[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But like, in the blink of an eye, mains are here, and we're behind.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We've taken the pork fat off the pork, we place a portion of the pork on the plate, some salad and the crispy crackling on top, a quenelle of the rice and a little bit of chilli jam on top of that rice.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's my first role being a leader, being a captain today. My main concern is the pork, but uhm, hoping we win today.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's absolutely critical that we increase our sales. If not, the company will go bankrupt.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sachin Khan mains, let's go! Come on! Push! Chloe, 15 minutes for the mains.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm so happy. Mum's owned a butcher shop since I was five. And during high school I worked the cash register. So I really have a history here. I should really know these cuts of meat.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm looking through the cabinets and I'm trying to channel my teenage years in the butcher shop.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The pressure is kinda getting to me and I'm scared I'm gonna get the names of them wrong. Uh, number five.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So for today's round one challenge, we have to take turns to guess cut some meat. And there's one spot left for the round two cook. The pressure is really building now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Making your mouth water, setting up for the main course. The Red Team's entrée have done exactly that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And you also put up two great dishes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then the dream team, the dessert dream team. We love dessert. Reese, Jess.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Your main course was underwhelming.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then I let it rest for half an hour or so. I need to make sure that the pasta is made well. I know there's other people doing pasta, especially people with Italian heritage, so I've gotta nail this if I'm wanting to be tasty.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The sweetness of the pear, the creaminess of the ricotta with the prosciutto on top, just a match made in heaven.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I am making a pear and ricotta ravioli with a burnt butter sage.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So having not made this dish before, I do falter, but then I think, no, I'm gonna stick with my idea. Hopefully today I've got it right.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I know my pasta's good, so I need to make sure that my pear and ricotta filling, you know, has good flavour.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm hoping I get tasted. I know I've got slightly unusual flavours but if I nail it then I might, I might have a chance.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Chapter 4 The Body on the Moor Very early the next morning, I opened my eyes and saw Holmes next to my bed. He was already dressed. Come, Watson, he cried. There is hot coffee ready for you. We leave in ten minutes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] By six o'clock, we were through Ragged Shore, and half an hour later, we were on Lower Gilmore. Across the middle of the moor was a small river, and the ground all around it was very wet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We can easily see tracks in this wet ground, said Holmes. Look carefully, Watson.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We moved slowly across the moor, looking at every centimeter of mud. We found hundreds of sheep tracks, and once some cow tracks, but no bicycle tracks. And then, at last, we found something. Not far from the little river, right across some nice black mud, was the track


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Of a bicycle. Hoorah! I cried. We have it! But Holmes did not look happy. It's a bicycle, yes. But not THE bicycle. Every bicycle has different tyres.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I know 42 different kinds of tyre. This tyre is a Dunlop.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But Heidegger's bicycle had Palmer tires. The English teacher told me that. So this is not Heidegger. Is it the boy then? I asked. Probably not. The boy didn't take a bicycle with him, said Holmes. He looked again at the track in the mud.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This track is going away from the school. Or perhaps to the school, I said. No, no, my dear Watson. Look at the tracks of the two tires. Are they the same? Uh, no, I said. One tire makes a deeper track. And that's the back wheel, said Holmes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because the rider, of course, sits over the back wheel. The deeper track is the one on top. So this bicycle went that way.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Across the moor, away from the school. But who was the rider? Where did he come from?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We followed the Dunlop track back, nearly to Ragged Shore. Then we lost it in some cow tracks.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Home sat down and thought for some minutes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Nope, he said, getting up. We must leave this question for now. Back to the mud by the river, Watson.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Two hours later, Holmes gave a happy cry. I quickly ran over to him.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And looked down at a long thin track in the mud. It was the Palmer Tyre. Here is Heidegger, cried Holmes. Let's follow him, Watson.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For a kilometer or more, we followed the Palma Tire north across the moor, losing the track, finding it again, losing it, and finding it. Suddenly, the track stopped. What happened here? I said. Did he fall? Holmes looked carefully on the ground.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The dark brownie red of blood.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Bad, said Holmes. Bad. What do I read here? Something or someone hit him. He fell. He stood up. He got onto his bicycle again and rode away. But there is no other track. Some cow tracks here, but no footprints. We must follow the blood, Watson.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We soon found the bicycle, and then, behind a bush, we saw a shoe, and found a body. There was blood on the man's head and face, and he was very, very dead. He had shoes on, but no socks.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And we saw a night shirt under his open coat. It was the German teacher.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Poor man, Holmes said quietly. What shall we do, Watson? We can't lose any more time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Holmes stood up and looked around. Look, he said, there's a workman over there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He can go back to the school for us.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I went and got the workman and Holmes wrote a note for Dr. Huxtable. The poor workman took one look at the body and began to run quickly down the hill to Ragged Shore.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, said Holmes, before we go on, let's think carefully for a minute.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What do we know so far? First, the boy left freely. He was dressed. He did not leave suddenly. He wanted to go. Perhaps with someone, perhaps not.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the German teacher left without his socks and without his shirt. So he left very suddenly. That's right, I said. And why did Heidegger go?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because from his bedroom window he saw the boy. Because he wanted to follow him and bring him back. So far, so good.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But why doesn't Heidegger just run after the boy?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A man can easily run faster than a boy. But Heidegger doesn't do this. He gets his bicycle.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He knows that he needs his bicycle. Why?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ah, I said, because the boy has a bicycle. Not so fast, Watson. Think about it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Heidegger dies eight kilometres from the school. So the boy is moving very fast.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because it is eight kilometres before a man on a bicycle can get near him.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And Heidegger dies because someone hits him very hard on the head. A boy can't do that. So there was someone with the boy. A man, let's say.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But we looked very carefully at the mud all round poor Heidegger's body, Watson. And what did we find? Some cow tracks, but nothing more. No footprints from people. No bicycle tracks. Homes, I cried. This is not possible. Very good, Watson, he said.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So something is wrong with my thinking. What can it be? Perhaps, I said. Heidegger broke his head in a fall. In mud, Watson? Oh, I don't know. I just don't know. Come, come, Watson, said Holmes. Every mystery has an answer. But for now,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The Palmer tyre can tell us nothing more.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, we must go back to the Dunlop tyre.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We found the Dunlop track again and followed it north.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Here there was very little mud, and we lost the track.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Across the moor, we could now see Holderness Hall, some kilometres to our left. And in front of us, we could see the Chesterfield Road. We walked down to the road, and along to the Green Man Inn.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this is your dessert for today. You've got a meadow sweet mousse, poached apricots, and some apricot clusters. Okay, your first step is the meadow sweet mousse, right? 250 mils of milk, 250 mils of cream.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 400 grams of toasted oats, 600 grams of puffed grains. You're gonna be baking it at 160 degrees.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Great, well I'm going to show you your dessert. Smoked cherries with a chocolate ganache and a cherry pit ice cream.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Maybe not cooked as long, that's why ours is a little darker. Uhm, maybe a couple little things there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, we're sous vying our carrots to make them nice and tender.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I'm pretty sure that I'm not the only one in this room who at some point have found myself, you know, looking up towards the stars and wondered, you know, are we it? Or are there other living planets out there such as our own?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I guess it is possible that I'm then the only person who has obsessed enough about that question to make it my career. But moving on.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So how do we, how do we get to this question? Well, I would argue the first thing to do is to turn our eyes back down from the sky to our own planet, the Earth.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And think about just how lucky did the earth have to be to be the living planet it is. Well, it had to be at least somewhat lucky had we been sitting closer to the sun


