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[Assistant] When she saw what she thought was another cat, she would arch her back and spit. I thought it very funny. But this is a strange thing. If you showed her the picture of a cat, she didn't seem to see it at all. Dogs are the same. They will growl when they see themselves in a mirror.


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[Assistant] But if you show them a picture of another dog or even a cat, they will pay no attention to it at all. Animals, though they have eyes to see, do not see pictures. Some people are like that.


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[Assistant] They may look at pictures, but do not see them. So there is a difference between looking and seeing.


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[Assistant] That's what the Bible means when it says there are those that have eyes and see not. When I was a boy, there used to be a candy shop on the corner. On the counter was painted a silver dollar.


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[Assistant] I thought it wonderful, and that the artist who had done it must be a wonderful artist too.


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[Assistant] I remember also being taken to an art gallery where there was one picture that I liked best. To me it was a marvel. It was the picture of a door half open with a lady peeking out from behind it. When you first looked at it, you were startled.


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[Assistant] The picture was so lifelike, you could hardly believe it was not a real person looking out from behind a real door. I thought that it must be the greatest kind of art.


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[Assistant] The old Greek painters seemed to feel the same way about pictures. Greece, as you know, is across the Mediterranean Sea from Egypt. You may not know, however,


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[Assistant] That the Greeks were the greatest sculptors that have ever lived, and were also great architects. But their pictures were not so great.


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[Assistant] For many of them were of this kind of April Fool painting that I've described.


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[Assistant] We know the paintings but not the names of the painters who did them. In Greece, we know the names of the painters but not the paintings they did.


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[Assistant] Here is the name of the first painter whose name we do know. He was a Greek. It is a hard name.


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[Assistant] Not easy like Smith or Jones, for most Greek names sound strange to us.


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[Assistant] But as he is called the father of Greek painting, you might want to remember his name. It was Polygnotis.


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[Assistant] The writers of the time of Polygnotus tell us that he was a wonderful painter. But not one of his pictures is in existence. So we have to take their word for it.


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[Assistant] As a matter of fact, we have very few Greek paintings. And one reason that we have so few is that most of the pictures were painted on something that could be moved from place to place. Like the pictures we hang on our own walls. And these movable pictures have all been lost or destroyed.


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[Assistant] One of the most famous April Fool painters was a Greek artist named Xuxis, who lived 400 years before Christ was born.


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[Assistant] It is said that he painted a boy carrying a bunch of grapes and the grapes looked so real that the birds came and pecked at them, trying to eat them.


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[Assistant] He entered his picture in a contest, or a match, with a rival painter named Parasius. It was to be decided which was the greater artist.


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[Assistant] Everyone was sure that Xuxus must get the prize because the birds were fooled into thinking the grapes he had painted were real.


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[Assistant] Parasius' picture had a curtain drawn across the front of it. Now, said Xuxus to Parasius, draw back the curtain and show us your picture. To which Parasius replied, the curtain is my picture. Even you, a human being, were fooled into thinking it was real. So I win. You fooled the birds, but I fooled you. And besides,


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[Assistant] The boy you painted holding the grapes wasn't so lifelike, or he would have scared the birds away.


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[Assistant] But the best and worst Greek painting was on the floor of a famous hall.


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[Assistant] It was painted with fruit skins, peelings, rinds, and pieces of food as if they had fallen from the table and hadn't been swept up. It was called the unswept hall, and the Greeks thought it wonderful.


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[Assistant] But how could they have thought it beautiful or worthy of an artist, no matter how naturally or realistically it was painted? The greatest of all the Greek painters was named Apelles.


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[Assistant] He was a great friend of that precocious young ruler in general, Alexander the Great, and painted Alexander's portrait.


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[Assistant] And yet we know him more by two of his sayings that have become famous than by his pictures.


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[Assistant] A shoemaker once criticized the way Appellees had painted a sandal in one of his pictures.


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[Assistant] Appellees was glad to have expert advice from one who knew sandals, and he made the correction.


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[Assistant] The next day, the shoemaker criticized another part of the same picture. But this time, appellees did not like the criticism.


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[Assistant] For he felt the shoemaker didn't know what he was talking about. So he exclaimed,


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[Assistant] Let the shoemaker stick to his last. Which meant...


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[Assistant] Let him, therefore, criticize only the things he knows about.


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[Assistant] Appellees was a very hard worker and made it a rule never to let a day go by without doing some worthwhile work.


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[Assistant] So he used to say, no day without a line. Though it is more than two thousand years since he lived, we still quote these sayings. They have become proverbs. They have lasted, but none of his paintings have.


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[Assistant] Though everyone who lived at his time honored him and called him the greatest painter of Greece.


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[Assistant] We are told another story to show how skilled a Peli's was in handling a brush.


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[Assistant] It is said that one day he visited a friend of his, also an artist.


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[Assistant] The friend was not at home, so appellees picked up a brush, and dipping it in paint,


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[Assistant] Drew an extremely fine, thin line across a board on the artist's easel. To see if his friend would know who'd been there.


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[Assistant] His friend returned, and when he saw the painted stroke on his easel, he exclaimed, Apelles has been here. No one else in the world could make such a fine and beautiful brush stroke as this, except myself. Then he painted another line, down the length of the fine one Apelles had made, splitting it in two. Later Apelles returned.


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[Assistant] When he saw a still finer stroke down the middle of his own line.


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[Assistant] He picked up the brush once more and with another stroke, he did what seemed impossible. Again, he divided the fine line lengthwise. Splitting hairs, we should call it.


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[Assistant] I can show you no pictures with this chapter because there are no pictures to show.


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[Assistant] What a pity there are none of these pictures left. So that we might judge for ourselves and see if they really were so wonderful.


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[Assistant] Chapter 5. Jars and jugs. But one kind of Greek painting has lasted. Examples of which are in many museums.


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[Assistant] These are the paintings that were made on vases.


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[Assistant] Our vases are made out of glass, china, or copper, and they're usually for one purpose, to hold flowers. We don't usually paint or even decorate the outside.


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[Assistant] But Greek vases were all made out of clay and they were not used for flowers at all.


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[Assistant] They were used to hold anything liquid. Water, wine, oil, ointments, perfumes. As we would use jars and jugs, bottles and bowls, cups and kettles, pitchers, or tin cans. They were made in many beautiful shapes. Some were tall and thin. Some were short and fat. Some had one handle like a cup. Some had two handles.


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[Assistant] Our pitchers and kettles and bowls today, whether they are made of glass or silver or china, are copies of many of the Greek vase forms.


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[Assistant] The Greeks had names for most of the shapes, and though the names are hard, you might like to learn some of them so that you may surprise your friends by calling the vases, bowls, pitchers, or dishes in your own house by their Greek names.


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[Assistant] The kylex was a flat vase, shaped something like a fruit dish.


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[Assistant] The Ascos was a Loves with a spout and a handle across the top.


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[Assistant] It was used for oil with which to fill lamps. It was, in other words, an oil can. Only it was not made of tin.


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[Assistant] The M4A was a rather fat vase with two handles on the hips. The Owenoke was a pitcher-shaped vase.


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[Assistant] The Lekithos was a tall, thin, bottle shaped vase with one handle.


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[Assistant] All the better vases were painted on the outside with pictures. The pictures were not of kings and queens. In Egypt, the kings and queens would have been pictured. In Assyria, there would have been pictures of kings. But at that time, the Greeks had no royalty and no use for kings and queens.


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[Assistant] So they painted Greek gods and Greek heroes and scenes from their fairy tales or mythology.


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[Assistant] Many of these pictures on the vases are like illustrations in a book. And they're very graceful and lovely. But they do not fool you and make you think them real.


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[Assistant] To fool you, a picture has to be the same size as the person or object. The pictures were usually in two styles.


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[Assistant] In the first style, they were painted black or dark on a reddish flower pot or clay color background. In the second style,


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[Assistant] The background was black and the pictures were reddish or clay color as if the whole vase had been painted black. Then the pictures scraped out so the clay color was left to form the picture.


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[Assistant] Chapter 38 of The Story of Mankind. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain.


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[Assistant] How the Crusades once more made the Mediterranean a busy center of trade and how the cities of the Italian Peninsula


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[Assistant] Became the great distributing center for the commerce with Asia and Africa. There were three good reasons why the Italian cities


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[Assistant] There had been more roads and more towns and more schools than anywhere else in Europe. Here you see a picture of a map of Europe, centered on Italy.


