[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I want you to think about illusion as a metaphor. You know, vision is one of the best things we do. We have a huge part of our brain dedicated to vision, bigger than dedicated to anything else. We do more vision, more hours of the day than we do anything else. And we're evolutionary designed to do vision. And if we have these predictable, repeatable mistakes in vision, in which we're so good at,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And worse, not have an easy way to see them. Because in visual illusions, we could easily demonstrate the mistakes. In cognitive illusion, it's much, much harder to demonstrate to people the mistakes. So I want to show you some cognitive illusion, eh, or decision making illusion in the same, in the same way.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is one of my favorite plots in social sciences. It's from a paper by Johnson and Goldstein. And it basically shows the percentage of people who indicate that they would be interested in giving their organs to donations.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When you ask people this question, they usually think that it has to be something about culture, right? How much do you care about people? Giving your organs to somebody else is probably about how much you care about society, how linked you are, or maybe it is about religion. But if you look at this plot, you could see that countries that we think about as very similar actually exhibit very different behavior.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For example, Sweden is all the way on the right, and Denmark, that we think is culturally very similar, is all the way on the left. Germany is on the left, and Austria.


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[Assistant] But it turns out that from Oregon donations are very different. By the way, the Netherlands is an interesting story. You see the Netherlands is kind of the biggest of the small group.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Turns out the secret has to do with the form at the DMV. And here's the story. The countries on the left have a form at the DMV that looks something like this. Check the box below if you want to participate in the organ donor program. And what happens? People don't check and they don't join.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When you walk into the DMV, the person who designed the form will have a huge influence on what you'll end up doing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But in fact, it's not because it's easy, it's not because it's trivial, it's not because we don't care, it's the opposite. It's because we care, it's difficult and it's complex, and it's so complex that we don't know what to do. And because we have no idea what to do, we just pick whatever it was that was chosen for us.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then they said half the physician, they said yesterday, you review the patient's case and you realize that you forgot to try one medication. You did not try ibuprofen.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Imagine I give you a choice. You want to go for a weekend to Rome, all expenses paid, hotel, transportation, food, breakfast, the continental breakfast, everything, or a weekend in Paris.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Weekend in Paris, weekend in Rome, these are different things. They have different food, different culture, different art. Now imagine I added a choice to the set that nobody wanted. Imagine I said a weekend in Rome, a weekend in Paris, or having your car stolen.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But guess what happened? The moment you add Rome without coffee, Rome with coffee becomes more popular and people choose it. The fact that you have Rome without coffee makes Rome with coffee look superior. And not just to Rome without coffee, even superior to Paris.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I decided to do the experiment that I would have loved the economist to do with me. I took this and I gave it to a hundred MIT students. I said, what would you choose? And these are the market share. Most people wanted the combo deal.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But now if you have an option that nobody wants, you would take it off, right? So I took, I printed another version of this when I eliminated the middle option and I gave it to another hundred students. Here's what happens. Now the most popular option became the least popular and the least popular became the most popular. What was happening is that option that was useless


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I may not be able to kick you, but I bet I can beat you in a race!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we will race from this tree at the beginning of the field to that one at the end of the field. What? We will meet in half an hour. All the best!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Very well then. You take that furrow, and I'll take this one. Take your position.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You could beat a hundred of us, and yet you lost to just the two of us. You!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes, you're in the right place. It seems we've arrived too early. Are you thinking of studying abroad in Spain next semester?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Me too. I'm very excited to hear all the details. I'm Martin, by the way.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I speak a little bit, but I want to improve.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I actually speak French pretty well, so I'm hoping that will help.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I was born in the States, but my parents are from Belgium. How cool! How about you? Where are you from?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, my parents moved from Belgium to Tennessee for my dad's job before I was born.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Once they had me, they decided to stay in Tennessee and raise me here. So I've been in Tennessee all of my life.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I wanna get to Spain and get inspired by the amazing buildings and historical designs.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Would you be interested in getting a coffee after the meeting to talk about the trip?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] To gather in 5 massive garbage patches.


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[Assistant] Which weigh about 90,000 tons. Also, some people say that the GPGP is twice the size of Texas.


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[Assistant] We should also contribute and reduce its use.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Why does steam cause more severe burns than boiling water?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] No. It is because of latent heat of vaporization. Latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat energy required to change a unit mass of liquid into vapor at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Woah, woah, woah. Trust me. Everything just went over my head. Alright. I'll explain it to you. Boiling water contains only a specific amount of heat energy required for it to boil. Huh?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Why is a diver able to cut through water in a swimming pool? Simple. Because I taught him.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Boo! This means I'm the strongest of all. Oh, please listen.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hence, when a diver jumps into water, its molecules get displaced from their original position. And the diver is able to cut through the water.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What causes nearsightedness? Excess staring at junk food. No.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wait, I'll explain. To focus image of a distant object on the retina, our eye lens becomes thin. However, in people with myopia, the lens cannot become adequately thin.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Thus forming image before retina and making it difficult to see.


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[Assistant] Moreover, when the eyeball is elongated more than normal, the distance between the lens and the retina increases resulting in the formation of image before the retina, thus causing difficulty in seeing the distant object.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Next topic, caffeine. How does coffee keep you awake? By throwing an overnight party. Nahhh.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In our brain, there are adenosine receptors which are perfectly molded for this adenosine. When the adenosine binds to these receptors, it activates them, causing to slow down the brain activity and thus making us feel sleepy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] However, drinking coffee keeps us awake and we don't feel sleepy. This is because coffee contains a drug called caffeine, which after digestion reaches our brain.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Caffeine is structurally similar to adenosine. Being similar, caffeine binds to the adenosine receptors and thus blocks the adenosine from binding. Hence, as adenosine does not bind, our receptors don't slow the brain activity. As a result, we remain awake.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Next topic, paper cut. Why do paper cuts hurt so much?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hence, they have more number of nose deceptors than any other parts of our body.


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[Assistant] Hence, sometimes when we rub our hands or especially fingertips against the edges, it cuts them like a saw, activating the nociceptors.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, as there are more nosoceptors on our hands, we feel more pain.


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[Assistant] In addition to this, the paper cut might also have fragments of paper containing chemicals. Which may irritate the skin and thus increase the pain.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Topic pins and needles. Why do limbs fall asleep?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Nah. Huh? It basically happens because of nerves. Through nerves, our brain communicates with our limbs. Wow! Nerves are so amazing!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yup. However, when we cross our legs or sleep on an arm for very long. We apply pressure causing the nerve pathways and its surrounding arteries to squeeze. Hence, the nerves do not work properly and the arteries cannot supply required nutrients to the nerves.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As a result, the signals sent by our brain do not reach the limb.


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[Assistant] Thus, we cannot move it. So, we say that our limb has fallen asleep.


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[Assistant] Now, our eyes have light sensitive cells called rods and cones.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Can I put ice cream on these cones? You are just unbelievable. Rods are responsible for black and white vision. They do not detect color whereas cones detect color.


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[Assistant] There are three types of cones. One cone perceives red light, another perceives green and the third perceives blue.


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[Assistant] Together, these cones help us to see the whole spectrum of color.


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[Assistant] Now in some cases, when one or more types of cones do not work properly, it causes color blindness.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For example, in red-green color blindness, the apple tree may appear like this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Dude, I don't have a nose, so how will I know?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] At the back of our nose, there is a tissue called olfactory epithelium. It is covered with mucus.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This tissue has specialized neurons called olfactory receptor neurons.


