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[Assistant] He made and engraved pictures not only for his own poems, but for many other books also.


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[Assistant] The most famous of all his pictures are the ones he made to illustrate the book of Job in the Bible. These pictures of Job and his troubles are hard to forget, once you have seen them.


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[Assistant] Every time I think of Job, I think of these pictures that Blake made. I can't help thinking of them.


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[Assistant] Most of Blake's pictures that you see in books look like drawings. But this is-


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[Assistant] That is because they are made up of lines. And engraving has to be made with lines. But Blake generally made a painting for each picture before he engraved it. And these paintings show he could use colors as well as lines.


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[Assistant] Blake had had new ideas about painting, and soon there were other English artists who had new ideas. But before telling you about them, I'll ask you a question.


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[Assistant] Have you ever seen a tree in summertime that had brown leaves? A live tree, I mean. Anyone would know that a live tree has green leaves.


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[Assistant] Yet if you saw a picture of a tree painted about the time of Blake, you would be surprised to see that it had brown leaves. As I told you, Gainsborough is noted for his landscapes.


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[Assistant] Now, those landscape painters must have known that real trees are green. But still they kept painting them brown. Strange, is it not?


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[Assistant] They must have thought the brown leaves looked better in their pictures.


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[Assistant] But after Gainsborough came an English painter named John Constable.


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[Assistant] And after him, there were no longer so many brown trees.


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[Assistant] Constable tried to give his pictures the color he saw in real landscapes.


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[Assistant] Constable tried to give his pictures the colors he saw in real landscapes.


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[Assistant] This sounds easier to do than it really is. Even the whitest white a painter can put in a picture isn't nearly as bright as a dull sky on a rainy day.


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[Assistant] And if the picture sky can't be as bright as the real sky is.


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[Assistant] All the other colors have to be made a little darker than the real colors.


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[Assistant] And if the picture sky can't be as bright as the real sky is, all the other colors have to be made a little darker than the real colors to make the sky look bright enough. For the darker the dark parts of a picture are, the brighter the bright parts will look next to them.


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[Assistant] Being darker doesn't keep the picture from being beautiful.


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[Assistant] But it does keep it from looking exactly like the real landscape.


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[Assistant] And so if a way could be found to make the colors in a painting look brighter,


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[Assistant] You put it on in little dabs of thick color, so that if you touch one of his paintings with your finger, it feels rough.


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[Assistant] Constable found that when he used little dabs or spots of color the whole picture became brighter. The old way of painting a green field, for instance, was to paint it all green.


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[Assistant] Constable's way was to paint the field with separate little spots of green and yellow and blue.


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[Assistant] And, strange to say, these make the field look all green unless you get too close to the picture.


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[Assistant] When you do get too close, you can see the separate spots.


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[Assistant] But at a little distance, the whole field becomes one color.


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[Assistant] My gracious, if you have read all that, you are a good reader.


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[Assistant] And if you have understood it, I think you are a very bright child. Whether your teacher thinks so or not.


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[Assistant] So we remember Constable for two helpful improvements in landscape painting. He made trees green instead of brown.


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[Assistant] He made pictures brighter by using rough little spots of paint in place of smooth solid colors.


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[Assistant] In chapter 75 of this book, you will find one of his pictures in which there are beautiful trees.


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[Assistant] Many people believe the best English painter of all was the landscape painter Turner. Joseph Mallard William Turner.


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[Assistant] He came nearer than any other painter to catching the brightness of color in light of nature. He loved to paint the sea and the sun.


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[Assistant] Now, of course the sun itself is so much brighter than any paint that no one can ever put it in a picture and expect it to look like the real dazzling brilliant sun.


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[Assistant] But a painter can paint something that people can see is meant to be the sun.


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[Assistant] Turner often did something that Claude Lorrain had sometimes done.


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[Assistant] Turner often did something that Claude Lorrain had sometimes done. He painted into the sun. That is, he painted a scene with the sun right ahead.


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[Assistant] Generally he put the sun behind a cloud or in a mist or at sunset so that its brightness would not look too unlike the brightness of the real sun.


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[Assistant] We know very well that no painter can find bright enough colors for a sunset.


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[Assistant] But people who saw Turner's sunset pictures said they were too bright to be true.


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[Assistant] They aren't true, but not because they are too bright, as these people said. It is because they aren't bright enough.


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[Assistant] Before he painted the sea, he really studied it. How it looked when it was calm and how it looked in a storm. How it looked in the rain and in sunshine.


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[Assistant] Once he had himself lashed tight to the mast of a ship in a storm so he could study the sea without being washed overboard.


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[Assistant] One of Turner's most famous paintings is called The Fighting Temagher, because that was the name of the old warship in the picture.


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[Assistant] The temerera had become too old for further use and the picture shows her being towed by a puffing tug to the dock to be broken up.


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[Assistant] It is just sunset and the water of the harbor reflects the gorgeous orange and yellow of the sky.


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[Assistant] It is the end of the day and the end of usefulness for the old ship that has served her country for many years.


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[Assistant] Even in the uncolored picture on the opposite page, you can get an idea of the brilliant sunset that Turner painted.


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[Assistant] Which is the Italian way of saying, Andrea of the tailor.


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[Assistant] When this son of the tailor grew up, he married, strange to say, the widow of a hatter, a man who made hats. She was a beautiful woman.


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[Assistant] But was always scolding and was very extravagant and selfish and spent on Dreya's money as fast as he could make it.


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[Assistant] Two of Andrea's paintings were sent to France, and when the King of France saw them, he wanted the painter to come to France and paint for him. So to France, Andrea went. The King was pleased with his work and paid him well.


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[Assistant] But soon, Andrea got a letter from his wife telling him to come back to Italy.


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[Assistant] The king made him promise he would return to France very soon.


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[Assistant] and gave him money to buy some pictures in Italy to bring back to France


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[Assistant] And now we see that Andrea's pictures were better than he was. For Andrea was what we call a weak man. When he got home to Italy, his wife made him build her a fine house.


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[Assistant] And when Andrea found his own money wasn't enough for the house, he used the king's money.


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[Assistant] Of course, after such dishonesty, he was afraid ever to go to France again.


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[Assistant] In Italy, Andrea painted several pictures in fresco on the walls of monasteries. You remember I told you what fresco painting was.


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[Assistant] The artist painted on the plaster while it was still wet, so the colors would soak into the wall.


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[Assistant] If a painter made a mistake in fresco painting, he couldn't rub it out, because the picture was part of the plaster.


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[Assistant] So most artists touched up their fresco paintings after the plaster was dry. Andrea, however, never did this.


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[Assistant] He could paint so well that he didn't have to correct mistakes after the picture was finished. There weren't any mistakes to correct.


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[Assistant] Andrea painted in oil, as well as in fresco. You remember, don't you? That the early Renaissance painters used to mix their paints with agar glue?


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[Assistant] Then, someone discovered that it was better to mix paints with oil.


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[Assistant] And soon all the painters were using oil paints except for Fresco.


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[Assistant] In the old egg or glue way of painting, artists had to paint


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[Assistant] On a board covered with a kind of smooth plaster called gesso.


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[Assistant] With oil paints, they could paint their pictures on canvas or boards without using gesso. This was much easier, and it also made the pictures look better. Andrea's most famous oil painting is a Madonna.


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[Assistant] The baby Christ is in her arms. On one side stands Saint Francis, on the other Saint John, with two little angels between them. The picture has a peculiar name. It is called the Madonna of the Harpies. Do you know what Harpies are?


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[Assistant] Harpies are make-believe animals. Birds with women's heads.


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[Assistant] The Madonna in Andrea's picture is standing on a block or pedestal, which is decorated with two little harpies. That's why we call it the Madonna of the Harpies.


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[Assistant] The Madonna in this picture is supposed to look like Andrea's wife.


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[Assistant] He painted her likeness in almost all his pictures, but when poor Andrea finally caught the plague and became very ill, his selfish wife was so afraid of catching the disease herself that she left him alone and uncared for till he died. Andrea del Sarto was named for his father's trade. Now we come to a painter who was named for his hometown. You remember Perugino, who was named for the town where he lived. Well,


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[Assistant] Not a great distance from Perugia is the town of Correggio.


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[Assistant] Where there lived a painter known everywhere by the name of his town. We don't know much about Correggio's life, but we can admire his pictures.


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[Assistant] Like Andrea del Sarto, Correggio painted both in fresco and in oils.