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Or a bit further away? Any water that we have had would have boiled off or frozen over. And it's not a given that the planet has water on it. So had we been a dry planet?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There would not have been a lot of life on it. And even if we had had all the water that, you know, we have today, if that water had not been accompanied by the kind of right kind of chemicals to get life going, we would have been a wet planet, but just instead.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What are the chances that the planet forms were at least the basic ingredients needed to have an audience of life happening?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, let's explore that together. Uhm, so if you're gonna have a living planet, now the first thing you're gonna need is a planet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, one of the great discoveries of the past decades is that planets are incredibly common.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Almost every star has a planet around them. Some have many. And among these planets,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] On the order of a few percents are Earth-like enough that we would consider them potentially living planets. So having the right kind of planet is actually not that difficult when we consider that there's about 100 billion stars in our galaxy. So it gives you about a billion potential, you know, living planets.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But it's not enough to just be at the right temperature or have the right overall composition. You also need the right chemicals.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And what the second and important ingredient to make a living planet is, I think is pretty intuitive, uhm, it's water. After all, we did define our planet as being potentially living if it had the right temperature to keep water liquids. And I mean, here on Earth,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Life is water-based, but more generally, water is just really good as a meeting place for chemicals. It is a very special liquid. So this is our second ingredient, our second basic ingredient.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now the third ingredient, I think, is probably a little bit more surprising. I mean, we are going to need some organics in there, right, since we are thinking about organic life.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the organic molecule that seems to be at the center of the chemical networks that can produce biomolecules is hydrogen cyanide.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So now we have our three ingredients that we need. You know, the temperate planets.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Water and hydrogen cyanide. So how often do these three come together? How many temperate planets are there out there that have water and hydrogen cyanide?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, in an ideal world, we would now turn one of our telescopes, uh, towards one of these temperate planets, and check for ourselves. Just, do these planets have water and cyanides on them?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Unfortunately, we don't yet have large enough telescopes to do this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We can detect molecules in the atmospheres of some planets. But these are large planets, sitting often pretty close to their star. Nothing like these, you know, just right planets that we're talking about here, which are much smaller and further away. So we have to come up with another way.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And one of the things we always see when we do look at these clouds is water.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I think we have a tendency to think about water as something that's, you know, special to us.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And not only that, water is also a pretty robust molecule. It's actually not that easy to destroy. So a lot of this water that is an interstellar medium will survive the rather dangerous collapse journey from clouds to this, to planets.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, we also see cyanides and other similar organic molecules in these interstellar clouds.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But here, we're less certain about the molecules surviving, going from the cloud to the disk. They're just a bit more delicate, a bit more fragile.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So if we're going to know that this hydrogen cyanide is sitting in the vicinity of new planets forming, we really need to see it in the disk itself, in this planet-forming disk.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And this is what we found. So good news in these six images. Those bright pixels represent emission originating from hydrogen cyanide in planet-forming disks hundreds of light-years away that have made it to our telescope


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Onto the detector, and then allowing us to see it like this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now the bad news, uhm, is that we don't know where in the disk it is.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you look at these, I mean, no one can say they're beautiful images, even at the time when we got them. You see that the pixel size is pretty big, and it's actually bigger than these disks themselves. So each pixel here represents something that's much bigger than our solar system.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that means that we don't know where in the disk the hydrogen cyanide is coming from.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's a problem because these tempered planets, they can't access hydrogen cyanide just anywhere, but it must be fairly close to where they assemble for them to have access to it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So let's say hypothetically that you have returned from Europe, where you have seen beautiful Italian cypresses, and you want to understand, you know, does it make sense to import them to the United States? Could you grow them here?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So you talk to the Cyprus experts, they tell you that there is indeed a band of not too hot, not too cold across the United States where you could grow them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And if you have a nice high-resolution map or image like this, it's quite easy to see that this cypress strip overlaps with a lot of green, fertile land pixels.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Even if I start degrading this map quite a bit, making it lower and lower resolution, it's still possible to tell that there's going to be some virtual land overlapping with this strip.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What do you do now? How do you now tell whether you can grow ciphers in the United States?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, the answer is you can't. I mean, there's definitely some fertile land there, or you wouldn't have that green tint to the pixel. But there's just no way of telling whether any of that green is in the right place.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what we need is something analogous to at least those low-resolution maps that I just showed you to be able to tell whether there's overlap between where the hydrogen cyanide is and where these planets can access it as they're forming.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, ALMA is amazing in many different ways, but the one that I'm going to focus on is that, as you can see, I call this one telescope, but you can see there are actually many dishes in this image. And this is a telescope that consists of 66 individual dishes that all work in unison.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that means that you have a telescope that is the size of the largest distance you can put these dishes away from one another. Which in Alma's case is a few miles. So you have a mile size, you know, more than a mile size telescope.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When you have such a big telescope, you can zoom in on really small things, including making maps of hydrogen cyanide in these planet-forming disks.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So when Alma came online a few years ago, that was one of the first things that I proposed that we use it for.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And what does a map of hydrogen cyanide look like in a disk? Is the hydrogen cyanide at the right place?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the answer is it is. So this is a map. You see the hydrogen cyanide emission being spread out across the disk. First of all, it's almost everywhere, which is very good news. But you have a lot of extra bright emission coming from close to the start, towards the center of the disk. And this is exactly where we want to see it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is close to where these plants are forming. And this is not what we see just towards one disk. Here are three more examples. You can see they all show the same thing. Lots of bright hydrogen cyanide emission coming from close to the center of the star.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For full disclosure, we don't always see this. There are discs where we see the opposite, where there's actually a hole in the emission towards the center.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So you know, this is the opposite of what we want to see, right? This is not places where we could be certain there's any hydrogen cyanide around where these planets are forming.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But in most cases, we just don't detect hydrogen cyanide, but we detect it in the right place. So what does all this mean?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, I told you in the beginning, you know, that we have lots of these temperate planets, maybe a billion or so of them, that could have life develop on them if they have the right ingredients. And I've also shown that