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[Assistant] In the second place, the Pope lived in Italy, and as the head of a vast political machine, which owned land and serfs and buildings and forests and rivers and conducted courts of law, he was in constant receipt of a great deal of money.


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[Assistant] As did the merchants and ship owners of Venice and Genoa. The cows and the eggs and the horses


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[Assistant] And all the other agricultural products of the north and the west must be changed into actual cash before the debt could be paid in the distant city of Rome.


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[Assistant] This made Italy the one country where there was a comparative abundance of gold and silver. Finally, during the Crusades,


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[Assistant] The Italian cities had become the point of embarkation for the crusaders.


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[Assistant] These same Italian cities remained the distributing centers for those Oriental goods.


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[Assistant] Vither, people from the mainland had fled during the invasions of the barbarians in the fourth century. Surrounded on all sides by the sea, they had engaged in the business of salt making.


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[Assistant] Salt had been very scarce during the Middle Ages, and the price had been high.


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[Assistant] For hundreds of years, Venice had enjoyed a monopoly of this indispensable table commodity.


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[Assistant] The people had used this monopoly to increase the power of their city.


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[Assistant] At times, they had even dared to defy the power of the popes. The town had grown rich and had begun to build ships, which engaged in trade with the Orient.


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[Assistant] During the Crusades, these ships were used to carry passengers to the Holy Land. And when the passengers could not pay for their tickets in cash, they were obliged to help the Venetians.


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[Assistant] But the actual rulers of the city were the members of the famous Council of Ten.


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[Assistant] Who maintained themselves with the help of the highly organized system of secret service men and professional murderers, who kept watch upon all citizens.


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[Assistant] Was to be found in Florence. This city controlled the main road from Northern Europe to Rome.


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[Assistant] And use the money which it had derived from this fortunate economic position to engage in manufacturing.


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[Assistant] The Florentines tried to follow the example of Athens.


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[Assistant] Noblemen, priests, and members of the guilds all took part in the discussions of civic affairs. This led to great civic upheaval.


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[Assistant] People were forever being divided into political parties, and these parties fought each other with intense bitterness and exiled their enemies, and confiscated their possessions as soon as they had gained a victory in the council. After several centuries of this rule by organized mobs, the inevitable happened. A powerful family made itself master of the city.


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[Assistant] He governed the town and the surrounding country after the fashion of the old Greek tyrants. They were called the Medici. The earliest Medici had been physicians. Medicus is Latin for physician, hence their name. But later, they had turned banker. Their banks and their pawn shops were to be found in all the more important centers of trade.


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[Assistant] Where the merchants specialized in trade with Tunis and Africa and the grain depots of the Black Sea.


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[Assistant] Then there were more than 200 other cities, some large and some small, each a perfect commercial unit.


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[Assistant] Once the products of the Orient in Africa had been brought to these distributing centers,


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[Assistant] From where they were reshipped to cities along the Rome, which in turn served as the marketplaces of northern and western France. Venice used the land route to northern Europe. This ancient road led across the Brenner Pass, the old gateway for the barbarians who had invaded Italy. Past Innsbruck, the merchandise was carried to Basel.


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[Assistant] From there, it drifted down the Rhine to the North Sea in England, or it was taken to Augsburg.


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[Assistant] Where the Fugger family, who were both bankers and manufacturers, and who prospered greatly by shaving the coins with which they paid their workmen,


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[Assistant] Looked after the further distribution to Nuremberg and Leipzig and the cities of the Baltic.


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[Assistant] And to Wisby, on the island of Gotland, which looked after the needs of the northern Baltic and dealt directly with the Republic of Novgorod.


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[Assistant] The little cities on the coast of northwestern Europe had an interesting story of their own. The medieval world ate a great deal of fish.


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[Assistant] A Dutch fisherman had discovered a way of curing herring so that it could be transported to distant points. The herring fisheries of the northern sea then became of great importance.


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[Assistant] But sometime during the 13th century, this useful little fish, for reasons of its own,


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[Assistant] Moved from the North Sea to the Baltic, and the cities of that inland sea began to make money. All the world now sailed to the Baltic to catch herring.


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[Assistant] The rest of the time it spends in deep water raising large families of little herrings.


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[Assistant] The ships would have been idled during the rest of the time unless they had found another occupation.


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[Assistant] They were then used to carry the wheat of northern and central Russia to southern and western Europe.


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[Assistant] On the return voyage, they brought spices and silks and carpets and oriental rugs from Venice and Genoa to Bruges and Hamburg and Bremen.


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[Assistant] Where the almighty guilds fought pitched battles with the kings of France and England.


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[Assistant] And established a labor tyranny which completely ruined both the employers and the workmen to the Republic of Novgorod in Northern Russia.


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[Assistant] Which was a mighty city until Tsar Ivan, who distrusted all merchants, took the town and killed 60,000 people in less than a month's time and reduced the survivors to beggary.


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[Assistant] That they might protect themselves against pirates and excessive tolls and annoying legislation.


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[Assistant] The merchants of the north founded a protective league, which was called the Hansa. The Hansa, which had its headquarters in Lubeck,


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[Assistant] Was a voluntary association of more than 100 cities. The association maintained a navy of its own.


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[Assistant] I wish that I had more space to tell you some of the wonderful stories of this strange commerce which was carried on across the high mountains and across the deep seas amidst such dangers that every voyage became a glorious adventure. But it would take several volumes and it cannot be done here.


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[Assistant] Besides, I hope that I have told you enough about the Middle Ages to make you curious.


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[Assistant] To read more in the excellent books of which I shall give you a list at the end of this volume. The Middle Ages, as I have tried to show you, have been a period of very slow progress.


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[Assistant] The people who were in power believed that progress was a very undesirable invention of the evil one and ought to be discouraged. And, as they happened to occupy the seats of the mighty,


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[Assistant] Here and there, a few brave souls sometimes ventured forth into the forbidden region of science, but they fared badly.


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[Assistant] In the 12th and 13th centuries, the flood of international commerce swept over Western Europe as the Nile had swept across the valley of ancient Egypt. It left behind a fertile sediment of prosperity.


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[Assistant] Prosperity meant leisure hours, and these leisure hours gave both men and women a chance to buy manuscripts and take an interest in literature and art and music.


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[Assistant] Then once more was the world filled with that divine curiosity.


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[Assistant] Which has elevated man from the ranks of those other mammals, who are his distant cousins, but who have remained dumb.


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[Assistant] And the cities, of whose growth and development I have told you in my last chapter, offered a safe shelter to these brave pioneers.


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[Assistant] They set to work. They opened the windows of their cloistered and studious cells. A flood of sunlight entered the dusty rooms and showed them the cobwebs which had gathered during the long period of semi darkness. They began to clean house. Next they cleaned their gardens. Then they went out into the open fields.


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[Assistant] Outside the crumbling town walls and said, this is a good world. We are glad that we live in it.


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[Assistant] Chapter 8 What Happened After Dinner


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[Assistant] And now, said Lucy, do please tell us what's happened to Mr. Thomas.


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[Assistant] Ah, that's bad, said Mr. Beaver, shaking his head.


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[Assistant] That's a very, very bad business.


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[Assistant] There's no doubt he was taken off by the police. I got that from a bird who saw it done. But where's he been taken to? asked Lucy.


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[Assistant] Well, they were heading northward when they were last seen, and we all know what that means. No, we don't, said Susan. Mr. Beaver shook his head in a very gloomy fashion.


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[Assistant] I'm afraid it means they were taking him to her house, he said. But what will he do to him, Mr. Beaver? gasped Lucy. Well, said Mr. Beaver, you can't exactly say for sure.


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[Assistant] But there's not many taken in there that ever comes out again.


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[Assistant] Statues. All full of statues, they say it is. In the courtyard and up the stairs and in the hall. People she's turned, he paused and shuddered, turned into stone. But Mr. Beaver, said Lucy, can't we, I mean we must do something to save him.


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[Assistant] It's too dreadful, and it's all on my account.


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[Assistant] I don't doubt you'd save him if you could, dearie," said Mrs. Beaver. But you've no chance of getting into that house against her will and ever coming out alive.


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[Assistant] Couldn't we have some stratagem, said Peter? I mean, couldn't we dress up as something and pretend to be, oh, peddlers or anything? Or watch till she was gone out, or, oh,


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[Assistant] Hang it all, there must be some way. This fawn saved my sister at his own risk, Mr. Beaver. We can't just leave him to be, to be, to have that done to him.


