you still remember the equestrian statue that is called the best in all the world?


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[Assistant] And the equestrian statue called the next to best in all the world?


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[Assistant] Now we come to the equestrian statue that has been called next to the next to the best in all the world. The third best equestrian statue. The sculptor was Saint Gaudens. The statue is of General Sherman.


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[Assistant] General Sherman was a northern leader in the war between the north and the south.


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[Assistant] The statue shows General Sherman riding forward behind the Angel of Victory.


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[Assistant] The Sherman statue is made of bronze, but it is painted with gold paint or gilt.


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[Assistant] So that it isn't the same color as other bronze statues.


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[Assistant] It stands in the plaza in New York City and everyone riding uptown or downtown on the top of a 5th Avenue bus can see it close at hand.


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[Assistant] It was done by the man we call the best American sculptor of all.


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[Assistant] It may seem rather far-fetched to say a building is like a woman, but the old Greeks had far-fetched imaginations. They imagined, for instance,


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[Assistant] That a vain boy had been turned into the flower we call the Narcissus.


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[Assistant] That a girl who dared to love the beautiful sun god was turned into the sunflower. And that a nymph had been turned into a laurel tree.


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[Assistant] So it was not such a great stretch of the imagination, after all, for them to say that a woman had been turned into a certain kind of column, or that a certain kind of marble column was like a woman.


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[Assistant] An architect named Vitruvius who lived a hundred years before Christ said that the two curls on the head of his column were the locks of the woman's hair.


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[Assistant] That the grooves or flutings in the body of the column were the folds of her gown. And that the base was her bare feet. They call this kind of column ionic.


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[Assistant] Because it was first made in Ionia, a colony of Greece across the sea in Asia Minor.


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[Assistant] But the best Ionic building was in Athens on the Acropolis, near the Doric temple, the Parthenon. It was called the Erechtheum.


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[Assistant] Because it was built in honor of Erechtheus, who was supposed to have been a king of Athens in days long past.


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[Assistant] The Erechtheum was a woman-style building built in honor of a man.


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[Assistant] Ionic columns were on three sides of the Erechtheum, but on the fourth end of the same building there are six statues of real women in place of columns and they hold the roof on their heads. It is called the Porch of the Maidens.


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[Assistant] So we get in the same temple, not only the woman style columns, but the actual women's figures.


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[Assistant] The women's figures are called caryatids.


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[Assistant] The story is that they represented captives from the carry-up, condemned to stand in this position, holding the roof on their heads forever.


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[Assistant] One of the Cariadids was taken away to England and in its place was put a copy made of terracotta.


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[Assistant] The largest and most famous Ionic temple in the world was not in Greece itself. It was in Ionia at Ephesus. It was built to Diana, the goddess of the moon.


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[Assistant] And was so magnificent that it was called one of the seven wonders of the world.


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[Assistant] The Bible tells us that Saint Paul nearly started a riot there by preaching against Diana, who of course was a heathen goddess, and that the mob wouldn't listen to him. But just to drown out what Saint Paul was trying to say against their goddess, kept crying aloud for two hours, Great is Diana of the Ephesians! Great is Diana of the Ephesians! The temple has disappeared, all but the floor.


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[Assistant] But the sayings of Saint Paul, which the Ephesians tried to drown out, still last. Another one of the Seven Wonders of the World was another Ionic building built at a place called Halicarnassus. It was not a temple, however, but a tomb built for King Mausolus by his widow.


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[Assistant] Though this tomb is no more, we still call any very large tomb today a mausoleum, after the tomb of Mausolus.


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[Assistant] You don't have to go all the way to Greece to see ionic columns.


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[Assistant] There are probably many ionic buildings where you live, but see if they are the true ionic or what we call hybrid. That means a mixture.


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[Assistant] As a dog that is part fox terrier and part bull terrier is a mixture, a mongrel, a hybrid.


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[Assistant] Today our architects copy the Ionic style more often than they do the Doric. So if you should try to count the number of Ionic and Doric columns you can find in the place where you live, you would probably count several times as many Ionic as Doric.


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[Assistant] What would you call men who went about with hammers and broke all the statues they could find and who even went into churches and broke the statues there?


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[Assistant] Probably, you would say they were bad men, or crazy, and should be locked up. You would be right. And they would be locked up nowadays.


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[Assistant] They broke statues because they thought statues were too much like idols.


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[Assistant] They thought a church especially should have nothing like an idol or an image in it.