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We think a lot of the time the right ingredients are there, right? We have water, we have hydrogen cyanide, there will be other organic molecules as well coming with the cyanides.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This means that planets with the most basic ingredients for life are likely to be incredibly common in our galaxy.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And if all it takes for life to develop is to have these basic ingredients available, there should be a lot of living planets out there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But that is of course a big if. And I would say the challenge of the next decades for both astronomy and chemistry is to figure out just how often we go from having a potentially living planet to having an actually living one. Thank you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's AumSum Time. Why is fiber important for us? Because I said so.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, fiber or roughage is an essential plant-based nutrient. When consumed in adequate amounts, fiber provides us the following benefits. Firstly, fiber is good for our large intestine. Why?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When fiber reaches our large intestine, it is broken down by millions of bacteria, producing short-chain fatty acids.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] These acids are a source of energy for the cells of our large intestine.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Secondly, certain fibers help us avoid heart related diseases by keeping our blood glucose levels in check.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This slows down digestion and delays the rate of glucose absorption into our blood, thus preventing unnecessary spikes in the blood glucose.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Lastly, some fibers also help in bowel movements, relieving constipation. Is too much fiber bad for us?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Dude, let me concentrate on my two burgers. Alright.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Fiber or dietary fiber is a plant-based nutrient which is essential for our body.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] However, assuming too much fiber can be problematic.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Firstly, we cannot digest fiber. So, if we consume too much fiber too quickly, the bacteria in our large intestine will break it down.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, fiber is either insoluble or soluble.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If we consume too much soluble fiber and don't drink enough fluids. It can slow down our digestive process, thus leading to hard stools or constipation. In rare cases, it can even cause intestinal blockages.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Salt is basically sodium chloride. It is important for various bodily functions. Such as transmitting nerve impulses, digestion, etc. However, too much of something is never good.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Firstly, when too much salt enters our blood, the water content in our blood rises, increasing the volume of blood. As a result, our heart works harder than usual.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Secondly, as more blood flows through the blood vessels, it puts strain on their walls. Over time, this causes the walls to grow thicker, narrowing the vessels and thus, increasing our blood pressure.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Firstly, full fat dairy products and red meat which are high in proteins also contain saturated fat.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Study suggests that saturated fat increases bad cholesterol, thus increasing the risk of heart diseases. Secondly, excess protein can cause damage in people with pre-existing kidney disorders. Why?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because the weak kidneys have to work harder to remove excess nitrogen found in proteins. Thirdly, high protein diet restricts our carbohydrate intake.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, through a process called ketosis, our body begins to break down stored fats to produce energy. But as this process produces smelly gas, it leads to bad breath.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Sun was warm and bright. The sky was clear, perfect blue.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And when I turned right on Sixth Avenue, what he saw was the World Trade Center on fire.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As soon as I realized that this was an attack, the first thing I did without even really thinking about it was to take my baby and turn him around in that carrier. I didn't want him to see what was going on.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I just remember feeling so grateful that he was still young enough that I didn't have to tell him that someone had done this on purpose.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 9-11 was like crossing a border, a hostile border into dangerous, uncharted territory. The world was suddenly in this terrifying new place, and I was in this place as a new mother.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I remember my thoughts kind of ping-ponging around from how am I ever going to protect this baby to how am I ever going to get some sleep. Well,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My son turned 18 this year, along with millions of other people who were babies on 9-11.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And in that time, we have all crossed into this hostile, uncharted territory.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Of climate breakdown, of endless wars, of economic meltdowns, of deep political divisions, of the many crises around the world that I don't need to list off because they are


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There is a way to face these big crises in the world without feeling overwhelmed and despairing. It's simple and it's powerful. It's to think like a mother.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The poet Alexis Deveau writes, motherhood is not simply the organic process of giving birth.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now it's easy to focus on all of the obstacles to making this the world we want. Greed, inequality, violence, yes, there is all of that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Majid from Iraq understands this. He is a house painter by trade, and someone who believes deeply in equal rights for women. When ISIS invaded northern Iraq, where he lives, he worked with a local women's organization to help build an underground railroad.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And when I asked Majid why he risked his own life to bring people to safety, he said to me,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If we want a brighter future, we have to build it now, in the dark times, so that one day we can live in the light.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's what social justice work is, and that's what mothers do. We act in the present with an idea of the future that we want to bring about.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] All of the best ideas seem impossible at first. But just in my lifetime, we've seen the end of apartheid, the affirmation that women's rights are human rights, marriage equality, the fall of dictators who ruled for decades and so much more.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] All of these things seemed impossible until people took action to make them happen. And then, like almost right away, they seemed inevitable.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When I was growing up, whether we were stuck in traffic or dealing with a family tragedy, my mother would say, something good is going to happen, we just don't know what it is yet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, I will admit that my brothers and I make fun of her for this, but ...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] People ask me all the time how I deal with the suffering that I see in my work, in refugee camps and disaster zones. And I think of my mom and that seed of possibility that she planted in me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because when you believe that something good is coming and you're part of making it happen,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You start to be able to see beyond the suffering to how things could be.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Today, there is a new set of necessary ideas that seem impossible, but one day will feel inevitable. That we could end violence against women. Make war a thing of the past.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Learn to live in balance with nature before it's too late, and make sure that everybody has what they need to thrive.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Picture a future like this is not the same thing as knowing what to do to make it come about. But thinking like a mother can help with that too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But a group of women farmers in Sudan, including Fatima Ahmed, that's her holding the corn, heard about what was happening. And they pulled together the extra money that they had from their harvest and asked me to send it to those Somali mothers.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, these farmers could have decided that they didn't have the power to act. They were barely getting by themselves, some of them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They lived without electricity, without furniture. But they overrode that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You do it all the time if you have kids. You make major decisions about their health care, their education, their emotional well-being, even if you're not a doctor or a teacher or a therapist. You recognize what your child needs and you step up to provide it the best you can.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And we're not used to thinking of subsistence farmers as philanthropists, but those women were practicing the root meaning of philanthropy, love for humanity.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What's at the core of thinking like a mother shouldn't be a surprise. It's love.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because love is more than just an emotion. It's a capacity, a verb, an endlessly renewable resource. And not just in our private lives.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We recognize hate in the public sphere, right? Hate speech, hate crimes, but not love. What is love in the public sphere?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, Cornel West, who is not a mother but thinks like one, says it best, justice is what love looks like in public.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Superstar value. The one best able to account for the most vulnerable among us. And when we position love as a kind of leading edge in policymaking, we get new answers to fundamental social questions. Like, what's the economy for?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When you think like a mother, you prioritize the needs of the many, not the whims of the few.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When you think like a mother, you don't try to prosecute someone for leaving water for people crossing the desert because you know


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because you know that migration, just like mothering, is an act of hope.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, not every mother thinks like a mother. When presented with a choice, some of us have made the wrong one, hiding behind weapons or barbed wire or privilege to deny the rest of the world, right? Thinking they can see their way to safety in some kind of armed lifeboat fueled by racism and xenophobia.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Not every mother is a role model, but all of us have a choice. Are we going to jump on that armed lifeboat?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Or work together to build a mothership that can carry everyone.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know how to build that mothership, how to repair the world and ease the suffering. Think like a mother.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Thinking like a mother is a tool we can all use to build the world we want. Thank you.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Rat kept his hand on Toad's shoulder. They hurried forward in silence. Suddenly they heard voices.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Said Badger. And they hurried along.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hi guys! Can you guess the title of my next video?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The Wind in the Willows Episode 87 The Secret Tunnel


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Rat piled the weapons on the floor. Toad jumped around with his sword.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Rat looked at him in surprise.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Laughed Badger. Badger held a lantern in one hand. His club was in the other.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] He led them to a hole in the riverbank.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Fadger disappeared into the tunnel. Mole and Rat dove in too. But...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Toad, said Badger. He pulled Toad into the tunnel.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Don't make noise, Toad, said Rat quietly. We'll leave you


