Introduction {#s1}
============

Endangered species recovery relies on assumptions about limiting factors that are preventing recovery of imperiled populations. Tests of these assumptions are rarely reported in peer-reviewed journals [@pone.0008892-Lawler1]. Instead, threat analyses and corresponding management plans tend to be based on unpublished data and expert opinion, without well-documented field studies [@pone.0008892-Wilcove1], [@pone.0008892-Sutherland1].

Government agencies, ecological consultants, and reserve managers often conduct quantitative studies and possess a wealth of autecological data; however, much of this research remains inaccessible outside of these organizations. Meta-analyses drawn from these reports, e.g. the United States Department of the Interior, could provide practical resources for conservation and restoration practitioners. Absent such a meta-analysis, it is our opinion that conservation would be better served by the combined conclusions from rapid quantitative studies of the factors limiting particular species. The results from such studies could be compared with expert opinion and could act as a reference to help direct further research and to identify strategies to conserve, restore, and manage small populations (e.g. [@pone.0008892-Boyd1]).

Using quantitative studies to guide management has its own limitations. These include logistical constraints that result in narrow spatial and temporal scale experiments that may not allow for extrapolation to other geographic areas or may not encompass long term ecosystem dynamics ([@pone.0008892-Lepetz1]). In addition, the multifactorial experiments that might best parse the complex threats to endangered species may be prohibitively expensive or result in unacceptable mortality of the target species. However, iterative and systematic experiments and observational studies can help direct attention to the most likely threats in complex systems, while also testing the effectiveness or unintended consequences of proposed management strategies (e.g. [@pone.0008892-Beier1], [@pone.0008892-Synge1]).

Here we apply an experimental and quantitative observational approach to identifying the factors that prevent the recovery of a parasitic plant that is considered endangered by the State of California. Rare parasitic plants face special problems when it comes to recovery because, in addition to basic habitat requirements, they must also locate suitable host plants from which to obtain water and nutrients [@pone.0008892-Marvier1]. The plant we studied is the hemiparasitic annual forb: seaside bird\'s beak, *Cordylanthus rigidus* ssp. *littoralis* ((Ferris) Chuang and Heckard, Orobanchaceae, formerly classified in Scrophulariaceae; hereafter *C.r.l.*). Of the 220 rare, threatened, or endangered species and subspecies in California, six are in the hemiparasitic genus *Cordylanthus* and seven are in the confamilial genus *Castilleja* ([@pone.0008892-California1]).

Rabinowitz ([@pone.0008892-Rabinowitz1]) identified seven forms of rarity in plants by considering geographic range (narrow -- wide), local abundance (high -- low), and habitat specificity (narrow -- wide). Following this typology, *C.r.l.* is locally abundant over a large geographic range, with two population centers almost 200 miles apart and extending over 2° of latitude. However, *C.r.l.* has narrow habitat requirements: it is found only in the frequently disturbed sandy soils of stabilized dunes and further restricted by the availability of hosts. The recovery of *C.r.l.* is therefore tightly linked to the abundance and distribution of coastal woodlands and shrublands; landscapes that are becoming increasingly rare in the face of human development. The large geographic range of *C.r.l.* is encouraging; however, the isolation between its northern and southern populations suggests that they could be relictual and thus precarious.

Based on field observations and the natural history of this species, we focused on five potential limits to *C.r.l.* abundance:

1.  *Host availability. Hemi*parasites retain some photosynthetic ability, but also receive water and nutrients from their hosts via haustoria (see supporting information [Figure S1](#pone.0008892.s002){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). Because *C.r.l.* are shallow-rooted annuals that flower toward the end of a long dry season, deep-rooted woody perennials are likely important hosts for *C.r.l.* [@pone.0008892-Chuang1]. *C.r.l.* in close proximity to shrubs appear to have greater survivorship and to be more productive than those growing in clearings.

2.  *Mammalian herbivores.* Abnormally high rates of mammalian herbivory are common in reserves near developed areas, due to a lack of large predators and changes in habitat structure [@pone.0008892-Hansen1]. Deer, in particular, have greatly increased in abundance worldwide, and overbrowsing has cascading effects on vegetation dynamics and composition [@pone.0008892-Cte1]. At the University of California, Fort Ord Natural Reserve, where we conducted our studies, abnormally heavy deer browsing limits population viability of *Ceanothus cuneatus* var. *rigidus* (Rhamnaceae), a shrub species of special concern [@pone.0008892-Deveny1]. Because a large proportion of *C.r.l.* stems were clipped at this site, we speculated that mammalian herbivores could exert a major effect on *C.r.l.* populations.

3.  *Insect seed predators.* Exclusion of inflorescence-feeding insects promoted lifetime fitness even in a plant considered to be coevolved with its natural enemies [@pone.0008892-Louda1]. Having observed moth larvae (*Clepsis* sp, Tortricidae) feeding in *C.r.l.* inflorescences, we assessed reproductive losses to these pre-dispersal seed predators.

4.  *Fire suppression.* Fire suppression in Mediterranean-climates has changed the trajectory of many plant communities, threatening some natives that rely on post-fire habitats ([@pone.0008892-Keeley1]). The Monterey Bay area was subjected to frequent (yearly) intentional burning by Native Americans [@pone.0008892-Gordon1], but aerial photographs indicate that the Fort Ord area has not burned for at least 60 years [@pone.0008892-Deveny1]. We are not aware of previous work on fire-dependency in *C.r.l.*, but it is found in fire-adapted closed-cone pine forest and chaparral, suggesting that fire suppression might limit germination.

5.  *Competition from exotic species (esp. annual grasses).* Exotic annual species have so thoroughly invaded California grasslands that they now define the "California annual system" [@pone.0008892-Dyer1]. Annual grasses in particular have long been recognized as strong competitors against both herbaceous and woody species [@pone.0008892-DAntonio1]. Exotic grasses compete directly with native annual species through high germination densities and efficient resource use (e.g. water, light, nutrients), but also through the microclimate effects of high litter accumulation [@pone.0008892-DAntonio1]. Although the phenology of *C.r.l.* minimizes competition during the summer drought season, February germination puts *C.r.l.* in direct competition with rapidly growing exotic winter annuals that often germinate in late November.

Although there are many potential factors we did not include, our assessment is based on field observations and represents information that is not often taken into account prior to initiating recovery programs. Ultimately studies like these could be compiled in a centralized database of research on endangered species- a widely recognized need by reviewers assessing recovery plans [@pone.0008892-Abbitt1]. Such a database could be used by practitioners to weigh the potential impacts of specific management strategies and to highlight gaps in our knowledge about particular species.

Materials and Methods {#s2}
=====================

Ethics Statement {#s2a}
----------------

Research on *Cordylanthus rigidus* ssp. *littoralis* was conducted under California Department of Fish and Game research permit \#04-10-RP. Work at the University of California Fort Ord Natural Reserve (and associated Monterey Bay Education, Science, and Technology Center) was conducted under research application index number 6420 (Project Title: Watts_FONR Cordylanthus Restoration).

Study Species and Site Description {#s2b}
----------------------------------

*Cordylanthus rigidus* ssp. *littoralis* is a hemiparasitic annual forb with a low, branching habit and both axillary and terminal inflorescences. *C.r.l.* is patchily distributed in two areas of Monterey County and about 10 isolated sites in Santa Barbara County, California [@pone.0008892-California2]. More detail is available as supporting information; see [Site and Species Description S1](#pone.0008892.s001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}.

We studied *C.r.l.* at maritime chaparral sites on a former military base (Fort Ord) 6.5 km northeast of Monterey, CA (21--58m elevation). The area has a Mediterranean-type climate, with late fall and winter rain and dry, but cool, foggy summers. Although year-to-year variation is considerable, *C.r.l.* in Monterey County generally germinate in mid-February and begin flowering in mid/late-July through August before senescing by mid-September (*pers obs*). Most other annual plant species have senesced by mid-June at these locations.

We investigated the influence of host proximity, mammalian herbivory, and insect seed predation within two naturally occurring populations of *C.r.l*: 1) the "FONR" population is roughly 4 km from the coast within the 242 ha University of California, Santa Cruz, Fort Ord Natural Reserve, 2) the "MBEST" population is on the property of the UCSC Monterey Bay Education, Science, and Technology Center and 1 km further inland (east) from the FONR population ([Figure S2](#pone.0008892.s003){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). In contrast to the FONR site, MBEST is not fenced, and is bounded on three sides by roads. UC FONR management conducted complete population surveys between 2001 and 2008; the MBEST population had consistently more individuals than the FONR population (these data are presented in supporting information; see [Figure S3](#pone.0008892.s004){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). To investigate potential limitations of fire suppression, exotic species and mammalian herbivory to the establishment of new populations, we used three additional sites within the Fort Ord Natural Reserve that did not include naturally occurring *C.r.l.*, and represented contrasting soil conditions and exotic species dominance (referred to hereafter as FONR "new"; see supporting information [Figure S2](#pone.0008892.s003){ref-type="supplementary-material"}: Sites C, D, and E). Studies were conducted over five years (2003--2007). Parenthetical statements following each subheading below indicate the year(s) and site(s) for each experiment (see [Table 1](#pone-0008892-t001){ref-type="table"} for a list of studies by site).

10.1371/journal.pone.0008892.t001

###### Study descriptions by site and year.

![](pone.0008892.t001){#pone-0008892-t001-1}

  Year       Site      Unit[a](#nt101){ref-type="table-fn"}    N [b](#nt102){ref-type="table-fn"}                           Study Title                                         Main Factor/Treatment
  ------ ------------ -------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------
  2003       FONR                     Indiv.                   85 [c](#nt103){ref-type="table-fn"}                        *Exotic species*                               Exotic species litter depth & cover
  2003      MBEST                     Indiv.                   35 [c](#nt103){ref-type="table-fn"}                        *Exotic species*                               Exotic species litter depth & cover
  2004      MBEST                     Indiv.                   65 [c](#nt103){ref-type="table-fn"}                        *Exotic species*                               Exotic species litter depth & cover
  2004       FONR                  Host/ Indiv.               3,15 [d](#nt104){ref-type="table-fn"}                       *Host proximity*                                     Distance from host shrub
  2004      MBEST                  Host/ Indiv.                               3,15                                        *Host proximity*                                     Distance from host shrub
  2006       FONR                  1 m^2^ patch                               6,25                                     *Mammalian herbivory*                              Caged to exclude herbivores, open
  2007      MBEST                     Indiv.                                  5,10                                    *Insect seed predation*                                     *Bt* spray, water
  2007    FONR "new"    25×25--cm plot, with 25 seeds each    1,10 [e](#nt105){ref-type="table-fn"}   *Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory*         Charate, charcoal, or no soil amendment
  2007    FONR "new"    25×25--cm plot, with 25 seeds each    3,30 [e](#nt105){ref-type="table-fn"}   *Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory*   Cover: Highly Invaded, Moderately Invaded, "Scraped"

Unit of replication. 'Indiv.' = Individual.