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[Assistant] All his frescoes are in the city of Parma, in Italy, where he worked on the cathedral and the churches.


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[Assistant] The cathedral in Parma has a round tower on top called a cupola, and Correggio painted a picture for the inside of the cupola.


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[Assistant] The picture was circular, so it would fit into the ceiling of the cupola.


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[Assistant] As it could be looked at only from the floor below, Correggio decided to make the angels and other figures in the picture look like real figures flying through the air and seen from underneath. If you should look straight up and see an angel flying above your head,


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[Assistant] You would see the soles of the angels feet nearer to you than his head.


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[Assistant] You would see just the opposite view if you look down on the top of someone's head.


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[Assistant] To paint a figure seen from below was something that very few artists knew how to do.


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[Assistant] Caragio first had a sculptor make some models in clay so he would know how people would look in these strange positions. The way he painted them we call foreshortening.


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[Assistant] Corrigio did other foreshortened Kubla pictures. People who saw them didn't quite know what to make of them.


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[Assistant] It was such a new way of painting that at first it wasn't liked very much.


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[Assistant] One man said such a painting looked like a hash of frogs.


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[Assistant] But the painter Titian came to Parma, and when he saw Correggio's cupola picture in the cathedral, he said, Turn the cupola upside down and fill it with gold, and even that will not be the picture's money worth.


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[Assistant] Correggio's oil paintings are noted for their wonderful light and shade. He was what we call a master of light and shade.


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[Assistant] The main fault people find with them is that they do not seem to mean very much.


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[Assistant] Correggio was not a great thinker like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.


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[Assistant] Another one of Correggio's paintings is called The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine.


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[Assistant] Saint Catherine dreams she was being married to the baby Christ.


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[Assistant] And this picture shows the baby playing with the wedding ring that Saint Catherine had seen in her dream.


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[Assistant] Just as famous as this painting is one called Holy Night, or the Adoration of the Shepherds.


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[Assistant] It shows the baby in his manger with his mother and the shepherds around him.


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[Assistant] A wonderful glow of light comes from the manger where the baby lies, and lights up the faces of those who worship him. A strange story is told of Couragio's death, but whether it is true or not, we do not know for sure.


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[Assistant] According to this story, Coreggio was paid for one of his paintings all in bronze coins.


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[Assistant] You know that if you pay in pennies for something expensive, it takes a lot of pennies.


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[Assistant] And this payment to Coreggio took so many bronze coins that it made a very heavy load. Coreggio started out to carry his load of coins home.


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[Assistant] It was a hot day, and the heavy load made Correggio so hot and tired that he became ill. And had to go to bed and soon died. And that was the end of this Master of Light and Shape.


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[Assistant] But his paintings have lived on after him to give pleasure to all who see them.


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[Assistant] I can't tell you what happened, but I can show you my clothes.


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[Assistant] It's me! Welcome to a new day! Today we're starting off early. I have, uh, my call time is an hour. It's eight in the morning.


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[Assistant] Good shit. The weather in UK where I live is so shit. So you come to LA and it's like a nice Swedish summer all the time.


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[Assistant] I literally have to go, but I just noticed this green button. Hell yeah, motherfuckers! It starts now. New crazy day. Bye!


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[Assistant] They're already waiting. I have to redo my walkout. Movie magic didn't work. Uh, they're calling again. I'm at the YouTube space.


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[Assistant] I've just finished another day, I'm, I'm, uh, heading back home. I can't, as always, I can't tell you what happened, but I can show you my clothes. It got a lot messier. I actually got to wash up, but...


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[Assistant] I don't even know. I was also at YouTube Space, and they gave me this backpack.


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[Assistant] Still waiting for the plaque, but let's check out what it is.


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[Assistant] This is hand done. That's awesome. Alright, so it says, Felix. Just because it's fun doesn't make it easy. We're so happy to see you, Rocket, and we're cheering for you every step of the way. Love your friends at YouTube.


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[Assistant] In the description. What up, fellow gangsters? Are you ready to hit the streets? Let's go this way. We're going for lunch.


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[Assistant] Did I just say we're going for lunch when we're going for dinner? I'm tired. I wear my sunglasses at night so I can.


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[Assistant] When you vlog. They were like, what is he doing? Monsta, where are you taking me?


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[Assistant] Alright, alright, alright, alright, alright, alright, alright, alright, alright, alright, alright. We're here! So this is a vegan place.


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[Assistant] Oh my god, it's Calvin, Calvin Harris. I love Calvin Harris. So much. There's no light on this road. How will we cross? This is crazy. Oh my god.


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[Assistant] I just got back home and this is what I see.


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[Assistant] I mean, it's not- I already said I'm shooting it. I think people want the announcement to come at the right time.


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[Assistant] Media is so tricky, you know? You can use- you can use them for your own benefit, or they can use you.


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[Assistant] I feel like I just got used. I love the Verge though. Verge is great. Let's look at the passive aggressive comments, cause that's what happens every time. Well done. Well what do you know, I misjudged you Verge commenters. You win this round.


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[Assistant] Ah, I got my call time for tomorrow. What are you doing? Okay, so tomorrow I start, ba-ba-da-ba, ba-ba-da-ba-ba. 6PM? That's crazy.


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[Assistant] Okay, tomorrow's gonna be weird. We should plan something to do during the day then.


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[Assistant] So much fun today, I'm always nervous before these things.


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[Assistant] So much. I really, really appreciate it. Thank you so much for watching this. And I'll see you tomorrow. As always bros, stay awesome. Alright, so we're heading to Little Tokyo. Never been to Little Tokyo before. Now we can be weebs. I wish for eternal, great poops. Did I miss?


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[Assistant] The Fall of Rome The emperors of Rome were called the rulers of the whole world. But they had a problem. The world was too big to rule.


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[Assistant] The Roman Empire was so large that the army couldn't protect its borders.


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[Assistant] And there were plenty of people outside the Roman Empire who wanted to come in and take parts of it away.


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[Assistant] Imagine that you're standing in an orchard filled with apple trees. Ripe, juicy apples hang from every branch. And hungry animals are roaming in herds all around the edges.


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[Assistant] Three starving deer rush in and start to eat the apples on one side. You run at them waving your arms and shouting.


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[Assistant] The deer dash off. But while you're chasing them, two enormous cows start snatching apples from the other side of the orchard.


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[Assistant] The cow's back slowly away. But now five squirrels are right in the middle of the orchard, and each squirrel has an apple in his mouth and another in his paws.


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[Assistant] All alone, you'll never keep all these animals out of the orchard. And that's just how the Roman rulers felt about their empire.


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[Assistant] Wandering tribes from other parts of the world wanted to come into Rome, conquer Roman villages, use the Roman roads, eat the Roman crops, and share in the Roman wealth.


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[Assistant] The Romans called these wandering tribes barbarians.


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[Assistant] The barbarians didn't live in houses like the Romans did or take baths like the Romans did or cook their food. Instead they lived in tents


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[Assistant] Fought on horseback and ate their food raw.


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[Assistant] Thousands of these barbarian invaders called Huns, Vandals, Goths, Visigoths, and Ostrogoths swept down on Rome's borders.


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[Assistant] The emperors sent their armies to protect the borders.


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[Assistant] But there just weren't enough soldiers to guard all the sides of the Roman Empire. And Rome had other problems too.


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[Assistant] In some places food was running short and Roman citizens were going hungry.


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[Assistant] A terrible sickness called the plague killed many of Rome's strong fighters.


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[Assistant] And many of the emperors who inherited the job of ruling Rome weren't very good at running an empire.


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[Assistant] He decided that the empire was too big for one ruler and one army to protect.


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[Assistant] He kept the eastern part and gave the western part to another emperor, a man named Maximian.


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[Assistant] From now on, there would be two Roman empires and two Roman emperors.


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[Assistant] Diocletian hoped that the Western Roman Empire would be easier to protect now that it was smaller. But he was wrong. Two hundred years after Diocletian's death,


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[Assistant] They burned Rome and carried away all of its treasures.


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[Assistant] Nothing was left but the Roman roads and bridges and slowly


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[Assistant] Even those began to crumble away into dust.


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[Assistant] So many journeys may the sun and moon Make us again count o'er ere love be done. But woe is me, you are so sick of late.


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[Assistant] So far from cheer and from your former state that I distrust you.


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[Assistant] Yet though I distrust, discomfort you, my lord, it nothing must.


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[Assistant] For women fear too much, even as they love. And women's fear and love hold quantity in neither aught, or in extremity.