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Rat hurried to join Badger and Mole.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's k-k-k-cold in here, said Toad, trembling.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They make a really tasty seafood platter. The fish is outstanding.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We were thinking of checking out a restaurant in the neighborhood. Do you have any suggestions?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I know this really nice Italian place. The food is fantastic and the decor is beautiful. I'd recommend giving it a try.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In that case, I know a great little bistro. They make a really tasty seafood platter. The fish is outstanding. It sounds fantastic.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But I'm allergic to seafood, so... Okay, well, let me think.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh, I know this great little place. It's just a hole in the wall.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But they do the most amazing sandwiches. You've got to give them a try.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Do you two have any plans for the evening? We were thinking of checking out a restaurant in the neighborhood. Do you have any suggestions? I know this really nice Italian place. The food is fantastic and the decor is beautiful. I'd recommend giving it a try.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In that case, I know a great little bistro. They make a really tasty seafood platter. The fish is outstanding.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A special lesson about the new president.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's true. So Marco, can you explain this word inaugural address?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay. All right. So it's his first presidential speech.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We'll see this word in its past tense in the dialogue, right? Sworn in.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's right, when you swear someone in, they make an oath. A promise, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] An official promise to carry out the duties of that job.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, we're actually watching a news reporter on TV. She's in Washington and she's going to tell us all about what's happening.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's listen, we've got three examples that will show the meaning of this word.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The who's who is the important people in a particular field, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You could also say the funeral was like a who's who of the political world.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Exactly. Let's move to our third word.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So basically we can understand that dignitaries are really important people, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When something is palpable it's so strong you can feel it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, like the excitement was palpable or the fear was palpable.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yeah, so the first phrase we have is, in a word.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We use this expression when we want to describe something in one word.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's look at the pattern. We've got examples of how you could use this phrase.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's look at this pattern with a few examples.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And our final phrase in putting it together is...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So JP, do you have any other sort of traditional things that happen when the president becomes the president?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] No, no, no, no, no! I can't believe I overslept!


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There is so much to take in and so little time. The honeycomb needs to be put into here and then put it in there and on. Oh my god, it's all a blur. All I'm getting in my mind at the moment is honeycomb. Is that done? It's almost there.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] My time I have to get the, uh, ice cream on. I have to get the honeycomb done.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's, uh, an ice cream with honeycomb.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What's the flavor of the ice cream? She's had that here, I'm not sure.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh, it's stressful. I tell you, I never thought it would be this stressful. There's no time to think. Chocolate, chocolate.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I decide to make a chocolate sauce and make a macadamia nutcrumb.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've got honeycomb, I've made chocolate sauce, ice cream churning, macadamia and cinnamon nuts in there, so we're just building around that. Five, four, three,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's see if the weasels left any food.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They feared gangs of toads and rats in boats.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hi, my name is Greta Bors and I'm the librarian for Classical Studies and Linguistics here at Duke University and we've talked before about the differences between scholarly and popular literature.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What I want to talk about today is how to go about finding a journal.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Subject heading or descriptor in vertical file. We'll cover a number of different


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You want to ask for their advice. Some of the things that we'll be covering today will be helpful to you in asking questions about how to find a journal article.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And one of the things you probably could do is go to the library or go to your bookstore and look at the table of contents of the particular journal.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What I'm going to do today is, so this is what medical doctors use in their practices, but it's also what science and


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Look at the search results, and I want to show you some things that are really important about it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, they organize it by the results by year. You can see how many results were in 2010 and 2012. They give you some related


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Have in common with this particular database in that there are subject headings which organize the material. I can see that there are more.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Subject headings that might, might be helpful to me and actually in fact there aren't. But if I go here to related searches, I notice that there's a subject heading musical expertise, which is actually what I'm interested in. I've just started taking piano lessons and


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm really interested in how musicians do what they do.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But this is another good source of full text articles that you can research. And so what I'm going to do is type in musical expertise.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It gives you a list of the citations, the people that have cited the article, the related articles, and then it gives you the authors. If we look at the full record,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So Google Scholar is another possible resource that you might want to try. There's another resource called Register and Read.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And what you'll do is if you've never registered before, you'll click on this button and then you'll fill out the information. There's no fee for this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I might limit it to content I can access, or all content, depending on where I am.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I can reorganize the search results by relevance or I can say I want the newest ones at the very top. I can modify the search.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What's characteristic about the advanced search is that you can combine


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If I'm interested in one of these articles, what I can do is click on the full article. You see that this is in the Journal of Research and Music Education.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's what I would look under in my local library to see if I had the journal. You can also click on Article PDF to see if you can access it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Jay Stewart's Terms and Conditions in order to access the article.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So, what I'm doing is looking for an article that has any one of these terms in it, and then I can combine all those and say they all have to, all the articles have to have piano in them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Hi guys! Can you guess the title of my next video?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Right, here's how today's gonna work. You'll get one of Maggie's daughters, Saskia's gorgeous chooks. In round one...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You can use as much of it or as little of it as you like.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You have to create one dish, guys. One incredible dish.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you cook one of the best two dishes in round one, you're safe.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Another dish with whatever bits you've got left.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The rest go into round three. Again, whatever's left, that's all you can use.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now here's the kicker. Not only...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Will you have less and less chook as you go down the line? You'll also have less and less time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 30 minutes. Just hope you don't go down to round three. We've only got 20 minutes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You wanna go for it right in the beginning. Put the best dish up, but have a backup also in the back of your mind.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So think about how you're going to use that chicken wisely. Because if you cook the worst dish in round three, you're going home.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Right guys, round one. Your 45 minutes starts now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The four of us are so excited because you four are incredible cooks. What you gave us was great. Now you need to ramp it up.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now remember what's at stake. In round two, we're looking for the best dish. The maker of that will be safe.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The rest of you will go through to round three.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In this round, you must use only whatever you've got left in terms of your chicken. You've got 30 minutes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's now time for us to taste. First up. Hoodah.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, they've cooked. It's done. It's up to us now. Let's get the first dish in. Let's taste. Yes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's done. It's up to us now. Let's get the first dish in. Let's taste. Yes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I think you guys got the better bits of batter. Cause I've got some real doughy bits over here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] It's time to cheer up. It's time to fire up. It's time to get excited because your South Australian adventure isn't over yet.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We'll see you back in Adelaide for a special Masterclass with some very special guests.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So just to confirm, the octopus went into that stock, which is white wine, vinegar, bay leaf, rosemary, a good pinch of salt.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, there's one bag, there's two bags.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So octopus is ready, you gonna pull something out?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm having moments here because that smell of char grilled octopus is just beautiful.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wow, I'm sure you had lots of fun with Matt, but now you're with me and we're gonna cook a prawns on toast afternoon tea dish.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the first thing that we've got to make is an essence or a tea of tomatoes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've also got some, uhm, golden shallots.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And I've got a couple bunches of basil. That goes in.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now what we've got here is, uh, some cheesecloth or muslincloth. I've wet the cloth before I pour anything in.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You'd tie that with a bit of string, tie that inside the fridge, and let it drain. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Here is tomato tea that I made last night that's been sitting in the fridge.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Next, prawns on toast. Right, so I've got 400 grams of peeled prawns and 100 grams of chopped. Alright? So I'll set the chopped aside for a second. In our chopping bowl here goes the peeled prawns.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] A pinch of salt, because salt tightens up that protein. And then two egg whites.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that's our lemon zest, our prawns, our tarragon, 400 grams of prawn, um, salt, and that's 100 grams of chopped prawn. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] About five spring onions, sliced, cooked down in olive oil.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Take some of our mixture, uhm, we make sure that the bread's frozen when we're putting it on, so it doesn't make the bread all spongy and small. It doesn't squash it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Next bit's gonna be a bit of fun and I'm gonna need you, Reece, to help me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] On my way. Okay, that's fine like that. Now, so these are raw flaked almonds that instead of sesame seeds that you generally get in a Chinese restaurant, instead we're gonna do almonds. But I want them to look like fish scales over the top.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, can you go down that end and do that? Alright. I think you're gonna be a while.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've got some spices. I've got fresh basil goes in. Okay. Star anise. Alright.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Part of our little afternoon tea, I want refreshingness. So I've just got watermelon that I've just put in a bag with a little bit of the, uh, bonito vinegar. That's it. Nothing else, yeaah. And I've left the rind on. It's quite nostalgic.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As a kid, we've all done it, we eat watermelon holding that rind.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I want some nice wedges. And what we're gonna do is coat the top of these with sesame seeds.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then we need to gently fry that in clarified butter or olive oil.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm cooking the toast now. This is where I need to really pay attention.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Prawn toasts up there. Okay, we've got some crushed ice here for presentation.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Right, we've got our gun filled with 500ml of tomato tea. Add 6g of gelatine. Bit like a cappuccino. We finish it with its frothy milk, yeah? And a little bit of tomato powder.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So literally dehydrated tomatoes pounded up.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so, off you go, because Gary's waiting over on the other side of the market with one of our favourite girls, Po. Off you go.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We humans like to think that we're pretty tough. But lots of other animals put us to shame. And sometimes, the grittiest creatures on Earth aren't what you'd think. Take desert kangaroo rats, for example. While you might laugh in the face of danger, they kick it. Literally. I'll let Olivia explain.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, standing up to a venomous animal is pretty hardcore. But grasshopper mice take the idea one step further. Not only are they totally unafraid of scorpions, they use their venom as a painkiller. Here's Olivia again with the details.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, I'm starting to think we don't give rodents enough credit. Now, for our next secretly hardcore creature, Trinidadian guppies. They're cute and tiny, but don't let those looks fool you. They don't cower when danger looms, they dare bigger fish to attack. Here's Michael to explain why.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, those fishies aren't the only fearless little animals out there. Fuzzy velvet ants look like they'd be fun to cuddle. I mean, as much as any ant could. But most creatures are smart enough not to mess with them, and for several good reasons. I'll pass it back to Michael for the lowdown.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So to sum up Velvet Ants, small but mighty. But next, let's shine a light on an even smaller hardcore creature, rotifers. And it can be a pretty bright light, because these microscopic critters can withstand way more radiation than you or I can. Which apparently has something to do with their aquatic lifestyle. Hank, lay it all out for us.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And last, but certainly not least, we have one more microscopic animal to talk about. I mean, you didn't really think we'd get through a whole episode about hardy critters without mentioning tardigrades, did you? Of course not. Hank, take it away.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ah, those cute little moss piglets. What a wonderful one to end on. Thank you for watching this SciShow compilation. If you enjoyed learning about these amazing abilities, I bet you'd love our monthly After Hours podcast. In it, Hank and our content editor Christy explore the wildest features of life on Earth.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Stuff that we really can't talk about here, because it's not so family-friendly. We make the podcast as a thank you to our amazing patron community, because we couldn't do any of this without them. So if you're one of those awesome people, thank you. And if you're not a patron, you can learn how to support the team here at SciShow and even listen to a sample episode of After Hours by heading over to patreon.com slash SciShow.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Vocabulary Preview So two words today. The first one is a good fit.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Cause we'll come back and explain all the key language. Now we're going to listen as two managers discuss the performance of one employee.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well let's look at the language he used to tell us that he's unhappy about this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So we've got some great language to describe work performance. Let's listen to our dialogue a second time.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's right, three phrases that will help us make our point better.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's right, Marco and I are always on the site and we're happy to answer your questions.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now that presumably you've finished the larger scale revision of your project one, the kinds of global