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[Assistant] It's no good, son of Adam, said Mr. Beaver. No good you're trying of all people.


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[Assistant] But now that Aslan is on the move...


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[Assistant] Oh yes, tell us about Aslan, said several voices at once.


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[Assistant] He's the lord of the whole wood. But not often here, you understand.


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[Assistant] Never in my time or my father's time.


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[Assistant] But the word has reached us that he has come back. He is in Narnia at this moment. He'll settle the White Queen all right. It is he, not you, that will save Mr. Tumnus.


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[Assistant] She won't turn him into stone too, said Edmund.


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[Assistant] Lord, love you, son of Adam. What a simple thing to say. Answered Mr. Beaver with a great laugh.


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[Assistant] Turn him into stone. If she can stand on her two feet and look him in the face, it'll be the most she can do and more than I expect of her. No, no. He'll put all to rights, as it says in an old rhyme in these parts.


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[Assistant] Wrong will be right when Aslan comes in sight. At the sound of his roar, sorrows will be no more. When he bears his teeth, winter meets its death.


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[Assistant] And when he shakes his mane, we shall have spring again.


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[Assistant] You'll understand when you see him. But shall we see him? Ask Susan.


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[Assistant] Why, daughter of Eve, that's what I brought you here for. I'm to lead you where you shall meet him, said Mr. Beaver. Is, is he a man? asked Lucy.


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[Assistant] A slanner man? said Mr. Beaver sternly. Certainly not. I tell you he is the king of the wood and the son of the great emperor beyond the sea.


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[Assistant] Don't you know who is the King of Beasts?


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[Assistant] Aslan is a lion. The lion. The great lion. Oh, said Susan. I thought he was a man. Is he quite safe? I shall feel rather nervous about meeting a lion.


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[Assistant] That she will, dearie, and no mistake, said Mrs. Beaver. If there's anyone who could appear before Aslan without their knees knocking, they're either braver than most or else just silly. Then he isn't safe, said Lucy. Safe, said Mr. Beaver.


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[Assistant] Don't you hear what Mrs. Beaver tells you? Who said anything about safe?


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[Assistant] Course he isn't safe, but he's good. He's the king, I tell you.


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[Assistant] I'm longing to see him, said Peter. Even if I do feel frightened when it comes to the point.


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[Assistant] That's right, son of Adam! said Mr. Beaver, bringing his paw down on the table with a crash that made all the cups and saucers rattle. And so you shall!


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[Assistant] Word has been sent that you are to meet him, tomorrow if you can, at the stone table. Where's that? said Lucy. I'll show you, said Mr Beaver.


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[Assistant] It's down the river a good step from here. I'll take you to it.


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[Assistant] But meanwhile, what about poor Mr. Tumnus? said Lucy.


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[Assistant] The quickest way you can help him is by going to meet Aslan, said Mr. Beaver.


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[Assistant] Once he's with us, then we can begin doing things.


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[Assistant] Not that we don't need you too, for that's another of the old rhymes.


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[Assistant] When Adam's flesh and Adam's bone sits at care parallel in throne, the evil time will be over and done.


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[Assistant] So, things must be drawing near their end. Now he's come and you've come.


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[Assistant] We've heard of Aslan coming into these parts before. Long ago, nobody can say when.


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[Assistant] That's what I don't understand, Mr. Beaver, said Peter. I mean, isn't the witch herself human?


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[Assistant] She'd like us to believe it, said Mr. Beaver. And it's on that that she bases her claim to be Queen. But she's no daughter of Eve.


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[Assistant] She comes of your father Adam's, here Mr Beaver bowed, your father Adam's first wife, her they called Lilith, and she was one of the Djinn.


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[Assistant] That's what she comes from on one side, and on the other, she comes from the giants. Nooo, nooo, there isn't a drop of real human blood in the witch.


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[Assistant] That's why she's bad all through, Mr. Beaver, said Mrs. Beaver.


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[Assistant] True enough, Mrs. Beaver, replied he.


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[Assistant] There may be two views about humans, meaning no offence to the present company.


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[Assistant] But there's no two views about things that look like humans and aren't.


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[Assistant] I've known good dwarfs, said Mrs. Beaver.


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[Assistant] So have I, now you come to speak of it, said her husband. But precious few, and they were the ones least like men.


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[Assistant] But in general, take my advice. When you meet anything that's going to be human and isn't yet, or used to be human once and isn't now, or ought to be human and isn't, you keep your eyes on it and feel for your hot shit.


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[Assistant] And that's why the witch is always on the lookout for any humans in Narnia. She's been watching for you this many a year, and if she knew there were four of you, she'd be more dangerous still. What's that to do with it? asked Peter.


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[Assistant] Because of another prophecy, said Mr. Beaver.


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[Assistant] Down at Cair Paravelle, that's the castle on the seacoast down at the mouth of this river, which ought to be the capital of the whole country if all was as it should be.


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[Assistant] Down at Kaer Paravell there are four thrones, and it's a saying in Narnia, time out of mind, that when two sons of Adam and two daughters of Eve sit in those four thrones,


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[Assistant] Then, it will be the end, not only of the white witch's reign, but of her life.


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[Assistant] That is why we had to be so cautious as we came along. For if she knew about you four, your lives wouldn't be worth a shake of my whiskers.


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[Assistant] All the children had been attending so hard to what Mr. Beaver was telling them that they had noticed nothing else for a long time.


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[Assistant] Then, during the moment of silence that followed his last remark, Lucy suddenly said, I say, where's Edmund? There was a dreadful pause, and then everyone began asking, who saw him last? How long has he been missing? Is he outside? And then all rushed to the door and looked out.


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[Assistant] The snow was falling thickly and steadily. The green ice of the pool had vanished under a thick white blanket. And from where the little house stood in the center of the dam, you could hardly see either bank.


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[Assistant] Out they went, plunging well over their ankles into the soft new snow, and went round the house in every direction.


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[Assistant] Edmund! Edmuuund! They called till they were horse.


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[Assistant] said Susan, as they at last came back in despair. Oh, how I wish we'd never come! What on earth are we to do, Mr. Beaver? said Peter.


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[Assistant] Do? Said Mr. Beaver, who was already putting on his snow boots. Do? We must be off at once. We haven't a moment to spare.


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[Assistant] We'd better divide into four search parties, said Peter, and all go in different directions. Whoever finds it must come back here at once and... Search parties, son of Adam? said Mr. Beaver. What for? Why, to look for Edmund, of course.


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[Assistant] There's no point in looking for him, said Mr. Beaver. What do you mean, said Susan? He can't be far away yet.


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[Assistant] And we've got to find him. What do you mean when you say there's no use looking for him?


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[Assistant] The reason there's no use looking, said Mr. Beaver, is that we know already where he's gone. Everyone stared in amazement. Don't you understand? said Mr. Beaver.


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[Assistant] He's gone to her, to the white witch. He has betrayed us all. Oh, surely, really, said Susan. He can't have done that.


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[Assistant] Can't see? said Mr. Beaver, looking very hard at the three children.


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[Assistant] And everything they wanted to say died on their lips, for each felt suddenly quite certain inside that this was exactly what Edmund had done. But will he know the way? said Peter.


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[Assistant] Has he been in this country before? asked Mr. Beaver. Has he ever been here alone? Yes, said Lucy almost in a whisper. I'm afraid he has.


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[Assistant] And did he tell you what he'd done or who he'd met? Well, no, he didn't, said Lucy.


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[Assistant] Then mark my words, said Mr. Beaver. He has already met the White Witch and joined her side and been told where she lives.


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[Assistant] I didn't like to mention it before, he being your brother and all, but the moment I set eyes on that brother of yours, I said to myself, treacherous.


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[Assistant] He had the look of one who has been with the witch and eaten her food. You can always tell them if you've lived long in Narnia, something about their eyes. All the same.


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[Assistant] Sir Pete in a rather choking sort of voice. We'll still have to go and look for him.


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[Assistant] He is our brother, after all, even if he is rather a little beast. And he's only a kid. Go to the witch's house, said Mrs. Beaver.


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[Assistant] Don't you see that the only chance of saving either him or yourselves is to keep away from her? How do you mean? said Lucy.


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[Assistant] Why, all she wants is to get all four of you.


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[Assistant] She's thinking all the time of those four thrones at Caer Paravell.