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[Assistant] As a result, these activated neurons send signals through the olfactory tract to the brain, informing it about the smell.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Cause sun is jealous of my skin. No. Huh? Sunburn is a term for red and inflamed skin.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sunlight consists of three types of ultraviolet radiation, UVA, UVB and UVC. Does it contain UVZ as well?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Our skin is made up of cells. These cells have DNA. When we are in the hot sun for very long, the UVB radiation enters into our skin cells and starts to damage the DNA.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] DNA damage can lead to cancer. Thus, to reduce the risk of cancer, the damaged skin cells kill themselves.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This program's cell death is called apoptosis. Apoptosis activates the immune response. As a result, the blood flow increases to that area to heal the skin. This leads to red and inflamed skin which we call as sunburn.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] How do bees make honey? No idea. To make honey, the worker honeybee sucks nectar from flowers and stores it in its honey stomach. Once the worker bee returns to the hive, it vomits the nectar into a processor honeybee's mouth.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then, the mixture of simple sugars is stored in the honeycomb. At this point, the mixture is still watery. Hence, the bees flap their wings which evaporates water and thickens the mixture to eventually form honey.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Why does our stomach growl? Cause there are bears in our stomach!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now as our intestines are hollow tubes, such movement of gases produces growling sounds. Besides this, hunger increases growling. This is because when we are hungry,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Nah. Pop rocks are tiny candy crystals.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The resulting solution is heated until most of the water boils off and we're left with a thick sticky syrup.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Usually, this syrup is poured in molds and allowed to cool and harden to make candies.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, when we put this candy in our mouth, our saliva dissolves the candy. As a result, the highly pressurized carbon dioxide escapes from the bubbles with a pop.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Matrix is the area where nail growth originates. It lies below the skin. Matrix has specialized cells which keep dividing and creating nail cells. The nail cells grow and produce a hard protein called keratin.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then, these keratin filled cells are pushed forward as more new cells are formed behind them. Eventually, the keratin filled cells die and flatten to form the nail plate.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But what is the use of these nails? Nails protect our fingertips. Moreover, by observing the condition of our nails, doctors can get clues about our overall health.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because they wanna look like raisins. No. A popular research suggests that wrinkly fingers are a reaction of our nervous system. When our fingers are in water for a long time, our nervous system causes the blood vessels present in the deeper layers of our skin to constrict.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This in turn causes the deeper layers to shrink or contract. But as the top most layer does not shrink, it becomes loose, thus forming small folds or wrinkles. But why does this happen?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Scientists suggest that this could be an evolutionary adaptation. Wrinkly fingers help in getting a better grip to pick up wet objects, preventing them from slipping from our hands.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Even our feet get wrinkly, helping us to walk in water without slipping.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Most humans are righties, people like me who use their right hands to write or...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There are lots of southpaws competing in top levels of sports like boxing, tennis, and baseball, too. So what gives? Do left-handed people have some sort of, like, good-at-sports gene that the rest of us don't? Turns out, how certain competitive athletes rise through the ranks can mirror how populations of animals change as they duke it out for survival. Let's say you're a hungry house sparrow that has


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There are lots of sparrows to steal from, and it doesn't take a lot of energy to stay alive. But if there are too many sparrows trying to steal, and few finding mealworms in the first place, the scroungers will starve while the producers will be well-fed. Basically, the frequency of a behavior determines how successful it is.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Professional athletes can sometimes be modeled like animal populations because there are analogues for different generations and death.


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[Assistant] Some people win a lot and go on to play at higher levels, while others remain at lower levels or stop playing. In one-on-one sports like boxing or tennis,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's direct competition between players, and success


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because they're less common. If you're just starting out as a right-handed fencer, for instance, you have fewer chances to practice against lefties. So their movements might be a little less familiar, and you might lose more often. Because there are so many right-handed people, left-handed athletes might be more successful early on.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And rise through the ranks, which fits with a negative frequency-dependent selection model. At higher levels, though, the lefty advantage becomes weaker because the pools of athletes are more mixed. There are a lot of other factors at play, too, so this model probably isn't the only explanation for this pattern. But wield those left-handed scissors, or foils, with pride. It can be helpful.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's one of those basic ideas you hear scientists repeating all the time. Correlation does not imply causation. Just because two things happened together doesn't mean one caused the other. Well, back in the 1920s, they ignored their own advice. And the result was a major misconception that's still around today. Because despite what you probably were taught in high school,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Lactic acid does not make your muscles hurt when you exercise. In fact, it might actually help. It all started around 1920 with a German biochemist named Otto Meyerhaus.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He helped figure out many of the steps of glycolysis, which is the series of chemical reactions that cells use to make energy from glucose, or sugar. He also kind of fit the mad scientist stereotype. If you've ever seen a scientist in a movie electrifying disembodied frog legs, well, Meyerhoff did that in real life. He took frog legs.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The leg parts, and he gave them electric shocks, making them jump and twitch. But after a while, they stopped jumping, and Meyerhoff found that the legs were full of lactic acid, or more accurately, lactate.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which is lactic acid minus a proton. He and another scientist Archibald Hill correctly figured out the steps of glycolysis that led to higher levels of lactate in the muscles. But Meyerhoff also assumed that the lactate buildup contributed to muscle fatigue.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Stopping the frog legs from jumping around. When you exercise, your body uses up its main source of energy, ATP, within a few seconds. Then, it starts to make more, using a bunch of different chemical reactions.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And during a hard workout, your muscles start to rely more heavily on reactions that also produce more lactate. When you exercise, the pH in your muscles goes down, meaning they become more acidic.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's called, appropriately, muscle acidosis. The drop in pH may be part of what causes the famous burn while you're exercising. There was a clear correlation between the lactate buildup


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Even though the lactate idea was well-accepted, there wasn't much empirical evidence for it. And over the years, researchers started to question whether it was accurate. Around the second half of the 20th century, they started to pick apart what was really going on. One important clue was the fact that, unlike lactic acid, lactate


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It doesn't. The series of reactions that generate more ATP in the muscles do produce extra protons, which lowers the pH in your muscles. But the extra protons don't come from the step that generates lactate.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And in fact, lactate bonds with some of those protons, making the muscles less acidic. Lactate also isn't involved in delayed-onset muscle soreness, the pain you feel a day or two after a hard workout. Scientists think that comes from microscopic tears in your muscles. Although, they are still investigating that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's weird that we don't 100% know, but we don't. So despite what you hear from personal trainers everywhere, and sometimes even seeing textbooks, there's no reason to be so hard on lactate. It's just trying to help. Also, a side note here. You're going to want to tell people about this when they say, ah, the lactic acid. Do it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Try to be in the least pedantic way possible. We have to be accurate. But don't be condescending.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We refer to them as drugs, but most performance enhancers are really just versions of the chemicals that you already have in your body. These are the compounds that your body uses to build and heal itself and keep itself healthy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But by ramping up the levels of these compounds in the hopes of getting more out of your body, you could end up putting yourself in a world of hurt. HGH, or human growth hormone, is a good place to start, even though we all have it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Insulin-like growth factor 1, also known as IGF-1. HGH is converted into IGF-1 in the liver, and it has several effects throughout the body, including increasing bone and muscle growth. The natural production of HGH peaks during your teenage years, starts to steadily decrease about the time you hit 30, and declines through the rest of your life.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Growth hormone does help regulate metabolism in adults, but its main purpose is really to spur growth during childhood. Since 1985, an injectable form of HGH has been produced synthetically, and the US Food and Drug Administration approved it to treat children with growth issues.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For adults, HGH might be prescribed for conditions like bone loss, or high cholesterol, or very rare pituitary tumors. Despite its high cost, a month's supply of HGH can cost up to $5,000, human growth hormone has become popular among athletes looking for an edge. A big reason for this?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Any performance enhancement. HGH may stimulate muscle and bone growth, but whether that translates into increased power, strength, or endurance is unclear. Researchers in California recently conducted a review of 44 studies of growth hormone in athletes. More than 300 volunteers in all these studies combined received injections of growth hormone for an average of 20 days.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They're sprinting times on a bicycle improved by 4%. That's all.