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And editing would be more about the how you're saying it. Uhm, there's of course some overlap. Some writers think about


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There being, uh, three kind of stages, right? That there's revision, then there's editing, then there's proofreading as even kind of a smaller scale. I'm collapsing proofreading and editing for the purposes of Project One.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When you are editing, these are the kinds of things that you'll want to be looking for. Grammar.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Clarity, spelling, punctuation, sentence level issues, word choice, these are the kinds of smaller aspects of writing that are so important, right, because they really help you, uh, deliver the content that you're trying to deliver, but they, they're,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] For many of us, the pieces of writing that where you really mark up the text, you know, in smaller sentence level, word level kinds of issues. And for me, I think I said this earlier in the course, but editing is the most fun for me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Didn't know we're there. For instance, in earlier versions of our landing page for this course, I read that


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Please read aloud. Make notations, uh, as you're reading aloud so that you don't have to stop and actually make the fixes as you're reading it, but go ahead and make notes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] On your text, right? As you're reading, say, oh, I don't like that word, notations. I'm going to change that to notes because it sounds too fancy as notations. And then finally, prioritize. Each of us has certain aspects of our writing that we really want to strengthen.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You can't strengthen everything all at once. You really need to prioritize what you're gonna work on at a particular moment in time or with a particular writing project that you have. So, if you're noticing that you have certain patterns of error with grammar,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Figure out what those patterns are and decide, okay, right now for the next six months I'm really going to work on just the uses of commas. Or for the next three months I'm really just going to work on eliminating split infinitives. So choose one thing, one manageable thing that you can work on.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This is an example of what editing looks like and


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] As you can see, it's small changes, right? Notice small changes. It's not necessarily large argument changes. It's really kind of the sentence level, small, local issues, making things more concise.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Adding a thus, adding some transition words, uhm, this is what editing looks like and this is what your editing should look like as you're editing. So I'll take you through.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] An example of editing from a draft in progress of one of my articles that I'm writing. I'm writing about community-based writing and how student writers feel about community-based writing, whether they see value in it or not, and there are


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's other literature on it that I'm connecting to what I'm doing, but for the purposes of this, I just have what I have written on it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So this is a paragraph, and if I were going through and editing this, I would probably do the following.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I would be reading aloud. What accounts for this drastic differences? Oh, that's an air cell.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I don't even mean in the perception, I probably mean something like attitude, because that's really what I'm talking about.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I changed that to attitude. What accounts for this drastic difference in attitude?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] From a three year old to an adult, how is it that a three year old can express gratitude for writing even above such things as parents, family, and ice cream?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that perhaps 17 years later that same child might instead approach writing, even writing in a community-based setting as


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Here again, I'm too long. This is way too long. I need to break up my sentences and add periods. I'm not sure if they're actually run-ons, but they certainly are not effective sentences.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] May reflect some deeply nested tensions with this form of writing in the service learning, there should be a hyphen there, context.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And may have implications for how writing program administrators and other teachers of writing approach community-based writing. This may have, I feel like is a little too soft. I want to be a little more assertive in my argument. It's not that it may have implications, but it has implications.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so this is what I would do with editing. There'd probably be, I'd probably cross that out too because you don't need


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And here would be an example of the edited paragraph, which again, could still be edited further.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What accounts for this drastic difference in attitude? Why would a three-year-old express gratitude for writing even above parents, family, and ice cream? I took out the thing, because parents are not things, right? They're humans. But 17 years later, instead, approach writing, even writing in a community-based setting, as drudgery.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] These complexities have implications for how writing program administrators and other teachers of writing approach community-based writing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that's an example of editing. It's time consuming and you can see, even as I was rereading it, there were still aspects that I would want to change. So please devote time to editing your project one so that you are delivering your information and your argument in as effective a way as possible.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We're almost there, but before we arrive, we just want to say how proud we are of you for raising


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh, I got this and I'm going to use it to save my camp.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh, uh, haha, sorry. I need to borrow Timber. There are some donors I really want him to meet. They were good friends with Mom and Dad.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I just have this feeling that Glorious is hiding something. Her brother is pretty cute though, huh? He's okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes, last time I turned in something amazing, but I've let magic turn me into a monster too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So if anyone understands what you're going through, it's me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I can help you Twilight, and the rest of our friends can be there for you too, but not if you run away.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Legit, huh? I think we just found our Gaia Everfree.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Girls, we can't just brush these powers aside because it doesn't seem like the ideal time to get them.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Or rather someone who wants us to think she's back. Come on.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You're not gonna ask us to give them up, are you? No, in fact...