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[Assistant] Once you would all fall inside her house, her job would be done, and there'd be four new statues in her collection before you'd had time to speak.


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[Assistant] But she'll keep him alive as long as he's the only one she's got, because she'll want to use him as a decoy, as bait to catch the rest of you with. Oh, can no one help us? Well, Lucy.


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[Assistant] Only Aslan, said Mr. Beaver.


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[Assistant] We must go on and meet him. That's our only chance now. It seemed to me, my dears, said Mrs Beaver.


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[Assistant] That it is very important to know just when he slipped away.


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[Assistant] How much you can tell her depends on how much she's heard.


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[Assistant] For instance, had we started talking of Aslan before he left? If not, then we may do very well.


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[Assistant] For she won't know that Aslan has come to Narnia, or that we are meeting him, and will be quite off her guard as far as that is concerned.


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[Assistant] I don't remember his being here when we were talking about Aslan," began Peter, but Lucy interrupted him. Oh yes, he was, she said miserably. Don't you remember?


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[Assistant] It was he who asked whether the witch couldn't turn Aslan into stone too.


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[Assistant] So he did by Jove, said Peter. Just the sort of thing he would say, too.


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[Assistant] Worse and worse, said Mr. Beaver. And the next thing is this. Was he still here when I told you that the place for meeting Aslan was the stone table?


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[Assistant] And of course, no one knew the answer to this question.


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[Assistant] Because if he was, continued Mr. Beaver, then she'll simply sledge down in that direction and get between us and the stone table and catch us on our way down. In fact, we shall be cut off from Aslan.


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[Assistant] But that isn't what she'll do first, said Mrs Beaver. Not if I know her.


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[Assistant] The moment that Edmund tells her that we are all here, she'll set out to catch us this very night. And if he's been gone about half an hour, she'll be here in about another twenty minutes.


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[Assistant] You're right, Mrs. Beaver, said her husband. We must all get away from here. There's not a moment to lose.


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[Assistant] An uncle of mine who gave me my love for books and pictures promised to take me upon a memorable expedition.


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[Assistant] I was to go with him to the top of the tower of Old St. Lawrence in Rotterdam.


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[Assistant] And so, one fine day, a sexton with a key as large as that of St. Peter opened a mysterious door.


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[Assistant] Ring the bell, he said, when you come back and want to get out.


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[Assistant] And with a great grinding of rusty old hinges, he separated us from the noise of the busy street and locked us into a world of new and strange experiences.


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[Assistant] For the first time in my life I was confronted by the phenomenon of audible silence. When we had climbed the first flight of stairs, I added another discovery to my limited knowledge of natural phenomena, that of tangible darkness.


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[Assistant] A match showed us where the upward road continued. We went to the next floor, and then to the next, and the next, until I had lost count. And then there came still another floor. And suddenly we had plenty of light.


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[Assistant] This floor was on an even height with the roof of the church, and it was used as a storeroom.


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[Assistant] Covered with many inches of dust, there lay the abandoned symbols of a venerable faith which had been discarded by the good people of the city many years ago.


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[Assistant] That which had meant life and death to our ancestors was here reduced to junk and rubbish.


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[Assistant] The industrious rat had built his nest among the carved images, and the ever watchful spider had opened up shop between the outspread arms of a kindly saint.


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[Assistant] The next floor showed us from where we had derived our light. Enormous open windows with heavy iron bars made the high and barren room the roosting place of hundreds of pigeons.


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[Assistant] The wind blew through the iron bars, and the air was filled with a weird and pleasing music. It was the noise of the town below us.


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[Assistant] But a noise which had been purified and cleansed by the distance.


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[Assistant] With the rumbling of heavy carts, and the clinking of the horse's hooves, the winding of cranes and pulleys, the hissing sound of the patient steam


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[Assistant] Which had been set to do the work of man in a thousand different ways.


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[Assistant] They had all been blended into a softly rustling whisper which provided a beautiful background for the trembling cooing of the pigeons.


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[Assistant] And after the first ladder, a slippery old thing which made one feel his way with a cautious foot, there was a new and even greater wonder, the town clock.


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[Assistant] Until at last, after a warning rumble and the scraping of many wheels, a thunderous voice, high above us, told the world that it was the hour of noon. On the next floor were the bells.


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[Assistant] Around it, neatly arranged like the blue jars in an old-fashioned apothecary shop, hung the little fellows, who twice each week played a merry tune for the benefit of the country folk who had come to market to buy and sell and hear what the big world had been doing.


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[Assistant] But in a corner, all alone and shunned by the others, a big black bell, silent and stern, the bell of death.


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[Assistant] Then darkness once more, and other ladders, steeper and even more dangerous than those we had climbed before.


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[Assistant] And suddenly the fresh air of the wide heavens. We had reached the highest gallery. Above us the sky. Below us the city. A little toy town where busy ants were hastily crawling hither and thither.


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[Assistant] Each one intent upon his or her particular business, and beyond the jumble of stones, the wide greenness of the open country. It was my first glimpse of the big world. Since then, whenever I have had the opportunity, I have gone to the top of the tower and enjoyed myself. It was hard work.


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[Assistant] I would see the land and the sky, and I would listen to the stories of my kind friend the watchman who lived in a small shack, built in a sheltered corner of the gallery.


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[Assistant] He looked after the clock and was a father to the bells.


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[Assistant] And he warned of fires. But he enjoyed many free hours, and then he smoked a pipe and thought his own peaceful thoughts.


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[Assistant] He had gone to school almost fifty years before, and he had rarely read a book.


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[Assistant] But he had lived on top of his tower for so many years that he had absorbed the wisdom of that wide world which surrounded him on all sides.


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[Assistant] History he knew well, for it was a living thing with him. There, he would say, pointing to a bend of the river. There, my boy, do you see those trees?


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[Assistant] That is where the Prince of Orange cut the dikes to drown the land and save Leyden. Or he would tell me the tale of the old Moyes.


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[Assistant] Caring the ships of De Broeder and Tromp upon that famous last voyage, when they gave their lives, that the sea might be free to all.


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[Assistant] Then there were the little villages, clustering around the protecting church, which once, many years ago, had been the home of their patron saints. In the distance, we could see the leaning tower of Delft.


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[Assistant] Within sight of its high arches, William the Silent had been murdered, and there,


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[Assistant] Grotius had learned to construe his first Latin sentences, and, still further away, the long low body of the Church of Gouda.


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[Assistant] The charity boy whom the world came to know as Erasmus.


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[Assistant] Finally, the silver line of the endless sea, and, as a contrast, immediately below us, the patchwork of roofs and chimneys and houses and gardens and hospitals and schools and railways, which we called our home.


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[Assistant] But the tower showed us the old home in a new light.


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[Assistant] Best of all, the wide view of the glorious pass, which surrounded us on all sides.


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[Assistant] It gave us new courage to face the problems of the future when we had gone back to our daily tasks.


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[Assistant] History is the mighty tower of experience, which time has built amidst the endless fields of bygone ages. It is no easy task to reach the top of this ancient structure and get the benefit of the full view.


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[Assistant] There is no elevator, but young feet are strong and it can be done. Here I give you the key that will open the door.


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[Assistant] In 1932, a famous painting was carefully taken from its home in the Louvre in Paris,


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[Assistant] Put on an ocean liner and allowed to go on a visit to New York.


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[Assistant] The last time this painting had been in the United States was 50 years before. Then,


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[Assistant] No one thought enough of it to pay the thousand dollars that its painter was asking for it. On its second visit,


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[Assistant] Crowds of people went to see the painting. And if anyone had offered many, many thousands of dollars for it, he could not have bought it.


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[Assistant] For it is now one of the great art treasures of the great French art museum, and it is not for sale. In New York, it was treated as an honored guest.


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[Assistant] But it became too well loved to be called by such an uninteresting name.


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[Assistant] So everyone calls it now simply Whistler's mother. Whistler was the artist who painted it. James McNeil Whistler was an American, but most of his life was spent in Europe. He was a very conceited little man.


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[Assistant] He quarreled with his friends and seemed to like making enemies wherever he went. This probably helped him to become famous, because it kept people talking about him. He was always news.


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[Assistant] Perhaps that is why he wore a monocle, which is an eyeglass for just one eye, and why he carried an extra long cane and signed his pictures with a butterfly. Perhaps two,


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[Assistant] That was why he even put rouge on his cheeks to make them look pink. He liked to be talked about. He liked to be news.