'*x*' indicates N with no blocks, '*x*,*y*' indicates 'blocks/treatments, N per block/treatment'.

Total individuals from 17, 7 and 13 transects, respectively.

One transect at FONR contained only 12 *C.r.l.* associated with *Artemisia californica*.

Effects of charate were analyzed across 3 censuses by site and treatment, sites were not replicated, therefore N = 1, 10. Cover estimates were analyzed by site, therefore N = 3, 30.

Inflorescences as a Proxy for Plant Fecundity {#s2c}
---------------------------------------------

Number of inflorescences per plant was used as an indication of reproductive output in *C.r.l.* and was the dependent variable for most of the statistical tests reported below. To justify this proxy, we measured total number of inflorescences, pods per inflorescence, and total weight of all seeds for individuals in the *2006 Insect seed predation* experiment (n = 100; see below). Spearman rank-order correlations indicate significant positive associations between: number of inflorescences and the number of seed pods per individual (*r~s~* = 0.958, df = 98, *P* = 0.01) and number of pods and the total seed weight per individual (*r~s~* = 0.826, df = 98, *P* = 0.01).

Sets of flowers/seed pods separated by less than 4 cm of stem were considered a single inflorescence; this definition made estimates of the number of pods per inflorescence in our studies consistent, given the moderate range of differences in morphology among individuals. Inflorescences reported in all results include only those with filling pods (aborted flowers were ignored).

Host Proximity (2004: FONR and MBEST) {#s2d}
-------------------------------------

To assess the influence of different host shrubs on the performance of *C.r.l.*, we compared growth and reproduction of *C.r.l.* individuals in close association with a single host shrub to individuals greater than 1 m from any woody perennial. *C.r.l.* were located randomly along three approximately 30--m transects per population. We tagged individuals rooted within 0.5 m of a single host species and at least 1 m away from all other shrub species. We also tagged individuals that were rooted at least 1 m from any woody perennial (controls). All tagged *C.r.l.* plants grew in a matrix of exotic annual grasses and forbs. We were only able to infer reduced host access in *C.r.l.* more than 1 m from woody perennials. However, at a distance of 1 m, host shrub roots are more scattered horizontally and the potential that some control individuals may have accessed hosts makes our results more conservative.

For both the FONR and MBEST populations, we assessed the performance of *C.r.l.* associated with California sagebrush, *Artemisia californica* (Less., Asteraceae), the only host shrub available in sufficient numbers at both sites. At MBEST we included coffeeberry, *Rhamnus californica* (Eschsch., Rhamnaceae) and at FONR we included California broom, *Lotus scoparius* ((Nutt.) Ottley, Fabaceae). We have physically documented *C.r.l.* haustorial attachment to the roots of these and other woody perennials at these sites (e.g. *Arctostaphylos* spp., Ericaceae).

At an initial census (15--20 July 2004), we tagged a total of 87 *C.r.l.* (FONR: 12 with *Artemisia*, 15 with *Lotus*, and 15 isolated; MBEST: 15 with *Artemisia*, 15 with *Rhamnus*, and 15 isolated). On 14--15 August 2004, we recorded height and the number of inflorescences for each *C.r.l.*. Data were log-transformed to meet assumptions of normality and analyzed using one-way ANOVAs (for each site) to determine if access to a host and/or host species influenced growth or inflorescence production. Tukey HSD post hoc tests were applied to determine differences in *C.r.l.* growth or reproduction by host.

Mammalian Herbivory (2006: FONR) {#s2e}
--------------------------------

To assess the impact of medium- to large-bodied mammalian herbivores on *C.r.l.*, on 22 April 2006 we selected 20, 1 m^2^ plots with patches of *C.r.l.*. Plots nearest one another were paired and one randomly chosen member of each pair was caged (2.1 m deer fence, 2.5 cm mesh); the other was left un-caged. Each plot had a 50 cm buffer (i.e. total area was 2×2 m). The mesh size of the fencing effectively excluded black-tailed deer (*Odocoileus hemionus*, Cervidae), brush rabbits (*Sylvilagus bachmani*, Leporidae), dusky-footed woodrats (*Neotoma fuscipes*, Cricetidae), California ground squirrels (*Spermophilus beecheyi*, Sciuridae), but would have allowed access to harvest mice (*Reithrodontomys* spp., Cricetidae), California voles (*Microtus californicus*, Cricetidae), brush mice (*Peromyscus boylii*, Cricetidae), California mice (*Peromyscus californicus*) and deer mice (*Peromyscus maniculatus*). Because fencing was not buried, pocket gophers (*Thomomys bottae*, Geomyidae) were able to access exclosures via tunnels.

Within each 1 m^2^ plot, 25 *C.r.l.* individuals were randomly chosen and measured at a final census (8 August 2006). Maximum height and width (height x width was used to estimate vertical area), the number of stems grazed by mammals (clear from sharp, angular cut ends of stems) and the number of inflorescences were recorded for each individual. Data for damaged stems were log-transformed to meet assumptions of normality, the remaining data met parametric assumptions; all were analyzed with paired *t*-tests.

Due to high natural mortality in both caged and open plots, dead individuals were recorded as such, and the nearest living previously unmeasured *C.r.l.* was measured as a replacement (unless the plot had fewer than 25 total *C.r.l.* individuals). To assess mortality we also counted the total number of *C.r.l.* in each 1 m^2^ plot. The proportion of *C.r.l.* surviving to the final census was arcsine transformed (angular transform) and analyzed with paired *t*-tests.

Insect Seed Predation (2006: MBEST) {#s2f}
-----------------------------------

Senesced *C.r.l.* showed considerable seed predation by moth larvae (*Clepsis* sp., Tortricidae). On 3 August 2006 at the peak of flowering and prior to fruit development, 10 pairs of *C.r.l.* individuals were marked in each of five blocks (roughly 10×10 m areas) within the MBEST population (for a total of 100 *C.r.l.*). We then sprayed a randomly chosen member of each pair with *Bacillus thuringiensis* var. *kurstaki* (*Bt*, a lepidopteran specific insecticide) to determine the impact of moth larvae on *C.r.l.* seed set. The *Bt* spray consisted of Safer® Brand "Caterpillar Killer" mixed to specifications -- 9.8 mL of concentrate per gallon (concentrate: 32 billion IU of potency per 3.8L). The other *C.r.l.* of each pair was sprayed with water as a procedural control. We sprayed each inflorescence and the entire plant until thoroughly wet. We reapplied treatments on August 4, 8, and 25.

By 29 August most *C.r.l.* individuals were senescing, so we recorded height and width and collected all individuals by cutting them at ground level. Insect damage was clear from ∼1 mm holes in flowers/pods, frass, silk webbing or the larvae themselves; pods showing this type of damage lost all seeds to the larvae. For each individual we recorded the total number of seed pods and the proportion of seed pods damaged per plant. Data concerning proportions of pods damaged were arcsine transformed and analyzed using two-way ANOVAs with block and treatment (e.g. *Bt*) as main effects.

Exotic Species (2003: FONR and MBEST ; 2004: MBEST) {#s2g}
---------------------------------------------------

In July of 2003 and 2004, we set 30--m transects, 15 m apart in natural populations of *C.r.l.*. Five 1 m^2^ quadrats were distributed randomly along each 30--m transect. Within each quadrat we recorded *C.r.l.* presence/absence, exotic grass cover (predominately lodged exotic grasses), and litter depth in cm (average of three depths). In 2003, we censused 17 transects at MBEST and seven at FONR between 6 July and 25 August. In 2004, we censused 13 transects between 23 July and 10 August in the MBEST population. Cover data were arcsine transformed and analyzed with binary logistic regression. Nagelkerke *R* ^2^ was used; this version of the Cox and Snell *R* ^2^ extends the possible range of values to 1.

Fire Suppression, Exotic Species X Mammalian Herbivory (2007: FONR "new") {#s2h}
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Some chaparral plants, particularly annuals, use chemical cues to time germination with post-fire conditions. Application of charate (charred and ground chaparral shrub stems) improves germination of many chaparral annuals [@pone.0008892-Keeley1] and can be an important management alternative in fire-adapted communities near human development. To test whether *C.r.l.* is sensitive to germination cues from charate we conducted this experiment at three, 20×14--m areas of FONR that lacked both *C.r.l.* and woody shrub species.

On 8 October 2006, stems (\<1 cm diameter) from *Rhamnus californica* individuals at the FONR site were collected and baked in a drying oven at 175°C for 75 min (adapted from [@pone.0008892-Keeley2]). Baked stems were ground with a Wiley Mill (1 mm screen) to yield 1.25 kg of charate. As a procedural control for the simple addition of organic matter, the same amount of Kingsford ® brand regular charcoal (i.e. no lighter fluid) was ground to the same specifications. To provide a preliminary assessment of herbivore pressure, we erected cages on half of each of the three sites (10×14--m fenced areas, 2.1 m deer fence, 2.5cm mesh). We then marked 15, 25×25--cm plots inside and outside of each exclosure ([Figure 1](#pone-0008892-g001){ref-type="fig"}).

![*2007 Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory* design (not to scale).\
Solid lines indicate caged area, dashed lines indicate un-caged area, and dotted lines indicate 25×25--cm plots. Twenty-five *C.r.l.* seed were evenly sown in each plot and C, PC, and T indicate the distribution of each treatment (control, procedural control, or charate).](pone.0008892.g001){#pone-0008892-g001}

On 19 November 2006, 25 *C.r.l.* seeds (sorted with dissecting scopes to remove aborted seed) were sown in each plot for a total of 750 seeds per site. Prior to sowing, duff was clipped to 0.5cm height and removed. On 20 November 2006 five plots inside and outside each exclosure at these three sites received one of the following treatments: nothing (control; C), 25 g charcoal (procedural control; PC) or 25 g charate (treatment; T; [Figure 1](#pone-0008892-g001){ref-type="fig"}).