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Oh man, I was having the best dream. Wait.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Learned you with everyone else.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ah, this is all too much for you. You have to let it go. I knew it. He wants her to get rid of the camp.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wait. I thought Timber was just faking there was a magical nature creature. Are you saying it's real? Timber?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] This dish is a dessert. My worst nightmares come true. I'm really stressing out at the moment. I'm not sure.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm a builder, not a decorator. This dessert requires a really delicate touch. And I'm not sure I'm up to the task.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I really don't want to disappoint my team, ruining what my teammates have already done.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I've got everything that my team has made and I've put it on the plate.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm really kicking myself. If we end up in tomorrow's pressure test, it's definitely on me.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We have done a deconstructed honey and chocolate tart with figs and


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'm gutted and I just hope my dodgy plating up isn't sending my team through to a pressure test tomorrow.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We found jelly and cold chicken, said Toad. And here's some bread and cheese.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Yes, said Mole. They put clean sheets on too.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Well, I hope they learned a lesson.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The dining hall is still a mess, said Rat. It will take a week to clean it up. Don't worry about it now.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What's up Ninja Nerds? In this video today we are going to be talking about heart sounds. If you guys like this video, you benefit from it. It makes sense. Please support us in the best way that you can do that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You already know the answer. Hit that subscribe button, hit that like button, and go ahead and throw some comments down in that comment section. Also, if you guys want some awesome notes, some great illustrations to follow along with during this video, go down to the description box below. It'll take you to our website where you guys can check that stuff out.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Let's start talking about heart sounds. Alright, so let's talk about heart sounds. When we talk about heart sounds, first thing we should understand is location. Where should we be listening for heart sounds? That's the most important part. And we can kind of correlate the location with the particular valve that we're trying to assess. So first things first, we have our diagram here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The way that you can remember that is the mnemonic, all physicians earn too much. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So all stands for the aortic valve. So the aortic valve, you would particularly hear this at the right second intercostal space. So where would you hear this one? So if we have here, here's our first rib. Here's the second rib. That would be the third rib. It's between the second and third rib. So right here,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Would be my aortic valve sound. Okay? So that's gonna be where I'm gonna be listening for the aortic valve. And again, that's gonna be the right second intercostal space. Physicians.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that is the pulmonic valve. The pulmonic valve, guess what, just go to the other side. So on the other side, at this point here, on the left second intercostal space is where I'm going to be listening for the pulmonic valve. So that would be the left second intercostal space for the pulmonic valve.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The next one is Erb's Point. So Erb's Point is actually an interesting one. It's often the time where we actually listen for, it's a good overview of all heart sounds and it's also a pretty good overview site for a lot of murmurs as well. Especially like aortic regurgitation murmurs.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So again, Herb's point is you just go down one more spot. So you got right second intercostal space, left second intercostal space, left third intercostal space would be your Herb's point. And that's gonna be right here. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we go to the next part, two, tricuspid valve. The tricuspid valve is actually going to be just one more below. So then go to the left fourth intercostal space.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That will be the tricuspid valve. Last but not least is going to be the mitral valve and the mitral valve is going to be located at the left fifth intercostal space. You would likely be like, oh that's just right here. No. We have to go to the clavicle and go right in the middle of the clavicle down to the left fifth intercostal space. So it actually should be about right


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That would be your mitral valve. Alright, so let's just remind ourselves really quickly again for the sounds. Where are we going to be listening for them? So again, aortic valve, right second intercostal space. So right, second, intercostal space. And if you really want to be specific, we'll say a parasternal border, just on the side of the sternum.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then the pulmonic valve, we already hit this one hard, right? So this would be the left second.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Intercostal space, and again, it's gonna be that parasternal border.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then we have Erb's point. Good overview for all heart sounds and murmurs. This is the left third.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Intercostal space. And again, that parasternal border.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Then you got your good old tricuspid valve. And that's going to be left fourth intercostal space.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that is again going to be the parasternal border.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The last one to remember here, my friends, is that mitral valve. And with the mitral valve, we see this at the left fifth intercostal space at the level of the mid clavicular line. So again, this would be the left fifth


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They're electrically stimulated and they're ready to just rock and roll and start blasting blood out of the ventricles. When that happens you have to be thinking about the particular valves that are going to be closing.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So generally when the ventricles contract, the valves that you want to close is the tricuspid valve.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the mitral valve. You want these to close because you want blood to only go from the ventricles into their respective arteries, the pulmonary artery and the aortic artery, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In that situation, we don't want blood to go blasting back into the atria. So the tricuspid valve and the mitral valve should close. That is the indication of S1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So ventricular systole tells me about a particular heart sound which is called S1. We'll talk about the second one a little bit later which is called S2 respectively. But what I really want us to talk about is this S1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What does the S1 indicate? Well, it's the indication of the closure of the atrioventricular valves that is the tricuspid valve and the mitral valve.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, if we were to actually split these valves, now you can have split S1s, we're not gonna talk about it though, but when you have and actually look at the S1, there is two sounds, but they're so close together that they sound like one sound. But what are that actual S1 sound indicating?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So the red here is I'm representing the left side of the heart. That would be the closure of the


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Mitral valve. Okay? That's the closure of the mitral valve during systole. And then the blue is representing the right side of the heart. That would be the closure of


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The tricuspid valve during systole. So again, once S1 starts from the point of S1 until the second heart sound that comes up, this whole period here is indicative of ventricular systole. It's that time period where the ventricles are contracting and pushing blood into their respective arteries.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Click sound or a lub type of sound. So often times we'll use that terminology that this represents that lub type of sound. Now, sometimes it's difficult because when you're listening to the heart you hear lub dub, lub dub, lub dub, lub dub, and when patients hearts are going really fast it's difficult to discern which one it is. Is it the lub that's the s1 or the dub? I can't really tell.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So sometimes what you can do is you can palpate their carotids when you're listening to their heart and you palpate the carotids when you feel the upstroke of the carotid, the beat that's pulsating on your actual fingertips. That's the carotid upstroke. The carotid upstroke


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then again, think about this anatomy wise. When the ventricles contract, they push blood from the ventricle, left ventricle, into the aorta.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And then up into the carotids. So you're gonna feel that rapid upstroke with the S1. It'll happen just right after the S1, and boom, you're gonna feel that. That's S1. If you feel it during the next part, which we'll talk about, called the downstroke, that's S2. So now,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We have S1. Let's go over here and talk about S2 now. So S2 is when the ventricles are done with their systolic time period. They're done actually contracting and squeezing blood.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And it's time for them to start relaxing. So now they're going to start relaxing. When they relax, this is the time period where you want blood to actually go into the heart from the atria. So now we want the ventricles, when they're in diastole, we want them to fill with blood so that they can get ready. And whenever they contract again, they can push blood out.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in that case, I need the receiving chambers, the tricuspid valve and the mitral valve to open respectively for blood to come down into the