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[Assistant] But of course, no matter how much people talked about him, Whistler would not have been a great artist if he had not painted good pictures.


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[Assistant] And everyone agrees that his mother is a good picture.


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[Assistant] It is a different kind of portrait from those other artists had painted before.


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[Assistant] That is why it wasn't admired as much at first as it is now. Whistler's mother is shown sitting beside a wall. On the wall hangs a picture in a black frame.


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[Assistant] You can see that everything in the painting is in straight lines except the old lady herself. How big would you guess the portrait of Whistler's mother is?


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[Assistant] Would you be surprised to hear that the mother in the picture is life-size?


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[Assistant] As she is life size, you can see that the painting is a rather large one. I think you would be surprised if you could see some of Whistler's paintings at the way he used colors. Some of his pictures are almost all blue in color.


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[Assistant] Dark blues and light blues and medium blues, all blended to make a picture that is unlike the picture of any artist who used many different colors. Some are almost all white.


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[Assistant] The white girl, for instance, shows a girl in a white dress seen against a white background.


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[Assistant] You can guess that that is not the easiest kind of picture to paint.


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[Assistant] And that Whistler must have been skillful to do it successfully. He was. Very skillful.


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[Assistant] Another famous American painter who lived most of the time in Europe was John Singer Sargent.


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[Assistant] During his lifetime, Sargent became the most famous living painter of portraits.


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[Assistant] He painted portraits of many rich people and many important people. Indeed, it was an honor to have Sargent paint your portrait.


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[Assistant] They are still admired very much, but I like his wall paintings in Boston best of all his work.


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[Assistant] When the Boston Public Library was built, Sergeant was asked to decorate the walls on the third floor. He painted religious pictures for these walls.


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[Assistant] One law shows the children of Israel worshipping the old false gods.


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[Assistant] Underneath this is a long row of Hebrew prophets from the Old Testament.


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[Assistant] That you see framed copies of some of them on the walls of houses all over the United States.


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[Assistant] On another wall, Sargent painted saints and angels with the crucified Christ in the center.


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[Assistant] He painted these figures with bands of real gold about their heads.


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[Assistant] And with the figure of Christ carved like a statue as well as painted.


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[Assistant] People who saw them marveled that a portrait painter could paint these large wall decorations so splendidly.


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[Assistant] Now, visitors to Boston go to the library just to admire the wall paintings there.


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[Assistant] I advise you to see them too when you go to Boston.


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[Assistant] That is what people found they had to do with notes written by a very great man named Leonardo da Vinci.


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[Assistant] It is not because he wrote from right to left across the paper that we call him a very great man though. It is because he knew how to do more things well than anyone else in the whole world.


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[Assistant] Probably he wrote from right to left because he was left handed. Leonardo da Vinci lived during the Renaissance in Italy.


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[Assistant] He was born some years before the painter Raphael and died a year before Raphael died.


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[Assistant] Among the many and varied things Leonardo da Vinci did well was painting.


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[Assistant] Some people still think he was the best painter that has ever lived.


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[Assistant] And yet he was interested in doing so many other things besides painting that he painted only a few pictures in his long life. One of Leonardo's paintings is in the Louvre, an art gallery in Paris. The picture is called Mona Lisa.


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[Assistant] Some years ago, this famous picture was stolen right from the wall of the Louvre, and newspapers all over the world printed the story with just as big headlines as if a great king had died or a big ship had been sunk at sea. Luckily, it was found finally and put back in the Louvre, though the real thieves were never caught. The Mona Lisa is the picture of an Italian lady. Her face is a faint smile. If the artist had changed the painting the least bit,


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[Assistant] There might have been no smile there at all. It is a puzzling smile.


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[Assistant] Mona Lisa seems to be smiling at something that no one else knows anything about. There are other things to notice besides the smile.


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[Assistant] Notice how solid the woman seems. Not flat like a cardboard woman, but as if she were a real person.


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[Assistant] Leonardo could make her look real because he understood how to use dark and light. How to make the bright part fade into the shadows. He was the first painter to understand how to do this.


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[Assistant] Next notice the background, the part of the picture behind the woman. It is a landscape, with a stream and hills and mountains. When you look at a real landscape,


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[Assistant] You know you can't see things far away quite as clearly as things close to you.


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[Assistant] That is because of all the air between you and things that are far away.


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[Assistant] Although you can't see this air, you can understand that the more air you look through, the dimmer things seem.


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[Assistant] Leonardo da Vinci was a great enough painter to make the landscape look as if it were really far away. He was the first painter who understood how to do this too.


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[Assistant] Another painting by Leonardo is not in an art gallery, where it would be carefully taken care of.


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[Assistant] What is in a low, damp room in a monastery in Italy where it has been badly damaged by moisture. It is one of the world's greatest paintings, but it will never be put in an art gallery because Leonardo painted it directly on the wall.


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[Assistant] It shows Christ and the twelve apostles seated at a long table.


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[Assistant] Can you not imagine how absolutely terrible to these apostles would be the thought of betraying their beloved master, whom they knew as the son of God?


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[Assistant] Leonardo shows by their gestures, their hands, the expression on their faces, how each apostle feels when he hears these words.


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[Assistant] A painter cannot, of course, make the people in his pictures speak what they feel.


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[Assistant] If he wants to show their feelings, he must do it by showing how people look when they are thinking a certain thing.


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[Assistant] Leonardo visited deaf and dumb people to learn how they showed their feelings when they were excited or happy or frightened or angry.


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[Assistant] This helps him make the people in his pictures show just the feelings he wanted them to, even if they could not speak.


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[Assistant] Not many years after the Last Supper was painted, the paint began to come off the plaster of the wall.


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[Assistant] One reason for this was that Leonardo painted on the dry plaster.


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[Assistant] Michelangelo and other wall painters always had painted on the plaster when it was still fresh and damp.


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[Assistant] When they did this, the paint sank into the fresh plaster and couldn't peel off unless the plaster came off too.


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[Assistant] You remember I told you this kind of painting is called fresco, which is the Italian word for fresh.


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[Assistant] Leonardo was interested in trying new ways of painting, and so, unfortunately, he didn't use the old style fresco way for his last supper.


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[Assistant] When the paint had flaked off in many places, other artists painted over the picture where they thought it needed touching up.


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[Assistant] After a time, a great part of Leonardo's painting was covered by the much poorer painting of these much poorer painters.


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[Assistant] Worst of all, the monks decided to cut a door in the wall.


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[Assistant] The top of the doorway was made right in the middle of the lower part of the painting. And of course the hammering to make a hole through the stone wall jarred off more of the paint. Later, Napoleon led his armies into Italy.


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[Assistant] And some of his soldiers used the room of the Last Supper as a stable for their horses.


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[Assistant] They even amused themselves by throwing their boots at the painting to see if they could hit Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed Jesus.


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[Assistant] So year by year, this wonderful painting became more and more a ruin. Until there was a danger that it would be lost altogether. Finally,


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[Assistant] A wise Italian found a way of making what was left cling to the wall so it would not come off.


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[Assistant] Then he managed to take off all the paint put on by other painters.


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[Assistant] So that now the picture is in better condition than it has been for hundreds of years.


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[Assistant] We have only about three or four other paintings by the great Leonardo da Vinci. One that everyone likes is called The Virgin of the Rocks.


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[Assistant] It shows the baby Jesus and his mother seated on the ground with the little Saint John and an angel. They seem to be in a place of caves and dark rocks.


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[Assistant] Through openings in the rocks, we can see the bright blue of a waterfall and the green of plants.


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[Assistant] Leonardo knew more about plants and flowers than anyone else of his time. One of the paintings of a follower of his named Luini is named for a flower.


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[Assistant] It shows a young woman holding a columbine and so this painting is called The Columbine.


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[Assistant] Luini's women have the same kind of half-smile that Leonardo painted so well. Luini was a good painter, but not nearly so good as Leonardo da Vinci, the wonderful genius whom he imitated.


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[Assistant] But I still have the stamps I collected, and I still like to get new ones to put in my album.


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[Assistant] If you collect stamps, I'm sure you have at least one with a side view, or profile, of George Washington's head.


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[Assistant] This side view of Washington's head was first used on postage stamps in 1851.


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[Assistant] It has been used on almost every issue of ordinary United States postage stamps since then.


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[Assistant] Sometimes it has been a 3 cent stamp. Sometimes a 2 cent.