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[Assistant] And these men were called iconoclasts, which means image smashers.


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[Assistant] They smashed a great many statues and the poor sculptors had to move away from the cities where the Akana class were if they still wanted to make statues. However,


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[Assistant] The iconoclast didn't seem to mind small sculptures in relief.


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[Assistant] And so in the time of the iconoclasts, and for many years afterward, many beautiful bas-reliefs in ivory, silver, and gold were made.


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[Assistant] The carvings in ivory were used as the covers of books, writing tablets, and little boxes.


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[Assistant] The place to see them now is in museums, where they are kept carefully in glass cases.


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[Assistant] When you look at them, remember the iconoclasts and why there were no good statues in the full round for a long time after the Romans. Some sculptors had to leave Byzantium, the old name for Constantinople, which was the old name for Istanbul, because of the iconoclasts. They traveled to France and carried on their work there.


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[Assistant] And it is to France that we turn for our next great statues.


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[Assistant] They belong to the middle ages, several hundred years after the iconoclasts. And strangely enough, these statues were all carved for churches. Just what the iconoclasts didn't want.


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[Assistant] In fact, the churches were simply covered with statues.


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[Assistant] Which were made of the same kind of stone as the buildings and not of marble like the Greek and Roman statues. These statues were really part of the churches.


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[Assistant] The Cathedral at Chartres in France has not less than 10,000 figures of men and animals on it. They are everywhere.


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[Assistant] Even the water spouts are carved in the forms of queer animals.


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[Assistant] Most of the people of the middle ages could neither read nor write.


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[Assistant] So all these sculptures on the churches took the place of books.


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[Assistant] They told the people stories of the Bible and of the saints. You see they were useful as well as ornamental.


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[Assistant] They are called gothic figures because churches and cathedrals of the middle ages were built in the gothic style.


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[Assistant] The gothic figures on a cathedral are of almost every kind of living thing you could think of.


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[Assistant] There are scenes from the Bible, statues of saints, carvings of animals and flowers, pictures in stone of the seasons of different kinds of work like farming and writing, wood chopping, and fighting.


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[Assistant] There are figures of men and women, of actual creatures, and of strange unheard of make-believe creatures.


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[Assistant] And each of these figures was made for that particular part of the cathedral where it was placed.


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[Assistant] The statues were not stuck on after the cathedral was built. They were a part of it, built into it, and made of the same stone.


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[Assistant] Do you remember when you had a sore throat and had to gargle?


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[Assistant] On the gothic churches, there are statues that gargle.


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[Assistant] They don't have sore throats, of course, but they gargle every time it rains.


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[Assistant] They are rain spouts and have holes in them so water can run out through their mouths.


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[Assistant] Like the statues that told the stories of the Bible, they are useful as well as ornamental. We call them gargoyles, which is another way of saying they gargle.


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[Assistant] The gargoyles were carved in the shapes of the queerest animals you can think of. Some have heads like monkeys. Some have three heads.


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[Assistant] Some have their tongues sticking out as if they were making faces.


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[Assistant] Some have claws like eagles. Others, hands like men.


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[Assistant] The queer animals that weren't made to gargle are called grotesques.


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[Assistant] Most of them are up near the roof, like the gargoyles, and seem to be looking down and laughing at the people on the ground.


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[Assistant] The sculptors on the old cathedrals must have enjoyed carving their grotesques in gargoyles.


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[Assistant] Have you ever felt like throwing an ink well through the window at school or standing on your head when the teacher asks you a question in arithmetic?


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[Assistant] Have you ever wanted to whistle out loud in church just because everything was so quiet and solemn and you knew you shouldn't?


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[Assistant] The trouble with doing any of these things is that afterward, you generally wish you hadn't.


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[Assistant] It's not much fun being punished. I found that out myself almost every time I tried not being good.


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[Assistant] The architects of Italy, after about 200 years of Renaissance buildings, were like that.


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[Assistant] They seem to be tired of being good and obeying all the rules for beautiful renaissance buildings. The rules cramped their style.


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[Assistant] In the strict Renaissance architecture, almost every part of the building had to be based on some idea from the ancient Romans.


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[Assistant] The new kind of architecture grew out of the Renaissance architecture, but it tried to break the rules. It was called Baroque architecture.


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[Assistant] I can't tell you for sure how the word Baroque started, but people say it came from a Portuguese word for a badly shaped pearl. Baroque architecture has been punished.


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[Assistant] Not by getting a spanking, but by being held up as a bad example ever since.