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Ventricles from the atria. So I want the mitral valve and the tricuspid valve to open.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The valves I do not want to open are the pur- what is the purpose of valves? To prevent one- to provide a one-way flow and to prevent backflow. That's their job.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We do not want the aortic valve, I'm sorry, the aortic valve and the pulmonic valve to stay open. We want these bad boys to close.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that blood doesn't flow backwards into the ventricles. We only want blood coming into the ventricles from the atria, not from their respective arteries. And so what happens is when the ventricles relax,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Blood will actually kind of come backwards and recoil backwards going towards the ventricles and snap the aortic valve and the pulmonic valve shut. And that's where you get the S2 heart sound.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So I already talked about this one, but this is your S1. And then again, from S1, which represents the onset of ventricular systole, and again that's going to be closure of mitral valve and tricuspid valve, from that point until we get to this next heart sound here, I'm just color-coding them, color-coding them respectively here, this is ventricular systole.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Until we go now here, this is going to be your S2, this is S2 here, which is now the closure of the aortic


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the harmonic valve. This here. And there's a two component of there. Just like there was a two component for the S1. There's a closure of two valves. What are these valves that are closing? The red one, which should come first. Just like in this situation for S1, the mitral valve should come first because it's a higher pressure system that'll close first.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so because of that, S2 represents the closure of


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And again, sometimes we refer to this as the dub type of sound. The second component.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now, we have this understanding that whenever there's ventricular systole, it's S1 closure of the mitral and tricuspid valve correlating with the carotid upstroke.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] S2 is the onset of ventricular diastole when blood is supposed to be running into the ventricles only from the atria, not from their respective arteries.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so because of that, it should actually snap the aortic valve and the pulmonic valve closed. That is the S2. And that should correlate with the carotid downstroke because blood should be trying to recoil back to the heart. But we don't want it to go back into the heart, so the aortic valve closes.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so does the pulmonic valve. So again, this time period of ventricular diastole, which gives you the S2, this is correlated with the carotid downstroke.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So that's what I really need you guys to remember, okay? So we've covered S1 ventricular systole, which is again telling me about closure of mitral valve and tricuspid valve.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They should be receiving blood only from the atria and the aortic valve and the pulmonic valve should snap shut to prevent blood from backflowing into the ventricles.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's going to be S2. That should correlate with the carotid downstroke. Often times we kind of simplify this into a lub for S1 and a dub for S2. Let's actually take a listen to what the normal heart sounds actually sound like.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What we actually have to understand a little bit is that sometimes S1 may actually sound a little bit louder. In certain situations we should understand that because they can test that on your exams. And also you should be able to recognize this on a patient, but sometimes it can be softer and we should be able to recognize if it's actually louder, if it's softer.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Being able to recognize that first hand and second thing, what are your differentials for having a loud S1 and what are your differentials for having a soft S1? So let's talk about that. A loud S1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's three causes that I want you guys to remember. The three causes is there's some type of situation where the ventricles are in a hyperdynamic state. And what I mean is the more significant component of the S1 is the mitral valve, tricuspid valve to a smaller degree.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But the mitral valve, whenever that thing snaps shut really hard, so you imagine having the valves like this and snapping them shut really hard, it's going to produce large vibrations which will cause that S1 heart sound to be heard.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So anytime the heart is just clanging and a-banging, it is just hyper-dynamic. That could be causing those valves to slap hard against one another, producing a very loud S1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So what could be some hyperdynamic states? It's actually relatively simple. Think about patients that are having fevers or they're septic, right? If you're septic, sometimes in those states, your body's sympathetic nervous system is on overdrive and it's causing your heart to pump harder and harder and harder to generate and push and meet all the demands of the body.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Other situations is when your thyroid hormone levels are super high. So you know what they call that whenever your T3 and T4 levels are super high that it's causing toxic effects on the body? Thyrotoxicosis.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Other situations could be if a patient is exercising. If you're exercising, it's gonna be causing those valves to be snapped shut really hard.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Other situations could be in certain situations like if a patient has very severe anemia. So very severe anemia could also do this. And other situations is where pregnancy, pregnancy is a really big one actually because they have higher


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Uhm, volumes in their heart has to pump really hard because not only do they have to supply blood to their own tissues, they have to supply it to the little thing that's growing within them. So that's an important thing to think about. So in hyperdynamic states, just imagine this left ventricle is smashing blood that it's trying to push out of the aorta. But when it does that, it smashes these valves.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Really, really hard shut. And that produces the vibration that will cause the loudest one.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so hyperdynamic states would be a big one, and a relatively common one at that.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] On the lower likelihood of things that you could see but definitely want to think about it is in situations where the PR interval is really short.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So when you have a short PR interval, here's what I want you to think about the PR interval. So, you know that there's structures in the heart, you got your SA node, you got your AV node, you got all those bad boys, here's your SA node, here's your AV node, and that's going down into your bundle branch system, and then to your purkenji. So you have your AV node,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because the whole purpose of it, holding on to it, is giving the ventricles enough time to relax, right? So you want to allow for the ventricles to go through diastole before you send electrical potentials down to it to cause it to contract again. People gotta relax sometimes. So when your PR interval is short, your AV knows like, oh, hot potato, and it throws it down into the ventricles to depolarize. They don't get time to relax.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so because of that with very short PR intervals, that decreases the diastolic filling time. Here's what I want you to think about. If you reduce diastolic filling, that means that there's less, there's a drop


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And the left ventricular in diastolic volume. There's less blood in the heart when it's relaxed. Okay, think about this.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You have blood in the ventricles. Normally when blood is in the ventricles, what it'll do is, it'll try to push the actual, like imagine blood coming into the ventricles and filling. Like it's filling up a cup. When it does that, it actually pushes the leaflets closer to one another as it fills. And so now if they're like at this distance, imagine these closing at here, compared to here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Which one's gonna produce a louder sound? If it's closer together, or if they're farther together? It'd be farther away from one another, right? So the only way that they would be farther away from one another is not a lot of blood that's filling up to push them closer to one another. So that's what happens here. When there's a reduction in diastolic filling, there's less blood in the heart that it's not bringing the valve leaflets close to one another.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And so if they're not close to one another, farther distance from one another. A farther distance from one another. When the ventricles contract, ooooh baby, those are going to slam shut because they're having to generate momentum. So that is the whole concept behind this, is that they're a farther distance.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And this would be seen in what kind of condition would you have a very short PR interval?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Wolf Parkinson's White Syndrome, that's why it's not super common.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But definitely want to be thinking about it, okay? Alright. The last one that I want you guys to think about is a condition called Mitral Stenosis.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Loud S1, but we should actually categorize this a little bit more specifically. It's Mitrosthenosis that the, the actual valve, because in Mitrosthenosis the valves get kind of like really, really, uhm, you know, fibrotic and less pliable and calcified, right? So in those situations,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And mitrostenosis, we want to classify this more like the mild to moderate category, meaning that they have still a little bit of pliability and a little bit of movement. If they're not moving whatsoever, they're not going to give you a loud S1. They'll actually cause a soft S1. Sometimes if it's a very severe, you may even have an absent type of S1.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] When your valve is super stenotic, you know, difficult to be able to push blood through.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The pressure inside of the atria increases.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because it has to accommodate for all of the volume that's sitting inside of it and all the pressure that's building up because it can't push blood down.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So it's having a difficult time. It says, okay, the only way I'm going to be able to get blood down into the left ventricle is if I bulk up, get really hypertrophic, and generate high pressures and push blood down. Right? So it generates these high pressures.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So now, think about the left ventricle. The left ventricle, it's now going to have to generate super high pressures, because the only way that, if you guys remember back from the cardiac cycle video,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] How do we actually close the mitral valve? The left ventricular pressure has to be greater than the left atrial pressure.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Type of process. Let's say that the left atrial pressure is 10 millimeters of mercury. I'm just spitting some numbers here, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That means that the left ventricular pressure would have to be greater than 10 millimeters of mercury to close the mitral valve. And that's the force, that's the amount of pressure that it's going to push on the mitral valve leaflets to close them. So that is the pressure that we need to close the mitral valve. Now, think about in someone who has mitral stenosis.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Because of that stenosis, their left atrial pressures are way higher than normal. Let's just throw a number at it. Left atrial pressure is 30 millimeters of mercury.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Now the left ventricular pressure is going to have to be greater than 30 millimeters of mercury for it to overcome the left atrial pressure to push the mitral valve closed. It's going to hit that mitral valve, that poor little mitral valve is going to get hit