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[Assistant] And sometimes a one-cent stamp that has had this Washington head on it.


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[Assistant] All these profile pictures on stamps were made from a bust of Washington.


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[Assistant] The bust was made from Washington himself at Mount Vernon.


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[Assistant] It was made by a sculptor who was an expert at making busts that looked like the real people.


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[Assistant] This expert was a Frenchman named Jean-Antoine Houdon. You can tell he was a Frenchman just by seeing his name.


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[Assistant] Houdon was one of the best sculptors France had had for 200 years.


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[Assistant] When he was a boy, he studied art in Paris. And when he was 20, he won a prize for sculpture.


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[Assistant] The prize gave him enough money to study art in Italy for four years. So, he went to Italy.


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[Assistant] He liked Italy and stayed there 10 years instead of 4. Then, he came back to France.


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[Assistant] Wulong said he believed a sculptor should try to make true likenesses of men who had brought glory and honor to their country so that people would always know what these men looked like.


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[Assistant] Udon became just as successful at making portrait statues as the Romans had been. Some people think he was even better than the Romans.


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[Assistant] The most famous statue Houdon made was of a French writer named Voltaire. Voltaire is shown seated in a chair.


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[Assistant] I knew a boy who went through a picture book of sculpture and with a pen put pupils in the eyes of all the statues. He said he didn't like statues with blank eyes.


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[Assistant] One reason the eyes are blank is because the sculptor tried to make the exact shape of the eyes. As you know, there isn't any hole in the outside material of a real eyeball, and so the sculptor felt it would not be right to make a hole in the statue's eyeball.


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[Assistant] If a sculptor wanted to show the iris, the colored part, and the pupil, the black center,


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[Assistant] He painted them on the eyes or put glass or crystal eyeballs in the statue.


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[Assistant] Carving the eyes without pupils was good sculpture, but it did make the eyes look blank.


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[Assistant] Michelangelo very lightly carved a circle and dot on his David's eyes, but most of his other statues have blank eyes. Now, Udon thought,


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[Assistant] Just as you probably do, that a portrait statue ought to have eyes with iris and pupil. So Udon invented a way of his own for doing this. He made a deep hole for the pupil and made the iris in relief.


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[Assistant] He also left some of the marble for the white part of the eye a little raised so as to catch the light. Udon's scheme worked very well. His portrait busts look very much alive. Some of the busts even seem to have a twinkle in their eyes.


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[Assistant] When Benjamin Franklin was in France, he had his portrait bust made by Houdon.


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[Assistant] Franklin liked the bust of himself so much that he asked Houdon to come to the new United States to make a statue of George Washington.


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[Assistant] It took Houdon and Franklin almost two months to sail from France to America, and that was a fast trip in 1785.


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[Assistant] Some of the side views of Franklin on our postage stamps have been taken from Wudong's bust of Franklin.


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[Assistant] Houdon went to Mount Vernon and stayed with Washington until he made the bust that the postage stamp is copied from. This bust has never left Mount Vernon and you can still see it when you visit the home of Washington.


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[Assistant] Then Houdon made a full length marble statue of Washington, which is now in the capital at Richmond, Virginia. Here is a picture of it.


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[Assistant] Besides busts of Voltaire, Franklin, and Washington, Oudon made busts of John Paul Jones, Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette, and many other people. Men, women, and children.


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[Assistant] And now, even if you are not a stamp collector, you know more about the portrait on one stamp than many stamp collectors know.


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[Assistant] If you get up in the morning at sunrise, you might call yourself an early Christian.


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[Assistant] But early Christian in architecture does not mean early in the day. It means early in the history of Christians.


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[Assistant] Some of our finest buildings today are Christian churches.


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[Assistant] But once upon a time, the only Christian churches were holes in the ground. These holes were called catacombs.


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[Assistant] There were tunnels that were dug underground in Rome because the Christians were persecuted.


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[Assistant] That means they were punished just for being Christians, and so they had to live in hiding. They hid in the dark secret passages of the catacombs.


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[Assistant] In the catacombs were rooms where Christians could go to church.


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[Assistant] There were rooms there too, where dead Christians were buried safely.


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[Assistant] It was like living in a coal mine, only worse, because when a Christian was caught by the Roman soldiers, he was generally given to the lions or burned alive or chopped to pieces.


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[Assistant] Suppose you had to live down underground and never could come up without danger of getting caught and killed.


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[Assistant] It might be exciting and fun at first, but when you found some of your friends, or perhaps even your brother or your aunt or your father had been carried off and put to death, it would not be fun at all.


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[Assistant] So you can imagine how glad the Christians who lived in the catacombs must have been when the Roman Emperor himself became a Christian.


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[Assistant] When Constantine became a Christian, naturally the Christians could come up out of the catacombs and worship God above ground.


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[Assistant] The Christians found the best kind of buildings above ground for their church services were the Basilicas.


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[Assistant] You remember basilicas were the buildings built by Romans for courthouses.


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[Assistant] In the courthouses, the judge sat in the middle at one end with his back toward the end wall.


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[Assistant] In front of the judge was a long aisle with columns on each side, and this aisle led to the front door. On each side of the main aisle was another aisle.


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[Assistant] Here is a plan, or kind of map, of a basilica.


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[Assistant] Make believe you are looking straight down from an airplane at the basilica and that the basilica has its roof taken off. The lines are the walls and the dots are the columns.


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[Assistant] The place where the judge sat is the half circle at the top of the plant.


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[Assistant] You can have some fun with paper and pencil. Making a plan of your own house.


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[Assistant] If you imagine everything above the first story taken off of the house, you could make a plan of the first floor.


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[Assistant] If your house has three floors, you might make a plan for each of the three.


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[Assistant] When I was a boy, I used to like to draw plans of make-believe houses and I generally had a swimming pool and a gymnasium and a soda water fountain in my make-believe plans. But let's get back to the Basilica.


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[Assistant] The Christians use the Judge's Half Circle in their Basilica Church for an altar, and for the minister or priest to preach from.


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[Assistant] This part of the building had latticework railings in front of it, called canselli by the Romans.


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[Assistant] That's why some churches still call the minister's end of the church the chancel.


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[Assistant] The people who came to worship in the Basilica sat on benches facing the chancel, just as they do in some churches today. The main central part of a church is called a nave.


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[Assistant] The chancel and the aisles on the side are not part of the nave.


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[Assistant] The windows in a basilica were way up near the roof.


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[Assistant] The center part, or nave, was higher than the side aisles and so the center part's roof was higher than the side aisle roofs.


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[Assistant] The nave was really two stories high, and the side aisle is only one story high. The windows were in the second story of the nave. This part with the windows was called the clarestory, which means clear story. I think you can guess why it is called that.


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[Assistant] From the outside, these basilicas weren't much to look at.


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[Assistant] A good many of them looked like big barns than anything else. But inside, they were magnificently decorated.


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[Assistant] The columns were beautiful marble ones taken from old heathen buildings.


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[Assistant] The walls had mosaic pictures on them made of little pieces of stone or of colored glass which shone like jewels.


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[Assistant] The floors and lower walls were covered with fine slabs of marble.


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[Assistant] After the catacombs, they must have seemed all the more magnificent to the early Christians.


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[Assistant] The largest of these early Christian basilicas is the Church of St. Paul without the wall. You might think from its name that it didn't have any walls.


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[Assistant] What his name really means is that the Church of St. Paul is outside the wall of Rome.


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[Assistant] It has a main part, or nave, and two aisles on each side instead of one on each side.


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[Assistant] Here is a picture of the inside, looking along the nave toward the chancel.


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[Assistant] But it was built again just the way it was before the fire, and so you can still visit it when you go to Rome.


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[Assistant] This chapter has four new hard words. See what score you can make without looking back in the book.


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[Assistant] Each word you can give the right meaning for out loud counts 25. Can you score 100?


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[Assistant] We call by their full names without the mister. George Washington, for instance.


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[Assistant] But the greatest men of all, we call just by their last names.


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[Assistant] People have made lists of the hundred greatest men of all time. The greatest ruler. The greatest writer. The greatest painter. The greatest sculptor. But probably, you have never heard of the greatest sculptor.


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[Assistant] Polyclitis and Myrin made statues of men and women.


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[Assistant] There is a huge high rock called the Acropolis, which means the upper city.


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[Assistant] And on this rock, the old Greeks built a beautiful temple called the Parthenon.


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[Assistant] It was built just to hold a magnificent statue of Athena, the goddess of wisdom.