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[Assistant] It has really been punished too much, for some Baroque buildings are very fine and very beautiful. The worst Baroque buildings are terrible.


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[Assistant] They broke too many rules like a bully in school.


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[Assistant] But the best Baroque buildings are not bad at all. They broke just enough rules to be interesting.


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[Assistant] Just as a boy who is sometimes bad is more interesting than a goody goody.


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[Assistant] Buildings in the Baroque style are generally very well planned. They fit the place where they are built. They seem to go well with the scenery around them.


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[Assistant] The trouble with them is that they look too proud. Too crowded with decoration as if they were trying to show off.


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[Assistant] They are covered inside and out with queer columns and statues and scrolls and twists and fancy marble slabs.


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[Assistant] They make you think of a very, very fancy birthday cake with icing frills and curly cues all over it. This Baroque architecture began in Italy.


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[Assistant] It became the chief architecture of the 17th century in that country.


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[Assistant] And in Italy stands one of the most beautiful of all Baroque buildings.


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[Assistant] It is a church built beside the Grand Canal in Venice.


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[Assistant] That frightful disease called the plague had killed about a third of all the people in Venice. Sixty thousand people had died. Then the plague stopped.


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[Assistant] The people who were left alive were so thankful for being spared that they built the beautiful Baroque church as a monument of thanksgiving.


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[Assistant] They named it, of course, in Italian, the Church of St. Mary of Good Health. Everybody calls it by its Italian name.


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[Assistant] So you will have to try to learn Saint Mary of Good Health in Italian. Santa Maria della Salute.


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[Assistant] Santa Maria della Salute is in the form of a Greek cross. It has a big dome over the central part and a small dome over the chancel.


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[Assistant] The buttresses for the dome are shaped like rolls of ribbon.


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[Assistant] Notice how crowded with statues and with these rolls the church seems to be.


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[Assistant] But also notice the beautiful flight of steps that leads down toward the canal.


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[Assistant] The church makes one of the most beautiful sites in Venice as you look at it across the water.


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[Assistant] This fancy Baroque architecture spread all over Italy and into Spain and Portugal.


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[Assistant] In Spain, a few of the Baroque churches are so crowded with decoration, and seem to be showing off so much, that you might think they were designed by crazy people. Other Spanish Baroque buildings are quite beautiful.


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[Assistant] Although they would be ugly in a country where the sunlight wasn't so bright.


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[Assistant] The brighter the light, the more decoration a building seems to be able to stand. Now that we have reached Spain


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[Assistant] We come to the people who use Baroque architecture all over the world.


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[Assistant] In the Roman Catholic Church, a body of men like the monks of the Middle Ages was formed to spread the Catholic religion. The men who belonged to this body were called Jesuits.


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[Assistant] The Jesuits built churches wherever they went, and usually they built their churches in the Baroque style.


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[Assistant] In this seventeenth century, the kingdom of Spain was very powerful. The Spaniards had gone exploring. They had taken, in the name of their king,


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[Assistant] Most of South America and a great deal of North America too. Wherever the Spanish explorers went, the Jesuits soon followed.


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[Assistant] Preaching Christianity to the Indians, founding Indian schools, and building churches.


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[Assistant] Soon, there were more Baroque churches in the Americas than in all of Spain.


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[Assistant] These Jesuit churches were so well built that most of them are still standing in spite of earthquakes, revolutions, and neglect.


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[Assistant] You can imagine what a hard job the Jesuits had. First, they had to learn the Indian language or teach the Indian Spanish.


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[Assistant] They had to show the Indians how to build the stone buildings.


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[Assistant] Often in the hottest kind of hot countries.


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[Assistant] Yet before the buildings could be built, the land had to be cleared and the stones dug out of the quarries. The picture shows you the great cathedral at Mexico City.


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[Assistant] It doesn't look much like the Santa Maria della Salute, does it? But it, too, is Baroque in style. You can see how much decoration there is on it. Baroque architecture was used also in Germany.


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[Assistant] Some of it came to France, but very little was ever used in England.


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[Assistant] If you will remember the 17th century, Spain and Portugal and their colonies, and Italy and Germany,


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[Assistant] You will have in your mind the time and places where this queer gay baroque style was most used.


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[Assistant] In the Bible, Chaldeans means the wise men and priests of what you and I call the Two River Country. They were men of Chaldea.


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[Assistant] Which was one of the countries in the Two River Country along with Assyria and Babylonia.