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[Assistant] Now what my love is, proof hath made you know.


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[Assistant] And as my love is sized, my fear is so.


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[Assistant] Where love is great, the littlest doubts are fear. Where little fears grow great, great love grows there.


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[Assistant] In second husband let me be accursed, none wed the second but who killed the first. That's Wormwood. The instances that second marriage move are base respects of thrift, but none of love. A second time I kill my husband dead, when second husband kisses me in bed,


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[Assistant] Nor earth to me give food, nor heaven light, Sport and repose lock from me day and night, To desperation turn my trust and hope, And anchor's cheer in prison be my scope, Each opposite that blanks the face of joy, Meet what I would have well and it destroy,


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[Assistant] And never come mischance between us, Twain.


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[Assistant] Though yet of Hamlet our dear brother's death the memory be green.


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[Assistant] And that it hath befitted to bear our hearts in grief, and our whole kingdom to be contracted in one brow of woe, yet so far hath discretion fought with nature that we,


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[Assistant] Our sometime sister, now our queen, the imperial jointress to this warlike state, have we, as to her, with a defeated joy.


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[Assistant] With an auspicious and a dropping eye.


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[Assistant] With mirth in funeral, and with dirge in marriage in equal scale, weighing delight and dole, taken to wife.


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[Assistant] Nor have we here in Bard your better wisdoms which have freely gone with this affair along. For all our thanks.


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[Assistant] Now follows that you know, young Fortinbras holding a weak supposal of our worth, or thinking by our late dear brother's death our state to be disjointed out of frame,


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[Assistant] So much for him. And now for ourself and for this time of meeting. Thus much the business is.


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[Assistant] We have here a writ to Norway, uncle of young Fortinbras, who, impotent and bedridden, scarcely hears of this his nephew's purpose, to suppress his further gait herein, in that the levies, the lists, and full proportions are all made out of his subjects.


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[Assistant] And we here dispatch you, good Cornelius, and you, Voltimund, for bearers of this greeting to old Norway, giving to you no further personal power to business with the King, more than the scope of these deleted articles allow.


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[Assistant] Farewell, and let your haste commend your duty. My lord, in that and all things will we show our duty. We doubt it nothing. Heartily, farewell.


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[Assistant] And now, Laertes, what's the news with you? You told us of some suit. What is, Laertes? You cannot speak of reason to the Dane and lose your voice?


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[Assistant] What wouldst thou beg, Laertes, that shall not be my offer, not thy asking? The head is not more native to the heart, the hand more instrumental to the mouth than is the throne of Denmark to thy father. What wouldst thou have, Laertes?


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[Assistant] Take thy fair hour, Laertes. Time be thine, and thy best graces spend it at thy will. My lord.


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[Assistant] But now, my cousin Hamlet and my son. Little more than kin and less than kind.


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[Assistant] How is it that the clouds still hang on you? Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.


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[Assistant] It is sweet and commendable in your nature, Hamlet, to give these mourning duties to your father, but you must know your father lost a father, that father lost lost his, and the survivor bound in filial obligation for some term to do obsequious sorrow.


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[Assistant] But to persevere in obstinate condolment is a cause of impious stubbornness.


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[Assistant] Tis unmanly grief. It shows a will most incorrect to heaven, a heart unfortified, a mind impatient, an understanding simple and unschooled.


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[Assistant] For what we know must be, and is as common as any the most vulgar thing to sense, why should we in our peevish opposition take it to heart?


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[Assistant] Fie! It is a fault to heaven, a fault against the dead, a fault to nature, to reason most absurd, whose common theme is death of fathers, and who still hath cried from the first course till he that died today, this must be so. We pray you throw to earth this unprevailing woe, and think of us as of our fathers.


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[Assistant] For let the world take note, you are the most immediate to our throne, and with no less nobility of love than that which dearest father bears his son, do I impart toward you.


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[Assistant] For your intent in going back to school in Wittenberg, it is most retrograde to our desire.


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[Assistant] And we beseech you, bend you to remain here in the cheer and comfort of our eye, our chiefest courtier, cousin, and our son.


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[Assistant] Just a loving and a fair reply. Be as ourself in Denmark.


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[Assistant] In grace whereof? No jock and health that Denmark drinks today, but the great cannon to the cloud shall tell, and the king's rouse the heaven shall brew it again, re-speaking earthly thunder. Come. Away.


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[Assistant] Give thy thoughts no tongue, nor any unproportioned thought his act.


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[Assistant] But being in, bet that the opposite may beware of thee.


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[Assistant] Costly thy habit, as thy purse can buy, But not expressed in fancy, rich, not gaudy, For the apparel oft proclaims the man.


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[Assistant] Farewell, my blessings season this indeed.


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[Assistant] If it be so, as so it is put on me, and that in way of caution, I must tell you


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[Assistant] That you've tamed these tenders for true pay, which are not sterling. Tender yourself more dearly. Or not to crack the wind of the poor phrase, running it thus, you'll tender me a fool.


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[Assistant] Aye, springes to catch woodcocks. I do know when the blood burns how prodigal the soul lends the tongue vows. These blazes, daughter, giving more light than heat, extinct in both, even in their promise, as it is a making, you must not take for fire. From this time,


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[Assistant] Be something scantor of your maiden presence. Set your entreatments at a higher rate than a command to parley. For Lord Hamlet...


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[Assistant] I believe so much in him that he is young, and with a larger tether may he walk than may be given you.


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[Assistant] In few Ophelia do not believe his vows, for they are brokers, not of that die which their investments show, but mere implorators of unholy suits, breathing like sanctified and pious boards, the better to beguile. This is for all.


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[Assistant] Have you so slander any moment leisure as to give words or talk with the Lord Hamlet? Look to it, I charge you. Come your ways.


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[Assistant] You've heard people say that about someone who got so excited, he didn't know what he was doing. But the people didn't mean exactly what they said.


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[Assistant] No one could really lose his head without losing his life with it.


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[Assistant] Which is just another way of saying that every living person has a head.


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[Assistant] Like a person, a country has a head. A chief ruler, a president, a king, a prime minister, a dictator.


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[Assistant] And where the chief ruler rules is generally the capital city. Capital comes from a word meaning head.


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[Assistant] After the American Revolution, the new republic of the United States had to have a capital.


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[Assistant] After trying out both New York and Philadelphia.


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[Assistant] It was decided to build an entirely new city as a new capital for the new nation. A place on the Potomac River was chosen, a place of fields and forests. It was named Washington. Frenchmen had helped the Americans in the revolution, and now a Frenchman helped them with the new city. He was Major Lenf- He was Major Lenfant.


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[Assistant] Who drew a plan for Washington with wide avenues and streets and parks.


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[Assistant] With L'Enfant's plan to go by, the new city was started. But Washington wasn't much of a city at first.


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[Assistant] Just a few houses in the woods with streets of muds connecting.


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[Assistant] But Washington wasn't much of a city at first. Just a few houses in the woods with streets of mud connecting them. A capital city of course needs a capital building.


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[Assistant] You would think both the city and the building would be spelled alike. But A-L, al, means the city. O-L, ol, the building.


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[Assistant] So a big competition was held to get the best design for a capital. Many good designs came in.


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[Assistant] The one chosen was by Dr. William Thornton.


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[Assistant] Both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson said they liked the Thornton design very much. And so the capital was begun. If there was to be a capital,


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[Assistant] There certainly ought to be a special house for the president.


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[Assistant] So a president's house was begun the same year as the capitol. For the first twenty or so, for the first twenty years or so, the president's house was always called just that. The president's house.


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[Assistant] Some soldiers burned both the new capitol and the president's house.


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[Assistant] They were British soldiers who attacked Washington in the War of 1812.


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[Assistant] After the fire, the president's house still had the walls standing. But the stones were blackened and scorched.


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[Assistant] The building was repaired and the wall is painted white to hide the fire stains.


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[Assistant] And since then, the president's house has been called the White House.


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[Assistant] The Capitol luckily had not been finished when it was burned. It too was rebuilt after the fire, but it wasn't finished for years and years.


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[Assistant] Then this part was outgrown and in addition was built on each end of the old building. These new ends are called wings.


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[Assistant] The Senate wing at one end and the wing for the House of Representatives at the other.


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[Assistant] During the Civil War, President Lincoln kept work going on this dome, even though workmen were scarce.


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[Assistant] He felt the dome stood for the union of the states and that people on the northern side would be encouraged by seeing this dome growing day by day.