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[Assistant] Who the Athenians believed watched over them and their city as a mother watches over her children and gave them many useful things.


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[Assistant] Cold marble was not good enough material, so Phidias made the statue of golden ivory. And he made it seven times as high as a human being.


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[Assistant] On her bosom was a breastplate with a border of serpents, because serpents were supposed to be the wisest of creatures. In the center of the breastplate was the head of Medusa.


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[Assistant] You remember I told you that Athena helped Perseus to cut that head off.


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[Assistant] Around the head of Medusa, between the serpents and the head, was shown a battle between the Amazons and the Greeks. Athena wore a helmet.


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[Assistant] On top of this helmet was a sphinx, and on each side of the sphinx were winged horses. Athena's left arm rested on a shield.


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[Assistant] And carried a lance, around which coiled another serpent.


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[Assistant] In her right hand, Athena held a statue of victory. Who faced her and offered her a wreath of gold. The statue of victory was about six feet high.


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[Assistant] So you see how big the statue of Athena herself must have been.


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[Assistant] Probably stolen piece by piece for its golden ivory.


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[Assistant] We know what it looked like only by a small, probably very poor copy that was made of it, and judging by the copy we have, we cannot quite agree that the statue was as beautiful as the old Greeks thought it. The statue, as I told you, was on the inside of the Parthenon.


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[Assistant] All around the four outside walls of the temple, high up near the roof, was a band, or strip, called a frieze, of sculpted figures in low relief.


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[Assistant] This freeze was almost a tenth of a mile long.


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[Assistant] And showed in marble a parade or grand procession that took place in Athens once every four years.


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[Assistant] The object of the procession was to bear a gift of a golden veil made by the virgins of Athens for their goddess.


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[Assistant] And it was carried with great pomp and glory and ceremony to the temple. All Athenians, men, women, and children, took part in the procession.


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[Assistant] There were horsemen with their horses. There were animals to be sacrificed. There were girls and boys bearing gifts. There were musicians and singers.


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[Assistant] The sculpted picture of the procession starts at one end of the Parthenon and proceeds along both sides of the temple to the other end, where the entrance is.


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[Assistant] It is the most perfect relief work that we know anything about. And though there are hundreds of figures of men, women, and animals,


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[Assistant] There is a tenth of a mile of it, and yet there is not a rough or unfinished part in the hole. When the relief was in place on the Parthenon wall, it could just barely be seen. It was so high up,


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[Assistant] Was good enough for the temple of this goddess of the Athenians.


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[Assistant] And even the parts that never could be seen were finished perfectly.


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[Assistant] Above and between the columns which were around these walls were separate groups of figures in high relief illustrating battles.


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[Assistant] Most of them between gods and fairy tale animals called centaurs.


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[Assistant] A centaur had the body of a horse and the head and trunk of a man.


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[Assistant] There were 92 groups of these spaces, or metopes.


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[Assistant] To understand what the figure looked like when it was perfect.


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[Assistant] If you have no imagination, you will probably exclaim, what? You call that beautiful?


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[Assistant] At each end of the Parthenon there is a large triangular space made by the sloping roof and in these two triangular spaces were groups of superb, heroic-sized figures of gods and goddesses.


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[Assistant] Heroic size means hero size. That is, bigger than real life.


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[Assistant] They are in the full round. That is, they stand free from the back.


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[Assistant] But, unfortunately again, little is left.


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[Assistant] The group in one triangular end represented the birth of Athena.


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[Assistant] Athena was not born as a tiny baby, but full grown and fully armed.


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[Assistant] The chief of the gods was in the center of this group. Vulcan, the blacksmith god,


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[Assistant] Had just struck him on the head with his hammer, and according to the story,


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[Assistant] Athena in full armor, sprang out of his head.


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[Assistant] On each side of this central group, the other gods and goddesses are looking on.


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[Assistant] Some are standing, some are sitting, some are lying down.


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[Assistant] The groups were planned to fit the triangular spaces. Of the statues remaining, one is Theseus, taken from the left corner, and the so-called Three Fates, from the right corner.


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[Assistant] The three fates are a good test of your imagination. For they have no heads, hands, or feet. Can you imagine what they once looked like? Lord Elgin, an English nobleman.


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[Assistant] Saw these sculptures many years ago and thought them so beautiful that he wanted his country to have them.


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[Assistant] In the position in which the freeze was placed on the Parthenon, they could not be seen properly, and they were gradually being destroyed.


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[Assistant] He bought most of them from what amounted to one third of a million dollars and took them to England, where they were put in the British Museum. They are known now as the Elgin Marbles.


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[Assistant] But the greatest of all the sculptures that Phidias made was not in Athens. It was in a temple at Olympia. For this temple, he made a statue of Zeus. It too was made of golden ivory, and it too has disappeared.


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[Assistant] A single lock of the statue's hair is said to have been worth a thousand dollars.


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[Assistant] This statue of Zeus was so famous that every Greek hoped to see it before he died, and it was called one of the seven wonders of the world. Phidias, when he had completed it,


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[Assistant] Prayed Zeus to show in some way if he liked the statue of himself.


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[Assistant] Whereupon a thunderbolt shot down from the blue sky overhead and fell at the sculptor's feet.


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[Assistant] But the great Phidias, after all he had done, was put in prison. You'd never guess why.


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[Assistant] Just because he had cut a picture of himself on the shield of the Athena in the Parthenon. This, to the Athenians, was a terrible crime.


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[Assistant] Immortal to put a picture of himself on the shield of their goddess. And so, in prison, Phidias died. What an end for the greatest sculptor.


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[Assistant] Thou comest in such a questionable shape that I will speak to thee.


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[Assistant] Let me not burst in ignorance, but tell why thy canonized bones, hearst said in death, have burst their searments, why the sepulcher wherein we saw thee quietly interred hath oaked his ponderous and marble jaws to cast thee up again.


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[Assistant] I do not set my life at a pin's fee. And for my soul, what can it do to that being a thing immortal as itself? It waves me forth again.


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[Assistant] The Anglo-Saxons told stories about their heroes just as the Celts did.


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[Assistant] One of these stories was about a monster named Grendel and the great warrior who conquered him, Beowulf.


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[Assistant] It may have been told and retold for years before it was finally written down. The story was written in poetry.


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[Assistant] Because poetry was easier to remember and perform for other people.


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[Assistant] The whole story of Beowulf is long and complicated.


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[Assistant] Hrothgar was king of a whole host of men who fought for King Hrothgar again and again. Their strength and their courage was well known to all, so Hrothgar decided to build them a hall.


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[Assistant] It was hung all with tapestries, roofed all with slate, heated by fires enormously great.


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[Assistant] Each night of the week his men gathered there to feast and to sing and to put away care.


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[Assistant] Then they unrolled their blankets, slept next to the fire, while torchlight streamed out from the hall's highest spire.


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[Assistant] Now this whole of the king stood on high solid ground with safe friendly fields and great houses all round.


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[Assistant] lived a monster named Grendel with sharp claws and teeth. He was hairy and hideous


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[Assistant] Tall as two trees, the biggest of men only came to his knees. He crawled up to the hall while the weary men slept.


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[Assistant] He eased open the door, and through it he crept.


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[Assistant] He picked up a warrior and ate him right there, then seized fifteen more and ran off like a hare.


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[Assistant] The men tried to follow his tracks on the ground, but soon came to a river where none could be found.


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[Assistant] In the morning, the warriors mourned their dead friend.


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[Assistant] And swore they would bring these attacks to an end, but although in the daytime they wanted to fight, their courage all trickled away in the night.


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[Assistant] Again and again, Grendel broke through the door, pounced into the crowd, and ate up some more of the men gathered there. And day after day, Hrothgar's warriors failed to keep him away.


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[Assistant] They were tired and frightened and lost all their pride as news of their troubles spread out far and wide.


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[Assistant] Then Beowulf, mightiest man in the earth, a fierce, famous fighter of very great worth, heard that Grendel attacked Rothgar's hall every night,


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[Assistant] And that Hrothgar's strong fighters were too scared to fight.


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[Assistant] He gathered his clan with their sharp swords and spears and set off for the hall where the men nursed their fears.


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[Assistant] Rothgar was glad to see all those strong men. He thanked them for coming again and again. He said to them, welcome, Beowulf and all. Tonight all of you can sleep in my hall. When the monster arrives with his heart set on sin, he will find you in there with all of your kin.