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[Assistant] Assyria was a little farther north than Babylonia and Chaldea, but all three countries were very much alike and sometimes all three were under one king.


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[Assistant] The Two River Country was watered by a network of canals between the two rivers and so was very fertile.


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[Assistant] The finest crops in all the world grew there, and many large cities were built on the plains.


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[Assistant] Nowadays, these plains are dry and desert-like.


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[Assistant] For the canals have not been taken care of, and without water, the crops fail to grow.


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[Assistant] On the plains, one can now see big mounds or low hills, where once the palaces and cities stood.


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[Assistant] These are all that is left of the handsome buildings of this ancient land. And they crumbled into dust because they were made of mud. As I told you once before.


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[Assistant] Imagine a king's palace made of mud. Mud baked in the sun like a mud pie.


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[Assistant] But you remember, do you not, that these two river people covered their mud walls with glazed tiles and slabs of stone?


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[Assistant] The tiles were bright colored like bathroom tiles, and the slabs of stone were carved in low relief.


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[Assistant] So that even a mud palace became a handsome building.


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[Assistant] But with only mud bricks, the two river builders were handicapped.


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[Assistant] They could not make mud brick houses more than one story high. The houses would have tumbled down had they been higher. The walls were not strong enough to hold a second story.


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[Assistant] As a one-story house would not look very palace-like, when these people built a palace, they first made a hill with a flat top or platform of dried mud and placed the palace on that. The palace then seemed much higher.


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[Assistant] The sides of the platform were very steep. Almost, if not quite, straight up and down.


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[Assistant] So to reach the top of the platform, a slanting roadway called a ramp was built against its side. As mud walls were so crumbly,


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[Assistant] The builders had to make their palace walls very, very thick. Somewhere as much as 20 feet thick.


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[Assistant] The sun was very hot in that part of the world, and these thick walls helped to keep out the heat.


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[Assistant] Further to keep out the heat, the two river people made their palaces without windows, so the rooms were lighted only by lamps.


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[Assistant] We usually think of palace rooms as large and spacious.


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[Assistant] But the rooms in the Two River mud palaces were very small.


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[Assistant] They had to be because of the lack of stone and of wooden beams long enough to stretch across a wide space. In a palace, however,


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[Assistant] The builders made up for the smallness of the rooms by having a great number.


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[Assistant] The temples which the priest built were made of mud bricks too.


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[Assistant] But the one single platform for a foundation was not enough. So they built several. One on top of another. This gave the effect of a terraced pyramid.


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[Assistant] In New York and some other cities today, architects are again planning tall buildings in this ancient way. The story stepped back, as we call it.


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[Assistant] You remember the Bible story of the flood, how the Babylonians built a tower called the Tower of Babel so that in case of another flood, the people could climb to the top and escape drowning.


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[Assistant] Well, the Tower of Babel was not built straight up and down. It was a steps pyramid, such as I have described.


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[Assistant] It was like a set of blocks of different sizes piled one on top of another. Each one a little smaller than the one below. Each was reached from the other by a ramp.


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[Assistant] On the topmost and smallest platform was placed the temple or shrine for the idol.


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[Assistant] The Tower of Babel was supposed to have had seven giant steps, or terraces. Seven was a magic number.


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[Assistant] In honor of each of the five planets, we're painted in different colors.


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[Assistant] The Chaldeans were the first to make a study of the stars and their movements in the sky.


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[Assistant] And they gave many of the stars names which we still use. We call such people astronomers.


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[Assistant] The Chaldean astronomers use the temple on top of these terrace pyramids or towers for an observatory. That is, a place from which to observe the heavenly bodies.


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[Assistant] That is why the Chaldeans came to be known as the wise men of the Two River Country.


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[Assistant] There is an old saying that necessity is the mother of invention. That means, if you haven't what you need, you will invent something else to take its place.


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[Assistant] It was necessity that made the Assyrians invent one of the most important ways of building that we use today.


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[Assistant] This way of building is what is called the principle of the arch.


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[Assistant] The Assyrians had no stones long enough to stretch from one side to the other of a large room to form the ceiling.


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[Assistant] So they had to invent a way of covering a room or a doorway with small pieces of stone or bricks. You might call an open doorway an arch.


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[Assistant] But one piece of stone or wood laid across an opening does not make an arch. An arch must be made of several pieces.


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[Assistant] Now, you can't cement bricks or small stones together strongly enough to make them into one piece that will stretch from wall to wall and not fall.