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[Assistant] The new dome is almost as big across as the dome of St. Peter's in Rome. It was made of a new building material. Not wood or brick or stone, but iron. To keep iron from rusting, it must be kept painted. Not wood, but...


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[Assistant] Try to think how many buckets of paint 43,000 pounds of paint would make. That is more than 21 tons.


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[Assistant] But that's the quantity of paint it takes each time the dome of the Capitol is painted. One room in the Capitol is called Statuary Hall.


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[Assistant] That is where each of the 48 states is invited to put two statues of famous men from that state.


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[Assistant] It's not safe to tell a secret in Statuary Hall, for your whisper can be heard away across the room if you whisper from a certain spot.


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[Assistant] It's not safe to tell a secret in Statuary Hall.


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[Assistant] For your whisper can be heard away across the room.


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[Assistant] It's not safe to tell a secret in the Statuary Hall.


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[Assistant] For your whisper can be heard way across the room if you whisper from a certain spot that's marked by a metal star in the floor.


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[Assistant] Strange to say, the star was not put there for the whisper.


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[Assistant] But to show where the desk of John Quincy Adams used to stand when he was a member of Congress after being President.


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[Assistant] The whisper is heard across the room because the waves of sound from that spot all seem to be reflected off the walls and ceiling as to meet at one


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[Assistant] The whisper is heard across the room because the waves of sound from that spot all seem to be reflected off the walls and ceiling so as to meet at another spot on the other side of the room. The capital is full of interesting things. One of these is a subway or underground railroad.


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[Assistant] The trains are pulled by electric engines and they run from the Capitol to the Library of Congress and to the Senate Office Building and the House Office Building. These three buildings aren't very far away.


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[Assistant] But the subway trains saved the members of Congress time in getting back and forth. The more you see of the Capitol, the more seems to be left to see.


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[Assistant] It is important in architecture for another reason also. It has been such a good building for a capital.


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[Assistant] And it is pleasant to think that the cornerstone was laid by our first president.


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[Assistant] There are many other splendid buildings in Washington. One of these is the Lincoln Memorial.


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[Assistant] The Lincoln Memorial is built in the Greek style and yet differently. It is Greek and yet it is American.


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[Assistant] That is because it uses the old Greek forms of columns and other details, but uses them in a new way to fit the kind of building it is.


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[Assistant] You will notice it has no pediment or triangular space above the columns as a Greek temple has.


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[Assistant] We wait for the train that takes us home from Washington in a huge building called the Union Station.


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[Assistant] As the stars do at night when we lie on our backs and look up at them.


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[Assistant] New buildings in Washington are now always put up according to Major Lanfan's plan for the streets and avenues. This makes Washington one of the most magnificent cities in the world.


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[Assistant] It is almost the only capital city planned as a capital before it was even begun as a city.


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[Assistant] If you feel like being proud of your capital, go right ahead. It is worth being proud of.


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[Assistant] Excellent well, you are a fishmonger. Not I, my lord. Then I would you were so honest a man. Honest?


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[Assistant] I say to be honest, as this world goes, is to be one man picked out of ten thousand.


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[Assistant] That's very true, my lord. For if the sun breed maggots in a dead dog, being a good kissing carrion. Have you a daughter? I have, my lord. Let her not walk in the sun. Conception is a blessing, but as your daughter may conceive, friend, look to it.


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[Assistant] That their faces are wrinkled, their eyes purging thick amber and plum tree gum, and that they have a plentiful lack of wit. Together with most weak hams, all which, sir, though I most powerfully and potently believe, yet I hold it not honesty to have it thus set down, for you yourself, sir, should be old as I am if, like a crab, you could go backwards.


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[Assistant] You cannot, sir, take from me anything that I will more willingly part with all. Except my life. Except my life. Except my life.


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[Assistant] But your news is not true, let me question more in particular. What of you, my good friends, deserved at the hands of fortune that she sends you to prison hither? Prison, my lord? Denmark's a prison. Then it's the world one. A goodly one, in which there are many confines, wards and dungeons. Denmark being one of the worst.


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[Assistant] My lord. I then tis none to you for there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so. To me, it is a prison.


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[Assistant] Then are our beggars, bodies, and our monarchs, and outstretched heroes, the beggars, shadows.


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[Assistant] Shall we to the court for, by my fey, I cannot reason. We'll wait upon you. No such matter. I will not sort you with the rest of my servants, for to speak to you like an honest man, I am most dreadfully attended. But, in the beaten way of friendship, what make you at Elsinore?


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[Assistant] Beggar that I am, I am even poor in thanks, but I thank you. And sure, dear friends, my thanks are too dear, I hate me.


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[Assistant] Is it your own inclining? Is it a free visitation? Come, come, deal justly with me. Come, come. May speak.


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[Assistant] You were scentful. And there is a kind of confession in your looks which your modesties have not craft enough to colour.


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[Assistant] I know the good king and queen have sent for you.


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[Assistant] So shall my anticipation prevent your discovery and your secrecy to the king and queen molt no feather.


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[Assistant] I have of late, but wherefore I know not, lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises, and indeed it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame the earth seems to me a sterile promontory, this most excellent canopy the air. Look you.


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[Assistant] This brave, oh, hanging firmament, this majestical roof fretted with golden fire,


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[Assistant] Why, it appeareth nothing to me but a foul and pestilent congregation of vapors. What a piece of work is a man!


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[Assistant] How noble in reason, how infinite in faculties, in form and moving, how express and admirable, in action, how like an angel, in apprehension, how like a god, the beauty of the world, the paragon of animals, and yet to me,


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[Assistant] What is this quintessence of dust?


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[Assistant] Man delights not me, nor woman neither, though by your smiling you seem to say so.


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[Assistant] How are they escorted? Will they pursue the quality no longer than they can sing? Will they not say afterwards if they should grow themselves to common players as it is most like if their means are no better? Their writers do them wrong to make them exclaim against their own succession.


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[Assistant] For my uncle is King of Denmark, and those that would make mouths at him while my father lived give twenty, forty, fifty, a hundred ducats apiece for his picture in little.


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[Assistant] There are the players. Gentlemen, you are welcome to Elsinore. Your hands. Come then. The impertinence of welcome is fashion and ceremony. Let me comply with you in this garb. Lest my extent to the players, which I tell you must show fairly, outwards, should more appear like entertainment than yours. You are welcome.


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[Assistant] But my uncle, father and aunt, mother, are deceived. In what?


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[Assistant] My dear lord, I am but mad north-northwest.


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[Assistant] When the wind is southerly, I know a hawk from a handsaw.


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[Assistant] Fuck you, Guildenstern and you two at each era here, that great baby you see there is not hit out of his swaddling clout.


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[Assistant] Oh, Jephthah, Judge of Israel, what a treasure hadst thou? What treasure had he, my lord? Why, one fair daughter, and no more, the witch he loved, passing well. Still on my daughter.


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[Assistant] You are welcome, masters. Welcome all, I'm glad to see thee well. Welcome, good friends. Oh, old friend, why thy face is valance since I saw thee last. Comes thou to beard me in Denmark.


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[Assistant] Well, my young lady and mistress, my lady, your ladyship is nearer to heaven than when I saw you last by the altitude of a shopping. Pray God your voice, like a piece of uncurrent gold, be not cracked within the ring. Masters, you are all welcome. We're into it like French falconers, fly, anything we see. We'll have a speech straight. Come, give us a taste of your quality. Come, a passionate speech. What speech, my good lord? I heard thee speak me a speech once.


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[Assistant] I remember one said there were no salads in the lines to make the matter savoury, nor no matter in the phrase that might indict the author of affectation, but called it an honest method, as wholesome, as sweet, and by very much more handsome.


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[Assistant] He whose sable arms black as his purpose did the knight resemble when he lay couched in the ominous horse hath now this dread and black complexion smeared with heraldry more dismal.


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[Assistant] Head to foot, now is he total ghouls, Horridly tricked with blood of fathers, mothers, daughters, sons, Baked and impasted with the parching streets That lend a tyrannous and a damned light To their lord's murder, roasted in wrath and fire,


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[Assistant] Shout at the barbers with your beard. Prithee, sayon, he's for a jig or a tale of baudry or he sleeps. Sayon, come to Hecuba.


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[Assistant] Good my lord, will you see the players well bestowed? Do you hear?