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[Assistant] You can fight with him then. Do you need anything? Sharper swords. But beowulf said to the king,


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[Assistant] Don't worry, we'll stay here with never a care. As a matter of fact,


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[Assistant] It wouldn't be fair to use swords to conquer this beast from the heath.


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[Assistant] He doesn't have weapons. Just claws and his teeth.


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[Assistant] So I'll take off my armor and leave off my sword and fight with bare hands. Otherwise I'd be bored.


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[Assistant] Beowulf and his men then laid down on the floor, turned out all the lights, and locked the great door. They waited for Grendel, pretending to sleep.


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[Assistant] Then out of the darkness, so thick and so deep, came the sound of the monster approaching the hall.


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[Assistant] He howled and brought fear to the hearts of them all. The door made of iron was closed, locked, and barred. But the monster destroyed it without breathing hard.


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[Assistant] He grabbed a plump warrior, got ready to feast. But Beowulf seized the arm of the beast and started to twist it with all of his might. So then Grendel turned on him, ready to fight.


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[Assistant] But Beowulf twisted the arm yet again, while Grendel howled out with a terrible pain.


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[Assistant] He screamed and he howled, but he still couldn't flee. Beowulf's muscles were something to see.


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[Assistant] Then Beowulf pulled once again on the arm and it popped off at once, causing Grendel great harm. Yelping, he galloped right out of the door, leaving his arm lying there on the floor.


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[Assistant] When the warriors saw what their leader had done, they cheered. Then they followed where Grendel had run.


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[Assistant] The monsters' great tracks led them down to a pool where the dank mists had settled, all slimy and cool o'er the water's black surface. In gulf there they found


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[Assistant] The body of Grendel who jumped in and drowned.


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[Assistant] He is dead, they rejoiced. Let's have a great feast. No more will we dread the approach of the beast.


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[Assistant] So with mirth and great glee they brought food to the hall, And they hung Grendel's arm way up high on the wall, And they ate, drank, and sang till the evening grew old.


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[Assistant] Then Hrothgar gave Beowulf armor of gold.


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[Assistant] And a bard lauded Beowulf mighty of hand, And his fame was eternally sung in that land.


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[Assistant] Faith, I must leave thee love, and shortly too.


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[Assistant] My operant powers, their functions leave to do.


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[Assistant] Thou shalt live in this fair world behind, honored, beloved,


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[Assistant] I do believe you think what now you speak, but what we do determine oft we break.


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[Assistant] Purpose is but the slave to memory, of violent birth, but poor validity.


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[Assistant] The violence of either grief or joy, Their own inactures with themselves destroy, Where joy most revels, grief doth most lament.


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[Assistant] But is a question left us yet to prove whether love lead fortune or else fortune love? The great man down, you mark. His favorite flies. The poor advanced makes friends of enemies.


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[Assistant] And who in want, a hollow friend doth try, Directly seasons him his enemy. But orderly to end where I begun,


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[Assistant] Our wills and fates do so contrary run that our devices still are overthrown. Our thoughts are ours, their ends none of our own.


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[Assistant] But die thy thoughts when thy first lord is dead.


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[Assistant] And fain I would beguile the tedious day


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[Assistant] My dreadlord, your leave and favour to return to France.


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[Assistant] From whence though willingly I came to Denmark to show my duty in your coronation, yet now I must confess that duty done


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[Assistant] My thoughts and wishes bend again toward France and bow them to your gracious leave and pardon.


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[Assistant] Good gentleman, he has much talk to view, and sure I am, two men there are not living to whom he more adheres.


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[Assistant] If it will please you to show us so much gentry and goodwill as to expend your time with us a while for the supply and profit of our hopes.


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[Assistant] Your visitation shall receive such thanks as fits a king's remembrance. Both your majesty's might, by the sovereign power you have of us.


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[Assistant] I doubt it is no other but the main, his father's death and our o'erhasty marriage.


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[Assistant] Chapter 20 The Diaspora The Scattering of the Jews


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[Assistant] We've been learning about the time of the Crusades, the years when knights from all over the world fought over the city of Jerusalem. But Jerusalem was built by the Jews. Why weren't the Jewish people in charge of their own city? Long ago, back before the beginning of this book,


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[Assistant] They rose up against the Roman army that occupied Jerusalem. The Roman soldiers in Jerusalem weren't ready for a rebellion and they had to retreat.


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[Assistant] And sent a huge army of 60,000 men into Judea.


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[Assistant] This army marched through the countryside, destroying the villages where Jewish freedom fighters, called zealots, were hiding.


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[Assistant] Finally, they arrived at Jerusalem and put the city under siege.


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[Assistant] The siege lasted for months until the Roman soldiers broke down the walls of Jerusalem and poured into the city. They burned the temple where the Jews worshipped and took the Jewish people captive. Now Judea was under Roman rule again.


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[Assistant] But the Romans were tired of putting down Jewish rebellions. They thought,


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[Assistant] As long as we leave the Jews in their own city they'll keep trying to take it back from us. So the Romans scattered the Jews all through their empire and they refused to rebuild the temple. This was a problem for the Jews. After all,


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[Assistant] They were Jews because of their worship of God. An Englishman was someone born in England.


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[Assistant] And a Frenchman was someone born in France, but a Jew was someone who worshipped God in the temple. Without the temple, how could the Jews be Jews?


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[Assistant] One Jewish scholar, Yohanan Ben-Zakai, believed that the Jews could still remain Jews even though they could not worship in the temple. He thought that the Torah,


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[Assistant] The sacred writings of the Jews could be the glue that held the Jewish people together. If they could all remember and follow the Torah,


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[Assistant] They would still be Jews even if they were scattered all over the world. But Yohanan had a problem. He was in Jerusalem. And the Romans were knocking down the walls. He knew that Jerusalem was doomed. So he bought a coffin and lay down in it, pretending to be dead. He had his students carry him out of Jerusalem.


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[Assistant] Yohanan Benzakai climbed out of the coffin.


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[Assistant] He went to a little town near the sea with his pupils and there set up a school for the study of the Torah. He trained other teachers or rabbis.


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[Assistant] These rabbis went out to other towns where the scattered Jews were living and taught them how to worship God in little local temples called synagogues.


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[Assistant] For hundreds of years, the Jews went right on living all over the world, worshipping God in their synagogues and reading the Torah.


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[Assistant] Throughout the Middle Ages, Jewish people lived in many different countries. England, Spain, France, Russia, Italy, Egypt, and more.


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[Assistant] But even though they were English, Spanish, French, Russian, Italian, Egyptian, and all the other nationalities, the Jews also remained Jews.


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[Assistant] They weren't considered good Englishmen or good Frenchmen.


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[Assistant] Because their worship of God was more important than their loyalty to England or France. So the Jews were often mistreated.


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[Assistant] During the Middle Ages, England and France both declared that Jews were not welcome in their countries. But many Jews settled in Spain.


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[Assistant] Because the Muslim rulers were friendlier towards Judaism than were the Christian kings.


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[Assistant] The Islamic Kingdom of Spain was so friendly to Jews that the Jews talk about their time in Spain as the Golden Age of the Jews.


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[Assistant] The Jews would not have a land of their own again until the 20th century. But because of the rabbis and the Torah, they remained Jews, even without a country to call their own.


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[Assistant] We call this scattering of the Jews the diaspora.


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[Assistant] Ferdinand and Isabella drew Castile, Aragon, and Granada together into one Spanish kingdom. But Portugal, the kingdom on Spain's western coast, kept its independence from the rest of Spain. Portugal was a small kingdom, not much wider than the state of Florida. It had a long coast with many beaches and harbors.


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[Assistant] Wild cats and wild pigs roamed the countryside. Eagles and falcons soared overhead. Flamingos stood in the marshes at the water's edge.


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[Assistant] The Portuguese were known for their grapes, their olives, and their tripe.


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[Assistant] Tripe was a medieval dish made of the lining of cow's stomachs, cooked together with calf's feet, onions, cow fat and fermented apple cider.


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[Assistant] He wanted the Portuguese to learn how to sail farther than anyone else in the world. Prince Henry was the fourth son of the King of Portugal. That meant that he would never inherit the throne. So he didn't need to worry about learning to rule Portugal. He could use his money and his time in another way.


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[Assistant] To make the Portuguese into great sailors and explorers. Because of his love of the sea, Prince Henry became known as Henry the Navigator.