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[Assistant] But if you arrange the stones in a certain way, they will not fall. This is the way.


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[Assistant] With the stone set in a curve or half circle, and this is an arch.


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[Assistant] By this simple arrangement, the stones are made to stay in place. Not because they are stuck together, for they will stay in place whether cemented or not.


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[Assistant] But because each stone, pressing downward, trying to fall through, presses against the stones at each side, and they are all so tightly jammed together, that none can squeeze through and fall.


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[Assistant] The heavier the weight on top of the arch, the more firmly the stones held in place.


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[Assistant] Provided there is no way for them to push over the side wall and widen the space.


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[Assistant] Try to hold half a dozen upright books in your hands by squeezing them together. If you can squeeze them tight enough, they'll not slip. But release your pressure, and they fall.


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[Assistant] So to prevent the stones of an arch from slipping, the side walls of arches were made very heavy and thick.


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[Assistant] Not only doorways, but whole rooms could be covered in the same way.


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[Assistant] When a room was covered, the arch became what was called a barrel vault, as the ceiling of such a vaulted room was like half a barrel.


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[Assistant] If the room itself had circular walls, the ceiling became a bowl turned upside down. We call the bowl a dome.


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[Assistant] But the principle was the same. The principle of the arch.


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[Assistant] While an arch or vault or dome was being built, it was necessary to have something to build the stones upon. For until the last stone was in place, the arch would not hold.


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[Assistant] Usually, a temporary framework of wood, shaped like a half circle and called centering, was therefore placed across from one wall to the other, and on top of this the arch was built, starting at each side and working toward the top.


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[Assistant] When the last stone at the top, which was called the keystone,


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[Assistant] Was put in place, then, and not until then.


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[Assistant] Could the centering be knocked down and the arch would stand alone?


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[Assistant] In Assyria, however, there was so little wood for making centering that few arches or vaults were made. And it was not until a thousand years or so later that arches were frequently used.


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[Assistant] In Egypt, the pyramids are still standing because they were made of stone and built in the most lasting shape there is. They cannot topple over or fall down.


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[Assistant] In the Two River Country, not a single palace or temple is still standing. The bricks of which they were built have crumbled into dust again.


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[Assistant] So that all that is now left are the mounds of earth overgrown with weeds.


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[Assistant] It seems impossible to believe that our great cities of today may ever become just heaps of dirt.


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[Assistant] Grown over with weeds like the oldest Syrian and Babylonian cities.


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[Assistant] It should be in the charge of priests, I guess. In the charge of... Does it mean priests are in charge of him? In the charge of priests.


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[Assistant] The Quran, Islam's holy book. Muhammad stayed in Medina for many years. He went on teaching his followers about Allah. He taught them to be loyal to each other.


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[Assistant] He also told them that they shouldn't drink any alcohol, gamble, or mistreat their slaves.


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[Assistant] So they would carefully memorize his teachings word for word.


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[Assistant] Other Muslims wrote these sayings down on whatever they could find. Bits of paper, pieces of leather, even palm leaves.


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[Assistant] Finally, Muhammad's friend Abu Bakr decided that all Muhammad's words should be gathered together in one place.


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[Assistant] He ordered Muhammad's followers to bring him every single word spoken by Muhammad. Bring every word he said, whether it is written on leaves, bits of leather, bones, pieces of stone, or simply written in your mind.


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[Assistant] All of these scattered teachings were written down in a single book. Then, the bits and scraps were destroyed.


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[Assistant] Now all of Muhammad's teachings could be found in one place. Today we call this book the Quran.


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[Assistant] It is the holy book of Muslims all over the world.


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[Assistant] The Quran tells Muslims that their lives are built on five pillars.


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[Assistant] The five pillars are the five duties every Muslim should do.


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[Assistant] The Quran says that a life built on five pillars is a strong good life. Here are the five pillars of Islam. Each pillar has a special name. First pillar, Shahada or faith.


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[Assistant] Each Muslim must believe that Allah is the one true God.


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[Assistant] Muslims say, there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.


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[Assistant] Muslims pray to Allah five times every day.


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[Assistant] Before the prayer they must wash themselves, put on clean clothes, and face towards the city of Mecca.


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[Assistant] Muslims do not eat or drink anything all day long.


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[Assistant] They can only eat and drink before the sun comes up and after the sun sets at night.


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[Assistant] Young children don't have to fast, but by the time Muslim children are 10 years old, they must fast during Ramadan, just like grown-ups. Going without food is supposed to remind Muslims of those who are poor and suffer from hunger all the time.