On 14 December 2006, we estimated percent cover of each of the following categories for each plot: exotic species, native species, bare ground, and litter (total = 100%). Cover data were arcsine transformed and analyzed using a Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test. Tamhane\'s post hoc test was applied to determine which sites differed with regard to cover in each category.

We recorded *C.r.l.* germination and survivorship at monthly censuses: 24 February, 22 March, and 21 April. As the focus of this experiment was on recruitment limitations, the numbers of *C.r.l.* surviving to each census are presented. Data met parametric assumptions and repeated-measures ANOVA was used to determine the effect of charate over the course of the three censuses (within-subjects: census; between subjects: site and/or treatment).

The charate experiment was conducted at three sites at FONR with contrasting conditions: 1) *Highly Invaded*- dominated by invasive grass; few native species (e.g. *Lupinus* spp.), 2) *Moderately Invaded*- high density of invasives, but good representation of native annuals, 3) *"Scraped"*- topsoil previously removed from this site during military activity, exposing sandy, under-developed soil and resulting in low productivity and species diversity. Although site conditions were not replicated, this design allowed for a preliminary assessment of the interaction between several factors: herbivore pressure, soil development (*"Scraped"*), and invasive exotic plant species (esp. annual grasses). We report mean numbers of *C.r.l.* per plot (out of 25 seeds sown per plot) by site and exclosure.

Results {#s3}
=======

Host Proximity (2004: FONR and MBEST) {#s3a}
-------------------------------------

At FONR, the number of inflorescences did not differ among *C.r.l* plants growing next to *Lotus scoparius*, *Artemisia californica,* or controls (*F* ~2,39~ = 0.302, *P* = 0.741; [Figure 2](#pone-0008892-g002){ref-type="fig"}). At MBEST, in contrast, *C.r.l.* growing near *A. californica* and those near *Rhamnus californica* produced significantly more inflorescences than controls (*F* ~2,42~ = 12.793, *P*\<0.001; see [Table 2](#pone-0008892-t002){ref-type="table"} for post hoc tests). On average at MBEST, *C.r.l.* growing near *R. californica* produced three times as many inflorescences as those *C.r.l.* without hosts and twice as many as those near *A. californica* (although at *P* = 0.05 this difference was marginal).

![*2004 Host Proximity* results.\
Mean number of inflorescences for no-host (control) *C.r.l.*s and those within 0.5 m of perennial hosts: *A. californica*, *L. scoparius*, *R. californica*. Open bars = FONR, Filled bars = MBEST. Error bars are 95% C.I.s. Bars not sharing lowercase letters are significantly different within sites. Note: Difference between *A. californica* and control at MBEST is only marginally significant. Also, raw data are shown here; however, analyses were performed on log transformed data.](pone.0008892.g002){#pone-0008892-g002}

10.1371/journal.pone.0008892.t002

###### *2004 Host proximity*: Tukey HSD post hoc tests for differences in natural log of the number of inflorescences by host (sites were analyzed separately).

![](pone.0008892.t002){#pone-0008892-t002-2}

  Site     \(I\) Host    \(J\) Host    Mean Diff. (I-J)      *P* [a](#nt106){ref-type="table-fn"}
  ------- ------------- ------------- ------------------ --------------------------------------------
  FONR       Control       *Lotus*         −0.2065                          0.732
                         *Artemisia*       −0.0576                          0.978
  FONR     *Artemisia*     Control          0.0576                          0.978
                           *Lotus*         −0.1489                          0.865
  FONR       *Lotus*       Control          0.2065                          0.732
                         *Artemisia*        0.1489                          0.865
  MBEST      Control      *Rhamnus*        −1.0603                       **\<0.001**
                         *Artemisia*       −0.5515                        **0.031**
  MBEST    *Artemisia*     Control          0.5515                        **0.031**
                          *Rhamnus*        −0.5088        **0.050** [b](#nt107){ref-type="table-fn"}
  MBEST     *Rhamnus*      Control          1.0603                       **\<0.001**
                         *Artemisia*        0.5088        **0.050** [b](#nt107){ref-type="table-fn"}

**Bold** indicates mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Mean difference is marginally significant at the 0.05 level.

Differences in plant height relative to host proximity were more pronounced than those for inflorescences, but with a similar pattern. In contrast to the inflorescence results, plant heights at FONR differed among *C.r.l* plants growing next to *L. scoparius*, *A. californica,* and controls (*F* ~2,39~ = 3.492, *P* = 0.04; see [Table 3](#pone-0008892-t003){ref-type="table"} for post hoc tests); post hoc tests show that differences in *C.r.l.* growth were restricted to those growing near *L. scoparius*. At MBEST, *C.r.l.* near *R. californica* grew significantly taller than either controls or those growing near *A. californica*; control *C.r.l.* did not differ from those growing near *A. californica* (*F* ~2,42~ = 11.421, *P*\<0.001; see [Table 3](#pone-0008892-t003){ref-type="table"}).

10.1371/journal.pone.0008892.t003

###### *2004 Host proximity*: Tukey HSD post hoc tests for differences in natural log of height by host (sites were analyzed separately).

![](pone.0008892.t003){#pone-0008892-t003-3}

  Site     \(I\) Host    \(J\) Host    Mean Diff. (I-J)   *P* [a](#nt108){ref-type="table-fn"}
  ------- ------------- ------------- ------------------ --------------------------------------
  FONR       Control       *Lotus*         −4.7267                     **0.039**
                         *Artemisia*       −1.1483                       0.830
  FONR     *Artemisia*     Control          1.1483                       0.830
                           *Lotus*         −3.5783                       0.177
  FONR       *Lotus*       Control          4.7267                     **0.039**
                         *Artemisia*        3.5783                       0.177
  MBEST      Control      *Rhamnus*        −15.5867                   **\<0.001**
                         *Artemisia*       −6.9267                       0.098
  MBEST    *Artemisia*     Control          6.9267                       0.098
                          *Rhamnus*        −8.6600                     **0.030**
  MBEST     *Rhamnus*      Control         15.5867                    **\<0.001**
                         *Artemisia*        8.6600                     **0.030**

**Bold** indicates mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Mammalian Herbivory (2006: FONR) {#s3b}
--------------------------------

Several plots (both fenced and unfenced) were invaded by pocket gophers that killed *C.r.l.* through both tunneling and mound production. Plots with more than 5% cover of pocket gopher mounds were dropped from the analysis, along with their paired plots (four pairs excluded). Paired *t*-tests of the remaining six paired plots showed that *C.r.l.* were on average 2.1 times larger (cm^2^) with 2.3 times the number of inflorescences in caged than in open plots (cm^2^: *t* = −3.514, df = 5, *P* = 0.017; total inflorescences: *t* = −4.445, df = 5, *P* = 0.007; [Figure 3A and B](#pone-0008892-g003){ref-type="fig"}).

![*2006 Mammalian Herbivory* results.\
**A** Size (height×width: cm^2^) of open (exposed) vs. exclosure individuals. **B** Number of inflorescences produced by open vs. exclosure individuals. Error bars are 95% C.I.s.](pone.0008892.g003){#pone-0008892-g003}

We did not formally control for cage effects in our design, however, caging would be expected to increase inter-/intraspecific competition, yielding smaller and less productive individuals; the opposite occurred. Mortality was not significantly greater in caged vs. open plots (Mortality: *t* = −0.828, df = 5, *P* = 0.446). Finally, differences in mean size and number of inflorescences was observed as a direct result of grazing by mammals as the number of clipped stems was greater in caged than in open plots (Clipped Stems: *t* = 2.687, df = 5, *P* = 0.043).

Insect Seed Predation (2006: MBEST) {#s3c}
-----------------------------------

The *Bt* solution reduced the proportion of *C.r.l.* pods damaged by insects by 12.5% (39.6%±0.10 SE vs. 27.1%±0.12 SE damaged pods; *F* ~1,4~ = 8.424, *P* = 0.005), there were no significant differences among blocks (*F* ~1,4~ = 1.089, *P* = 0.367) and no block x treatment interaction (*F* ~1,4~ = 2.295, *P* = 0.065). This translated directly to increased seed production because infested pods lost all seed to the larvae and there was no difference between control and *Bt* plants in the number of pods per plant (mean: 68.3±7.2 pods/plant; Control vs. *Bt* plants: *F* ~1,4~ = 0.107, *P* = 0.744).

Exotic Species (2003: FONR and MBEST; 2004: MBEST) {#s3d}
--------------------------------------------------

At MBEST, *C.r.l.* presence was negatively correlated with litter depth in both years and with exotic grass cover in 2003 ([Table 4](#pone-0008892-t004){ref-type="table"}). At FONR, which was only censused in 2003, *C.r.l.* presence was not correlated with either litter depth or grass cover. Significant correlations between *C.r.l.* presence and either factor had relatively low *R* ^2^ values, which likely reflects the combined influence of a number of other factors not measured here, including host availability and soil characteristics.

10.1371/journal.pone.0008892.t004

###### *2003/04 Exotic species*: Results of binary logistic regression between *C.r.l.* presence and average leaf litter depth or arcsine percent grass cover.

![](pone.0008892.t004){#pone-0008892-t004-4}

  Factor    Site    Year   n    Constant [a](#nt109){ref-type="table-fn"}   Slope    *R* ^2^      *P*
  -------- ------- ------ ---- ------------------------------------------- -------- --------- -----------
  Litter    MBEST   2003   85                     0.388                     −0.810    0.139    **0.022**
            MBEST   2004   65                     0.518                     −0.125    0.146    **0.024**
            FONR    2003   35                     0.275                     −0.035    0.026      0.419
  Grass     MBEST   2003   85                     0.868                     −0.045    0.172    **0.003**
            MBEST   2004   65                    −0.561                     0.005     0.002      0.746
            FONR    2003   35                    −0.574                     0.020     0.029      0.391

Equation: **ln \[p/(1-p)\]** ***C.r.l.*** **presence** = ***α*** **+** ***β*** **(litter/grass)**, where **p** = probability of *C.r.l.* presence, ***α*** = constant and ***β*** = slope. Nagelkerke ***R*** **^2^**, significant ***P***-values in **bold**; df = 1.