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[Assistant] After your death you were better have a bad epitaph than their ill report while you live. My lord, I will use them according to their dessert. God's bodkin man, much better. Use every man after his dessert and who shall scapewhipping?


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[Assistant] Use them after your own honour and dignity. The less they deserve the more merit is in your bounty. Take them in.


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[Assistant] Follow him friends. We'll hear a play tomorrow. Just now hear me old friend.


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[Assistant] Can you play the murder of Gonzago? Aye, my lord. Well, hat tomorrow night. You could for a need study a speech of some dozen or sixteen lines which I would set down and insert it, could you not?


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[Assistant] Very well. Follow that lord and look you mock him not.


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[Assistant] My good friends, I'll leave you till night. You are welcome to Elsinore.


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[Assistant] Oh, what a rogue and peasant slave am I.


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[Assistant] Is it not monstrous that this player here, but in a fiction?


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[Assistant] In a dream of passion Could force his soul so to his own conceit That from her working all his visage wand


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[Assistant] Tears in his eyes, distraction in his aspect, a broken voice, and his whole function suiting with forms to his conceit. And all for nothing. For Hecuba.


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[Assistant] What's Hecuba to him? Or he to Hecuba that he should weep for her?


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[Assistant] A dull and muddy-metalled rascal Peek like John had dreams, Unpregnant of my cause, And can say nothing. No, not for a king.


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[Assistant] Upon whose property and most dear life a damned defeat was made. Am I a coward?


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[Assistant] For it cannot be, but I am pigeon-livered.


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[Assistant] This is most brave, that I, the son of a dear father murdered, prompted to my revenge by heaven and hell, must like a whore, unpack my heart with words, and fall accursing like a very drab, a scullion, fire pont fort.


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[Assistant] I'll have these players play something like the murder of my father before my uncle.


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[Assistant] I'll observe his looks, I'll tempt him to the quick, if I do blench.


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[Assistant] Now four countries had claimed land in the Americas. France claimed part of Canada. England claimed the coast of what is now the United States. Portugal had colonies along the coast of South America.


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[Assistant] But Spain had more settlements in the Americas than anyone else.


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[Assistant] Spanish cities have been built all through South America and Central America.


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[Assistant] Spanish explorers had even journeyed up into North America.


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[Assistant] One adventurer named Hernando de Soto had sailed up the Mississippi River. Another explorer, Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, discovered the Grand Canyon.


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[Assistant] While the English and French were struggling to build tiny villages in North America, Spain was building an enormous empire.


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[Assistant] Spain was so huge and powerful that it was called Mistress of the World and Queen of the Ocean. But Spain had a problem.


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[Assistant] English adventurers kept getting in its way, and soon this problem would lead to one of the most famous sea battles of all time.


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[Assistant] Philip, the King of Spain, had once been the King of England. Do you remember Philip?


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[Assistant] When he was still just a prince, he married Elizabeth's older sister Mary and became King of England.


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[Assistant] For a brief time, Philip was King of England and King of Spain. But then Mary died.


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[Assistant] Elizabeth inherited the English crown, and Philip lost the title of King of England.


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[Assistant] He offered to marry Elizabeth to get it back. But when she said no, Philip realized that he would have to learn to live without his English crown.


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[Assistant] Philip didn't really need an English crown. His empire was so big that he was already having trouble running it properly.


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[Assistant] But Philip became more and more annoyed by the English ships that insisted on sailing into Spanish waters.


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[Assistant] English traders were making money by selling slaves to the West Indies.


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[Assistant] English explorers were trying to settle land in North America that Philip wanted for himself.


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[Assistant] And sometimes English ships stopped Spanish ships loaded with gold and robbed them.


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[Assistant] Finally, Philip sent Elizabeth a message, Keep your English ships out of Spanish waters, or Spain will declare war on England.


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[Assistant] Elizabeth didn't want to risk a war with Spain. She wasn't sure that England was strong enough to defeat the Spanish


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[Assistant] So she sent Philip a peaceful, humble message in return.


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[Assistant] She promised that the English would leave Spanish territory and Spanish ships alone.


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[Assistant] But secretly Elizabeth gave her sailors permission to go on robbing the Spanish.


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[Assistant] English pirates knew that they could steal Spanish treasure and sink Spanish ships with no fear of punishment from the Queen.


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[Assistant] And meanwhile, Elizabeth kept right on sending English ships on journeys of exploration.


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[Assistant] England grew richer and richer and stronger and stronger. And soon Philip realized that Elizabeth's promise had been a big lie.


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[Assistant] He decided that it was time to prove once and for all that Spain, not England was the most powerful country in the world. Philip began to build the biggest fleet of warships ever.


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[Assistant] Shipbuilders labored over huge galleys, warships rowed by oarsmen down in the ship's belly, and galleons, enormous sailing ships filled with men and supplies.


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[Assistant] Philip planned to crush the English Navy with these huge ships. Then they could unload their soldiers on England's shores. Smaller, quicker ships were built as well.


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[Assistant] Philip planned to send these ships inland, down England's rivers. Once England was filled with Spanish soldiers, Philip could force England to stay out of the New World. And Philip had another reason for invading England. Philip was a Catholic king.


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[Assistant] And he knew that Catholics were not allowed to worship openly in England. Once he had conquered England


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[Assistant] He planned to make England a Catholic country again.


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[Assistant] He thought that his conquest of England would be a great service to God.


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[Assistant] Finally Philip assembled over 130 ships into a great floating army called the Spanish Armada. When the Armada was ready to sail for England,


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[Assistant] The Spanish commander gave their soldiers very strict orders. They were to act in a Christian manner at all times.


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[Assistant] Catholic priests would accompany every ship and would hold church services on board.


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[Assistant] All of the sailors were expected to attend, and the soldiers were not allowed to swear even while fighting. Philip wanted his armada to be a holy army, taking England back for the Catholic Church. Meanwhile, the English were frantically preparing for invasion.


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[Assistant] Queen Elizabeth put her cousin Lord Howard in charge of the English Navy.


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[Assistant] Howard and Drake decided that the English ships should sail south.


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[Assistant] And attack the Spanish Armada before it can even leave the Spanish port.


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[Assistant] But strong winds blew the English Navy back to the north.


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[Assistant] The ships anchored at Plymouth on the south coast of England and waited for the armada. Philip's huge fleet sailed slowly north.


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[Assistant] Finally, a small English ship keeping watch in the channel glimpsed the masts of Spanish galleons on the horizon.


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[Assistant] It's Captain sped back to Plymouth Harbor, leapt from his ship, and ran to find the fleet's commanders. Sir Howard and Sir Francis Drake.


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[Assistant] We're having a friendly game of lawn bowling on a smooth grassy field near the harbor.


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[Assistant] Sir Francis Drake aimed his ball down the smooth grass. Don't worry, he said. There is plenty of time to finish the game and beat the Spaniards too.


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[Assistant] But Drake and Howard didn't spend much time finishing their game.


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[Assistant] They ordered the English ships to sail into the English Channel and wait for the Spanish Armada there.


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[Assistant] When the Spanish ships arrived, they found the English Navy ready to fight. The battle for England was about to begin.


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[Assistant] The Spanish ships were huge and filled with soldiers because the Spanish planned on winning by grappling and boarding.


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[Assistant] A Spanish ship would sail up beside an English ship, throw hooks over onto its deck, and pull the two ships together. Then Spanish soldiers would pour over onto the English ship and take it over. But the English had a different strategy in mind.


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[Assistant] Their ships were small and quick, with guns along each side.


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[Assistant] Rather than boarding the Spanish ships, the English just tried to shoot them full of holes so that they could no longer fight. The English strategy worked.


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[Assistant] Even though the Spanish Navy was twice as large, the English won. 70 Spanish ships were destroyed.


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[Assistant] Twenty thousand Spanish soldiers had been killed. Spain, the mistress of the seas, had been defeated in a sea battle.


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[Assistant] The defeat of the Spanish Armada changed Spain and England forever. Spain would remain a powerful country, but it would never be quite as strong again.


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[Assistant] From now on, the English Empire would begin to grow.


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[Assistant] And soon, England, not Spain, would rule over an empire that stretched all across the world.


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[Assistant] After the Jewish people were scattered, they lived in many different countries.


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[Assistant] In each country, they learned the language and customs of the people who lived around them.


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[Assistant] Jewish children in France learned to speak French, and they heard French fairy tales.


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[Assistant] The Jews in England listened to English bedtime stories and those who lived in Spain began to speak like the Moors and told stories they had heard from the Moors.