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[Assistant] One kind you might be familiar with are cortico steroids.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There are hormones produced by your adrenal glands down there on your kidneys, and there are handy things like immune function, stress response, and controlling inflammation. You may have been prescribed medications that are synthetic versions of these steroids to treat


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Joint injuries, or an autoimmune disease, or just really bad poison ivy rash, which is why I took it. The other kind of steroids are androgenic anabolic steroids. The main one of these is testosterone, which as you know produces male sex characteristics.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But these steroids also include compounds that stimulate the synthesis of


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[Assistant] Anabolic steroids can be freakishly efficient, especially when the user takes more than one


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Doping athletes generally take steroids in cycles lasting between one and three months when strength training in the off season. This is also when they're less likely to get tested. When injected or swallowed, these steroids travel to muscle tissue, where they attach to receptors on the membranes of muscle cells. The receptors deliver the steroid hormones to the nucleus of the cells, where they stimulate anabolism.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The synthesis of proteins. But anabolic steroids also carry with them some crazy side effects. Not only do raised testosterone levels often lead to increased aggression and sex drive, but they can also, strangely enough,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Also, if you're more into aerobic activities, especially competitive bicycle racing, can I suggest that you not partake in blood doping? Bicyclists and other endurance athletes will often use anabolic steroids, but blood doping is becoming more and more common in large part.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you can raise your red blood cell count by having more blood, or with EPO, your tissues can keep getting the oxygen they need, and you can keep cycling or whatever for a lot longer. And before you know it, you've won the world's most famous bicycle race!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] By cheating! The dangerous world of PEDs is of course not limited to HGH steroids and blood doping. The longer you look,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A member of the North Korean Olympic team was stripped of two medals after testing positive for propranolol. Propranolol is a drug used to treat hypertension and prevent trembling. The sport in question?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Shooting. Similar PED use is also a problem in the archery world, where shaky hands can lead to poor performance. And then there's deer antler spray, a PED that you probably didn't know existed until 2012.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's when NFL player Ray Lewis admitted to using the stuff in the hopes of speeding his recovery after tearing a bicep. The velvety tissue on young deer antlers contains high levels of growth hormone IGF-1 that I mentioned earlier.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So here's my advice to all the athletes out there. If the choice is between injecting yourself with synthetic testosterone that makes you sterile and unable to have sex,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Changing the amount of blood you have in your body or buying some crazy concoction supposedly made from a deer's head and putting it under your tongue, I recommend choosing none of these.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Imagine, if you will, that you have been training as a world-class figure skater long hours, early mornings, years of hard work, and you have finally gotten to the Olympic qualifiers. I know.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's a stretch. Yet somehow, despite all of your practice and skill, a minute into your routine, you fall flat on your butt. We've all watched athletes considered the best of the best take the field with everything on the line.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Only to totally blow it. When someone who's otherwise really skilled makes a dumb mistake under pressure, it's popularly known as choking. And although every single one of those people wishes they could take that moment back, it's hard to give a simple answer for how to not choke under pressure.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There are lots of reasons it can happen, and they all require different responses. People tend to choke in high-pressure situations, like the final dive at the Olympics or the last game of the World Series. But athletes aren't the only people who can experience this phenomenon. Standardized tests, like the SAT for example, could cause


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Anyone to choke. Or something like a video game, if the stakes are high enough. In a study published in 2012, researchers rewarded around 20 participants for accuracy in a game where they had to move their hand to control a ball and a spring on the screen. For the most part, getting paid more meant they did better.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But when they switched the game to a harder mode with a really big reward, like $100 for a completed move, they were suddenly less likely to get it right. Basically, it was like they could use the rewards to motivate people to improve, but beyond a certain point,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The pressure was just too much. But it's not just the situation. Some people are more likely to choke.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It seems that people who are more anxious about their performance are more likely to mess up, at least when it comes to athletics. But you might also be more likely to blow it on tough tasks if you have


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Half of them were told their accuracy was predictive of their general academic success.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They give 20 participants some practice on a game resembling Snake.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That classic arcade game where you chase a dot around before getting into an MRI to play while their brains were scanned.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They found that offering big rewards to get a move right was more likely to induce choking, which supports this idea that it's


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's like the part of your brain that starts screaming, don't mess up, whenever anything important is on the line. But if people had this brain region become active with the motor cortex that controls voluntary movement, like if these two regions became active in time with each other, as though they were connected, those people were less likely to choke.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Help influence the motor cortex to get it right, making failure less likely. But other times, it's more like a heckler on the sidelines. And other studies have shed some light on why these two seemingly opposite effects can coexist.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which could help people who are prone to choking under pressure. If you're already really good at what you're doing, which is probably the case if you're, say, an NBA player in the finals, it may help to find something else to distract you, something other than the pressure. In research published in 2002,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Twenty-one golfers were asked to make a series of putts while either focusing on their swing and follow through, or while splitting their attention between the putt.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They found that splitting the attention really screwed up those with the least experience. But the most experienced golfers did much better.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] have implicit knowledge to turn to when they're distracted, meaning basically knowledge you don't have to think about. And when they tried the experiment again with 20 soccer players, they tested this idea by having everyone try a round with their non-dominant foot. This made the experts look much more like novices.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They didn't have the implicit knowledge to fall back on when they were distracted and they made more mistakes. Other studies have found that just telling people to hurry up can help.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If those people had implicit knowledge to fall back on, because they could stop overthinking and just do it. But other studies haven't found any benefit from distraction. So we don't fully understand how to prevent choking under pressure. But it seems like a little healthy distraction might help, and it might help more the more experienced.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They say time is money. But what does one really have to do with the other?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Meet Sheila. She just got her first big bonus.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sheila knows exactly what she wants to do with that money. She's had her eye on a nice convertible for a while now. Yes Sheila, that's a nice car. Oh, looks like Sheila is a little short.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But wait, she has an idea. Sheila is a smart cookie. She knows that if she deposits the money for a year, instead of buying the car today, she will earn interest. Then she'll be able to afford the car.


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[Assistant] Sheila knows that the value of her deposit one year from now will equal the money deposited today plus the interest earned.


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[Assistant] We call Sheila's money deposited today the present value of money. And the value of Sheila's deposit next year is the future value of money. What connects one to the other? The interest rate. Also known as the time value of money.


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[Assistant] Now with a little bit of rearranging, we can figure out the future value of Sheila's money with this equation.


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[Assistant] So in a year, the future value will be $11,000. Well, it's been a year, and there's Sheila, with enough money to buy the car. Sheila really understands the future value of money. Now I just hope she understands the speed limit.


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[Assistant] Now meet Timmy. He's also gotten his bonus. The money seems to be burning a hole in his pocket.


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[Assistant] Yes, Timmy, that's a nice car that will surely impress people.


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[Assistant] You see, Timmy, just like Sheila, after the first year, you'll have $11,000. But Timmy, that is still not enough to buy that fancy car. Why don't you leave the money deposited for another year?


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[Assistant] Let's see how your deposit would be doing in two years. With a little bit of rearranging, it becomes the value of your money next year times one plus the interest rate.


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[Assistant] We can then convert the future value one year from now to the present value times one plus the interest rate. We can even simplify this further by just squaring the value of one plus the interest rate.


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[Assistant] Sorry Timmy, you'll have more money after two years, but you still can't afford the car.


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[Assistant] I don't know how many more years you'll have to wait, but I can tell you one way we can figure it out. Do you see that little number 2 in the equation? Any number that you put in there is the number of years that you are waiting, also known as the period.


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[Assistant] Sure Timmy, we can see how much you'll have in 5 years. Let's connect future value and present value across 5 years. Let's watch the period increase from 2 to 5. After 5 years, you'll have 16,105 dollars and 10 cents. Sorry Timmy, you have to wait a little longer.


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[Assistant] Well, Timmy, it looks like you'll need 26 years to afford this car.


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[Assistant] The following content is provided under a Creative Commons license. Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare continue to offer high quality educational resources for free.


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[Assistant] To make a donation or to view additional materials from hundreds of MIT courses.


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[Assistant] Visit MIT OpenCourseWare at ocw.mit.edu.


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[Assistant] Once upon a time, in an old hut by the river,


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[Assistant] As he had to go far, he would himself ride the horse and put the entire load of the clothes on the donkey. The poor donkey indeed had a tough life.


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[Assistant] So you see, it is always better to share the load that is. Help our friends and work together.


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[Assistant] That way, nobody is burdened, and all work happens in a fast, fun, and happy way.


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[Assistant] He knew that the donkey was important for his business. The donkey was kept clean and healthy. He was given good food to eat. He was young and strong.


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[Assistant] The trader then started to sell salt every day. He used to fill sacks and sacks of salt and load them up on the donkey.


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[Assistant] What the donkey didn't know is that there was no magic in the river.


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[Assistant] When he fell, the water dissolved all the salt in the sacks.