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[Assistant] Every Muslim tries to go to Mecca at least once during his or her life.


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[Assistant] Mecca is a very important city to Muslims because Muhammad had his first vision there. Do you think the five pillars are difficult? Do they help people to live good lives?


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[Assistant] I shall the effect of this good lesson keepers watchman to my heart. But good my brother.


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[Assistant] Was like a puffed and reckless libertine, himself the primrose path of dalliance treads, and wrecks not his own reeds.


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[Assistant] What is a man if his chief good and market of his time be but to sleep and feed? A beast, no more.


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[Assistant] Now whether it be bestial oblivion or some craven scruple of thinking too precisely on the event, a thought which quartered hath but one part wisdom and ever three parts coward, I do not know why yet I live to say this thing's to do, sith I have cause and will and strength and means to do it.


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[Assistant] Examples gross as earth exhort me. Witness this army of such mass and charge


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[Assistant] Led by a delicate and tender prince whose spirit, with divine ambition puffed, makes mouths at the invisible event, exposing what is mortal and unsure to all that fortune, death, and danger dare, even for an eggshell.


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[Assistant] Rightly to be great is not to stir without great argument, but greatly to find quarrel in a straw when honor's at the stake.


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[Assistant] A mother stained, excitements of my reason and my blood, and let all sleep.


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[Assistant] While to my shame I see the imminent death of twenty thousand men, That for a fantasy and trick of fame go to their graves like beds, Fight for a plot whereon the numbers cannot try the cause, Which is not tomb enough and continent to hide the slain.


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[Assistant] Do you think tis this? It may be very long.


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[Assistant] Unequal matched, Pyrrhus at Priam drives, In rage strikes wide, But with a whiff and wind of his felled sword, The unnervied father falls.


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[Assistant] Then senseless Ilium, seeming to feel this blow, with framing top, stoops to his base, and with a hideous crash,


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[Assistant] So, as a painted tyrant, Pyrrhus stood, and like a neutral to his will and matter, did nothing.


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[Assistant] Out, out thou strumpet fortune! All you gods in general, sinner, take away her power!


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[Assistant] Now that's good, mobile queen is good. Run barefoot up and down, threatening the flames with bison room.


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[Assistant] In mincing with his sword her husband's limbs,


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[Assistant] Unless things mortal move them not at all would have made milch the burning eyes of heaven and passion


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[Assistant] From now on, Spanish soldiers would claim some of the land


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[Assistant] While the Portuguese would settle their colonists in other parts of the new country.


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[Assistant] The Spanish and the Portuguese didn't treat the people of Central and South America well. Instead of making treaties with them,


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[Assistant] They marched into the cities of the Aztecs and Incas and into the villages of the Mayans and killed thousands of people. They destroyed temples, houses, and palaces.


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[Assistant] They built Spanish settlements and claimed the land as their own.


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[Assistant] But as the Spanish and Portuguese began to live in their new settlements, they realized that they needed more help.


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[Assistant] They needed farmers to grow crops to feed the colonists who would come and live in the new cities.


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[Assistant] They needed miners to help them dig gold out of the ground, and they needed rowers to help pull their heavy ships across the water as they went back and forth between Europe and the New World.


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[Assistant] Once you bought a slave, he had to work for you until he died.


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[Assistant] So the Spanish and Portuguese began to buy slaves from the Muslim traders who lived in North Africa.


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[Assistant] For many years these Muslim traders had bought slaves from the West African empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhe. Slavery was a part of life in these empires.


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[Assistant] Sometimes poor men would sell themselves as slaves so that their families could have more money.


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[Assistant] More often, the generals and kings of West Africa would capture enemy soldiers in battle and then sell them to the Muslim traders. These slaves didn't have a good life, but at least they still lived in Africa. And sometimes they were given a chance to buy their freedom back or to earn liberty after years of faithful service. But when the Spanish and Portuguese bought slaves,


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[Assistant] They took these slaves halfway around the world, far, far away from their African homes. And the slaves taken to the new world had no chance of ever becoming free. The demand for slaves soon became huge.


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[Assistant] Muslim traders who bought slaves from the Africans could no longer provide enough slaves. When this happened the Spanish and Portuguese made slaves out of the Central American tribes and they also decided to get their own African slaves.


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[Assistant] Spanish and Portuguese ships sailed down the West African coast and dropped anchor.