Fire Suppression, Exotic Species X Mammalian Herbivory (2007: FONR "new") {#s3e}
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Cover data support our Highly Invaded, Moderately Invaded, and "Scraped" site characterizations (see [Table 5](#pone-0008892-t005){ref-type="table"} and [Figure 4](#pone-0008892-g004){ref-type="fig"}). All three sites differed with regard to exotic species cover (*X* ^2^ = 56.91, df = 2, *P*\<0.001). The "Scraped" site had significantly more bare ground than the other two sites, which did not differ from each other (*X* ^2^ = 44.20, df = 2, *P*\<0.001). The Moderately Invaded site had significantly greater native species cover than the other two sites, which did not differ from each other (*X* ^2^ = 31.03, df = 2, *P*\<0.001). Finally, due to our clipping and duff removal, there were no significant differences in litter cover among sites (*X* ^2^ = 3.34, df = 2, *P*\<0.188).

![*2007 Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory* cover estimates.\
Mean percent cover by category for each "new" site: "Scraped" (no fill), Moderately Invaded (light gray fill) and Highly Invaded (dark gray fill). Error bars are 95% C.I.s. Bars not sharing lowercase letters are significantly different within cover categories.](pone.0008892.g004){#pone-0008892-g004}

10.1371/journal.pone.0008892.t005

###### *2007 Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory*: Tamhane\'s post hoc tests for differences in arcsine percent cover of exotic species, bare ground, native species, and litter by site.

![](pone.0008892.t005){#pone-0008892-t005-5}

  Cover Type     \(I\) Site   \(J\) Site   Mean Diff. (I-J)   *P* [a](#nt110){ref-type="table-fn"}
  ------------- ------------ ------------ ------------------ --------------------------------------
  Exotic Spp.    H. Invaded   M. Invaded       14.18226                   **\<0.001**
                              "Scraped"        32.48098                   **\<0.001**
  Exotic Spp.    M. Invaded   H. Invaded      −14.18226                   **\<0.001**
                              "Scraped"        18.29872                   **\<0.001**
  Exotic Spp.    "Scraped"    H. Invaded      −32.48098                   **\<0.001**
                              M. Invaded      −18.29872                   **\<0.001**
  Bare Ground    H. Invaded   M. Invaded       −7.34022                    **0.154**
                              "Scraped"       −31.17642                   **\<0.001**
  Bare Ground    M. Invaded   H. Invaded       7.34022                       0.154
                              "Scraped"       −23.83620                   **\<0.001**
  Bare Ground    "Scraped"    H. Invaded       31.17642                   **\<0.001**
                              M. Invaded       23.83620                   **\<0.001**
  Native Spp.    H. Invaded   M. Invaded       −7.68977                   **\<0.001**
                              "Scraped"        1.36915                       0.670
  Native Spp.    M. Invaded   H. Invaded       7.68977                    **\<0.001**
                              "Scraped"        9.05892                    **\<0.001**
  Native Spp.    "Scraped"    H. Invaded       −1.36915                      0.670
                              M. Invaded       −9.05892                   **\<0.001**
  Litter         H. Invaded   M. Invaded       −4.64700                      0.128
                              "Scraped"        −2.50744                      0.589
  Litter         M. Invaded   H. Invaded       4.64700                       0.128
                              "Scraped"        2.13957                       0.787
  Litter         "Scraped"    H. Invaded       2.50744                       0.589
                              M. Invaded       −2.13957                      0.787

**Bold** indicates mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

The Highly Invaded area was dropped from statistical analyses as there was no recruitment of *C.r.l.* in these plots (out of 750 seeds sown). At the two locations that did experience some recruitment (Moderately Invaded and "Scraped"), charate application did not significantly increase germination (RMANOVA charate: *F* ~2,54~ = 1.031, *P* = 0.363; [Figure 5](#pone-0008892-g005){ref-type="fig"}). However, the data ([Table 6](#pone-0008892-t006){ref-type="table"}) suggest that the addition of organic matter (charate or charcoal) may have improved *C.r.l.* recruitment at the "Scraped," but not the Moderately Invaded site.

![*2007 Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory* results.\
Mean number of *C.r.l.* individuals per plot at each site (Highly Invaded, Moderately Invaded and "Scraped") under charate treatments: control (no fill), procedural control (light gray fill), and charate (dark gray fill). Error bars are 95% C.I.s.](pone.0008892.g005){#pone-0008892-g005}

10.1371/journal.pone.0008892.t006

###### *2007 Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory*: Mean number of *C.r.l.* per plot surviving to the final census at each site (FONR 2007) by treatment; "*n*" for each row indicates plot sub-samples within each site (see [Figure 1](#pone-0008892-g001){ref-type="fig"}).

![](pone.0008892.t006){#pone-0008892-t006-6}

                        Moderately Invaded   "Scraped"
  --------------- ---- -------------------- -----------
  Control (C)      10       2.10±0.60        2.77±0.34
  Charcoal (PC)    10       2.03±0.38        4.33±0.45
  Charate (T)      10       2.30±0.38        4.30±0.65
  Open             15       2.51±0.35        3.09±0.36
  Exclosure        15       1.78±0.39        4.51±0.45
  Total            30       2.14±0.26        3.80±0.29

Although the three competitive environments were not replicated, it is worth noting that there was no recruitment of *C.r.l.* at the Highly Invaded area. Independent of any effects of exclosures or charate, germination and recruitment success were greater at the "Scraped" area, despite the lack of soil development, than at the Moderately Invaded area ([Table 6](#pone-0008892-t006){ref-type="table"}) and survivorship through the season remained higher at the "Scraped" site than at the Moderately Invaded site ([Figure 6](#pone-0008892-g006){ref-type="fig"}).

![*2007 Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory* results.\
Mean number of *C.r.l.* individuals per plot at each area through 2007 season: "Scraped" (no fill), Moderately Invaded (light gray fill) and Highly Invaded (dark gray fill). Error bars are SE for each census.](pone.0008892.g006){#pone-0008892-g006}

Discussion {#s4}
==========

*C.r.l.* reproduction is enormously variable from year-to-year and site-to-site, with seed production varying from zero to as many as ten thousand seeds per plant (see supporting information [Figure S3](#pone.0008892.s004){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). The boom years of seed production, however, do not necessarily mean success as seed viability and germination rates appear to be extremely low -- from zero germination (out of 750 seeds) in the Highly Invaded site to 17.8%±2.77 SE mean germination in the scraped site (under laboratory conditions we found even lower seed viability: 2.8%±0.89 SE; see supporting information [Site and Species Description S1](#pone.0008892.s001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). This combination of potentially high rates of reproduction with rare success means that the recovery of this endangered California species will require mitigating the factors limiting *C.r.l.* recruitment and, by extension, the establishment of new populations.

Our field studies show that host availability and herbivory, among several other factors, impact *C.r.l.* growth and reproduction at FONR and MBEST. Although we cannot be certain that the control *C.r.l.* had no access to host shrubs, close proximity to *Rhamnus*, in particular, tended to triple the reproduction of *C.r.l.* compared to *C.r.l.* without nearby hosts ([Figure 2](#pone-0008892-g002){ref-type="fig"}); proximity to *Artemisia californica* had a similar effect, but it was not quite as dramatic. It is notable that hosts were found to significantly improve *C.r.l.* reproduction at MBEST, but not at FONR. As discussed below, it is possible that mammalian herbivory could modify the benefits of host proximity. Even *C.r.l.* that have access to hosts and survive or tolerate mammalian herbivory may lose up to 40% of their seeds to *Clepsis* larvae, which could limit *C.r.l*. \'s ability to replenish the seed bank for the following growing season. The results of the charate experiment, in contrast, suggest that *C.r.l.* germination, at least, does not require the chemical cues that would result from fire.

Combined conclusions of the two studies of exotic species competition and litter deposition (2003/04 *Exotic species*, 2007 *Fire suppression, Exotic species x Mammalian herbivory*) suggest that these factors might be important in exacerbating other threats to *C.r.l.* populations; especially considering the contrasting results from one year to the next and between sites. Given that the three contrasting sites for the 2007 study were not replicated and that there are likely other factors involved, the mechanism of complete germination suppression in the Highly Invaded site is unclear. Although, litter and germinating plants were clipped and removed from the plots when *C.r.l.* were sown, re-growth and recruitment of exotic plants was very rapid in the Highly and Moderately Invaded sites (comprising approximately 62% and 39% cover for each site, respectively, in less than a month; see [Figure 4](#pone-0008892-g004){ref-type="fig"}), so it is possible that any germinants at the Highly Invaded site may have died during the interval between censuses. The relatively few *C.r.l.* that manage to access hosts benefit from reduced summer competition, however, *C.r.l.* competes as an annual among the rapidly growing exotics from its relatively late germination in February through June. The role of exotic species now warrants more finely tuned manipulative experiments to investigate the influence of litter on germination and direct competition from exotic species on growth.

Until further research is done on exotic species and interactions among the threats to *C.r.l.*, we can provisionally recommend several management principles for *C.r.l.*. First, with so few natural populations of *C.r.l.*, it is critical that additional populations be established to reduce extinction risk. This is a particularly urgent need as the MBEST site (with more *C.r.l.*) is not currently protected by the network of habitat reserves. *C.r.l.* seed should, therefore, be collected in "good years," and reserve managers might consider targeted applications of *Bt* to reduce seed predation and promote individual fecundity in "bad years". Collecting seeds is important for the establishment of new *C.r.l.* populations because its seeds have no apparent secondary dispersal ability and most fall a short distance from the parent plant -- much reducing the likelihood of natural establishment, especially given the fragmentation of California coastal habitats. Tentatively, we recommend attempts to manage invasive annual species using a range of techniques and across several sites in FONR, followed by studies to determine best practices for establishment of new *C.r.l.* populations in these areas from seed. If seeds and other resources are limited, we would suggest that these studies focus on establishment near *Rhamnus californica*, as being near it, in particular, appears to improve fecundity.

In the absence of the studies reported here and additional experiments, management efforts aimed at *C.r.l.* are well-intentioned guesses. There is still much we do not know about longer term and broader spatial scale population processes at work in this system, but the studies we report can suggest hypotheses to test more explicitly. For example, while caging is an obvious management tool, our 2006 mammalian herbivory exclosures showed no negative cage effects in natural populations, whereas our attempts to establish new populations (2007 Fire/Exotics/Herbivory) suggest this may not apply outside of these naturally occurring patches (see also supporting information site photos [Figure S4](#pone.0008892.s005){ref-type="supplementary-material"}).