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[Assistant] Which is why the donkey felt no load on his back.


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[Assistant] After cutting his trip short, the donkey had the entire day to himself. He ate and slept all day. He was happy.


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[Assistant] Unaware of the donkey's intentions, the trader started walking towards the market. As they reached the river, the donkey went a step ahead. And before the trader could stop him, he sat down in the same spot he had fallen.


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[Assistant] The salt kept on the donkey's back had dissolved in the water again. There was no burden. The donkey was now happy.


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[Assistant] The donkey thought that he had found a perfect way to avoid work.


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[Assistant] The trader loaded eight sacks on the donkey's back, but the donkey did not complain.


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[Assistant] The donkey slipped again at the same spot and sat down in the water. However, today the trader did not pick his donkey up. As the donkey tried to get up, suddenly,


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[Assistant] I think I had it when I arrived this afternoon, and I haven't been anywhere else.


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[Assistant] Do you think someone has taken it? Has someone else been in here?


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[Assistant] Oh, it's just my phone here, nothing else. Have you searched through your pockets? Yes, I have. Oh!


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[Assistant] I forgot about the pants I put in the laundry basket when I came home. Those pants might have my wallet.


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[Assistant] I found it! Thank goodness for that. You see? There was nothing to get upset about. Yeaah. I'm happy that everything ended up well.


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[Assistant] I'm making a shopping list I have to do the shopping. What should we make for dinner?


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[Assistant] That sounds good. Have you done the laundry by any chance? I need to put on a clean t-shirt.


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[Assistant] Sure, I'll do it. You can count on me. I'll make you some herbal tea. It will do you good. You can also place a cold pack on your forehead. It may ease the pain. A massage can also do the trick. Let me do it.


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[Assistant] And here is your tea. Don't you think you should make an appointment with the doctor?


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[Assistant] It's almost impossible not to make mistakes from time to time.


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[Assistant] I'll do all the housework this weekend so that you can relax more. We can do some yoga together outdoors at the park tomorrow morning.


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[Assistant] Going outside and getting fresh air can make such a big difference on your mindset for the day.


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[Assistant] Oh no! That's terrible! Are you okay?


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[Assistant] That's good news! Have they found the stolen objects?


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[Assistant] Don't worry, I'm sure they will be recovered soon.


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[Assistant] The most important thing is that you are safe and sound.


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[Assistant] Hello, my name is Daniel Clark. I'm here to see my dentist, Dr. Harris.


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[Assistant] Hi Daniel. Are you ready for your dental appointment? Yeah, sure. Hello, Dr. Harris. Come on in. How you doing, Daniel? Not so good, I'm afraid.


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[Assistant] I've been having pain in my back tooth on the right side of my mouth. I'm having trouble chewing on that side. It gets worse during the night


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[Assistant] How long have you had this pain? It started hurting me two weeks ago.


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[Assistant] Let me check. Sit down on this chair and lean your head back. Open your mouth as wide as you can, please.


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[Assistant] Do I need to have my tooth extracted? No, you have a cavity in your tooth, so you'll need a dental filling. Great, I'm relieved. I'll give you a local anesthetic so that you'll feel no pain.


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[Assistant] Okay, we're done. Did it hurt? No, never felt a thing. Thank you very much, doctor. You're gonna be numb for the next couple of hours. How long do I have to avoid eating? You should avoid eating for at least two hours.


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[Assistant] Don't forget to brush your teeth at least twice a day and floss at least once daily.


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[Assistant] You may feel drowsy in the first 24 hours. You should avoid driving in that case.


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[Assistant] You should take one tablespoon twice a day. Anything else?


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[Assistant] Sure, please have a seat. Can you give me your name, address and phone number?


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[Assistant] Did you see the man's face clearly? Can you describe his features?


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[Assistant] Did the man you saw have any facial hair, such as a beard or mustache?


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[Assistant] Okay, don't worry. We will do our best to catch the thief as soon as possible. We'll let you know as soon as we find something.


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[Assistant] The tablet doesn't work, and there are scratches all over the back. I plugged it in to charge it, but the charge light doesn't come on.


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[Assistant] Yeah, it's Larry Hill. The order number is 52110.


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[Assistant] You'll stay from Friday to Monday, three nights. That will be $600 including breakfast.


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[Assistant] For bookings made over the phone, customers have to pay in advance for the first night.


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[Assistant] You'll receive confirmation by email along with instructions for making the payment.


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[Assistant] Yes, they are. There are also free on-site car parking facilities available for hotel guests.


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[Assistant] What's the matter, officer? Do you know why I pulled you over? I was only just above the speed limit when I looked at my speedometer.


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[Assistant] Yes, you are going 50 miles per hour in a 20 miles per hour zone.


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[Assistant] I was in a hurry to get to work and didn't realize how fast I was going.


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[Assistant] I would have stopped, but I didn't see the stop sign. I didn't see it because the sun was in my eyes. I didn't mean it. That doesn't justify your violation. You are not paying attention. I'll have to give you a ticket.


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[Assistant] May I see your driver's license, registration papers and insurance card please? Oh yeaah. They're here somewhere in the glove compartment. Yeaah, here they are.


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[Assistant] Here you go. And how much is the monthly maintenance fee?


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[Assistant] You have to suffer this for three nights, and the spell shall be broken.


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[Assistant] The lion and the mouse. Once upon a time, there lived a lion who ruled the forest.


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[Assistant] One day, after eating his meal, the lion fell asleep under a tree.


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[Assistant] A few days later, the lion was roaming the jungle.


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[Assistant] The hunters came back with a big cart to carry the lion.


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[Assistant] Hello, I'd like to speak to the sales manager of this company.


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[Assistant] Hello, I'm Pamela Young and I want to make a complaint about one of your products which I bought yesterday. Which product are you referring to?


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[Assistant] I used this moisturizer which proved harmful to me. In what way it proved harmful?


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[Assistant] Right after using it, I got a skin rush. You can clearly see it.


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[Assistant] I know for a fact that it was caused by your product. I don't have any food allergies. The quality of your product is not good.


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[Assistant] Very well then. I'll take this case to the Consumer Protection.


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[Assistant] And prove that you are scammers that cheat people out of money.


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[Assistant] It's a berry cake with vanilla buttercream and juicy fresh berries. It's very sweet and refreshing. I got all the berries at my local farm.


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[Assistant] If you like chocolate, you may like this one over here with the frosting and sprinkles.


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[Assistant] Double chocolate. They're a fresh batch, too. I just popped them out of the oven a few minutes ago.


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[Assistant] Would you like the cookies, donuts, and croissants in the same box as the cake?


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[Assistant] Thanks, Alan. Actually, it's not that heavy. Just a little bulky.


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[Assistant] I'm sending some clothes home to my sister, so I'm headed to the post office. I thought it was on this block. Can you tell me where it is?


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[Assistant] Hello, what can I do for you today? Hello, I need to mail this package to Mexico, please. What is in the package? Some clothes.


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[Assistant] Priority is the most convenient, I guess, so I'll go for that. Okay, do you need anything else?


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[Assistant] Yeah, I need to replace it. It's not the end of the world, but it's still frustrating.


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[Assistant] After having been spoiled by having a dishwasher for the past seven years, washing dishes by hand is not easy.


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[Assistant] As the dishwasher is so old that you can't get parts for it anymore. Oh, that's too bad.


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[Assistant] We really can't afford to buy a new one right now, but I really need one.


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[Assistant] I just want one that works well. Do you know how much it is? I don't know. Let me call her right away. Thanks. I really appreciate it.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching, and be sure to subscribe to our YouTube channel for more videos like this.


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[Assistant] Good morning, Nicholas. It's time for school. Come on, get out of bed. Jessica's already up and dressed. Good morning, Mom. Let's check the weather out today. It's looking a bit cloudy. Looks like it's gonna rain.


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[Assistant] The trees are blowing side to side. It means it's a little windy, but still a lovely morning. Go to the bathroom and brush your teeth. Then get dressed and come downstairs to get some breakfast.


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[Assistant] We're going to have bagel with eggs, bacon, and cream cheese this morning. And strawberry blueberry smoothie. Perfect. Can I make the smoothie? Yeah, sure.