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] 30 millimeters of mercury or more, when you get hit with that high of a pressure, it's going to snap those valves closed if they have some pliability and give to them. And when they snap closed at that degree of pressure, imagine getting hit with a rock versus getting hit with a pebble. That's the kind of situation that's gonna happen here.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So in mitrosinosis, mild to moderate, where there is some type of pliability in the valves, and you're having to increase your left ventricular pressure to close the mitral valve because the left atrial pressure is high, that would cause a loud ass


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Okay, so again we got hyperdynamic states, we got mild to moderate mitral stenosis, and again with that PR interval, again I like to think about this, here's your valve leaflets.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] They're gonna hang down if there's less blood to push them up.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's no, you see there's no blood in the ventricles that are pushing these leaflets closer to one another. If they're not as close to one another, they're farther distance. That's more momentum that they'll get when you have to close them shut. That's gonna cause them to be louder. Okay.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Again, you know why this is actually going to be relatively easy? Because we already covered all the ones for loudest one. Guess what? Flip it.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Flip it, baby. So, in this case, to make our lives easier, because we've already understood this, so now it should be super easy to understand soft S1. In hypodynamic states,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And you're not gonna be pushing on the mitral valve with as much force. And so since you're not pushing on the mitral valve with as much force,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Soft as once. It was a decreasing PR interval, my friends. So now it would have to be a long PR interval. So if the PR interval is prolonged, think about what that does.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That does what to the diastolic filling time. Now remember, AV node, it receives the extra electrical activity. It says, okay, I gotta wait for the ventricles to relax. I'm gonna let them wait. I'm gonna let them wait. I'm gonna let them wait. Alright, here you go ventricles.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The ventricles have a lot of time to fill, so what does it do to the diastolic filling? It increases your diastolic filling. If they fill longer, that increases their


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Left ventricular and diastolic volume. If you increase their left ventricular and diastolic volume, again, you're going to have more of the blood.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In these ventricles. Now imagine the blood's kind of like seeping around these valves here. What's it going to do to the valve? It's going to kind of lift the valve leaflets up. So now they're a closer distance than compared to that distance.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If that's the case then, a close distance.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Particularly, you may see this a little bit more commonly in like first degree, second degree heart blocks, but heart blocks would be one of them. Man, we're good. Mitrosynosis, what do you think would be a really bad one? Reflux.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Or, you know, it's a mitral stenosis, mild to moderate, but you know what else, it's actually really interesting. Sometimes very severe mitral stenosis, and that actually should make sense because if they're not pliable, they're very fibrotic, they don't move very much.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If you only don't allow for them to move very much, they're not going to move during systole, and they're not going to move very much during diastole. So there's a very short distance, so it actually may be very soft. So you can actually add the one in there, severe mitral stenosis, but an easier one to remember here is, mitral


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] I'll inject up the name. Mitral regurgitation. So, why mitral regurgitation? Why would that do this? Well, it's pretty interesting. In mitral regurgitation,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] What happens is, these valve leaflets are far away from one another, right?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that may seem odd, especially in these scenarios.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But here's what I really want you to remember. When you're pumping blood from the left ventricle, you're supposed to be pumping it out into the aorta. Sometimes if you have mitral regurgitation, this valve leaflet, they never actually co-app together.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You know, mitral regurgitation, you may have one of the valve leaflets, there could be many different reasons for mitral regurgitation, but the leaflets aren't coming close to one another. Right? And that's one of the reasons why blood is regurgitating back in, because the valve leaflets aren't touching.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] So if that's the case, if they're not actually coming close together, this kind of connection isn't happening, they're not sealing very well, that's going to obviously cause blood to backflow into the left atrium.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] But also, if they're not smacking one another, do you think you're gonna give yourself a very loud type of S1? No. So because of that, there is no good seal between


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] The leaflets. So there's no good seal between the leaflets so they don't actually slap together.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And that's one of the important things to think about. There's no good seal between the leaflets. And if there's no good seal, they don't produce a sound.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] There's going to be not very much sound because they're not going to slap together. There's one other thought process.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] In mitral regurgitation, right, the blood that goes from the left ventricle goes back down where?


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] From the left ventricle to the left atrium, we're pushing blood into the left atrium. It's gonna flow right back down into the left atrium, right? That's the whole process. So in patients with mitral regurgitation, not only are the valves not gonna form a good seal, but also every time we push blood into the left atrium, it's just gonna flow right back down to the left ventricle.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If all of that blood is in the left ventricle, now the left ventricle is going to get volume overloaded. And now imagine these leaflets that are sitting on top of that blood column. They're sitting on top of the blood column.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] If all that blood is kinda sitting there, what is it doing to the leaflets again? It's bringing them closer together. So it's the same concept here. So if that's the case, they get high.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] And again, that is a problematic issue, because now if you have all this blood that's accumulating, because every time the left ventricle is supposed to pump blood into the aorta, it pumps it up into the left atrium, and then back down to the left ventricle it goes, it's just gonna keep getting more and more and more volume, and that's gonna accrue, accrue, accrue, accrue, and then bring the leaflets closer to one another.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] That's a short distance. We know short distances. You don't get a lot of momentum. It's going to produce a soft.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Alright, so let's talk about the S2. So S2 is obviously the in, in, again, it's telling me about ventricular diastole, right? It's the period of when the ventricles are relaxing, it's whenever they're filling with blood, and whenever we want them to fill with blood, we only want it to come from the atria. We don't want it to come from the arteries that they just pushed the blood into. So those valves that they pushed the blood into,


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] Should actually shut, right? So we should shut off the aortic valve, shut off the pulmonic valve, that is your S2, that is the Dub, and that's associated with the carotid downstroke.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] We can actually have, just like S1s, we can have loud S2s and soft S2s. Now, what could be the reasons for that? Well, for the most part, it's relatively simple.


[User] Please transcribe this text

[Assistant] You want to think about loud S2s as though there's high pressure within the respective arteries that we've just pushed blood into. So if we have, for example, let's say the pulmonary artery. So here's our valve here, inside of the pulmonary artery. If we have some type of high pulmonary artery pressures, so the high pulmonary artery pressures, that high pulmonary artery pressures