The next step in our research is to better explore the role of exotic species and to pursue factorial experiments that simultaneously manipulate multiple limiting factors. Extant *C.r.l.* populations are often found in open scrub where they benefit from lower competition, while maintaining access to host shrubs ([Figure S5](#pone.0008892.s006){ref-type="supplementary-material"} and [S6](#pone.0008892.s007){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). However, in such patchy shrub habitats *C.r.l.* are subject to exotic-species invasion (relative to closed canopy shrub habitats; [@pone.0008892-Keeley3]). Furthermore, we do not know how the benefits of host proximity relate to the potential for greater herbivore pressure from small mammals sheltering in shrubs (see [@pone.0008892-Bartholomew1]). Ironically, the lack of reserve protection for mammals at MBEST may help explain the consistent differences between MBEST and FONR in the abundance and performance of *C.r.l.*. Finally, there are several categories of factors that we were not able to assess, particularly the limitations imposed by soil characteristics, such as pH and moisture. The influence of these factors would be amenable to investigation in the same manner as our current set of studies.

The total budget for the research reported here was under \$12000, including stipends and conference travel for the three undergraduate coauthors of this paper. This highlights the utility of even small-scale quantitative assessments of threats to endangered species, when a modest investment can yield some clear experimental evidence and otherwise point to gaps in our current understanding [@pone.0008892-Sutherland1].

While there are many challenges to recovering *C.r.l.*, the fact that individual plants can produce huge numbers of seeds suggests that this species has an excellent chance of survival if we implement an evidence based recovery program.

Supporting Information {#s5}
======================

######

(0.04 MB DOC)

######

Click here for additional data file.

######

Photo of *C.r.l.* haustoria. Four attachment points of *C.r.l.* haustoria (lighter root) on root of *Arctostaphylos* sp. (manzanita- a woody shrub, Ericaceae).

(2.11 MB TIF)

######

Click here for additional data file.

######

Map of study sites. Inset displays Santa Cruz and Monterey County (blue area in California map) and FONR (blue area in Monterey County). Extent of aerial view is boxed in inset. Eastern portion of FONR is outlined in black in aerial view. White-line polygons trace the extent of two natural populations **A** FONR and **B** MBEST. Three "new" sites are indicated as follows: **C** Highly Invaded, **D** Moderately Invaded and **E** "Scraped." These five sites (two natural and three "new") lie roughly within latitude 36°40′N to 36°41′N and longitude 121°45′W to 121°46′W.

(4.17 MB TIF)

######

Click here for additional data file.

######

Plot of *C.r.l.* surveys and precipitation at FONR and MBEST. Surveys were conducted by UC FONR management in late spring 2001 - 2008 and include the total number of individuals in each population. Climate data were compiled by Carl Thormeyer from his residence in Marina, CA.

(7.95 MB TIF)

######

Click here for additional data file.

######

Photo from outside of exclosure at Moderately Invaded site. Note the difference in species composition: darker stems on the left - within the exclosure - are *Rumex acetosella* (Polygonaceae), an exotic species.

(10.19 MB TIF)

######

Click here for additional data file.

######

FONR Natural Population. Photo of maritime chaparral and oak woodland ecotone of the FONR natural population. Note caged and un-caged plots (middle ground) for *2006 Mammalian herbivory*. Corners of plots marked with blue flags.

(6.62 MB TIF)

######

Click here for additional data file.

######

MBEST Natural Population. Photo of open maritime chaparral habitat of the MBEST natural population. Note *C.r.l.* near base of shrubs.

(9.80 MB TIF)

######

Click here for additional data file.

We would like to thank Maggie Fusari, Sean McStay, Graham Bice, Gage Dayton, Laurel Fox at UC FONR for species lists and suggestions; Patti Kreiberg at Sunset Coast Nursery for native plants and Carl Thormeyer for weather data; and Melanie Gogol-Prokurat at the California Department of Fish and Game for permitting. Thanks also to J. Reimer, K. Stasun, R. Alexander, C. Melisi, C. Hagerty, K. Ferron, E. Purner, E. Storelli, M. Bezanson for field and lab work. Special thanks to Annika Martinsson for her work on the 2003 exotic species study. SMW thanks Michelle Marvier, Peter Kareiva and his parents.

**Competing Interests:**The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

**Funding:**This work was funded by internal grants from Santa Clara University (<http://www.scu.edu/>; fund numbers: 14007, 14009 and 14015 to SMW). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

[^1]: Conceived and designed the experiments: SMW MMU SMM EEN. Performed the experiments: SMW MMU SMM EEN. Analyzed the data: SMW. Wrote the paper: SMW. Contributed to drafting: MMU SMM EEN.


In order to fight obesity, the CDC argues for resisting portion size inflation.

Research has shown that the bigger your plate, the likelier it is you'll overeat. The same logic may apply to fast food, where according to a new infographic by the Centers for Disease Control, portion sizes for popular items have increased dramatically since the 1950s.

Since the dawn of the Cold War, the volume of an order of french fries has grown 180 percent. The weight of the average burger has more than tripled. And get this -- sodas are six times larger than they were back in the days of "I Love Lucy."

CDC

We want to hear what you think about this article. Submit a letter to the editor or write to letters@theatlantic.com.


A systematic literature review: prescribing indicators related to type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular risk management.
Valid prescribing indicators (PI) are needed for reliable assessment of prescribing quality. The purpose of this study is to describe the validity of existing PI for type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular risk management. We conducted a systematic literature search for studies describing the development and assessment of relevant PIs between January 1990 and January 2009. We grouped identified PI as drug- or disease-oriented, and according to the aspects of prescribing addressed and the additional clinical information included. We reviewed the clinimetric characteristics of the different types of PI. We identified 59 documents describing the clinimetrics of 16 types of PI covering relevant prescribing aspects, including first-choice treatment, safety issues, dosing, costs, sufficient and timely treatment. We identified three types of drug-oriented, and five types of disease-oriented PI with proven face and content validity as well as operational feasibility in different settings. PI focusing on treatment modifications were the only indicators that showed concurrent validity. Several solutions were proposed for dealing with case-mix and sample size problems, but their actual effect on PI scores was insufficiently assessed. Predictive validity of individual PI is not yet known. We identified a range of existing PI that are valid for internal quality assessment as they are evidence-based, accepted by professionals, and reliable. For external use, problems of patient case-mix and sample size per PI should be better addressed. Further research is needed for selecting indicators that predict clinical outcomes.


Q:

Keep NaN values using apply and lambda in python

I am working with python and I have a list of value in column A including some NaN values.
I need to code them as 1 and 0 depending if they are above or below the median (0.4). I've tried the code below which is working fairly well
df["A_median"] = (df["A"].apply(lambda count: 0 if count<median_a else 1))

But it is giving me the NaN values as 1 instead of keeping them.
  A   A_median
36.6  1
NaN   1
NaN   1
0.1   0

The final table instead should be as follow
  A   A_median
36.6  1
NaN   NaN
NaN   NaN
7     0

Any idea on how I can fix this?
Thanks

A:

Is it:
median_a = 0.4
df['A_median'] = (df['A'] > median_a).where(df.A.notna())

Output:
      A  A_median
0  36.6       1.0
1   NaN       NaN
2   NaN       NaN
3   0.1       0.0


Q:

Waterproofing a basement before finishing it

So I currently own a home to which I would like to finish off the basement in the near future. Currently the basement is just concrete with cinder block walls on the outside.  I have a normal sump pump in the corner like most places.  I know in the past, the previous owner had light cracks in the cinder block walls, as there is evidence of patching the walls with cement. For the time that I have lived in this house (about half a year only) I have never had any water problems at all. The only thing noticed during the home inspection was that the moisture was a little high on one side of the basement, but not an actual leak.
Anyways, my question is what is the most recommended way to solve this to prevent future problems? I do know there are channel type systems like the squidgee (http:\www.waterproof.com) but I have heard mixed reviews about drilling holes into your walls, similar to drilling holes into a boat to better protect it.  I do know that I will need to build my walls about a foot or so away from the cinder block walls. So should I invest into a system like the one I showed? If I haven't had any water problems, should I do nothing? Or are there outside options I should look into? I would definitely not like to tear up my yard.
I am not asking for specific brands or anything as I imagine that is off topic, but just general methods that are recommended and reasoning as to why.

A:

Always start outside, where the water is. If you're even slightly up-hill in any direction that doesn't affect another property. Then, Grading & Sculpting the land will never be outdone by any other system & it's free to operate with no maintenance in your lifetime. No back up battery, no back flushing & no worry.
Other than that, where you have no drainage area or direction then still treat the outside to keep the building dry & especially free from being eroded. Handling water after it comes in means you're only collecting it after it's done it's damage. Would you wash & wax your car that was run over by a trash truck?


World's Coolest Winery Features

We’ve been taking a look at the design of wineries around the world over these past few weeks from a rather holistic point of view. The truth is that almost every winery is designed with some aesthetic, some just resonate more with me and some are just simply a better expression of that aesthetic.

So what of the rest? Well, today I just want to look at the cool bits and pieces. Some of these are fairly iconic elements of their wineries, some are famous, but all of them make you want to visit!

So without further ado, here’s what makes a winery cool. Put them all together and I think you end up with Las Vegas!


Q:

Updating a CouchDB document in nano

I need to get a document, change/insert/delete some fields and put it back.
The "put" action requires the current revision of the document, but in nano I cannot find any function which takes a revision as a parameter and inserts the document back into the database.
How can I do this with nano?

A:

Note: This is the general algorithm, it is not specific to any library since nano's insert() method doesn't offer anything automated for updating documents.
Get the document, save the current revision, apply your changes and try to send the document with the saved revision number.
Make sure to handle possible 409 conflict responses which occur when a document was altered meanwhile.
In that case you should refetch the document, save the revision number, reapply your changes and then try to send it again with the new revision.
So here is the algorithm:

Get document
Save the _rev
Apply changes
Try to send updated document with saved _rev
Go to step 1 in case of a 409

Checkout the CouchDB HTTP Document API's PUT section and CouchDB's Replication and Conflicts wiki page for more information on that matter. You may also find How To Update A Document With Nano (The CouchDB Client for Node.js) helpful.