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[Assistant] You need frozen strawberries, blueberries, almond milk, and Greek yogurt. It sounds yummy. Shall I also put some bananas? No, we should leave the banana out of this recipe to allow the flavors of the berries to shine. Grab the blender and add almond milk first.


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[Assistant] You can add some cinnamon too. It looks nice and thick. And it tastes delicious. The egg bagel sandwiches are ready too. I've also added tomatoes and cucumbers.


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[Assistant] It's the day we thoroughly clean the whole house. We throw away things we don't need. Pack up things to donate to the local homeless shelter. Clean all of the rooms. And wash all of the windows. What exactly do we have to do, Mom? You must clean your rooms. They are really messy.


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[Assistant] Then make your beds using fresh linens. Vacuum the entire room.


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[Assistant] Dust the shelves and put the books that are on the floor in the right places.


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[Assistant] That's a lot to do. We better get started. We have a lot to do indeed.


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[Assistant] I have to do several loads of laundry and clean the kitchen and the dining room.


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[Assistant] Me neither. We probably don't need a lot of that stuff. What should we do with it?


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[Assistant] Gee, I've been so busy with house cleaning that I haven't given dinner a single thought. Anyway, I don't feel much like cooking. I'm just too tired to prepare a meal. Even a small one.


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[Assistant] Are you sure you can do it? It seems a complicated job. Better call the repairman.


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[Assistant] It works! I had no idea you were so good with your hands!


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[Assistant] I can't wait. Uh, shall we redecorate the hallway too?


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[Assistant] That means we don't have any receipts for $239.


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[Assistant] That $400 for entertainment is mostly going to restaurants.


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[Assistant] Another way to save is to lower the temperature when we're going to sleep at night, or when we're not in the house.


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[Assistant] During the winter months, we can set the temperature to 18 degrees Celsius.


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[Assistant] During the hot summer days, we can increase the temperature to 24 degrees Celsius.


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[Assistant] Thanks for watching, and be sure to subscribe to our YouTube channel for more videos like this.


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[Assistant] We need to find an answer to this question. Plant cell.


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[Assistant] Chloroplasts are special structures present only in plant cells. They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. With the help of this chlorophyll, the plants prepare their food in the presence of water, sunlight, and oxygen. Hence, chloroplasts are called the kitchen of a plant cell.


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[Assistant] How do you explain when things don't go as we assume? Or better, how do you explain when others are able to achieve things that seem to defy all of the assumptions? For example, why is Apple so innovative?


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[Assistant] And yet, they're just a computer company. They're just like everyone else. They have the same access to the same talent, the same agencies, the same consultants, the same media. Then why is it that they seem to have something different?


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[Assistant] And why is it that the Wright brothers were able to figure out controlled powered man flight when there were certainly other teams who were better qualified, better funded, and they didn't achieve powered man flight and the Wright brothers beat them to it? There's something else at play here.


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[Assistant] And this discovery profoundly changed my view on how I thought the world worked and it even profoundly changed the way in which I operate in it.


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[Assistant] Some know how they do it. Whether you call it your differentiating value proposition, or your proprietary process, or your USP. But very, very few people or organizations know why they do what they do. And by why, I don't mean to make a profit. That's a result. It's always a result. By why, I mean what's your purpose? What's your cause? What's your belief? Why does your organization exist? Why do you get out of bed in the morning? And why should anyone care?


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[Assistant] Well, as a result, the way we think, the way we act, the way we communicate is from the outside in. It's obvious. We go from the clearest thing to the fuzziest thing.


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[Assistant] But the inspired leaders and the inspire or inspired organizations, regardless of their size, regardless of their industry, all think, act and communicate from the inside out.


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[Assistant] Let me give you an example. I use Apple because they're easy to understand and everybody gets it. If Apple were like everyone else, a marketing message from them might sound like this. We make great computers.


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[Assistant] We believe in challenging the status quo. We believe in thinking differently.


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[Assistant] The way we challenge the status quo is by making our products beautifully designed, simple to use, and user friendly. We just happen to make great computers. Wanna buy one?


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[Assistant] And they make great quality products, and they can make perfectly well designed products, and nobody bought one.


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[Assistant] In fact, talking about it now, we can't even imagine buying an mp3 player from Dell. Why would you buy an mp3 player from a computer company? But we do it every day.


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[Assistant] People don't buy what you do, they buy why you do it. The goal is not to do business with anybody, with everybody who needs what you have. The goal is to do business with people who believe what you believe. Here's the best part. None of what I'm telling you is my opinion.


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[Assistant] It's all grounded in the tenets of biology, not psychology, biology.


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[Assistant] If you look at a cross section of the human brain looking from the top down, what you see is the human brain is actually broken into three major components that correlate perfectly with the golden circle. Our newest brain, our homo sapien brain, our neocortex,


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[Assistant] Corresponds with the what level. The neocortex is responsible for all of our rational and analytical thought and language.


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[Assistant] The middle two sections make up our limbic brains, and our limbic brains are responsible for all of our feelings, like trust and loyalty. It's also responsible for all human behavior, all decision making, and it has no capacity for language.


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[Assistant] In other words, when we communicate from the outside in, yes, people can understand vast amounts of complicated information like features and benefits and facts and figures. It just doesn't drive behavior.


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[Assistant] When we communicate from the inside out, we're talking directly to the part of the brain that controls behavior, and then we allow people to rationalize it with the tangible things we say and do. This is where gut decisions come from.


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[Assistant] But if you don't know why you do what you do, and people


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[Assistant] Respond to why you do what you do, then how will anybody, how will you ever get people to, to, to, to vote for you or buy something from you, or more importantly, be loyal and want to be a part of what it is that you do?


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[Assistant] Again, the goal is not just to sell people who need what you have, the goal is to sell to people who believe what you believe. The goal is not just to hire people who need a job, it's to hire people who believe what you believe. I always say that, you know, this, uh, if you, if you, if you, uhm,


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[Assistant] Hire people just because they can do a job, they'll work for your money. But if you hire people who believe what you believe, they'll work for you with blood and sweat and tears. And nowhere else is there a better example of this than with the Wright Brothers.


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[Assistant] Most people don't know about Samuel Pierpont Langley. And back in the early 20th century, the pursuit of powered man flight was like the dot com of the day. Everybody was trying it. And Samuel Pierpont Langley had what we assume to be the recipe for success.


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[Assistant] I mean, even now, you ask people, why did your product or why did your company fail? And people always give you the same permutation of the same three things. Undercapitalized, the wrong people, bad market conditions, it's always the same three things. So let's explore that. Samuel Pierpont Langley.


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[Assistant] He was given $50,000 by the war department to figure out this flying machine. Money was no problem. He held a seat at Harvard and worked at the Smithsonian and was extremely well connected. He knew all the big minds of the day.


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[Assistant] He hired the best minds money could find and the market conditions were fantastic. The New York Times followed him around everywhere and everyone was rooting for Langley. And how come we've never heard of Samuel Pierpont Langley? A few hundred miles away in Dayton, Ohio, Orville and Wilbur Wright, they had none.


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[Assistant] The difference was Orville and Wilbur were driven by a cause, by a purpose, by a belief. They believed that if they could figure out this flying machine, it'll change the course of the world.


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[Assistant] Samuel Pierpont Langley was different. He wanted to be rich, and he wanted to be famous. He was in pursuit of the result. He was in pursuit of the riches.


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[Assistant] And lo and behold, look what happened. The people who believed


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[Assistant] In the Wright Brothers' dream, worked with them with blood and sweat and tears. The others just worked for the paycheck.


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[Assistant] And they tell stories of how every time the Wright brothers went out, they would have to take five sets of parts because that's how many times they would crash before they came in for supper. And eventually on December 17th, 1903, the Wright brothers took flight.


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[Assistant] And no one was there to even experience it. We found out about it a few days later.


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[Assistant] And further proof that Langley was motivated by the wrong thing, the day the Wright brothers took flight, he quit.


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[Assistant] He could have said, that's an amazing discovery guys, and I will improve upon your technology. But he didn't. He wasn't first, he didn't get rich, he didn't get famous, so he quit.