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[Assistant] But although the Jews borrowed stories from many other lands, they also changed them so that the stories became very much their own.


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[Assistant] In many of these stories, cleverness and faith triumph over wickedness and hatred.


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[Assistant] Here is one of these stories, The Clever Rabbi of Cordova, a story told by the Jews who lived in Spain.


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[Assistant] Long ago, a clever Rabbi lived in the city of Cordova.


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[Assistant] In the days when the Emir of Cordova was willing for the Jewish people to live in his city. But the Emir grew older.


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[Assistant] And listen to evil advisors and allowed his mind to be changed.


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[Assistant] But he did not wish the other inhabitants of the city to think him a cruel and heartless ruler.


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[Assistant] So he decided to make his command look like a test. He announced,


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[Assistant] Now the people in the Alhama, the Jewish part of the city of Cordova, were terrified to hear this edict.


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[Assistant] If the ruler is determined to throw us out, he sighed to himself, our fate must be in the hands of God.


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[Assistant] He walked under the cool arches into the presence of the emir.


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[Assistant] Tell me this, how many stars shine in the sky?


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[Assistant] Five million four hundred thousand three hundred and two. Answered the rabbi promptly.


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[Assistant] The emir stared at the rabbi in disbelief for he had been certain that no man could answer this question. How?


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[Assistant] How do you know such a thing, he stammered. I counted them, the rabbi said.


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[Assistant] If you don't believe me, count them yourself and tell me whether I am right.


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[Assistant] The emir realized that he had been outwitted, and so he said, very well,


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[Assistant] My second test will determine how wise your people are. Tell me this. What is the distance between the truth and a lie?


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[Assistant] Now this was more difficult, and the rabbi had to think.


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[Assistant] Just as the emir was opening his mouth to say, the Jews must leave my city, the rabbi announced, I have it. The width of one hand. What? The emir said, puzzled.


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[Assistant] The truth is what you see with your own eyes, the rabbi explained.


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[Assistant] A lie is what another tells you to be true, but which you cannot see.


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[Assistant] You have one test left to pass. Now we will see how fortunate your people are.


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[Assistant] He gestured to his servant, and the man brought forward a bowl. In this bowl were two pieces of paper.


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[Assistant] On one piece of paper, the emir said, I have written the word stay.


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[Assistant] On the other I have written, go. Choose one piece of paper. Whichever piece you choose, you and your people must do as it says.


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[Assistant] Now indeed the clever rabbi was distressed, for he knew that as sure as the sun rises,


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[Assistant] The emir had written the word go upon both pieces of paper. Whichever he chose, the Jews would be forced to leave Cordova.


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[Assistant] Why are you chewing up the paper? It has the fate of your people on it. The rabbi chewed and swallowed.


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[Assistant] Oh mighty Amir, he said, now I will abide by your judgment. The paper I chose I have destroyed, but its opposite is still in the bowl. Whatever the paper in the bowl says, I chose the other one. The Amir, speechless with amazement, unfolded the remaining paper. Sure enough, it read, Go. So you see, the clever Rabbi said,


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[Assistant] The paper which I chose must have said stay. As you have decreed then, we will stay in Cordova.


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[Assistant] So the rabbi bowed and left the palace of the emir, having passed all three tests, and the emir caught in his own trap.


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[Assistant] Honored his word and let the Jews of Cordova remain in their homes as long as he reigned in that beautiful city.


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[Assistant] Chapter 40 New Ventures to the Americas Walter Raleigh and the New World During Elizabeth's reign, the Spanish were busy building an empire. Philip, the Spanish prince who had married Mary and who had offered to marry Elizabeth, had inherited the throne of Spain.


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[Assistant] He ruled not only over Spain itself, but over parts of Italy and Europe.


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[Assistant] And Spain's empire stretched over to the Americas as well.


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[Assistant] Spanish settlers had built colonies in Central and South America.


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[Assistant] Now the Spanish were beginning to move into North America too.


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[Assistant] Two Spanish adventurers, Hernando de Soto and Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, had already explored parts of what is now the United States. And a Spanish colony had been built in the land that now belongs to Florida.


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[Assistant] If the Spanish took over both North and South America,


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[Assistant] The Spanish Empire would become the largest and most powerful in the world.


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[Assistant] Elizabeth didn't want Spain to become more important than England.


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[Assistant] So she gave English pirates permission to attack Spanish ships headed for the New World.


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[Assistant] And she began to plan English expeditions to North America.


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[Assistant] England needed to build its own colonies in North America before Spain claimed it all.


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[Assistant] Who would be in charge of the English attempt to explore North America?


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[Assistant] Elizabeth decided to give the job to one of her favorite knights, Sir Walter Raleigh.


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[Assistant] Walter Raleigh was a tall, handsome, hot-tempered man, always getting himself involved in tavern fights and arguments.


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[Assistant] But he was also a poet who swore eternal devotion to the Queen.


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[Assistant] One story tells us that Raleigh was walking with the Queen when the two came to a muddy spot in the road. Raleigh whipped off his velvet cloak


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[Assistant] Through it across the mud with a flourish and invited the queen to walk on top of it. This sort of behavior charmed the queen.


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[Assistant] She gave Raleigh land, money and a special position at court.


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[Assistant] Raleigh's brother tried once more to make it across the Atlantic.


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[Assistant] But his ship was lost at sea, and he was never seen again.


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[Assistant] This time around, Elizabeth ordered Raleigh to stay in England while the ships tried to reach North America.


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[Assistant] She didn't want her favorite night to drown or to be killed by the Spanish.


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[Assistant] So Raleigh filled two ships with provisions and men and sent them off.


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[Assistant] The sailors had orders to explore the coast of North America.


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[Assistant] Finally, the ships were sighted on the horizon. They had returned safely. Raleigh ran down to the docks to hear the news.


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[Assistant] When the ship's captains came down the gang planks, they were full of stories and enthusiasm.


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[Assistant] They had landed on the east coast of North America and found rich fertile land perfect for growing crops.


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[Assistant] The Native Indians were friendly. Two had even agreed to return to England on the English ships.


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[Assistant] The sailors had brought back pearls, soft, beautiful animal skins, and two new plants, potatoes and tobacco.


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[Assistant] They told Raleigh that the Indians put tobacco into clay pipes, lit it and then blew smoke from their mouths. They had never seen anyone smoking before.


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[Assistant] Raleigh decided to try out this new tobacco for himself. One evening,


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[Assistant] He sat in his room trying to figure out how his new pipe worked. He blew and puffed and choked. Finally he managed to breathe the smoke into his lungs. Just then his manservant came into the room.


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[Assistant] When he saw smoke coming out of Raleigh's nose, he thought Raleigh was on fire. Yelling for help he grabbed a bucket of cold water and dumped it over Raleigh's head.


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[Assistant] Now Raleigh had to find colonists who would be willing to build a new town in the new world.


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[Assistant] Eventually, 107 men and women agreed to go to America.


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[Assistant] Raleigh filled their ships with seed, salt, livestock, and building tools and sent them off.


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[Assistant] He told them to name their new colony Virginia.


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[Assistant] In honor of Elizabeth, who was known as the Virgin Queen.


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[Assistant] The settlers landed safely in Virginia and began to build homes, fences, and gardens.


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[Assistant] But after a year, they begged to be allowed to come back to England.


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[Assistant] The Virginia winters were freezing cold. The ground wasn't as fertile as the first explorers had told them.


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[Assistant] They had so little food that they had been forced to eat their dogs, and the Indians were growing more and more unfriendly. Finally, a ship brought the unhappy colonists home. Walter Raleigh was determined to try again. He sent another ship full of settlers to Virginia, but this attempt failed as well. And in the meantime, Raleigh started to have troubles of his own in England.


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[Assistant] He had fallen in love with one of Elizabeth's maids of honor, a beautiful girl named Bess Throckmorton.


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[Assistant] But he knew that Elizabeth would be angry if she found out.


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[Assistant] She wanted Raleigh to be dedicated only to her service.


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[Assistant] So he and Bess Throckmorton married in secret and Bess went on living at the palace.


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[Assistant] But then Bess discovered that she was going to have a baby. When the Queen found out what had happened,


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[Assistant] But she banished them from her court and told them to go away and live in the English countryside.


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[Assistant] The year after his release, Raleigh wrote a poem that began


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[Assistant] Walter Raleigh's days as the Queen's favorite were over.