Gene expression of DNA topoisomerases I, II alpha and II beta and response to cisplatin-based chemotherapy in advanced ovarian carcinoma.
DNA topoisomerases, nuclear enzymes that regulate DNA topology, are recognized as the primary targets of effective anti-tumor drugs. These enzymes may also have a role in the repair of DNA damage induced by alkylating agents and platinum compounds; therefore, their expression may be a determinant of tumor response to chemotherapy. Our study was undertaken in an attempt to establish a correlation between the enzyme expression and response of ovarian cancer to cisplatin-based chemotherapy. The expression of topoisomerase I, II alpha and II beta genes was assessed by RNase protection assay in tumor specimens obtained from 37 untreated patients with advanced epithelial ovarian cancer at initial surgery and from 13 pre-treated patients at subsequent laparotomy. The expression levels were compared with those found in 5 specimens from benign ovarian tissue and 5 specimens from normal ovarian tissue. The expression levels in untreated patients were used to establish a correlation with response to high-dose cisplatin therapy. A significant intertumor variability of mRNA expression was noted for all the genes examined. However, a comparison of median values indicated a remarkable increase of expression in malignant tumors over benign or normal tissues only for topoisomerase II alpha. This change is not related to alterations or amplification of topoisomerase II alpha gene. Interestingly, a correlation was found between tumor response to chemotherapy and the expression level of the isoform alpha (but not of topoisomerase II beta and topoisomerase I). The observed correlation suggests a contribution of the enzyme in determining tumor sensitivity. Alternatively, increased expression levels of the alpha isoenzyme gene in responsive tumors might reflect higher fractions of proliferating tumor cells that may be more drug-sensitive than resting cells.


Larry Playfair

Larry William Playfair (born June 23, 1958 in Fort St. James, British Columbia) is a retired professional ice hockey player with a reputation as a hard-working, pugnacious defender. He played for the Buffalo Sabres and Los Angeles Kings in the NHL and he has worked as a color analyst for Sabres television broadcasts since his 1990 retirement due to chronic back problems. His younger brother Jim Playfair shares a lot of the same characteristics - both were drafted in the first round of the NHL Entry Draft (Larry in 1978 and Jim in 1982), and both played junior hockey for the Portland Winter Hawks of the Western Hockey League. However, Larry played 688 career NHL games; Jim a mere 21.

Playfair currently lives on Grand Island, New York. Evidently he was President of the Sabres Alumni Association spanning at least December 2007 and March 2012.

Career statistics
                                            --- Regular Season ---  ---- Playoffs ----
Season   Team                        Lge    GP    G    A  Pts  PIM  GP   G   A Pts PIM
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1974-75  Langley Lords               BCJHL   0    0    0    0    0
1974-75  Kamloops Chiefs             WCHL    1    0    0    0    0  --  --  --  --  --
1975-76  Langley Lords               BCJHL   0    0    0    0    0
1975-76  Kamloops Chiefs             WCHL   --   --   --   --   --   3   0   0   0   0
1976-77  Portland Winter Hawks       WCHL   65    2   17   19  199   8   0   0   0   4
1977-78  Portland Winter Hawks       WCHL   71   13   19   32  402   8   0   2   2  58
1978-79  Hershey Bears               AHL    45    0   12   12  148  --  --  --  --  --
1978-79  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    26    0    3    3   60  --  --  --  --  --
1979-80  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    79    2   10   12  145  14   0   2   2  29
1980-81  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    75    3    9   12  169   8   0   0   0  26
1981-82  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    77    6   10   16  258   4   0   0   0  22
1982-83  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    79    4   13   17  180   5   0   1   1  11
1983-84  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    76    5   11   16  209   3   0   0   0   0
1984-85  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    72    3   14   17  157   5   0   3   3   9
1985-86  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    47    1    2    3  100  --  --  --  --  --
1985-86  Los Angeles Kings           NHL    14    0    1    1   28  --  --  --  --  --
1986-87  Los Angeles Kings           NHL    37    2    7    9  181  --  --  --  --  --
1987-88  Los Angeles Kings           NHL    54    0    7    7  197   3   0   0   0  14
1988-89  Los Angeles Kings           NHL     6    0    3    3   16  --  --  --  --  --
1988-89  Buffalo Sabres              NHL    42    0    3    3  110   1   0   0   0   0
1989-90  Buffalo Sabres              NHL     4    0    1    1    2  --  --  --  --  --
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
         NHL Totals                        688   26   94  120 1812  43   0   6   6 111

See also
Notable families in the NHL

References

External links

Category:1958 births
Category:Living people
Category:Buffalo Sabres draft picks
Category:Buffalo Sabres players
Category:Ice hockey people from British Columbia
Category:Los Angeles Kings players
Category:National Hockey League first round draft picks
Category:Portland Winterhawks players
Category:Buffalo Sabres broadcasters
Category:People from the Regional District of Bulkley-Nechako
Category:People from Grand Island, New York
Category:Canadian ice hockey defencemen


Manchester United could be looking for replacements for underperforming striker Wayne Rooney as the summer transfer window draws to a close, according to reports.

The England international has been widely criticised for an anonymous display in Friday night’s 1-0 win over Aston Villa, and speculation suggests he may not be guaranteed a place in Louis van Gaal’s side for long.

According to reports out today, LVG wants THIS stunning £67.8m duo to create a new-look attack…

1) Pedro (Barcelona)

Although United are haggling over his asking price, the club hope to sign Barcelona winger Pedro for around £17.8m before the end of the summer, with the prolific Spanish international an ideal player to add more of a goal threat to Van Gaal’s side.


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FIFA.com relives the first goals scored at FIFA World Cups over recent decades dating back to Erwin Vandenbergh’s shock winner over holders Argentina in 1982 through to Siphiwe Tshabalala’s inspirational strike for South Africa four years ago.


VIENNA/LONDON (Reuters) - As Europe’s new privacy law took effect on Friday, one activist wasted no time in asserting the additional rights it gives people over the data that companies want to collect about them.

Austrian Max Schrems filed complaints against Google, Facebook, Instagram and WhatsApp, arguing they were acting illegally by forcing users to accept intrusive terms of service or lose access.

That take-it-or-leave-it approach, Schrems told Reuters Television, violates people’s right under the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) to choose freely whether to allow companies to use their data.

“You have to have a ‘yes or no’ option,” Schrems said in an interview recorded in Vienna before he filed the complaints in various European jurisdictions.

“A lot of these companies now force you to consent to the new privacy policy, which is totally against the law.”

The GDPR overhauls data protection laws in the European Union that predate the rise of the internet and, most importantly, foresees fines of up to 4 percent of global revenues for companies that break the rules.

That puts potential sanctions in the ballpark of anti-trust fines levied by Brussels that, in Google’s case, have run into billions of dollars.

Andrea Jelinek, who heads both Austria’s Data Protection Authority and a new European Data Protection Board set up under GDPR, appeared to express sympathy with Schrems’ arguments at a news conference in Brussels.

Asked about the merits of Schrems’ complaints, Jelinek said: “If there is forced consent, there is no consent.”

Slideshow ( 7 images )

SCOURGE OF FACEBOOK

Schrems was a 23-year-old law student when he first took on Facebook and he’s been fighting Mark Zuckerberg’s social network ever since - becoming the poster-boy for data privacy.

He won a landmark European court ruling in 2015 that invalidated a ‘safe harbour’ agreement allowing firms to transfer personal data from the EU to the United States, where data protection is less strict.

With GDPR in mind, he recently set up a non-profit called None of Your Business noyb.eu (noyb) that plans legal action to blunt the ability of the tech titans to harvest data that they then use to sell targeted advertising.

His laptop perched on the table of a traditional Viennese coffee house, Schrems showed how a pop-up message on Facebook seeks consent to use his data - and how he is blocked when he refuses.

“The only way is to really accept it, otherwise you cannot use your Facebook any more,” Schrems explained.

“As you can see, I have my messages there and I cannot read them unless I agree.”

Erin Egan, Facebook’s chief privacy officer, said in a statement that the company has prepared for 18 months to ensure it meets the requirements of GDPR by making its policies clearer and its privacy settings easier to find.

Slideshow ( 7 images )

Facebook, which has more than 2 billion regular users, has also said that advertising allows it to remain free, and that the whole service, including ads, is meant to be personalized based on user data.

“1,000-EURO BRICK”

Schrems said, however, that Instagram, a photo-sharing network popular with younger users, and encrypted messaging service WhatsApp - both owned by Facebook - also use pop-ups to gain consent and bar users who refuse.

The action brought by noyb against Google relates to new smartphones using its Android operating system. Buyers are required to hand over their data or else own “a 1,000-euro brick” that they can’t use, Schrems said.

Google did not immediately respond to a request for comment.

noyb is filing the four claims with data protection authorities in France, Belgium, Germany and Austria. Ensuing litigation may play out in Ireland, where both Facebook and Google have their European headquarters.

One filing, made against Facebook on behalf of an Austrian woman, asks the country’s data protection authority to investigate and, as appropriate, prohibit data processing operations based on invalid consent.

It also asks the regulator to impose “effective, proportionate and dissuasive” fines as foreseen by GDPR, which in Facebook’s case could run to 1.3 billion euros ($1.5 billion).

“So far it was cheaper just to ignore privacy rights,” said Schrems. “Now, hopefully, it’s going to be cheaper to follow them because the penalties are so high.”


The present invention is directed generally to a bleed control apparatus for fluid conveying systems and more particularly to such an apparatus for eliminating the problem of surging in vacuum air systems and pressurized air systems.
Fluid conveying systems such as central vacuum systems for large commercial or industrial buildings or pressurized air systems for industry or waste water treatment plants experience a problem of surging in low flow situations. Surging is reverse flow of fluid in the system and is related to the piping system geometry. The surging problem may be solved by providing an air bleed in the system just upstream of the vacuum producer or just downstream from a compressor to allow additional air into the system, thereby to maintain air flow at a level above the surge limit and to prevent excessive heating of discharge air.
A flow actuated bleed valve was previously disclosed in Bailey U.S. Pat. No. 3,685,530. Whereas that valve was likewise designed to eliminate surging, it was somewhat cumbersome, requiring a long rotary movement of a valve paddle and experienced servicing problems relating to adjustment and access.
The alternative has been to provide a substantially more expensive electronic bleed control system which likewise requires expensive specialized service and which is cost prohibitive for many installations.
A primary object of the present invention therefor is to provide an improved bleed control apparatus for a fluid conveying system,
Another object is to provide a bleed control apparatus which is a self-contained flow actuated valve.
Another object is to provide a bleed control apparatus in which the valve member is of simple construction, minimizes interference with flow through the conduit on which it is mounted and may be quickly and easily installed in and removed from the apparatus.
Another object of the invention is to provide a bleed control apparatus which is externally adjustable for varying valve spring tension and orifice opening size.
Another object of the invention is to provide a bleed control apparatus which is simple and rugged in construction, economical to manufacture and efficient in operation.