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[Assistant] People don't buy what you do, they buy why you do it. And if you talk about what you believe, you will attract those who believe what you believe.


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[Assistant] Well, why is it important to attract those who believe what you believe?


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[Assistant] And if you don't know the law, you definitely know the terminology. The first 2.5% of our population are our innovators. The next 13.5% of our population are our early adopters.


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[Assistant] The next 34% are your early majority, your late majority, and your laggards.


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[Assistant] is that if you want mass market success or mass market acceptance of an idea you cannot have it until you achieve this tipping point between 15 and 18 percent market penetration and then the system tips.


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[Assistant] And I love asking businesses, what's your conversion on new business? And they love to tell you, oh, it's about 10% proudly. Well, you can trip over 10% of the customers. We all have about 10% who just get it. That's how we describe them, right? That's like that gut feeling. Oh, they just get it. The problem is how do you find the ones that just get it before you're doing business with them versus the ones who don't get it. So it's this here, this little gap.


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[Assistant] That you have to close, as Geoffrey Moore calls it, crossing the chasm. Because you see, the early majority will not try something until someone else...


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[Assistant] And by the way, they didn't do it because the technology was so great. They did it for themselves. It's because they wanted to be first.


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[Assistant] People don't buy what you do, they buy why you do it. And what you do simply proves what you believe.


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[Assistant] In fact, people will do the things that prove what they believe.


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[Assistant] Was because what they believed about the world and how they wanted everybody to see them, they were first. People don't buy what you do, they buy why you do it. So let me give you a famous example, a famous failure and a famous success of the law of diffusion of innovation. First the famous failure. It's a commercial example.


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[Assistant] As we said before a second ago, the recipe for success is money and the right people and the right marketing conditions, right? You should have success then. Look at TiVo.


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[Assistant] But TiVo is a commercial failure. They've never made money.


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[Assistant] And when they went IPO, their stock was at about 30 or 40 dollars and then plummeted and it's never traded above 10. In fact, I don't think it's even traded above 6, except for a couple of little spikes.


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[Assistant] Because you see, when TiVo launched their product, they told us all what they had. They said, we have a product that pauses live TV, skips commercials, rewinds live TV, and memorizes your viewing habits without you even asking. And the cynical majority said, we don't believe you. We don't need it. We don't like it. You're scaring us. What if they had said, if you're the kind of person


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[Assistant] People don't buy what you do, they buy why you do it, and what you do simply serves as the proof of what you believe.


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[Assistant] Now let me give you a successful example of the law of diffusion of innovation. In the summer of 1963,


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[Assistant] It just so happens that the civil rights movement was the perfect thing to help him bring his cause to life.


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[Assistant] Listen to politicians now with their comprehensive 12-point plans. They're not inspiring anybody. Because there are leaders and there are those who lead.


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[Assistant] Whether they're individuals or organizations, we follow those who lead not because we have to, but because we want to. We follow those who lead not for them, but for ourselves. And it's those who start with why that have the ability to inspire those around them or find others who inspire them. Thank you very much.


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[Assistant] I live in Detroit, Michigan with my parents and my sisters, Jasmine and Jessica.


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[Assistant] My father is basically a businessman, and my mother is a fashion designer.


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[Assistant] My favorite subjects are art, literature and music. I don't like math and history.


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[Assistant] I love to draw and paint. This is how I often relax and unwind after school. I hope to become a graphic designer when I grow up.


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[Assistant] I have many friends around the world, and I keep touch with them by social media.


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[Assistant] I love to travel and meet new people, and I love making friends with people who are social.


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[Assistant] I am an outgoing person and I love to have fun.


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[Assistant] One of the hobbies I've come to love is being able to go to a movie theater to watch new films.


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[Assistant] I like going with friends and enjoying a movie that we get to laugh, cry, and be in awe of.


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[Assistant] I love going to amusement parks because they're a very relaxing way to get away from the stress.


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[Assistant] If the weather is nice, I enjoy sitting under a tree with a book or playing tennis.


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[Assistant] I have a pet dog named Lucky, and spending time with him is one of my favorite things to do.


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[Assistant] My favorite season is winter. Snow is so much fun.


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[Assistant] I go skiing, and I play snowball fights, and I build snowmen.


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[Assistant] My favorite food is lasagna. It's delicious and very filling. I like every variety of lasagna.


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[Assistant] My mother loves to prepare it for me because she knows I am a big fan of this Italian dish.


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[Assistant] Among the things that I don't like are the alarm clock that wakes me up every time and taking exams.


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[Assistant] My biggest flaw is that I'm very sensitive, and sometimes I overreact to minimal things.


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[Assistant] The following content is provided under a Creative Commons license. Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare continue to offer high quality educational resources for free.


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[Assistant] To make a donation or to view additional materials from hundreds of MIT courses.


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[Assistant] Visit MIT OpenCourseWare at ocw.mit.edu.


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[Assistant] If father came to know about it, he would be very angry.


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[Assistant] While I was at the Fat Duck, it was really exciting and really fast and really hectic. It sort of made me realise that it's more, I guess, family based for me. The Dairy Farm comes with its perks. There's a lot of milk, so I've been doing a bit of cheese making with Mum.


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[Assistant] Yesterday George said to me the dish was too sweet, so I just want to balance the flavour for the dish that I'm doing today.


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[Assistant] It makes you feel enjoyable working in the kitchen. Like, it's only the cleaning up is the harder part.


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[Assistant] I've got, uh, quite a big cookbook, so I've got about nearly 250 to eat.


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[Assistant] Six to seven hours, uhm, cooking up storm.


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[Assistant] It needs to be sweet, sour, spicy, zingy.


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[Assistant] It's got a spicy zingy, really nice. I checked the crabs in the sauce and then put the lid on and hoping that will cook quickly. It starts to smell good.


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[Assistant] I love you dear, and I am happy with you.


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[Assistant] What? I never dance. You know that.


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[Assistant] Oh, my dear. There is nothing you can do.


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[Assistant] My child, no herb or magic is strong enough to make one forget their past.


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[Assistant] She would always be connected to where she came from. But there is one thing. What?


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[Assistant] Let me finish my dance, and I promise I will come with you after.


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[Assistant] Look at me. There are tears in my eyes. Fairies don't know how to cry. Your love taught me that.


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[Assistant] No, I should remember none of it. I will only be happy.


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[Assistant] Perfect love is when you love somebody else's happiness more than your own.


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[Assistant] Because the statue's very, very good at staying still. Statue still.


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[Assistant] And this time you need to be quiet and statue still.


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[Assistant] Try, try some food. Just a beaky little bit. Hmm, that should do it.


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[Assistant] Yes, a little bit more. And this time remember, statue still and sure.


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[Assistant] Remember Bing, stand statue still, and shoot.


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[Assistant] You need to be very disciplined, as a city like New York offers an infinite number of distractions.


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[Assistant] Are you ready to order? Yes please. Can I get you something to start with?


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[Assistant] How would you like your steak? Rare, medium, or well done?


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[Assistant] Water please. Still or is sparkling?


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[Assistant] The tuna for you, ma'am, and the steak for you, sir. So, tell me, Thomas.


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[Assistant] That was a good day's work, Thomas. You're doing a great job here.


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[Assistant] Go to the subway station at 7th Avenue. Take the B train to West 4th Street.


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[Assistant] How many stops is that? Six or seven.


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[Assistant] Come out of the subway on 8th Avenue. Go straight for about 50 yards. And take the first right. That's Greenwich Avenue.


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[Assistant] I see. Here the street level floor is called the first floor.


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[Assistant] Really impressed. It's a really precise piece of work.


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[Assistant] I am an absolute lover of seafood. We cook a lot of prawns, but you have so many heads left over and I can't deal with food waste, so I've made a prawn mist today.


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[Assistant] We've honed in on these three moons because each is an ocean world, an environment that contains a liquid ocean, and liquid can support the formation of life.


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[Assistant] Living organisms have to be able to grow, reproduce, and feed themselves, among other things. All of those functions require the formation of complex molecules from more basic components. Liquids such as water allow chemical compounds to remain in suspension instead of sinking under the force of gravity.