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[Assistant] Although Raleigh lived for many more years and had many adventures, his story ends sadly. He never sent another expedition to North America.


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[Assistant] When Elizabeth died, there was still no English colony in the New World.


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[Assistant] And the king who inherited her throne charged Raleigh with treason and threw him in the Tower of London for 12 years.


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[Assistant] Finally, the king let Raleigh out and told him that he could go free as long as he went to South America and found gold for England. Raleigh tried, but when he returned empty-handed, he was beheaded.


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[Assistant] But from what cause a will by no means speak? Nor do we find him forward to be sounded. But with a crafty madness keeps aloof when we would bring him onto some confession of his true state.


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[Assistant] Madame, it so fell out that certain players we all wrote on the way, of these we told him, and that it seemed in him a kind of joy to hear of it.


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[Assistant] They are here about the court and as I think they have already ordered this night to play before him. It is most true.


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[Assistant] When the Pope called all Christian knights to recapture Jerusalem, nobles and knights from many different countries started to organize themselves into an army.


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[Assistant] But the first crusaders to set out on a crusade didn't even own swords.


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[Assistant] They were farmers and peasants who went on the People's Crusade.


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[Assistant] The People's Crusade began when a wandering preacher named Peter the Hermit


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[Assistant] Decided that common people should join in the effort to recapture Jerusalem.


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[Assistant] He went through the countryside making loud, excited speeches to all of the peasants and farmers he met.


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[Assistant] Come with me to Jerusalem, he would shout. God will forgive your sins and give you the strength to fight. You too can be a warrior for God.


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[Assistant] Peter the hermit wasn't very well liked by other churchmen.


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[Assistant] A priest called Abbot Quiber remarked, with his long face framed in a dirty old hood, he looked remarkably like the donkey he rode. But Peter the Hermit was a very persuasive speaker.


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[Assistant] The people he spoke to believed he had been appointed by God.


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[Assistant] And he became so popular that people would crowd around him wherever he went, pulling hairs out of his donkey's mane and tail to keep for souvenirs. When Peter the Hermit set out for Constantinople, his first stop on the journey to Jerusalem, 40,000 common people followed him. None of them knew how to fight.


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[Assistant] A few had axes, but many had no weapons at all. And they didn't know exactly who they were fighting.


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[Assistant] On their long journey, they attacked Christian villages, stole food and mistreated the people of the countries they went through.


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[Assistant] Most of them never even reached Constantinople. And the ones who did were quickly captured and made into slaves.


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[Assistant] Meanwhile, real knights had collected a fleet of ships so that they could sail to Constantinople. Once they arrived in Constantinople, they set off on the long march to Jerusalem. We call this first attack on Jerusalem the First Crusade.


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[Assistant] It took two years for the crusaders to march from Constantinople to Jerusalem.


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[Assistant] The entire way the Crusaders were trailed by Muslim fighters. They called these enemies Saracens.


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[Assistant] The Saracens set up ambushes for the Crusaders.


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[Assistant] They went ahead of the crusaders burning fruit trees and putting poison in the wells.


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[Assistant] The crusaders had a hard time fighting off these sneak attacks and many of the knights were killed on the journey. But finally the crusaders arrived at Jerusalem.


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[Assistant] A medieval historian tells us that the army wept for joy when the knights finally saw Jerusalem's walls.


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[Assistant] But those walls were thick and lined with Saracen warriors and a deep moat surrounded the city. How could the Crusaders break into Jerusalem?


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[Assistant] The best way would be to build tall wooden towers called siege engines, which they could roll over to the walls and use to climb over into the city.


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[Assistant] But the sandy rocky hills around Jerusalem had few tall trees. Certainly not enough to provide lumber for siege towers.


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[Assistant] The crusaders tried to use battering rams against the walls, but the Saracens threw bales of straw over to keep the rams from hitting the stone.


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[Assistant] The crusaders set fire to the straw, but this didn't even scorch the walls. And soon the crusader army began to suffer from hunger and thirst. The Saracens had prepared for their arrival by bringing all the food inside the city and poisoning all the water outside the city walls.


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[Assistant] Without siege engines, the Crusaders would never be able to take the city.


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[Assistant] Finally, merchants who were bringing goods to the ports of Italy.


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[Assistant] broke up their ships and carried the wood across the land to the crusaders.


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[Assistant] The knights used this wood to build two enormous wooden towers on wooden wheels.


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[Assistant] They covered these siege engines with animal skins soaked in water.


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[Assistant] So that the Saracen defenders wouldn't be able to shoot flaming arrows into the towers and set them on fire.


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[Assistant] Then the crusaders brought stones one by one and threw them into the moat around Jerusalem. Finally the moat was filled.


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[Assistant] The knights rolled the siege towers across the stones, climbed up them, and fought their way across the walls.


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[Assistant] Several of them climbed down the inside of the walls and ran to open the city gates. As soon as the gates were open, the whole crusader army poured into the city. They were hungry, thirsty, exhausted, and angry. And once they were inside Jerusalem, they killed everyone they could find. Thousands of Muslims and Jews died.


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[Assistant] Many of them weren't soldiers and didn't even have swords.


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[Assistant] Crusader knights became princes of these new little kingdoms. They tried to live in peace with the Saracens.


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[Assistant] Saracens who swore allegiance to the Crusader princes were given land and wealth.


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[Assistant] The crusaders learned to dress and act more like Muslims. Some crusaders even married Saracen women.


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[Assistant] But even though Saracens and Crusaders lived without fighting for a little while, they were never truly at peace.


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[Assistant] Most crusaders never forgot that the Pope had called the Muslims enemies of the true faith. And the Muslims were never able to forget the cruelty


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[Assistant] That the Crusaders had shown at the capture of Jerusalem.


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[Assistant] Small countries with large invaders. The Korean Battleground.


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[Assistant] You may be thinking that there is a war in almost every chapter of this book. That's very close to the truth.


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[Assistant] Wars have been part of history since the beginning. But in the modern age, when countries all over the world began to build railroads and roads, and began to use steam to power trains and ships, it became much easier to move large numbers of soldiers and weapons around.


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[Assistant] The wars between countries began to get bigger. More soldiers crowded the battlefields with more powerful weapons and caused much more destruction.


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[Assistant] The next war of the modern age exploded between the vast country of China and Japan, just off China's eastern coast.


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[Assistant] The last time we visited China, the enormous Taiping rebellion had just ended, and the Qing emperor had just barely managed to hang onto his power.


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[Assistant] And when we last read about Japan, the shogun had just been removed from power, the Meiji Emperor had taken back his throne, but the country had also elected an assembly to help him rule and had written a constitution just like a western democracy.


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[Assistant] Although China was much bigger than Japan, Japan had been growing steadily stronger and the Qing Dynasty of China had been growing weaker and weaker. In 1894, Japan challenged China's power and a war began.


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[Assistant] But the war wasn't fought in Japan or China, it was fought in Korea.


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[Assistant] The little country of Korea lay between these two hostile neighbors on a peninsula that jutted down from the Chinese province of Manchuria into the Sea of Japan. The King of Korea, King Kojong, ruled with the help of his wife, Queen Min.


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[Assistant] As a matter of fact, many people thought that Queen Min was the real ruler of Korea.


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[Assistant] The 26th king of the royal Chosun dynasty of Korea became king when he was only 11 years old.


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[Assistant] Because he was so young, he had a regent to rule for him. The regent took control of the country and of Ko Jong. Young Ko Jong became very used to doing as he was told.


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[Assistant] When he was 14, he was told that it was time for him to get married.


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[Assistant] His bride had already been picked out for him. She was a fifteen-year-old lady of the court named Min. Gojong did as he was told.


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[Assistant] She was a strong-willed, intelligent young lady, and she was much more ambitious than her fourteen-year-old husband.


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[Assistant] Min didn't like the regent who was ruling for King Kojong. She didn't like the way he treated her husband, and she didn't like his ideas about how the country should be run.


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[Assistant] For many years, Korea had treated China as an older brother or a father country.


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[Assistant] Korea traded only with China and sent ambassadors only to China, not to any other country. Korea became known as the hermit country because it would deal only with China.


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[Assistant] King Ko Jong's regent wanted to keep this old-fashioned arrangement, but Min, along with many other Koreans, thought that the time had come for Korea to start trading with other countries, and especially with Japan.


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[Assistant] For the first seven years of her marriage, Min did her best to make sure that as many of her relatives as possible got positions in the Korean government as ministers, army officers, and other officials.