/*
 * Copyright 2012 astamuse company,Ltd.
 *
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
 * You may obtain a copy of the License at
 *
 *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
 *
 * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
 * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
 * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
 * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 * limitations under the License.
 *
 */

package com.astamuse.asta4d.template;

/**
 * This template resolver is mostly used by test. However if you'd like to put your template files in your source folder, you can use this
 * resolver as well.
 *
 * @author e-ryu
 *
 */
public class ClasspathTemplateResolver extends AbstractTemplateResolver {

    @Override
    public TemplateInfo loadResource(String path) {
        return createTemplateInfo(path, this.getClass().getResourceAsStream(path));
    }

}


Applicants' U.S. Pat. No. 6,502,972 describes and claims a magnetically shielded conductor assembly comprised of a first conductor disposed within an insulating matrix, and a layer comprised of nanomagnetic material disposed around said first conductor, provided that such nanomagnetic material is not contiguous with said first conductor. In this assembly, the first conductor has a resistivity at 20 degrees Centigrade of from about 1 to about 100 micro ohm-centimeters, the insulating matrix is comprised of nano-sized particles wherein at least about 90 weight percent of said particles have a maximum dimension of from about 10 to about 100 nanometers, the insulating matrix has a resistivity of from about 1,000,000,000 to about 10,000,000,000,000 ohm-centimeter, the nanomagnetic material has an average particle size of less than about 100 nanometers, the layer of nanomagnetic material has a saturation magnetization of from about 200 to about 26,000 Gauss and a thickness of less than about 2 microns, and the magnetically shielded conductor assembly is flexible, having a bend radius of less than 2 centimeters. The entire disclosure of this United States patent is hereby incorporated by reference into this specification.
The nanomagnetic film disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,506,972 may be used to shield implanted medical devices from external electromagnetic fields; and, when so used, it provides a certain degree of shielding.
It is an object of this invention to provide an improved nanomagnetic coating.


The present invention relates to electronic filters, and more particularly to devices and methods for filtering a signal in which the rating requirements of resistive and capacitive components in the filter are substantially reduced.
Electronic filters typically include resistive and capacitive components arranged in a circuit to pass particular frequencies (e.g., high pass, low pass, band pass, band rejection). By way of example, FIG. 1 depicts a low pass filter typical of the prior art; a first order filter that includes a resistor R and capacitor C that may be grounded if the filter is ground referenced, and in which ##EQU1## Filters may also include inductive components, but their expense and size usually limits their use. However, even the size and expense of the resistive and capacitive components may present difficulties in the design and manufacture of electronic filters, and to this end it is desirable to reduce the size and cost of these components. As component size is generally equated to the component's capability--its rating, a typical solution has been to tradeoff capability or size in order to meet design requirements.
The size and cost of a resistor is a function of the power it must dissipate, and the size and cost of a capacitor is a function of the maximum voltage that will appear across the capacitor. Electronic systems with low voltage levels and small current levels can use small and relatively inexpensive resistors and capacitors. Other systems, such as a subscriber line interface circuit (SLIC) for a telephone system, are not so fortunate. A SLIC may operate with voltages as high as 60 volts and currents up to tens of milliamps. Further, filters for SLICs must operate in the audio band that further increases the size and capability required of their resistive and capacitive components.
Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a novel filter and method that obviates the problems of the prior art.
It is another object of the present invention to provide a novel filter and method in which the rating of resistive and capacitive components in the filter is less than would be required to accommodate the input signal.
It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a novel filter and method in which an input signal is converted to its logarithm before the input signal is filtered to thereby reduce the voltage and power requirements of filter components.
The present invention may find application in SLICs for telephone systems, and more particularly to current mirrors that are used in telephone systems. Current mirrors duplicate an input current by providing one or more reflections of the input current. Such devices are known and illustrated, by way of example, in FIG. 2 in which a pair of transistors Q1 and Q2 are mated to provide a single reflection, Iout. Current mirrors may be used in telephone system SLICs for a variety of purposes.
Accordingly, it is still another object of the present invention to provide a novel combination of a filter and a current mirror in which an input current is converted to a voltage proportional to the logarithm of the input current before being filtered, and thereafter reconverted to an output current proportional to the inverse logarithm of the filtered voltage.
It is a further object of the present invention to provide a novel filter for a telephone system subscriber line interface circuit that is embedded in a current mirror.
It is yet a further object of the present invention to provide a novel method and filter for an input current (a) in which a first bipolar junction transistor with a collector connected to receive the input current, a grounded emitter, and a base connected to an input of the filter and to the collector of the first transistor converts the input current to a first voltage that is proportional to the logarithm of the input current, (b) in which an RC filter with components not rated to handle the input current filters the first voltage, and (c) in which a second bipolar junction transistor with a base connected to receive the filtered first voltage from the RC filter, a grounded emitter, and a collector connected to an output, provides a filtered output current that is proportional to the inverse logarithm of the filtered first voltage.
These and many other objects and advantages of the present invention will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art to which the invention pertains from a perusal of the claims, the appended drawings, and the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments.


Mom took these on Monday's morning stroll - akhtually, she WISHED she had tried to get some shots from SUNday -

Whist she was chatting with Auntie Di, a Goldfinch/Evening Grosbeak type birdie was flitting from flower to flower to flower - Mom made all THOSE noises humans do!

Originally Mom had insisted we wouldn't be walkin' Monday night - as it had been TOO h&h during Monday's morning version but.....

Well, she khouldn't deny and disappoint THOSE looks we give her!

Tuesday morning she met her dad fur her birthday breakfast -

She had eggs - and khandied BAKHON - and roasted asparagus - and hashbrowns and toast -

eggs benedikht fur him!

then she hit the Kohls on the other end of town - after all, she had gotten $10 from them fur her birthday month - and then they kindly sent a 30% off thingie - when she saw this vehikhle on her way in, she knew it was an omen!


/*
 * @(#)StaticUnknown.cxx 1.0 3/12/98
 *
*  Copyright (C) 1998,1999 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. *
 */
#include "core.hxx"
#pragma hdrstop

#include <comcat.h>
#include "staticunknown.hxx"

StaticUnknown* g_pUnkList = NULL;
volatile long g_cComponents = 0;

extern ShareMutex * g_pMutexSR;

HRESULT RegisterStaticUnknown(IUnknown** ppUnk)
{
    // this should only be called from inside this thread
    Assert(GetTlsData() == g_pMutexSR->_ptlsdata);
    Assert(g_cComponents > 0);

    StaticUnknown* pNewEntry = new_ne StaticUnknown;
    if (NULL == pNewEntry)
        return E_OUTOFMEMORY;

    pNewEntry->ppUnk = ppUnk;
    pNewEntry->pNext = g_pUnkList;
    g_pUnkList = pNewEntry;

    // this should only be called from inside this thread
    Assert(GetTlsData() == g_pMutexSR->_ptlsdata);
    Assert(g_cComponents > 0);

    return S_OK;
}

void ReleaseAllUnknowns()
{
    MutexLock lock(g_pMutexSR);

    StaticUnknown * pHead = g_pUnkList;
    g_pUnkList = null;

TryAgain:
    TRY
    {
        while (pHead)
        {
            IUnknown ** ppUnk = pHead->ppUnk;
            IUnknown * pUnk = *ppUnk;
            *ppUnk = null;
            // if comonent count > 0, then someone may try and use it
            if (g_cComponents > 0)
            {
                *ppUnk = pUnk;
                // now we need to push
                // what is left of the chain
                // back in the public chain
                g_pUnkList = pHead;
                break;
            }
            // release the static unknown
            pUnk->Release();
            // delete this entry in the list
            StaticUnknown* temp = pHead;
            pHead = pHead->pNext;
            delete temp;
        }
    }
    CATCH
    {
        // BUGBUG, The only thing which can throw an exception, is the 'delete'
        // thus it is safe to just resume the loop
        goto TryAgain;
        // this is better than rethrowing the exception, since it is more important
        // that we be play well with others, even in the case where we are running
        // out of memory, than that we report the error.
    }
    ENDTRY
}

long IncrementComponents()
{
    long l = ::InterlockedIncrement((long *)&g_cComponents);
    TraceTag((tagRefCount, "Component count after inc = %d", l));
    return l;
}

long DecrementComponents()
{
    long result = ::InterlockedDecrement((long *)&g_cComponents);
    Assert(result >= 0);
    TraceTag((tagRefCount, "Component count after dec = %d", result));
    if (g_cComponents == 0)
        ::ReleaseAllUnknowns();
    if (g_cComponents == 0)
    {
        Base::testForGC(Base::GC_FORCE);
    }
    return result;
}

long GetComponentCount()
{
    return g_cComponents;
}

#include "mlang.h"

HRESULT CreateMultiLanguage(IMultiLanguage ** ppUnk)
{
    HRESULT hr = S_OK;

    MutexLock lock(g_pMutexSR);

    // check again
    if (*ppUnk == NULL)
    {
        hr = CoCreateInstance(CLSID_CMultiLanguage, NULL, CLSCTX_INPROC_SERVER,
                                  IID_IMultiLanguage2, (void**)ppUnk);
        if (hr)
        {
            hr = CoCreateInstance(CLSID_CMultiLanguage, NULL, CLSCTX_INPROC_SERVER,
                                  IID_IMultiLanguage, (void**)ppUnk);
        }

        if (!hr)
        {
            // remember that we have a static foriegn IUnknown so we can clean it up later.
            hr = ::RegisterStaticUnknown((IUnknown **)ppUnk);
            if (hr)
            {
                ::release(ppUnk);
            }
        }
    }

    return hr;
}

HRESULT CreateSecurityManager(IInternetSecurityManager ** ppUnk)
{
    HRESULT hr = S_OK;

    MutexLock lock(g_pMutexSR);

    // check again
    if (*ppUnk == NULL)
    {
        hr = CoCreateInstance(CLSID_InternetSecurityManager,
                                   NULL,
                                   CLSCTX_INPROC_SERVER,
                                   IID_IInternetSecurityManager,
                                   (void **)ppUnk);
        if (!hr)
        {
            // Must register all static foreign IUnknowns (See base\StaticUnknown.hxx).
            hr = ::RegisterStaticUnknown((IUnknown **)ppUnk);
            if (hr)
            {
                ::release(ppUnk);
            }
        }
    }

    return hr;
}

HRESULT CreateCatalogInformation(ICatInformation ** ppUnk)
{
    HRESULT hr = S_OK;

    MutexLock lock(g_pMutexSR);

    // check again
    if (*ppUnk == NULL)
    {
        hr = CoCreateInstance(CLSID_StdComponentCategoriesMgr,
                                   NULL,
                                   CLSCTX_INPROC_SERVER,
                                   IID_ICatInformation,
                                   (void **)ppUnk);
        if (!hr)
        {
            // Must register all static foreign IUnknowns (See base\StaticUnknown.hxx).
            hr = ::RegisterStaticUnknown((IUnknown **)ppUnk);
            if (hr)
            {
                ::release(ppUnk);
            }
        }
    }

    return hr;
}


Cleansing and Reforming Syngas

Four research alliances received grants from the U.S. DOE to optimize thermochemical biofuels production. Biomass Magazine offers an overview of those projects.