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[Assistant] This enables them to interact frequently in a three-dimensional space and, in the right conditions, go through chemical reactions that lead to the formation of living matter.


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[Assistant] That alone isn't enough. The small but complex biomolecules that we're familiar with are sensitive to temperature, too hot or cold, and they won't mix.


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[Assistant] Liquid water has an additional advantage in that it's relatively temperature-stable, meaning it can insulate molecules against large shifts in heat. On Earth, these and other conditions in aquatic environments may have supported the emergence of life billions of years ago.


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[Assistant] Tantalizingly, the same could be true in other parts of our solar system, like these three icy moons.


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[Assistant] Europa, which is a moon of Jupiter, is probably the most intriguing ocean world. Beneath a surface layer of ice thicker than Mount Everest, there exists a liquid ocean as much as 100 kilometers deep.


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[Assistant] Astrobiologists think this hidden ocean could harbor life. Thanks to the Galileo probe, we can deduce that its potential salt content is similar to that of some lakes on Earth. But most of its characteristics will be a mystery until we can explore it further.


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[Assistant] Like Jupiter, Saturn also has moons that might have the right conditions for life. For instance, Enceladus is a tiny ball of ice that's small enough to nestle within the surface area of the Gulf of Mexico.


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[Assistant] Similarly to Europa, it likely contains an ocean deep under the ice. But Enceladus also has geysers that frequently vent water vapor and tiny ice grains into space. Astrobiologists are curious about whether these geysers are connected to the ocean below.


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[Assistant] They hope to send a probe to test whether the geyser's plumes of vapor contain life-enabling material from that hidden sea.


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[Assistant] Although it's the best-known substance for nurturing life, water isn't necessarily the only medium that can support living things.


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[Assistant] Take Titan, Saturn's largest moon, which has a thick nitrogen atmosphere containing methane and many other organic molecules. Its clouds condense and rain onto Titan's surface, sustaining lakes and seas full of liquid methane.


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[Assistant] This compound's particular chemistry means it's not as supportive a medium as water.


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[Assistant] Paired with the high quantities of organic material that also rain down from the sky, these bodies of liquid methane could possibly support unfamiliar life forms.


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[Assistant] So what might indicate that life exists on these or other worlds? If it is out there, astrobiologists speculate that it would be microscopic, comparable to the bacteria we have on Earth.


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[Assistant] This would make it difficult to directly observe from a great distance, so astrobiologists seek clues called biosignatures.


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[Assistant] Those may be cells, fossils, or mineral traces left behind by living things.


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[Assistant] And finding any biosignatures will be challenging for many reasons. One of the biggest concerns is to make sure we sterilize our probes extremely thoroughly. Otherwise, we could accidentally contaminate ocean worlds with Earth's own bacteria, which could destroy alien life.


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[Assistant] Titan, Enceladus, and Europa are just three of possibly many ocean worlds that we could explore. We already know of several other candidates in our solar system, including Jupiter's moons Callisto and Ganymede, Neptune's Triton, and even Pluto.


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[Assistant] If there's this much potential for life to exist in our own tiny solar system, what unimagined secrets might the rest of the universe contain?


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[Assistant] So what are the odds of us actually finding a habitable world beyond our solar system? Check out this video to learn more.


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[Assistant] Every household has their own recipes. Generation before me grew up with it, I grew up with it, my kids grew up with it, and hopefully my grandchildren are gonna grow up with it too.


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[Assistant] And also for the victims of the Boston Marathon bombing. So let's just take a minute to pay our respects to them.


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[Assistant] I never thought I would be addressing you, the esteemed members of the Oxford Union, without a guitar, or an erhu, without my crazy stage hair, costumes. But I did perform at the O2 Arena in London last week, I'm not sure if any of you were able to make that, but, uh,


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[Assistant] In many ways, that was similar to what I'm talking about today. That is introducing Chinese pop music to you.


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[Assistant] See, I'm actually an ambassador for Chinese pop, whether I like it or not, both music and movies, and today I'm here to give you the State of the Union address.


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[Assistant] And I also want to impress upon all of you here today the importance of that soft culture, that soft power exchange, and how each of us is involved in that exchange.


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[Assistant] Soft power, a term I'm sure you're all familiar with at this point, coined by Rhodes Scholar and Oxford alum Joseph Nye, is defined as the ability to attract and persuade.


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[Assistant] But I wanna put it in collegiate terms for all you students in the audience. The way I see it, East and West are kinda like freshman roommates.


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[Assistant] You don't know a lot about each other, but suddenly you're living together in the same room.


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[Assistant] And each one is scared that the other's gonna steal its shower time or wants to party when the other one wants to study. It has the potential to be absolute hell, doesn't it? We've all had...


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[Assistant] Having a roommate can be a recipe for disaster, but it also has a potential for being the greatest friendship you've ever had. See, Frank, he didn't make it to second year. And I got two new roommates second year. Stefan and Jason.


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[Assistant] And to this day, the three of us are the best of friends. So going back to my analogy of East and West as roommates, do we want to be Frank or do we want to be Stefan and Jason?


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[Assistant] And I think, in this day and age, in 2013, we should all be striving for the ladder, shouldn't we? I mean...


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[Assistant] Now let's look at where we are in reality. Recent headlines in the media include Foreign Policy Magazine.


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[Assistant] China's victim complex. Why are Chinese leaders so paranoid about the United States? Or the AFP, the Agence France-Presse.


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[Assistant] In the cover of this magazine, yes, the Chinese army is spying on you.


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[Assistant] That I think is not just misinformed but also misleading and ultimately dangerous.


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[Assistant] And as China rises to be a global power, I think it's more important than ever for us to be discerning about what we believe. Because after all, I think that's the purpose of higher education.


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[Assistant] And that's why we're all here, to be able to think for ourselves and make our own decisions.


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[Assistant] China's not just those headlines. The burgeoning economy or the unique politics. It's not just the world's factory or the next big superpower. It's so much more. A billion people with rich culture.


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[Assistant] Amazing stories, and as a product of both of those cultures, I want to help foster understanding between the two. And help create that incredible relationship.


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[Assistant] Because knowing both sides of the coin, I really think that there is a love story.


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[Assistant] And I'm only half joking when I say love story because I believe it is the stories that will save us, will bring us together.


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[Assistant] And my thesis statement for today's talk is that the relationship between the East and West needs to be and can be fixed via pop culture. That's a big fact claim and I'm going to try and back it up.


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[Assistant] Now, the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said, there are no languages required in the musical world. That is the power of music. That is the power of the heart.


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[Assistant] Through this promotion of arts, we can better understand the culture and civilizations of other people. In this era of instability and intolerance, we need to promote better understanding through the power of music. Now the UN Secretary General thinks we need more music, and I think he's right.


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[Assistant] Music and arts have always played a key role in my life in building relationships, replacing what once was ignorance, fear, and hatred with acceptance, friendship, and even love.


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[Assistant] So I have a strong case for promoting music between cultures because it happened to me early in life.


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[Assistant] I was born and raised in Rochester, New York. I barely spoke a word of Chinese. I didn't know the difference between Taiwan or Thailand.


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[Assistant] Now every kid gets teased or made fun of on the playground, but this was fundamentally different and I knew it right then and there. This kid, let's call him Brian McElroy.


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[Assistant] With everyone. And I didn't know what else to do. It was like having an out of body experience. As if I could laugh at that Chinese kid on the playground with all the other Americans because I was one of them. Right? Wrong. On many levels.


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[Assistant] And I was facing for the first, but definitely not the last time, the harsh reality that I was a minority.


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[Assistant] In Rochester, which in those days had an Asian population of 1%. And I was confused. I wanted to, I wanted to punch Brian.


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[Assistant] I wanted to hurt him for putting me in that situation, but...


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[Assistant] He was faster than me and he was stronger than me and he would've kicked my butt and we both knew that so... I just took it in.


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[Assistant] And I didn't tell anyone or share with anyone these feelings. I just held them in and I let them fester.


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[Assistant] And those feelings would surface in a strangely therapeutic way for me through music.


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[Assistant] And it was no coincidence that around that time I started getting good at the violin.


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[Assistant] And the guitar and the drums. And I would soon discover that by playing music or singing other kids would for a brief moment.