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[Assistant] When she was 22, Min convinced her husband that it was time for him to take power. All of her relatives agreed. The regent had no choice but to step down. King Kezhong now ruled in his own name. But Queen Min was the most powerful leader in the palace.


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[Assistant] Very soon, King Gojong and Queen Min signed a trade treaty with Japan so that Japanese ships could dock at three Korean ports to buy Korea's iron and coal.


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[Assistant] But Korea also wanted to remain friends with China, so China and Japan made a deal with each other.


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[Assistant] Since neither country wanted the other to take control of Korea, they agreed that Korea would be protected by both China and Japan, and that neither Japan nor China could send soldiers into Korea without the agreement of the other country.


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[Assistant] For a little while, this agreement seemed to work. But in 1894, King Gojong was faced with a problem.


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[Assistant] A new religious group called the Tonghak in the South of Korea started to collect weapons and plan a rebellion.


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[Assistant] Like the Taiping Rebellion in China, the Tonghak Rebellion was started by poor peasants who were miserable with their lives and angry with their leaders. King Gezong didn't want the Tonghak Rebellion to swell into an enormous civil war, so he sent a message to China


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[Assistant] Asking for Chinese soldiers to help defeat the rebels. The Qing Emperor agreed.


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[Assistant] China borrowed a British warship, loaded soldiers onto it, and sent them out into the ocean to sail south towards Korea.


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[Assistant] When the Japanese found out that China was sending soldiers into Korea without Japanese approval, they were indignant. China had broken its agreement with Japan.


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[Assistant] The Japanese believed that the Chinese were out to capture Korea for themselves, and so Japanese soldiers sank the British ship with the Chinese soldiers on board. This meant war.


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[Assistant] But the war didn't take place in China or in Japan.


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[Assistant] Chinese and Japanese soldiers met in Korea and fought on Korean soil.


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[Assistant] China's army turned out to be no match for Japan's modern soldiers armed with western weapons.


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[Assistant] China had to agree to sign a peace treaty that gave Korea total independence from China and also gave the Japanese large territories once held by China.


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[Assistant] Although Korea was now completely independent from China, there were plenty of Japanese soldiers still occupying Korean land.


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[Assistant] Many Koreans were pleased to see the Japanese in Korea because they believed that Japan would become a strong ally of Korea. But Queen Min was worried about Japan. She doubted that Korea would remain free.


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[Assistant] Instead, she feared, Japan would first seize her country and then rule over it.


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[Assistant] Queen Min sent messages to Russia, asking the Russians whether they would become Korea's allies against both China and Japan. When the Japanese and the pro-Japanese Koreans heard about Queen Min's attempt to get Russia on her side against Japan, the Queen's fate was sealed.


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[Assistant] Early on in October morning in 1895, only weeks after the war had ended,


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[Assistant] Three assassins broke into the Queen's palace. They killed Queen Min, and then escaped to Japan.


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[Assistant] When other countries protested that Japan should punish the assassins, the Japanese tried the culprits in a public court and then announced that there was just not enough evidence to convict them.


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[Assistant] Japan made Korea part of the Japanese Empire. Queen Min's fears had come true. Korea had lost its independence and Japan had taken over her little country.


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[Assistant] Chapter 11. The Kingdom of the Franks. Clovis, the ex-barbarian. Now we're ready to travel back to the West.


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[Assistant] Rome used to be the strongest empire in the ancient world. But at the beginning of the Middle Ages, barbarians invaded Rome. Rome became weaker and weaker.


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[Assistant] And other civilizations became stronger and stronger.


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[Assistant] Let's imagine a journey from New Zealand, where the Maori live, back through some of these civilizations.


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[Assistant] Start by paddling your canoe north and west. You should see the coast of Australia just ahead of you.


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[Assistant] Keep your eyes open and you might see aborigine canoes out fishing for sea cattle. You have a long journey ahead of you, up through the Pacific Ocean.


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[Assistant] Go on paddling. After many weeks you'll find yourself approaching the islands of Japan, the land of the rising sun. Beat your canoe on the shores of Japan


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[Assistant] And wander across the country and you'll see Chinese clothing, Chinese books, and Chinese buildings. Remember, China lent Japan its language, its architecture, and its customs until Japan decided to break free. Cross over the water between China and Japan. You'd better hire a boat and come ashore at the Chinese mainland.


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[Assistant] If you're feeling adventurous, you can hike south into Korea, which sits between China and Japan.


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[Assistant] But you might stumble into the middle of a battle because China and Japan are fighting to control Korea, which sits between them.


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[Assistant] Find a sturdy mountain pony. Hop on and start your long journey west through Asia.


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[Assistant] If you take a little detour to the south, you'll find yourself in India, where the Gupta kings ruled. Now travel west again.


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[Assistant] You'll need a boat because you're going to sail through the Indian Ocean across to the peninsula of Arabia. The Islamic Empire began here following the lead of Muhammad. Climb out of your boat, rent a camel,


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[Assistant] You're going to have to plod through hot, sandy deserts and start your journey back north.


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[Assistant] Keep traveling north, and you'll arrive at the borders of the Byzantine Empire.


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[Assistant] The land once ruled by Justinian the Just Emperor and his wife the Empress Theodora.


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[Assistant] The Byzantine Empire was once the eastern half of the old Roman Empire, until the Roman Empire split into two. Now go west one more time. Are you swimming in the Mediterranean Sea?


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[Assistant] The land all around the Mediterranean used to belong to Rome. Swim over to Italy, the peninsula that looks like a boot. Climb ashore and walk up through Italy.


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[Assistant] Now you're standing on the top of an icy mountain range, the Alps. Take a good look around.


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[Assistant] The land all around you was ruled by Rome until barbarians invaded. But a funny thing happened to these barbarians. When they came into Roman territory, they began to learn Roman customs.


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[Assistant] They built houses like Roman houses and lived in them instead of roaming around on horseback.


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[Assistant] They discovered Roman customs, like shaving and taking baths. Missionaries taught them about Christianity. They learned to speak Latin. They became civilized.


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[Assistant] And these ex-barbarians began to establish their own kingdoms all over the land that once belonged to the Romans.


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[Assistant] The land of Gaul, just north of the Mediterranean Sea, was invaded by barbarians called the Franks.


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[Assistant] The Franks were made up of several different tribes, and they didn't regard themselves as barbarians. As a matter of fact, they claimed that they were descended from the ancient inhabitants of the great city of Troy.


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[Assistant] The Frankish tribe settled down in Gaul next to the Roman citizens who were already living there.


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[Assistant] Other barbarian tribes, called the Burgundians and the Alamani, settled in Gaul too.


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[Assistant] Now many different people lived side by side in Gaul, and they didn't like each other very much.


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[Assistant] But even though the Romans and the Franks and the Burgundians and the Alemanni were enemies,


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[Assistant] They became allies just long enough to fight off the Huns.


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[Assistant] Do you remember that the Huns helped destroy Rome and invaded countries all the way over to India?


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[Assistant] And the people of Gaul decided that although they hated each other, they hated the Huns even more.


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[Assistant] So they united into one army under the leadership of a great fighter named Morovius. Morovius was the chief of a Frankish tribe.


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[Assistant] And as soon as the Hun threat had vanished, the people of Gaul divided again into their warring tribes.


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[Assistant] But Morovius' grandson Clovis always remembered the days when his grandfather had briefly made the Franks into one people.


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[Assistant] When Clovis was twenty, he inherited the leadership of his tribe, and he set out to make all of Gaul into one empire.


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[Assistant] So Clovis married a princess from one barbarian tribe, Clotilda, a Burgundian.


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[Assistant] He fought other tribes and forced them to accept him as a leader


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[Assistant] He defeated the last Roman soldiers left in Gaul.


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[Assistant] He convinced other Frankish chiefs to swear allegiance to him. And eventually he ruled over all of Gaul.


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[Assistant] His empire became known as the Frankish Empire.


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[Assistant] Today we call this part of the world France, after the Franks.


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[Assistant] While he was conquering his empire, Clovis became a Christian.


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[Assistant] According to a medieval book called the Chronicle of Saint Denis, Clovis converted to Christianity


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[Assistant] He fought a great battle against the alimony and saw that his men were being slaughtered.


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[Assistant] So he looked up to heaven. God, he said, I will serve you forever if only you will give me the victory.


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[Assistant] The medieval story tells us instantly his men were filled with burning valor and a great fear smote his enemies.