By Ron Kotrba

There are parallel challenges with both biochemical and thermochemical processes to convert biomass into fuels. Biochemically, engineers and scientists have been capable of hydrolyzing lignocellulosics with cellulase enzymes for years and yet, much-needed work drudges forward to make those cocktails more effective on cellulose and hemicellulose hydrolysis. Also required is a major cost reduction in enzymes and commercially viable, more robust pentose-fermenting yeast, to utilize the five-carbon sugars resident in the hemicellulose.

"Just as the biochem needs better enzymes, thermochem needs better catalysts," says Steve Kelley, professor and department head of wood and paper science at North Carolina State University. A research and development partnership among NCSU, the University of Utah and Research Triangle Institute, a nonprofit research organization in North Carolina, was one of four alliances that received grants from a U.S. DOE solicitation to improve thermochemical processes. "The catalysts developed so far work well on natural gas reforming, but with natural gas there aren't the tars, ammonia and chlorine there is with the biomass," Kelley says. According to Brian Kneale of Albemarle Corp., catalysis of syngas from coal or natural gas is rather simple. What's much more difficult is producing a catalyst system capable of "thermal and mechanical stability," with the greatest challenge being engineering a reactor system to "maximize thermal efficiency in a compact design."

And just as the need for better enzymes and C-5 ethanologens is sometimes seen as a "package deal" for the biochem guys, Kelley says, the same can be said about synthesis gas cleanup and selecting optimal gas-to-liquid catalysts in thermochemical reforming. "They go hand-in-glove," he says. "If you've got a more robust gas-to-liquid catalyst then you don't need the same high-quality gas cleanup catalyst. But if you've got a really outstanding high-quality gas cleanup [catalyst], then you can really take anything off the shelf for a gas-to-liquid catalyst-but to test them they need to be run together." That's the trick.

Despite the parallel challenges in both routes to cellulosic ethanol, thermochemical holds at least one big advantage over and above its yield and conversion efficiencies-feedstock quality and consistency is of little concern. "I don't care if there's a little bit of bark residue or treated wood going into my thermochem process because there are sorbents and other ways of handling that," Kelley explains. "It's a much more robust process." Sorbents are material substrates used to absorb and contain other substances. In some fluidized bed boiler operations, for example, calcium stone is used to trap sulfur.

The thermochemical process may be robust but the life of some cleansing and reforming catalysts is fragile: Killing the catalyst in hours due to the presence of contaminants has been a shared experience for researchers in this field, experts say. Syngas from wood has been known to foul up catalysts in less than 24 hours, and corn stover, rich in minerals and ash, can nullify a catalyst system in minutes.

Kelley says RTI has intellectual property on sorbent-based and fluid cracking catalysts for the tars gained from gasifying biomass, but the NCSU, UU and RTI project will also use other available sorbent technologies to get rid of chlorine, nitrogen and sulfur. "It will be a combination," he says. Tars, ammonia, chlorine, heavy metals and sometimes sulfur are the major contaminants in untreated biomass syngas, which, if left untreated before entering the gas-to-liquid reformer, would mean certain catalyst death by poisoning.

Experience in tar and ammonia destruction gained at Southern Research Institute, a not-for-profit organization that conducts scientific research at facilities in Alabama, Maryland and North Carolina, include high-temperature cracking at 1,650 to 1,750 degrees Fahrenheit with nickel-based catalysts, in addition to lower temperature tar cracking at 800 degrees F using modified fluid cracking catalysts. Southern Research is also working on another ammonia destruction process that uses reverse selective catalytic reduction at relatively low temperatures: between 700 and 800 degrees F. "In [reverse SCR (selective catalytic reduction)], nitrogen oxides are injected or generated in situ to react with the ammonia and convert it to nitrogen," according to Southern Research.

"There are a lot of claims out there about magic sorbents, guard columns or pretreatments that work," Kelley says. Guard columns help trap contaminants from the syngas prior to entering the main reactor columns, and are dispensable whereas main columns are not. "But no one's got published data out there," he says. "The real data will come out of our work and that of the other award recipients and DOE will be able to use it."

Expanded EffortsIn addition to the NCSU, UU and RTI consortium to improve syngas cleanup and catalyst selection, DOE funded three more projects with similar interests. ConocoPhillips Co. and Iowa State University are partnering to test an integrated biomass-to-liquids system whose process, as described by the energy department, uses "gas cooling through oil scrubbing rather than water scrubbing in order to minimize wastewater treatment." The intended biomass for gasification is switchgrass. The DOE's description of the ConocoPhilips and Iowa State University process continues: "The gas-oil scrubbing liquid will then be sent to a coker in existing petroleum refining operations to be used as a feedstock." The team was awarded $2 million toward the $3.1 million project.

The energy department also awarded $1.7 million to a project run by Emery Energy Co., Ceramatec Inc. and Western Research Institute, a nonprofit research organization in Laramie, Wyo., which plans to demonstrate new, low-cost means to mitigate tars and oils in biomass syngas including high-impact corn stover. "In the case of conventional biomass syngas cleaning, it is done using either quench methods or tar crackers, and additional downstream equipment," says Ben Phillips, president of Emery Energy. "We're not disclosing our process, but novel methods will focus on the conversion and reforming of tars and oils that won't use the processes I just mentioned. Also we use additional subsequent unit operations in the gas flow line to condition the syngas in order to get to the purity levels required for Fischer Tropsch catalysis and ethanol catalysis. We have a very holistic and integrated view between the gasifier and synthesis gas cleaning steps, and that integration will give us a technological advantage over other processes to produce the high-purity syngas necessary for downstream applications."

WRI and Cerametic are both subcontractors for Emery Energy: Ceramatec is contributing technology and doing some co-engineering work with Emery Energy; and WRI is hosting the gasifier and syngas cleaning facility, also providing technology and operational services, personnel and resources to execute the project, Phillips says. Emery Energy is making modifications to its existing pilot gasifier system in Salt Lake City, and will relocate to WRI along with the synthesis gas cleaning train. Emery Energy is adding $1.2 million to DOE's grant for a project total of nearly $3 million. "For the sake of this DOE program, we are going to be modifying and mitigating tar and oil species, i.e., converting those to additional syngas downstream of the gasifier," he says.

Another syngas cleansing project receiving DOE grant funding includes Southern Research in partnership with Pall Corp., Thermochem Recovery International Inc. and Rentech Inc. The project will test a 1 megawatt gasifier for syngas generation with ceramic filter technology and a proven sorbent/catalyst system for syngas decontamination. Stephen Piccot, director of advanced energy and transportation technologies with Southern Research, says its project is just beginning as the last round of required paperwork is finalized. "So far we've assembled the team and completed a group design for a syngas cleanup system, which is part of Phase I," Piccot says. In its entirety, Phase I consists of design, fabrication and testing of the gas cleanup system on Thermochem Recovery International's biomass gasifier, installation of which is underway at Southern Research as part of a separate contract. This is a three-year project. By the end of 2008, fabrication of the syngas cleanup system is expected to have begun, with test runs and optimizing strategies to start sometime in 2009, along with Phase II.

"Phase II will be linking up all that stuff with a Fischer-Tropsch line and converting the clean syngas into FT wax," Piccot tells Biomass Magazine. "Our proposal added on a refinery pilot step where we take the FT wax and convert it into clean diesel, and the final step for us is to evaluate the performance of the clean diesel in a passenger truck."

Due to secrecy agreements, Piccot says he couldn't discuss specifics about the catalysts, scrubbers or sorbent injection systems to be used in the design, but he did reveal what he sees as challenges ahead. "The technology to convert clean syngas into liquid products is catalyst based, and the requirements of the cleanliness of the syngas is rather fixed and we know what those are, but getting those proper technologies matched to meet those targets-that's the challenge," Piccot says. "The gas needs to be pretty clean to avoid poisoning those FT catalysts. I think technically it's not as big a challenge as [figuring out] how to do it cost-effectively. That's where the challenge is." In a technical paper, Kneale writes: "There is much to be gained by tailoring the catalysis to maximize yield in the product state of choice and this continues to be a major subject of research by Albemarle and others."

Assuming the engineers pulling all these pieces together find no mechanical issues getting everything to heat up at the same time without blowing a pump or burning out a heater, Kelley says the real test is demonstrating successful interaction between the operation of the gasifier, the amount of tars captured in the first catalyst and the productivity of the second catalytic bed.

Thus, the ultimate value of these four research projects-and others out there that may not have received DOE grants-is real time spent on-stream with these systems working simultaneously; gaining actual data on yield from biomass synthesis gas along with productivity, efficiency and lifetime of the catalysts.

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Ben Boswell

Benjamin F. Boswell (March 4, 1910 – May 30, 1968) was an American football offensive lineman in the National Football League for the Portsmouth Spartans and Boston Redskins. Born in Fort Worth, Texas, he played college football at Texas Christian University.

References
Ben Boswell's obituary

Category:1910 births
Category:1968 deaths
Category:People from Fort Worth, Texas
Category:American football offensive linemen
Category:Portsmouth Spartans players
Category:Boston Redskins players
Category:TCU Horned Frogs football players