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[Assistant] Forget about my race or color and accept me and then be able to see me for who I truly am. A human being who's emotional, spiritual, curious about the world and has a need for love just like everyone else. And by the sixth grade, guess who asked me if I would be the drummer for his band? Brian McIlroy.


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[Assistant] And I said yes, and that's when we together formed our elementary school rock band called Nirvana.


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[Assistant] I'm not kidding, I was in a rock band called Nirvana before Kurt Cobain's Nirvana was ever known. So when Nirvana came out, Brian and I were like, hey, he's stealing our name.


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[Assistant] But really what attracted me to music at this young age was just this. And it's still what I love about music is that it breaks down the walls between us and shows us so quickly the truth that we are much more alike than we are different.


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[Assistant] I learned that music wasn't just about connecting with others, like Brian and I were connected through music. It was a powerful tool of influence and inspiration. Sam Huayang.


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[Assistant] Was my high school janitor. He was an immigrant from Vietnam who barely spoke a word of English.


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[Assistant] Sam swept the floors and cleaned the bathrooms at our school for 20 years. And he never talked to the kids, and the kids never talked to Sam.


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[Assistant] But one day before the opening night of our school's annual musical, he walked up to me holding a letter. And I was taken aback. I was thinking, why is Sam the janitor approaching me? And he gave me this letter that I've kept to this day. It was scrawled.


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[Assistant] In a shaky hand written in all capitals and it read, in all my years of working as a janitor at Sutherland, you're the first Asian boy to play the lead role. I'm going to bring my six year old daughter to watch you perform tonight because I want her to see that Asians can be inspiring.


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[Assistant] And that letter just floored me. I was 15 years old and I was absolutely stunned.


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[Assistant] That's the first time I realized how music was so important.


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[Assistant] With Brian, music helped two kids who were initially enemies become friends. But with Sam...


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[Assistant] Music went beyond the one-on-one. It was an even higher level. It influenced others I didn't even know in ways I could never imagine.


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[Assistant] I can't tell you how grateful I am to Sam the janitor to this day.


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[Assistant] He really is one of the people who helped me discover my life's purpose.


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[Assistant] And I had no idea that something I did could mean more than I ever imagined to an immigrant from Vietnam who barely even spoke English.


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[Assistant] And the other methods of storytelling, movies, TV dramas, they are so key and they do connect us like me and Brian and do influence us and inspire us. Then let's take another look at the state of the union.


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[Assistant] The East-West Union with this soft power bias.


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[Assistant] How is the soft power exchange between these two roommates? Are there songs in English that have become hits in China? For sure.


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[Assistant] How about movies? Well, there are so many that China has had to limit the number of Hollywood movies imported into the country so that local films can even have a chance at success. What about the flip side of that? The Chinese songs that have hit in the West? Well,


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[Assistant] Yeah. And, uh, movies. Well, there was Crouching Tiger, that was 13 years ago. And, uh,


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[Assistant] Soft power deficit, let's call it that. When we look in this direction, that is to say the West influences the East more than vice versa. And...


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[Assistant] Forgive me for using the East and West kind of loosely, but I think it's a lot easier to say this than, you know, the English speaking, uh, language or the Asian speaking language or the Chinese are getting into specifics. I think I'm making generalizations and I hope you can go with me on this.


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[Assistant] I think in any healthy relationship or friendship or marriage, isn't it important for both sides to make an effort to understand the other and that this exchange needs to have a healthy balance? And how do we address this?


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[Assistant] An ambassador for Chinese pop music and movies, I have to ask myself the question, why does this deficit exist?


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[Assistant] Is it because Chinese music just is lame? Don't answer that, please.


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[Assistant] But actually there's truth in that, and the argument being that the content we've created just isn't as internationally competitive. And why should it be? Well look at Korean pop, look at K-pop for example.


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[Assistant] Stay domestic, tour all over China speaking territories, and comfortably sustain. So when you're that big and powerful, there are over 160 cities in China with a million or more people.


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[Assistant] You tend to kind of turn inward and be complacent. So there certainly can be an argument made for Chinese pop being not marketed with international sensibilities in mind.


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[Assistant] But the other side of the argument I think is more interesting and thought provoking and even more true. That western ears...


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[Assistant] The reason I think that argument holds water though is because that's exactly what I went through. So I happen to know a thing or two about learning.


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[Assistant] To appreciate Chinese pop as a westerner.


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[Assistant] Because I was 17 years old when I went from being an Asian kid in America to being an American kid in Asia. And the entire paradigm suddenly got flipped on its head.


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[Assistant] I looked around at the audience and I saw their faces and the look in their eyes, the responsiveness to his music. And it was clear to me, finally, where the problem lay. It wasn't that the music was lacking, it was my ability to appreciate it and to hear it in the right way.


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[Assistant] I was proud they would sing along and be totally immersed in this music and I had this epiphany that I was missing the point and from now on I was going to somehow learn how to get it.


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[Assistant] I was gonna learn how to hear with local ears and I deconstructed and analyzed what it was that made Chinese audiences connect with certain types of melodies and rhythms and song structures and lyrics and that's what I've been doing for the past almost 20 years. And it took me a long time and I'm still learning.


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[Assistant] But at some point, I not only began to be able to appreciate the music, but I started being able to contribute to it and create my own fresh spins on the tried and true.


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[Assistant] And I think this happens to everyone, really, who's on the outside looking in. It always looks strange. If you look at things from your perspective, you're always gonna think that these people are weirdos. What's wrong with them? Why are they listening to this stuff? And I'm saying that you can make an effort and get it. It can be done, and I'm living proof of that. And uhm,


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[Assistant] As an ambassador of Chinese pop, I'm trying to get people to open up to a sound that they may not feel is palatable at the first listen.


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[Assistant] So what else can we do to reduce this imbalance in our popular cultures? Well, maybe give a talk to the Oxford Union.


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[Assistant] Uhm, tour more outside of China. But seriously, actually, I think the tides are already starting to change.


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[Assistant] Very slowly, very cautiously, almost calculatingly.


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[Assistant] You see more cross-cultural exchange now, more interest in China, definitely, a lot of joint ventures, a lot of co-productions in recent years, Iron Man 3, Transformers 53, Resident Evil, really, it's, it's beginning to be kind of like a world pop, and


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's what I'm looking forward to and that's what I'm focusing on these days. There was J-pop, there was K-pop, there was C-pop, and there's like this W-pop that's kinda starting to emerge, this world-pop, and I think...


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[Assistant] Yeaah, I love that idea. That it's not, it's not world music. It's not like...


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[Assistant] I don't think there's a world pop station or a magazine. Unfortunately, there are none. There should be. But there is the internet. And YouTube has proven to be a driving force of world pop. Britain's got talent. Made Susan Boyle the hottest act in the world. And she achieved that not through the record labels or the networks, but through grassroots sharing.


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[Assistant] Gangnam Style is another great example of how that just took over and became a huge worldwide world pop phenomenon.


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[Assistant] So world pop also suggests a worldwide pop culture and something that can be shared by all of us and give us a lot of common ground. So today, what's my call to action?


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[Assistant] I want to help improve and promote the cultural exchange between the East and West, and I think I've made that clear, but how?


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[Assistant] And protect that roommate relationship between the East and West. Value this relationship and take ownership of it.


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[Assistant] Uh, you could do that back in Wuhan or Nanjing or wherever you came from.


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[Assistant] Don't buy into the headlines, or the stereotypes, or into the hypernationalism. Think for yourselves.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And this goes for the East and the West. Both. Get to know one another.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And think for yourselves and don't believe the hype. For a moment, if we could just disregard.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The government and what the media is saying, just for the sake of argument.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] With our own tools of critical thinking can we build relationships that actually see one another as individual human beings and not faceless members of a particular ethnicity or nationality? Of course we can do that. And that's the goal.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And dream, I think of the romantic artist and the musician. I think it's always been that. That's what I wish for. That's what makes music and art so powerful and so true.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It breaks down instantly, disintegrates all the artificial barriers that we've created between each other.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In each other's hearts and true selves. And for those of you who are just beginning that journey to the West and East, I want to invite you today on this amazing journey with me.